PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2015 (v15.

0)
1.0 Statistics Mode

Mean Place data in ascending order.

xi xi Mode = most frequently occurring value
μ=
(1.4)
(1.1a) x= (1.1b)
N n
If two values occur with maximum frequency the data
µ = population mean set is bimodal.
x = sample mean If three or more values occur with maximum
Σxi = sum of all data values (x1, x2, x3, …) frequency the data set is multi-modal.
N = size of population
n = size of sample
Standard Deviation
2
Median xi - μ
σ= (Population) (1.5a)
N
Place data in ascending order.
If N is odd, median = central value (1.2) 2
xi - x
If N is even, median = mean of two central values s= (Sample) (1.5b)
n ‒1
N = size of population σ = population standard deviation
s = sample standard deviation
Range (1.5) xi = individual data value ( x1, x2, x3, …)
𝜇 = population mean
Range = xmax - xmin (1.3)
x = sample mean
xmax = maximum data value N = size of population
xmin = minimum data value n = size of sample

2.0 Probability
Independent Events
P (A and B and C) = PAPBPC (2.3)
Frequency
P (A and B and C) = probability of independent
nx events A and B and C occurring in sequence
fx = (2.1)
n PA = probability of event A

fx = relative frequency of outcome x

nx = number of events with outcome x Mutually Exclusive Events
n = total number of events
P (A or B) = PA + PB (2.4)

P (A or B) = probability of either mutually exclusive

event A or B occurring in a trial
Binomial Probability
PA = probability of event A
(order doesn’t matter)

n!(pk )(qn-k )
Pk = (2.2) Conditional Probability
k!(n-k)!
𝑃 𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴
Pk = binomial probability of k successes in n trials 𝑃 𝐴𝐷 =𝑃 (2.5)
𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴 +𝑃 ~𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 ~𝐴
p = probability of a success
q = 1 – p = probability of failure
P (A|D) = probability of event A given event D
k = number of successes P(A) = probability of event A occurring
n = number of trials P(~A) = probability of event A not occurring
P(D|~A) = probability of event D given event A did not occur

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3.0 Plane Geometry Ellipse Rectangle

2b
Circle Perimeter = 2a + 2b (3.9)
Area = π a b (3.8) 2a Area = ab (3.10)
Circumference =2 π r (3.1)
Area = π r2 (3.2)
Triangle (3.6) B
Parallelogram c
Area = ½ bh (3.11) a h
h a = b + c – 2bc·cos∠A
2 2 2
(3.12)
Area = bh (3.3) A
b = a + c – 2ac·cos∠B
2 2 2
(3.13) C b
c = a + b – 2ab·cos∠C
2 2 2
b (3.14)

Right Triangle Regular Polygons

s(12 f) ns2
2
c =a +b
2 2
(3.4) Area = n = 180 (3.15)
2 4tan( )
n
a c
sin θ = (3.5) a
c n = number of sides
b θ
cos θ = (3.6)
c
b Trapezoid a
tan θ = ab (3.7) h
Area = ½(a + b)h (3.16) h
h
b
4.0 Solid Geometry h

Cube
Sphere
3
Volume = s (4.1) s 4 3
Volume = π r (4.8)
2 3
Surface Area = 6s (4.2) s s 2
Surface Area = 4 π r (4.9)

Rectangular Prism
Cylinder
Volume = wdh (4.3) h r
Volume = π r h
2
(4.10) h
Surface Area = 2(wd + wh + dh) (4.4) w d
2
Surface Area = 2 π r h+2 π r (4.11)

Right Circular Cone

h
πr2 h Irregular Prism
Volume = (4.5)
3

Surface Area = π r r2 +h2 (4.6) r h

Volume = Ah (4.12)

A = area of base
Pyramid

Ah h
Volume =
3
(4.7) 5.0 Constants
A = area of base 2
g = 9.8 m/s = 32.27 ft/s
2

