Professional Documents
Culture Documents
–Unit 1
Laws and Practices
Related to Librarianship
Chapter 1 – Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) – An Overview of Its Modernization
1.1 The New PRC Law – RA 8981
1.2 Composition of the PRC
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regulatory boards are selected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, which instituted
procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation of nominees for appointment to vacant positions
in the Professional Regulatory Board.
The PRB for Librarians embody their decisions and actions in the exercise of its powers and functions
through Board Resolutions. The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for
Librarians Resolution issued in 2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are:
Perla Garcia (Chairman)
Cora Nera
Elizabeth Peralejo
2.6 RA 8047
On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was signed into law. The law is geared
at promoting the growth and development of book publishing. It envisions the promotion of book readership among
Filipinos, particularly the young through book fairs, exhibits, or programs which enhances literacy and good
reading habits.
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The percentage distribution of the licensure examination is indicated in the IRR of RA 9246. On the other
hand, the weighted general average of passing grades for candidates for professional librarians is indicated in RA
9246 itself.
3.5 Registration Without Examination
Sec. 19 of RA 9246 which state that ―upon application and payment of the required fees, certificates of
registration will be issued without the necessity of licensure examination to qualified applicants,‖ is a grandfather
clause. A grandfather clause is a provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or part of the
existing system which is being regulated.
The Board shall issue a Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card without
examination to an applicant who, on the date of effectivity of RA 6966, is:
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor‘s degree and a librarian or supervising
librarian eligible;
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor‘s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, five (5) years experience in librarianship, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent;
a practicing librarian who has completed a masteral degree in Library Science or Library and
Information Science, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent; or,
a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor‘s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, and seven (7) years experience in librarianship.
Qualification must have been present on December 5, 1990 (effectivity date of RA 6966). Application to avail of
this section is three years from the effectivity of this law on March 16, 2004. The first three are also those qualified
under RA 6966, and the fourth are those who were left out under RA 6966 because they are not civil service
eligible.
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properly organized
arranged alphabetically by surnames with addresses and license numbers
arranged numerically by license numbers.
Copies of the roster shall be provided as permanent record to The National Library (TNL), Civil Service
Commission (CSC), and the Accredited Integrated National Organizations of Librarians.
To date, there are 4,120 licensed librarians throughout the Philippines.
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5.1 ALA
The American Library Association (ALA), is the oldest and largest library association in the world,
founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876, and comprising mainly librarians, library trustees, and people and
organizations interested in the improvement of library and information services and the profession of librarianship.
The objectives of the association include promoting professional library training, improving library service,
encouraging the use of books and libraries, and protecting intellectual freedom and public access to information.
Activities of the ALA include conferring awards for distinguished service in librarianship, administering
awards for outstanding literature and other media, publishing books and periodicals relating to the library field, and
sponsoring National Library Week in the US every year in April. The ALA also establishes educational standards
for librarianship and accredits graduate library schools. The activities of the ALA are carried out by various
divisions, each of which is concerned with a particular phase of library work. The Association for Library Service
to Children is one such division.
The ALA has contributed considerably to the evolution of the modern library movement. Throughout its
early years it advocated public access to library collections; circulation of books for home reading; extension of
library services to rural areas; and municipal, state, and federal aid to libraries. In 1939 the ALA adopted the
Library Bill of Rights, endorsing the right of libraries and readers to freedom of choice in reading materials.
The publications of the ALA include
American Libraries, the association's monthly membership magazine
Booklist, a guide to printed and non-printed materials
Choice, a guide for college libraries
Book Links: Connecting Books, Libraries, and Classrooms, a magazine for parents and educators of
children.
The ALA has about 57,000 members worldwide; its headquarters is in Chicago, Illinois.
5.2 CONSAL
The Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August 1970. CONSAL convenes
a general conference at least once in three (3) years in each member country by rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII
will be held in Manila. Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the Philippines.
The following are the present members of CONSAL:
Brunei Philippines
Indonesia Singapore
Laos Thailand
Myanmar Vietnam
Malaysia Cambodia
5.4 NCLIS
The National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is a committee under the Sub-
Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which is tasked to formulate policies for the development of
culture and arts by libraries, librarians, and library educators.
