ESP8266 Based Appliance Control using Wifi

A Project REPORT

Submitted by:

NAME OF THE STUDENT (<University Roll Number>)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHONOLOGY
IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

at

(LOGO)

_______________ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LUDHIANA, PUNJAB (INDIA) - 140306

(AFFILIATED TO PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR, PUNJAB (INDIA)

MONTH & YEAR

INTRODUCTION
Home automation is the new trend in consumer electronics. Nowadays, people not only want a
well furnished house but also want a smart home to live in. The basic concept of home automation
is controlling the home appliances with a remote control. The modern day smart homes may have
many additional features where the user could interact with the consumer appliances through
augmented reality or have various smart features like telephony, contacts management, time
keeping utilities, audio and video playback all integrated in smart devices especially designed to
be part of the smart home.

As the most basic thing in a smart home is controlling appliances through a remote control, it
needs to be implemented first. The remote controlling of home appliances can be implemented in
various ways like by using IR remote, RF remote control, Bluetooth, Mobile network, Wi-Fi and
also internet. When internet controlled smart home is designed, the appliances are usually
connected to an intelligent circuitry which can connect with an internet hotspot or connection with
the help of a Bluetooth device or a Wi-Fi module. Internet controlled smart home is the most
popular trend in the home automation industry. It is because in such home automation system, a
user can control home appliances and even can manage home security from anywhere. Like, the
user may be working at his office and from there itself he can operate home devices like starting a
motor or operating a washing machine just by accessing a web application online.

In this project, a simple home automation system controlled through a web server has been
designed. We are making a complicated relay circuit for controlling regular home appliances. The
lights and other electrical devices are interfaced with the ESP8266 Wi-Fi module through relays
which connects to a web application by linking to an internet hotspot. In a complicated smart home
system, where regular home appliances might be controlled, there the module would have need to
interface with a microcontroller circuit which itself might be controlling a relay circuit.

The ESP8266 Wi-Fi module is a programmable Wi-Fi circuit which can be programmed and
loaded with an Arduino Sketch. The module has two General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins
which can be used to interface the Relay control board. Since, this is just a demo application, the
concept of internet-controlled home automation is here demonstrated by simply controlling these
two LEDs directly interfaced to the ESP8266 module.

OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
The main objective of project is to control the lights and electrical devices usong a HTML page
through a server. This project is divided into various parts.In first we are going design a Four Layer
Design of our circuit in ORCAD Capture CIS and Layout Plus. In Second part we make a power
supply circuit. This power supply circuit will give output of +5 volt and +12v which will be
attached with NodeMCU ESP8266 12 E and Relay control circuit since we are using +12v Relay.
we will interface ESP8266 with relay control board. Then we do software programming to make
HTML page with switch buttons and interface our NodeMCU 12E on local WiFi Server.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
+5v Power +12v DC 220 VOLT
Power SUPPLY

Relay Control 1 LIGHT 1

NODEMCU Relay Control 2 LIGHT 2

12 E

ESP8266
Relay Control 3 LIGHT 3
 POWER SUPPLY COMPONENTS

DIODES:

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one

direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in
one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n
junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes,
a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the firstsemiconductor
electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German
physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes,
developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are
made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes
used.The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—
these diodes are forms of rectifiers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than
this simple on–off action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor
diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present
in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop
across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature;
this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.

A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting

the semiconductor materials and the dopingimpurities introduced into the materials during
manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect
circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers
(varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT
diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes
exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.
CAPACITORS:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store electrical energytemporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be
thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting
dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts ofelectrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate
energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across
a battery), an electric fielddevelops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on
one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is

defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about
1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them,
the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage.
The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies.
In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive

region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator.
Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge
on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors attract
one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a given
voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

RESISTOR:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance. The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated
by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through
that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit
of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere.
Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units
of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in
common usage.
LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode,
which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are
able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent
bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and
were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and even LED wallpaper. As of 2015,
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family,
the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt
output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line
of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although
smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from a few volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to
40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller
or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx
in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated
power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending
upon the respective voltage levels.