-11 3 2
G = 6.67 x 10 m /kg·s
π = 3.14159

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE BE CIM EDD 2
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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6.0 Conversions
Pressure (6.8) Rotational Speed (6.11)
Mass/Weight (6.1) Area (6.4)
2 1 atm = 1.01325 bar 1 Hz = 2π rad/sec
1 kg = 2.205 lbm 1 acre = 4047 m
= 33.9 ft H2O
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 43,560 ft
2
= 60 rpm
2 = 29.92 in. Hg
1 ton = 2000 lb = 0.00156 mi
= 760 mm Hg
1 lb = 16 oz
Volume (6.5) = 101,325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
Length (6.2) 1L = 0.264 gal 1psi = 2.31 ft of H2O
3
= 0.0353 ft
1m = 3.28 ft Power (6.9) 7.0 Defined Units
= 33.8 fl oz
1 km = 0.621 mi 3
1mL = 1 cm = 1 cc 1W = 3.412 Btu/h
1 in. = 2.54 cm
= 0.00134 hp 1J = 1 N·m
1 mi = 5280 ft Temperature Unit = 14.34 cal/min 1N = 1 kg·m / s2
1 yd = 3 ft Equivalents (6.6)
= 0.7376 ft·lbf/s 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1K = 1 ºC 1 hp = 550 ft∙lb/sec 1V =1W/A
Time (6.3) = 1.8 ºF 1W =1J/s
= 1.8 ºR Energy (6.10)
1W =1V/A
1d = 24 h
Force (6.7) 1J = 0.239 cal 1 Hz = 1 s-1
1h = 60 min -4
= 9.48 x 10 Btu 1F = 1 A·s / V
1 min = 60 s 1N = 0.225 lb = 0.7376 ft·lbf 1H = 1 V·s / V
1 yr = 365 d 1 kip = 1,000 lb 1kW h = 3,600,000 J

8.0 SI Prefixes
Numbers Less Than One Numbers Greater Than One
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
10-1 deci- d 101 deca- da
10-2 centi- c 102 hecto- h
10-3 milli- m 103 kilo- k
10-6 micro- µ 106 Mega- M
10-9 nano- n 109 Giga- G
10-12 pico- p 1012 Tera- T
10-15 femto- f 1015 Peta- P
10-18 atto- a 1018 Exa- E
10-21 zepto- z 1021 Zetta- Z
10-24 yocto- y 1024 Yotta- Y

9.0 Equations Temperature Force and Moment

F = ma (9.7a) M = Fd (9.7b)
Mass and Weight TK = TC + 273 (9.4)
F = force
m = VDm (9.1) TR = TF + 460 (9.5) m = mass
W = mg (9.2)
a = acceleration
9
TF = 5 Tc + 32 (9.6) M = moment
W = VDw (9.3) d= perpendicular distance
V = volume TK = temperature in Kelvin Equations of Static Equilibrium
Dm = mass density TC = temperature in Celsius
m = mass TR = temperature in Rankin ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMP = 0 (9.8)
Dw = weight density TF = temperature in Fahrenheit
W = weight Fx = force in the x-direction
g = acceleration due to gravity Fy = force in the y-direction
MP = moment about point P

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE BE CIM EDD 3
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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9.0 Equations (Continued) Electricity

Ohm’s Law
Energy: Work Fluid Mechanics
V = IR (9.32)
W = F∥ ∙ d (9.9) F
p= (9.16)
A
P = IV (9.33)
W = work V1 V2
=T (Charles’ Law) (9.17)
F∥ = force parallel to direction of T1 2 RT (series) = R1 + R2+ ··· + Rn (9.34)
displacement p1 p
d = displacement = T2 (Gay-Lussanc’s Law) (9.18) RT (parallel) =
1
(9.35)
T1 2 1 1
+ + ∙∙∙ +
1
R1 R2 Rn

p1V1 = p2V2 (Boyle’s Law) (9.19)

Power Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Q = Av (9.20)
E W IT = I1 + I2 + ··· + In
P= = (9.10) n
t t
A1v1 = A2v2 (9.21) or IT = k=1 Ik (9.36)