The incumbent officers of NCLIS are the folloring:
Head: Dr. Ofelia Carague
Vice Head: Thelma Kim
Secretary: Milagros Ong
Asst. Secretary: Dr. Marianita Dablio
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Members:
Claudette Albano Rebecca Napiere
Arabella Ananoria Rosario Ruiz
Rosemarie Ante Lourdes Soriano
Cynthia Dagus Iluminada Yap
Dr. Wilma Medrano Representatives from TNL and PLAI
5.5 PLAI
On October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians‘ Association, Inc. (PLAI) was established. PLAI has a
National Board of Trustees elected by the House of Delegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms.
The PLAI Secretariat on the other hand, is responsible in providing administrative and technical support to the
organization, headed by an Executive Officer.
There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated:
Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 24-30 each year as National
Book Week.
Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 and every year thereafter as
―Library and Information Services Month.‖ Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The
National Library and the National Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS) of the
National commission on Culture and Arts (NCCA).
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––––– –Unit 2
Management: Theory and Practice for
Library and Information Science
Chapter 6 – Defining Management Professionals
6.1 What is Management?
6.2 Management – Art or Science?
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3. Strategies – These are long-term objectives, state course/courses of action adopted, and allocation of
resources needed. They serve as framework that will guide thinking and action.
4. Policies – They are general statements to guide thinking in making decisions. They ensure the
consistency of decisions in relation to objectives. Policies come in several forms.
a. Originated policy – This type of policy is developed to guide the general operations of the
organization. They flow mainly from the objectives and are the main source of policy
making in an organization.
b. Appealed policy – This forces a decision or policy. They are made up of snap decisions.
c. Implied policy – This type of policy is unwritten and is developed from actions that people see
about them and believe to constitute policy.
d. External imposed policy – This type of policy come through several channels. They dictate the
working in an institution.
5. Procedures – This is a set of required methods of handling activities. Specifically, these are
chronological sequence of steps to guide action.
6. Rules – They are meant to regulate personal and professional behavior for the common good. Rules
are flexible and specific, leaving no room for doubt.
7. Programs – These are mini plans in themselves, as they include practically all the other plans
mentioned above with the necessary resources to carry out a course of action.
8. Budgets – These are plans that are rendered in numerical or financial terms.
There are several techniques that must be considered in planning.
Standards – They mean being able to set any measure by which one judges a thing as authentic,
good, or adequate.
Forecasting – This designates a process of projection or prediction.
Projections are based on some type of analysis or qualitative judgments.
Predictions are opinions about facts.
Forecasts are predictions based on assumption about the future.
A very crucial part in the process of planning is decision making –the process of making a choice between
alternatives. Decision making process has four phases.
1. Intelligence gathering – This is the search for conditions requiring a decision.
2. Design – In this phase, available courses of action are determined and analyzed to ascertain their
relative values as solutions to the decision.
3. Choice – At this point, available courses of action are determined to convert present less desirable
situation into a favorable one.
4. Review – This is a review of past choices in order to adjust new directions.
In most organizations, group decision-making is a common practice. It involves group dynamics,
delegation or responsibility, channels of communication for decision-making, and specializations for decision-
making purposes.
Group decision-making has its advantages:
Group judgment – The deliberation of a group over a certain matter is important in identifying
alternatives that must be considered.
Group authority – Group decisions prevent the fear of allowing one person to have too much
authority. The role of leadership in the organization is not diminished but altered.
Communication – Group decision-making permits wide participation in the process and has influence
on employee motivation.
On the contrary, group decision-making has also its disadvantages.
Cost – Much time, energy, and money is needed in making group decisions.
Compromise – There is forced compliance to uniformity and majority rule.
Indecision – It is inevitable that there are delays in reaching a final decision because of lengthy
deliberations.
Power – It is possible for one individual to emerge as a leader who can influence the whole or
majority or of the process.
Authority – Groups are frequently used to make decisions beyond their authority and this can cause
delay if the decision is rejected by the management.
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9.2 Organizing
Organizing determines the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned goals. It is aimed to
group the activities into a logical framework of structure, assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their
accomplishment.
Certain principles are employed in organizing.
Departmentation – This is the basis on which work and individuals are grouped into manageable
units.