MICROCONTROLLER COMPONENTS
IC BASED OR IC SOCKET:

An IC socket, or integrated circuit socket, is used in devices that contain an integrated circuit. An
IC socket is used as a placeholder for IC chips and is used in order to allow safe removal and
insertion of IC chips because IC chips may become damaged from heat due to soldering.

Types of IC sockets

There are several different kinds of IC sockets at Future Electronics. We stock many of the most
common types categorized by several parameters including type, style, number of pins, termination
style / mounting, centerline / pitch and packaging type. Our parametric filters will allow you to
refine your search results according to the required specifications.

IC sockets from Future Electronics

Future Electronics has a wide range of IC sockets from several manufacturers that can be used
for your integrated circuits. By going through the selection you will find the right IC socket of any
pin size (8 pin, 14 pin, 16 pin, 18 pin, 20 pin, 28 pin, 40 pin,…), IC test sockets, IC socket
connector, IC breadboard socket, IC socket adapter or any other type of IC socket. Once you decide
if you need Adaptors, BGA, DIMM, PGA, PLCC or SIP Sockets, Dual in Line Package Sockets
or Test & Burn IC sockets, you will be able to choose from their technical attributes and your
search results will be narrowed to match your specific IC socket application needs.

We deal with several manufacturers such as Aries, Mill-Max, TE Connectivity or Yamaichi,

among others. You can easily refine your IC socket product search results by clicking your
preferred IC socket brand from the list of manufacturers below.
Applications for IC Sockets:

IC sockets are used in applications where integrated circuit devices have short lead pins. They help
in providing safe removal and insertion of IC chips. They are often found in desktop and server
computers. They are also used for prototyping new circuits because they allow easy component
swapping.

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very
precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator
used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal
oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar
circuits.

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer
devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also
found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and
oscilloscopes.

A "crystal oscillator" is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator,

a crystal as its frequency-determining element. A "crystal" is the common term used in electronics
for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes
connected to it. A more accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator. This article covers both
topics. Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as filters. Piezoelectric
resonators, "crystals" are sold as separate components for use in crystal oscillator circuits; an
example is shown on the left hand side of the picture. They are also often incorporated in a single
package with the crystal oscillator circuit, shown on the right hand side.

Introduction:
Arduino is a family of single-board microcontrollers, aimed toward building interactive objects or

environments in an easy way. The hardware consists of open-source board designs based on

various 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontrollers or 32-bit Atmel ARMprocessors. The systems provide

sets of digital and analog I/O pins that can be interfaced to various extension boards and other

circuits. Some models also feature a USB interface for loading code from personal computers.

The first Arduino was introduced in 2005. Its designers sought to provide an inexpensive and easy

way for hobbyists, students, and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment

using sensors and actuators. Common examples for beginner hobbyists include

simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors. Arduino boards come with a simple integrated

development environment (IDE) that runs on regular personal computers and allows users to write

programs for Arduino using C or C++.

Arduino boards can be purchased assembled or as do-it-yourself kits. Hardware design

information is available for those who would like to assemble an Arduino by hand. It was estimated

in mid-2011 that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially produced, and in 2013

that 700,000 official boards were in users' hands.

History:

Arduino started in 2005 as a project for students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea,

Italy. At that time program students used a "BASIC Stamp" at a cost of $100, considered expensive

for students. Massimo Banzi, one of the founders, taught at Ivrea. The name "Arduino" comes

from a bar in Ivrea, where some of the founders of the project used to meet. The bar itself was

named after Arduino, Margrave of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.

A hardware thesis was contributed for a wiring design by Colombian student Hernando Barragan.

After the Wiring platform was complete, researchers worked to make it lighter, less expensive,
and available to the open source community. The school eventually closed down, so these

researchers, one of them David Cuartielles, promoted the idea.

Hardware:

An Arduino board consists of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller with complementary

components that facilitate programming and incorporation into other circuits. An important aspect

of the Arduino is its standard connectors, which lets users connect the CPU board to a variety of

interchangeable add-on modules known as shields. Some shields communicate with the Arduino

board directly over various pins, but many shields are individually addressable via an I²C serial

bus—so many shields can be stacked and used in parallel. Official Arduinos have used

the megaAVR series of chips, specifically the ATmega8, ATmega168, ATmega328,

ATmega1280, and ATmega2560. A handful of other processors have been used by Arduino

compatibles. Most boards include a 5 volt linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal

oscillator (or ceramic resonator in some variants), although some designs such as the LilyPad run

at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

An Arduino's microcontroller is also pre-programmed with aboot loader that simplifies uploading

of programs to the on-chip flash memory, compared with other devices that typically need an

external programmer. This makes using an Arduino more straightforward by allowing the use of

an ordinary computer as the programmer.