P=τω (9.11)
P = Qp (9.22) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
P = power absolute pressure = gauge pressure VT = V1 + V2 + ··· + Vn
E = energy + atmospheric pressure (9.23) n
W = work or VT = k=1 Vk (9.37)
p = absolute pressure
t = time F = force V = voltage
τ = torque A = area VT = total voltage
ω = angular velocity V = volume I = current
T = absolute temperature IT = total current
Q = flow rate R = resistance
Efficiency v = flow velocity RT = total resistance
Pout
P = power P = power
Efficiency (%) = ∙100% (9.12)
Pin
Mechanics Thermodynamics
Pout = useful power output d
Pin = total power input s= (9.24) P = Q′ = AU∆T (9.38)
t
∆Q
∆d P = Q' = (9.39)
v= (9.25) ∆t
Energy: Potential ∆t 1 k
vf − vi U= =L (9.40)
U = mgh (9.13) a= (9.26) R
t
kA∆T
U = potential energy vi 2 sin(2θ) P= (9.41)
L
m =mass X= (9.27)
-g A1v1 = A2v2 (9.42)
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = vi + at
Pnet = σAe(T2 4 -T1 4 )
(9.28)
h = height (9.43)
2
d = di + vit + ½at (9.29) PL
k= (9.44)
Energy: Kinetic 2 2
v = vi + 2a(d – di) (9.30) A∆T

K = 12 mv2 (9.14) τ = dFsinθ (9.31)

K = kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity
Energy: Thermal
∆Q = mc∆T
∆Q = change in thermal energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
∆T = change in temperature
P = rate of heat transfer
Q = thermal energy
s = average speed A = area of thermal conductivity
v = average velocity U = coefficient of heat conductivity
v = velocity (U-factor)
vi = initial velocity (t =0) ∆T = change in temperature
a = acceleration ∆t = change in time
X = range R = resistance to heat flow ( R-value)
t = time k = thermal conductivity
(9.15) ∆d = change in displacement v = velocity
d = distance Pnet = net power radiated
W
di = initial distance (t=0) σ = 5.6696 x 10
-8
m2 ∙K4
g = acceleration due to gravity
θ = angle e = emissivity constant
τ = torque L = thickness
F = force T1, T2 = temperature at time 1, time 2

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 4 DE 4 AE 4 CIM 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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10.0 Section Properties

y y
Moment of Inertia Rectangle Centroid

h x b h
bh3
x= and y = (10.3)
x
2 2
Ixx = (10.1)
12
b Right Triangle Centroid y

b h
x= and y = (10.4)
Ixx = moment of inertia of a rectangular section 3 3
x
about x axis
y
Semi-circle Centroid
Complex Shapes Centroid
4r
xi Ai yi Ai x = r and y = (10.5)
x= and y = (10.2) 3π x
Ai Ai

x = x-distance to the centroid x = x-distance to the centroid

y = y-distance to the centroid y = y-distance to the centroid
xi = x distance to centroid of shape i
yi = y distance to centroid of shape i
Ai = Area of shape i
12.0 Structural Analysis
11.0 Material Beam Formulas
Properties P
Reaction RA = RB = (12.1)
Stress (axial) 2
PL
Moment Mmax = (at point of load) (12.2)
F 4
σ= (11.1)
Deflection Δmax = PL3
A 48EI
(at point of load) (12.3)

σ = stress ωL
Reaction RA = RB = (12.4)
F = axial force 2
A = cross-sectional area ωL2
Moment Mmax = (at center) (12.5)
8
5ωL4
Deflection Δmax = 384EI
(at center) (12.6)
Strain (axial)
δ
Reaction RA = RB = P (12.7)
ε= (11.2)
L0 Moment Mmax = Pa (12.8)

ε = strain Deflection
Pa
Δmax = 24EI (3L2 -4a2 ) (12.9)
L0 = original length (at center)
δ = change in length
Pb Pa
Reaction RA = and RB = (12.10)
L L
Pab
Moment Mmax = (at Point of Load) (12.11)
Modulus of Elasticity L
Pab a+2b 3a a+2b
σ Deflection Δmax = 27EI
(12.12)
E= (11.3)
(at x =
a a+2b
ε 3,
when a>b )

(F2 -F1 )L0

E= (11.4)
𝛿2 −𝛿1 )A Deformation: Axial Truss Analysis
FL0 2J = M + R (12.14)
δ=
E = modulus of elasticity (12.13)
AE
σ = stress J = number of joints
ε = strain δ = deformation M =number of members
A = cross-sectional area F = axial force R = number of reaction forces
F = axial force L0 = original length
δ = deformation A = cross-sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 5 AE 5 CEA 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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13.0 Simple Machines

Inclined Plane

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

L
IMA=
DE
AMA=
FR IMA= (13.6)
(13.1) (13.2) H
DR FE

AMA
% Efficiency= ( ) 100 (13.3)
IMA

IMA = ideal mechanical advantage Wedge

AMA = actual mechanical advantage
DE = effort distance DR = resistance distance
FE = effort force FR = resistance force L
IMA= (13.7)
H