Scalar principle of hierarchy – This determines the chain of authority ranging from the ultimate
to the lowest ranks.
Delegation – This is the downward transfer of formal authority from one person to another within
prescribed limits.
Centralization – This indicate that authority is concentrated at the topmost level of the hierarchy
and that most decisions are made by those at the top.
Decentralization – Contrast to centralization, authority to make decisions is pushed down in the
organizational structure.
Line and staff positions – Line positions are responsible and accountable for the organization‘s
primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice and support to the line position.
Span of control – This refers to the number of people and/or activities a manager can efficiently
manage.
Unity of command – The main idea here is that every person within the organization should
orders from and report to only one person.
9.3 Staffing
Staffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement, and development of human
resources required by the organization.
Recruitment – This is a process of attracting the appropriate number of qualified individuals to apply
for vacant positions in an organization. There are three fundamental factors that need to be considered
in this process:
job analysis
job description
source of applicants
Selection – This process follows after recruitment. In this process, information gathering about the
applicants is executed upon the objective of arriving at a decision to hire personnel. Selection has its
very essential elements:
application forms
examinations
interviews
hiring/placement
The staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related to their responsibilities in
the organization. Training and staff development is a broad range of activities that may include any of the
following:
orientation
on-the-job training
counseling
seminars
workshops on topics as diverse as the techniques of supervision, performance evaluation,
communication, and so on.
9.4 Directing
Directing is the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with and influence
subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals. An important ingredient of this function is motivation
– the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort‘s ability to
satisfy some individual needs.
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that time, President Lyndon B. Johnson directed all government agencies including government-
ran universities and colleges to implement it. By 1965, it was used by all agencies. The technique
combines the best of both program budgeting and performance budgeting. The emphasis is on
planning and evaluation. It begins with the establishment of goals and objectives and introduces
controlling measures. PPBS has the following specific steps:
Identifying the objectives of the organization
Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with cost-benefit ratios presented for each
Identifying activities that are necessary for each program
Evaluating the result so that action can be taken
It combines the function of planning (stating objectives), translating into a program, and stating
requirements in budgetary terms (financing). The key to success is the selection of criteriafor
evaluating each alternative against relevant objectives.
7. Zero-based budgeting – This focuses on two basic questions:
Are the current activities efficient and effective?
Should current activities be eliminated or reduced to fund higher priority new programs or
to reduce current budget?
It requires organizations to review and evaluate each of their service programs and activities on
the basis of both output measures as well as costs.
9.6 Marketing
Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs
designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with target markets for the purpose of achieving the
organization‘s objectives. The marketing mix consists of the following:
1. Product – This is the tangible commodity, or the intangible service that an organization offers to its
customers/clients.
2. Price – This This refers to the amount of money customers/clients are willing to part with to avail or
use a product or service being offered.
3. Promotion – This is the provision of relevant information to perspective customers/clients to persuade
them to patronize a product/service.
4. Place – This determines the availability in the right direction of an organization‘s product/service and
the accessibility of channels of distribution.
Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing, but that does not invalidate the
premise that this function is central to the library as an organization. If the library is to be a responsive organization,
one whose primary goals relates to satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potential clients, then
librarians would do well to consider the contribution of a marketing program to the achievement of that goal.
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–Unit 3
Library Management Episode 1:
Academic Libraries
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11.2 Planning
Planning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and programs to achieve them. It is the
process of getting an organization to where it is to where it wants to be in a given period of time by setting it on a
pre-determined course of action.
Planning is working out in the broad outline of things that must be done and the methods of doing them in
order to accomplish the organizational purposes.
The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision and a short-term plan is also
involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of the organization and decide where the library would want
to be in certain time and indicate how to get there through various activities. Targets and performance measure for
each activity must be set.
11.3 Organizing
Organizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures and procedures to ensure that
activities are performed. It is the process by which the manager brings order out of chaos, removes conflicts
between people over work or responsibility, and establishes an environment suitable for teamwork.
Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions
are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objectives. Organically oriented systems/organizations are
where authority and power are delegated and dispersed. Collaboration and consultation are emphasized, and the
organizational chart features a wide span of control.
11.4 Staffing
Staffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in the organization in order to achieve
goals and objectives. This is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining
favorable conditions of work.