PIN DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA328:

Block Diagram
Basic families

AVRs are generally classified into following:

 tinyAVR — the ATtiny series

 0.5–16 kB program memory
 6–32-pin package
 Limited peripheral set

 megaAVR — the ATmega series

 4–512 kB program memory
 28–100-pin package
 Extended instruction set (multiply instructions and instructions for handling larger
program memories)
 Extensive peripheral set
 XMEGA — the ATxmega series
 16–384 kB program memory
 44–64–100-pin package (A4, A3, A1)
 Extended performance features, such as DMA, "Event System", and cryptography support.
 Extensive peripheral set with ADCs

 Application-specific AVR
 megaAVRs with special features not found on the other members of the AVR family, such
as LCD controller, USB controller, advanced PWM, CAN, etc.

 FPSLIC (AVR with FPGA)

 FPGA 5K to 40K gates
 SRAM for the AVR program code, unlike all other AVRs
 AVR core can run at up to 50 MHz

RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they
repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one direction,
and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same input have no
effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted power should not be
able to transition the contacts.

Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay will
operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the polarity
is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the contacts
will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes
to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

History[edit]

The American scientist Joseph Henry is often claimed to have invented a relay in 1835 in order to
improve his version of the electrical telegraph, developed earlier in 1831.[1][2][3][4] However, there
is little in the way of official documentation to suggest he had made the discovery prior to 1837.[5]

It is claimed that the English inventor Edward Davy "certainly invented the electric relay"[6] in
his electric telegraph c.1835.

A simple device, which we now call a relay, was included in the original
1840 telegraph patent[7] of Samuel Morse. The mechanism described acted as a digital amplifier,
repeating the telegraph signal, and thus allowing signals to be propagated as far as desired. This
overcame the problem of limited range of earlier telegraphy schemes.[citation needed]

The word relay appears in the context of electromagnetic operations from 1860.[8]

Basic design and operation[edit]

Simple electromechanical relay.

Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctancepath for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or
more sets of contacts (there are two [clarification needed : sets or contacts?] in the relay pictured). The armature
is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is
open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay
in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection,
and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature
is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.
Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces
noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate
a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were not widely used
before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as
early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive relays include
a diode inside the relay case.

If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem of surge
currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a capacitor and resistor in
series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the associated
resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this commonplace use.

If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used to split
the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper "shading ring"
crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-of-phase component,[9] which
holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control voltage.

Types[edit]

Latching relay[edit]
Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay (also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays) maintains either contact position
indefinitely without power applied to the coil. The advantage is that one coil consumes power only
for an instant while the relay is being switched, and the relay contacts retain this setting across a
power outage. A latching relay allows remote control of building lighting without the hum that
may be produced from a continuously (AC) energized coil.

In one mechanism, two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet hold the
contacts in position after the coil is de-energized. A pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse
to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type is widely used where control is from simple
switches or single-ended outputs of a control system, and such relays are found in avionics and
numerous industrial applications.

Another latching type has a remanent core that retains the contacts in the operated position by the
remanent magnetism in the core. This type requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to release
the contacts. A variation uses a permanent magnet that produces part of the force required to close
the contact; the coil supplies sufficient force to move the contact open or closed by aiding or
opposing the field of the permanent magnet.[10] A polarity controlled relay needs changeover
switches or an H bridge drive circuit to control it. The relay may be less expensive than other types,
but this is partly offset by the increased costs in the external circuit.

In another type, a ratchet relay has a ratchet mechanism that holds the contacts closed after the coil
is momentarily energized. A second impulse, in the same or a separate coil, releases the
contacts.[10] This type may be found in certain cars, for headlamp dipping and other functions
where alternating operation on each switch actuation is needed.

A stepping relay is a specialized kind of multi-way latching relay designed for early
automatic telephone exchanges.