Lever

1st Screw
Class
C
IMA = (13.8)
Pitch

1
2nd Pitch = (13.9)
Class TPI
C = circumference
r = radius
Pitch = distance between
threads
3rd TPI = threads per inch
Class

Compound Machines

MATOTAL = (MA1) (MA2) (MA3) . . . (13.10)

Wheel and Axle

Gears; Sprockets with Chains; and Pulleys

with Belts Ratios
Effort at Axle Nout dout ωin τout
GR = = = = (13.11)
Nin din ωout τin

dout ωin τout

= = (pulleys) (13.12)
din ωout τin

Compound Gears
Effort at Wheel
B D
GRTOTAL = ( ) (C) (13.13)
A

Pulley Systems

IMA = total number of strands of a single string GR = gear ratio

supporting the resistance
DE (string pulled)
IMA =
DR (resistance lifted)
(13.4)
ωin = angular velocity - driver
ωout = angular velocity - driven
Nin = number of teeth - driver
(13.5) Nout = number of teeth - driven
din = diameter - driver
dout = diameter - driven
𝜏in = torque - driver
𝜏out = torque - driven

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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14.0 Structural Design

Steel Beam Design: Shear Steel Beam Design: Moment Spread Footing Design
Vn Mn qnet = qallowable - pfooting (14.5)
Va ≤ (14.1) Ma ≤ (14.3)
Ωv Ωb
pfooting = tfooting ∙150 lb3 (14.6)
ft
Vn = 0.6FyAw (14.2) Mn = FyZx (14.4)
P
q= (14.7)
A
Va = internal shear force Ma = internal bending moment
Vn = nominal shear strength Mn = nominal moment strength qnet = net allowable soil bearing
Ωv = 1.5 = factor of safety for shear Ωb = 1.67 = factor of safety for pressure
Fy = yield stress bending moment qallowable = total allowable soil
Aw = area of web Fy = yield stress bearing pressure
𝑉𝑛
= allowable shear strength Zx = plastic section modulus about pfooting = soil bearing pressure
𝛺𝑣 neutral axis due to footing weight
𝑀𝑛
= allowable bending strength tfooting = thickness of footing
𝛺𝑏
q = soil bearing pressure
15.0 Storm Water Runoff P = column load applied
Rational Method Runoff Coefficients A = area of footing
Storm Water Drainage
Categorized by Surface
Q = CfCiA (15.1) Forested 0.059—0.2
16.0 Water Supply
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ∙∙∙ Asphalt 0.7—0.95
Cc = (15.2)
A1 + A2 + ∙∙∙ Brick 0.7—0.85
Hazen-Williams Formula
3 Concrete 0.8—0.95
Q = peak storm water runoff rate (ft /s) 10.44LQ
1.85
Shingle roof 0.75—0.95
Cf = runoff coefficient adjustment hf = 1.85 4.8655 (16.1)
factor Lawns, well drained (sandy soil) C d
C = runoff coefficient Up to 2% slope 0.05—0.1 hf = head loss due to friction
i = rainfall intensity (in./h) 2% to 7% slope 0.10—0.15 (ft of H2O)
A = drainage area (acres) Over 7% slope 0.15—0.2 L = length of pipe (ft)
Lawns, poor drainage (clay soil) Q = water flow rate (gpm)
Up to 2% slope 0.13—0.17 C = Hazen-Williams constant
Runoff Coefficient
2% to 7% slope 0.18—0.22 d = diameter of pipe (in.)
Adjustment Factor
Return Over 7% slope 0.25—0.35
Period Cf Driveways, 0.75—0.85 Dynamic Head
1, 2, 5, 10 1.0 walkways Categorized by Use dynamic head = static head
25 1.1 Farmland 0.05—0.3 – head loss (16.2)
50 1.2 Pasture 0.05—0.3 static head = change in elevation
100 1.25 between source and
Unimproved 0.1—0.3
discharge
Parks 0.1—0.25
Cemeteries 0.1—0.25
Railroad yard 0.2—0.40 17.0 Heat Loss/Gain
Playgrounds 0.2—0.35
(except asphalt or Districts
Business Heat Loss/Gain
concrete)
Neighborhood 0.5—0.7
Q′ = AU∆T (17.1)
City (downtown) 0.7—0.95
Residential 1
U= (17.2)
Single-family 0.3—0.5 R
Multi-plexes, 0.4—0.6 Q = thermal energy
detached
Multi-plexes, 0.6—0.75 A = area of thermal conductivity
attached
Suburban 0.25—0.4 U = coefficient of heat
Apartments, 0.5—0.7 conductivity (U-factor)
condominiumsIndustrial ∆T = change in temperature
R = resistance to heat flow (R-
Light 0.5—0.8
value)
Heavy 0.6—0.9