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set library standards and certification of libraries and librarians, friends of the library group, and certain laws that
regulate the practice of librarianship.
Coordinating is the all-important duty of interrelating the various parts of the system. The central key to
this process is communication.
11.6 Budgeting
Budgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control. It is the primary means by which
formulated plans can be carried out.
Several techniques can be considered in budgeting. However, academic libraries must follow the budget
cycle and the budgeting scheme of the parent institution. Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the
parent institution alone, but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in an account that
will be used for library operations.
The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting. Outputs include monthly income statement or
balance sheet and formal written reports.
12.3 Collection
Since financial resource is finite in academic libraries, academic librarians have to make decisions
regarding the collection. The collection must be guided by the nature of the academic library and the mission and
vision of the parent institution. Some issues related to content are:
collection versus services
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organization with centralized decision-making but with acknowledgement of the experience of senior professionals
who participate in forward planning. Other styles are consultative and participative.
It is important for an academic librarian to have obtained in an academic discipline followed by a
postgraduate degree in librarianship.
Issues concerning staffing and personnel management include:
management style
functional structure
recruitment
promotion
performance evaluation
job rotation
job and management training
stress
implications of automation
impacts of laws regulating the practice of librarianship
12.7 Evaluation
The concept of a good academic library is often difficult to define and describe. There is no absolute
perception of goodness but there are standards of goodness such as those established by accrediting associations
and organizations (e.g. PAASCU, PACOCOA, Phi Kappa Phi, ISO, and others).The rule of thumb is be oriented to
actual and potential user needs with actual users given high priority.
Performance is measured in terms of user satisfaction. Performance measurement is defined as the
systematic measurement of the extent to which a library has achieved its objectives in a certain period of time. It is
necessary for internal and external reasons.
The two aspects of goodness – quality and value can be differentiated by the following questions:
How good is it?
How much good does it do?
Goodness is also differentiated in terms of effectiveness (doing the right thing well) and benefit.
Evaluation process is coupled with some issues such as:
objectives and plan
collection
services
staff
environment
reporting
quantitative versus qualitative
cost-effectiveness (doing the rught bthing well within a given budget)
level of information (top and middle management, and operational level)
inputs, process, and outputs
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retail selling to library users (bookselling in book fairs or bookstores, stationary, refreshments,
library publications, etc.)
services to users (bibliographies, information retrieval searches, photocopying, binding, computer
repair, consultancy, research, rentals, seminars and workshops, short courses, etc.)
other investments (donations, endowments and bequests, sponsorship, friends of the library, etc.)
When embarking on an income-generating project, be aware of expenses that will be encountered. The
parent institution must be aware of the project and the income it will generate. Be aware also of pricing charges and
account where the income will be deposited. These depend on expenditures. Expenditure will include
staff salaries
consumables
communication
travel
training
marketing and publicity
rentals and other charges
taxes (if there are any)
overheads
12.9 Facilities and Library Automation
Facilities are the next essential properties to collections in any library. Facilities can be grouped into the
following categories
furniture
lighting
temperature control
space
information and communications technology
The common trend in many libraries at present is automation because it offers many benefits and
conveniences. Here are some important pointers to consider in library automation.
1. Use good quality yet reasonably-priced software applications.
2. Copy catalog materials from online databases from other libraries.
3. Acquire electronic and online reference materials.
4. Design a web site for the library. The home page of the web site must display hyperlinks to every
online resource available from the library.
5. Train library staff and library users in using ICT equipment, facilities, and resources in the library.
6. Consider the latest developments in ICT like wireless technology.
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–Unit 4
––––– Library Management Episode 2:
Special Libraries
Chapter 13 – An Overview of Special Library Management
13.1 The Special Library: Its Definition, Purpose, and Objective
13.2 Persons and Events Behind the Development of Special Libraries
13.3 Types of Special Libraries
13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics
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prepared translation
of articles
acts as information
resource on project
teams
regularly prepares
and supplies current
information
has thorough
knowledge of subject
experts and possible
sources of
unpublished
information in related
subjects
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5. Lighting – High level of illumination is needed, usually 753 lux. Glare, reflection, absorption, and
shadowing must be addressed.