An earth leakage circuit breaker includes a specialized latching relay.

Very early computers often stored bits in a magnetically latching relay, such as ferreed or the later
memreed in the 1ESS switch.

Some early computers used ordinary relays as a kind of latch—they store bits in ordinary wire
spring relays or reed relays by feeding an output wire back as an input, resulting in a feedback loop
or sequential circuit. Such an electrically latching relay requires continuous power to maintain
state, unlike magnetically latching relays or mechanically racheting relays.
In computer memories, latching relays and other relays were replaced by delay line memory,
which in turn was replaced by a series of ever-faster and ever-smaller memory technologies.

Reed relay[edit]
Main article: reed relay

Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against
atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under
the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid or an external magnet.

Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays and require very little power from the control
circuit. However, they have relatively low switching current and voltage ratings. Though rare, the
reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on' even when no current is
present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the solenoid's magnetic field can
resolve this problem.

Sealed contacts with mercury-wetted contacts have longer operating lives and less contact chatter
than any other kind of relay.[11]

Mercury-wetted relay[edit]

A mercury-wetted reed relay that has AC/DC switching specifications of 100 W, 500 V, 2 A
maximum
See also: mercury switch

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where
surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where the
mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be
mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these
relays are now rarely used.

The mercury-wetted relay has one particular advantage, in that the contact closure appears to be
virtually instantaneous, as the mercury globules on each contact coalesce. The current rise time
through the contacts is generally considered to be a few picoseconds, however in a practical circuit
it will be limited by the inductance of the contacts and wiring. It was quite common, before the
restrictions on the use of mercury, to use a mercury-wetted relay in the laboratory as a convenient
means of generating fast rise time pulses, however although the rise time may be picoseconds, the
exact timing of the event is, like all other types of relay, subject to considerable jitter, possibly
milliseconds, due to mechanical imperfections.

The same coalescence process causes another effect, which is a nuisance in some applications. The
contact resistance is not stable immediately after contact closure, and drifts, mostly downwards,
for several seconds after closure, the change perhaps being 0.5 ohm.

Mercury relay[edit]

A mercury relay is a relay that uses mercury as the switching element. They are used where contact
erosion would be a problem for conventional relay contacts. Owing to environmental
considerations about significant amount of mercury used and modern alternatives, they are now
comparatively uncommon.

Polarized relay[edit]

A polarized relay places the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect faint
pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first
adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that
would operate the relay.

Machine tool relay[edit]

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally open to normally
closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the
machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a
relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of
controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out
complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and
de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly
used in programmable logic controllers.

Coaxial relay[edit]

Where radio transmitters and receivers share one antenna, often a coaxial relay is used as a TR
(transmit-receive) relay, which switches the antenna from the receiver to the transmitter. This
protects the receiver from the high power of the transmitter. Such relays are often used
in transceivers which combine transmitter and receiver in one unit. The relay contacts are designed
not to reflect any radio frequency power back toward the source, and to provide very high isolation
between receiver and transmitter terminals. Thecharacteristic impedance of the relay is matched
to the transmission line impedance of the system, for example, 50 ohms.[12]

Time delay relay[edit]

Timing relays are arranged for an intentional delay in operating their contacts. A very short (a
fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade
assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release
time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled
with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly; both air-filled and oil-filled dashpots are used. The
time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a
mechanical clockwork timer is installed. Relays may be arranged for a fixed timing period, or may
be field adjustable, or remotely set from a control panel. Modern microprocessor-based timing
relays provide precision timing over a great range.
Some relays are constructed with a kind of "shock absorber" mechanism attached to the armature
which prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either energized or de-energized. This
addition gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay relays can be constructed
to delay armature motion on coil energization, de-energization, or both.

Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally open or normally closed,
but whether the delay operates in the direction of closing or in the direction of opening. The
following is a description of the four basic types of time-delay relay contacts.

First we have the normally open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of contact is normally
open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed by the application of power
to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously powered for the specified amount of
time. In other words, the direction of the contact's motion (either to close or to open) is identical
to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay in closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the
direction of coil energization, this type of contact is alternatively known as a normally open, on-
delay:

PROGRAM:

BIBLIOGRAPHY