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PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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18.0 Hazen-Williams Constants

19.0 Equivalent Length of (Generic) Fittings

Pipe Size
Screwed Fittings 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
Regular 90 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Regular 45 degree 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Line Flow 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12.0 17.0
Tees Branch Flow 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
Return Bends Regular 180 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Globe 21.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 29.0 37.0 42.0 54.0 62.0 79.0 110.0
Gate 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Valves Angle 12.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
Swing Check 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 38.0
Strainer 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18.0 20.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 42.0

Pipe Size
Flanged Fittings 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Regular 90 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Regular 45 degree 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 16.0
Line Flow 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6
Tees
Branch Flow 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12.0 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 43.0 47.0
Return Regular 180 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Bends Long radius 180 degree 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Globe 38.0 40.0 45.0 54.0 59.0 70.0 77.0 94.0 120.0 150.0 190.0. 260.0 310.0 390.0
Gate 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Valves Angle 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 21.0 22.0 285.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 190.0 210.0
Swing Check 3.8 5.3 7.2 10.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 27.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0

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PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
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20.0 555 Timer Design 21.A Boolean Algebra

quaons
T = 0.693 (RA + 2RB)C (20.1) Boolean Theorems Consensus Theorems
1 X• 0 = 0 X + XY = X + Y
f = (20.2)
(21.1) (21.16)
T
X•1 = X (21.2) X + XY = X + Y (21.17)
(RA+ RB)
duty-cycle =
(RA+2RB)
∙100% (20.3) X• X =X (21.3) X + XY = X + Y (21.18)

T = period X • X=0 (21.4) X + XY = X + Y (21.19)

f = frequency X+0=X (21.5)
RA = resistance A DeMorgan’s Theorems
RB = resistance B X+1=1 (21.6)
C = capacitance X+X=X (21.7)
XY = X + Y (21.20)

X+X=1 (21.8)
X+Y = X • Y (21.21)

X=X (21.9) Commutative Law

21.B Resistor Color Code X•Y = Y•X (21.10)

X+Y = Y+X (21.11)

Associative Law
X(YZ) = (XY)Z (21.12)

X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (21.13)

Distributive Law

21.C Capacitor X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ (21.14)

Code (X+Y)(W+Z) = XW+XZ+YW+YZ (21.15)

23.0 G&M Codes

G00 = Rapid Traverse (23.1)

G01 = Straight Line Interpolation (23.2)
G02 = Circular Interpolation (clockwise) (23.3)
G03 = Circular Interpolation (c-clockwise) (23.4)
G04 = Dwell (wait) (23.5)
G05 = Pause for user intervention (23.6)
G20 = Inch programming units (23.7)
G21 = Millimeter programming units (23.8)
G80 = Canned cycle cancel (23.9)
22.0 Speeds and Feeds G81 = Drilling cycle (23.10)
G82 = Drilling cycle with dwell (23.11)
G90 = Absolute Coordinates (23.12)
CS(12in.
ft
) G91 = Relative Coordinates (23.13)
N= (22.1)
M00 = Pause
πd (23.14)
M01 = Optional stop (23.15)
fm = ft·nt·N (22.2)
M02 = End of program (23.16)
Plunge Rate = ½·fm M03 = Spindle on (23.17)
N = spindle speed (rpm) M05 = Spindle off (23.18)
CS = cutting speed (ft/min) M06 = Tool change (23.19)
d = diameter (in.) M08 = Accessory # 1 on (23.20)
fm = feed rate (in./min) M09 = Accessory # 1 off (23.21)
ft = feed (in./tooth/rev) M10 = Accessory # 2 on (23.22)
nt = number of teeth M11 = Accessory # 2 off (23.23)
M30 = Program end and reset (23.24)
M47 = Rewind (23.25)