6. Work stations – This combines both furniture and equipment. Different functions will certainly have
different needs.
7. Software – Appropriate software should be present in the library (word processing, desktop
publishing, graphics, library system, etc.).
8. Equipment – Library equipment is a combination of standard office furnishings and specialized
equipment. Various equipment are needed for various needs.
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15.2 e-Libraries
With the gaining popularity and usage of information and communications technologies, libraries or
learning resource centers have been greatly affected. While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-
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library, others are still left on the crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, or will they
gear away from this and continue doing what they have been traditionally accustomed to? Threr is indeed a big
question between traditional and electronic resources.
While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages of making available to
users or clients the information they need whenever and wherever, it has some management issues that need to be
considered.
Expensiveness (hardware, software, and peopleware)
Challenge in the library collection development (challenge to the librarian and to the integrity and
quality of the whole collection)
Requirement of good marketing strategies (price versus usage)
Automation in libraries is worthy of implementation, probably not in totality. There should be a balance of
the traditional resources and the new ones. In this age, there has been a shift from collection to the needs of the
users. The information need of the client is what matters most. If the need requires an electronic resource that
cannot be provided by the traditional print ones, then so be it. However, the creation of e-libraries should be a
unified decision of both the library and the parent institution. Thus, management and financial support are of
utmost importance.
15.3 Flexible Library Services
Flexible library service refers to the kind of service that the library offers to its clients, which is adoptable
and very accommodating to the needs of the clients. This covers maintaining both traditional and electronic
resources, getting digital and virtual, more access to databases and electronic document delivery, use of mobile text
messages, referrals, and more use of the internet.
However, there are some challenges that need to be addressed.
competencies and capabilities of library and information professionals
confusion on the roles of librarians and information professionals
budget, policies and standards, and structural set-uos
ethical and intellectual property concerns like privacy, confidentiality, copyright, protocols, etc.
Going into this service needs an earnest study of the user needs of the organization. It must be pondered
whether it is really needed and how will the organization as a whole be affected.
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–Unit 5
––––– Library Management Episode 3:
School Libraries
Chapter 16 – An Overview of School Library Management
16.1 The School Library
16.2 The School Librarian
16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries
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Shelves should be placed along the walls for students to have free access to library materials.
The circulation desk must be large enough to be able to charge books to be loaned out. No
charging must be needed for materials to be used within the library.
]Card catalog is very necessary for it is the index of what is contained in the library.
Filing cabinets for vertical files and pictures 85 must be provided.
Carrels for individual study and research may also be considered.
A bulletin board that and display information should be provided in order to inform users of
recent library developments.
Equipments such as book stand for atlas and dictionary, newspaper rack, magazine stand, and
book truck or book trolley must also be acquired.
Proper lighting and ventilation is very important to facilitate comfort for library users. Curtains
may be installed to ward off the glare of the sun.
17.3 School Library Personnel and Their Tasks
The school library must employ teacher-librarians and school librarians whose number depends on the
school enrollment population. The ideal ratio is one (1) librarian for every 500 students. The teacher-librarian has a
teaching load, which makes him/her different from the school librarian. It is advisable to prepare a schedule that
will indicate the work assignment of each library staff.
The library can organize a Book Lovers‘ Club among students. Students who are members of the club can
serve as student assistants who will perform library chores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and
shelving of library materials.
Typically, the school librarian is expected to ferform the following tasks.
1. Organization of materials for library use
This will include procurement, processing, classifying, and cataloging of materials. This applies also
to non-book materials.
2. Instructing library users
An orientation for new students and teachers as to the location of the library, services offered, and
library rules and regulations must be conducted. The school librarian must also educate the users on
classification of materials, using card catalog, bibliographies, reference books, and library
equipments.
3. Provide reading guidance
This can be done through book talks, bulletin and book displays, reading lists, discussion groups,
conference with teachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching materials, maintaining a
reader interest file and records for library users.
4. Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students
5. Organizing library tours
The school librarian can organize library tours to other school libraries or public libraries.
6. Encouraging observance of special events
The National Book Week and book fair are among special events that the library can spearhead.
7. Consulting other school libraries
The school librarian can consult other school libraries on the availability of books. Cooperation
between the school library and other libraries can also be considered to maximize library resources.