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. DE 5 CIM 5

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 v15.0

24.0 Aerospace Propulsion Orbital Mechanics

Equations
F N = W vj - vo (24.5)
Forces of Flight b2
I = Fave ∆t (24.6) 𝑒= 1- (24.13)
2D a2
CD = (24.1)
Aρv2 Fnet = Favg - Fg (24.7) 3 3
a2 a2
ρvl 𝑣𝑓 T = 2π = 2π (24.14)
R e= (24.2) a=
∆t
(24.8) μ GM
μ
GMm
2L FN = net thrust F= (24.15)
CL = (24.3) r2
Aρv2 W = air mass flow
vo = flight velocity
M = Fd (24.4) 𝑒 = eccentricity
vj = jet velocity
I = total impulse b = semi-minor axis
CL = coefficient of lift Fave = average thrust force a =semi-major axis
CD = coefficient of drag Δt = change in time (thrust T = orbital period
L = lift duration) a = semi-major axis
D = drag Fnet = net force μ = gravitational parameter
A = wing area Favg = average force F = force of gravity between two
ρ = density Fg = force of gravity bodies
Re = Reynolds number G = universal gravitation constant
vf = final velocity
v = velocity M =mass of central body
a = acceleration
l = length of fluid travel m = mass of orbiting object
Δt = change in time (thrust
μ = fluid viscosity r = distance between center of two
duration)
F = force objects
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity NOTE: Fave and Favg are
M = moment easily confused. Bernoulli’s Law
d = moment arm (distance from
ρv2 ρv2
datum perpendicular to F) (Ps + ) = (Ps + ) (23.16)
2 1 2 2
Energy
PS = static pressure
K = 12 mv2 (24.9) v = velocity
ρ = density
− GMm
U= (24.10)
R
GMm Atmosphere Parameters
E=U+K=− (24.11)
2R
T = 15.04 - 0.00649h (24.17)
m3
G = 6.67 × 10−11 kg × 𝑠2 (24.12) T + 273.1 5.256
p = 101.29 (24.18)
288.08
K = kinetic energy p
m =mass ρ= (24.19)
0.2869 T + 273.1
v = velocity
U = gravitational potential energy
G = universal gravitation constant T = temperature
M =mass of central body h = height
m = mass of orbiting object p = pressure
R = Distance center main body to ρ = density
center of orbiting object
E = Total Energy of an orbit

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. AE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 v15.0

25.0 USCS Soil Classification Chart

Highly Organic Soils (Pt)

Color, odor, very high moisture
Visual Examination. content, particles of plant life, fibrous.
Is soil highly organic,
coarse grained, or
fine grained?
50% or more retained on the No. 200 sieve More than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve

Coarse Fine
Grained grained
Run sieve Run LL and
analysis PL on
%G > %S %S > %G minus No.
40 sieve
Gravel (G) Sand (S)
material

Less than More Between More than LL < 50 LL ≥ 50

Between 5% Less than
5% pass than 12% 5% and 12% 12% pass
and 12% pass 5% pass No.
No. 200 pass No. pass No. No. 200
No. 200 sieve 200 sieve
sieve 200 seive 200 sieve sieve Below line Above line Below line Above line
on Limits plot in
on on on Plasticity
Plasticity shaded area
Plasticity Plasticity Chart
Run LL and PL Run LL and Chart or of Plasticity
Dual symbol Dual Chart and Chart
on minus No. Well Poorly PL on minus Chart
based on symbol PI < 4 PI> 7
Well Poorly gradation and 40 sieve graded graded No. 40 sieve
based on
graded graded plasticity material material
gradation
and Color or
Color or
plasticity odor
Below line Limits plot Above line Limits plot Above line odor
Below line
or shaded in shaded and in shaded and
or shaded
area on area on shaded area on shaded
area on Inorganic
Plasticity Plasticity area on Plasticity area on Organic Inorganic Organic
GW-GM SW-SM Plasticity
Chart Chart Plasticity Chart Plasticity
Chart
GP-GM Chart SP-SM Chart
GW-GC SW-SC
GW GP GP-GC GM GM-GC GC SW SP SP-SC SM SM-SC SC OL ML ML-CL CL OH MH CH

CEA 7
© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014