17.4 School Library Collection
Selection and acquisition of books and other library materials is a cooperative endeavor of the librarian,
faculty, and head of school. This should be based on a list of approved textbooks, teacher‘s manuals, and
supplementary materials. Teachers may recommend books and other instructional materials needed in the
classroom.
Supplementary materials are also intended to be present in school library collections. These are materials
other than textbooks and teachers manuals which aid in the teaching and/or learning of certain concepts and skills
for reinforcement, enrichment, and mastery. They can either be print or non-print materials.
The school library must contain the following materials in its collection:
1. General reference
These materials provide a variety of information on topics of general interest. These include
Encyclopedia Globe
Dictionary Map(s)
Atlas Almanac
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–Unit 6
––––– Library Management Episode 4:
Public Libraries
Chapter 19 – The Philippine Public Library System
19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission
19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries
19.3 Public Libraries Categorized
19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship
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Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center, Independent Learning Center, Popular Materials Library,
Preschoolers‘ Door to Learning, Reference Library, and Research Center.
IFLA Publications No. 27 entitled The Public Library Service: IFLA/UNESCO Guidelines for
Development prepared by a working group[ chaired by Mr. Philip Gill on behalf of the Section of Public Libraries
and which came out in 2001, is primarily aimed at librarians, for them to use in fighting for improved library
services. The publication is not only confined to standards but also recommendations to provide public librarians
the assistance in any situation to develop an effective public library service related to the requirements of their local
community.
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standards have gone revisions to make it relevant with the time. At present, the Board for Librarians
has created a committee coming from the different types of libraries to formulate minimum standards
for each type of library.
RA 7356 – enacted in April 1992, this established the National Commission for the Culture and the
Arts (NCCA) which was mandated to develop, promote, and preserve Filipino culture and arts
through the coordination of policies in coordination with affiliated private and public cultural
agencies.
RA 8047 – known as the Book Publishing Act. Passed on 1996, the Act resulted to a considerable
increase in the total book production in the country (from 1,500 titles in 1995 to 5,083 in 2000).
Executive Order No. 119 - known as the adoption of the National Book policy, this was signed on
July 4, 1999 in relation to passage of RA 8047.
RA 7160 – otherwise known as the Local Government Code. One of the provisions of the law is the
establishment of public libraries in the municipalities. The law also puts the administrative
supervision of public libraries under the legislative branch of the local government, or its
Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan.
Civil Service Office Memorandum No. 99, s. 2001 – issued on July 18, 2001, this strictly implements
the provisions of RA 6966 specifically Sections 11 and 12 about Inhibition Against the Practice of
Librarianship. The memorandum signed by CSC Chairperson Karina Constantino-David requires
appointees to librarian positions eligibility, pursuant to RA 1080, in addition to meeting other
requirements for the position in terms of education, training, and experience.
Other relevant laws – these include
RA 6966 and RA 9246 – laws that regulate the practice of librarianship in the Philippines.
RA 8392 – known as the Intellectual Property Code. Book IV of the Code is about Copyright and
Neighboring Rights which is implemented by The National Library.
Chapter 20 – Standards for Philippine Public Libraries
20.1 Operation and Management
In the Philippines, public library service is discharged jointly by respective local government units (LGUs)
under the technical supervision of The National Library. Even before the enactment of the Local Government Code
or RA 7160, the law which called for the devolution of powers, duties, and responsibilities from national to local
government, appointment of public librarians was the responsibility of local officials. This started when
Decentralization Law took effect in early 1960s. Most public libraries at present are under the legislative branch of
the local government, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan, as the case may be. As local
government entities, they shall have, as their immediate superior, the local chief executive or any legally designated
local official in accordance with RA 7160 (Local Government Code).
To monitor affiliated public libraries, the Public Libraries Division of The National Library requires them
to submit a monthly report of activities and accomplishments. Also expected from them are annual inventory report
of collections and annual report of activities. These are required because of the Property Accountability set by the
government.
A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services in relation to the local
community needs. The public library has to be organized effectively and professional standards of operation must
be maintained. According to the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public library services in the Philippines
are aimed to
provide library and information service responsive to the nees of the community
build within each library an information center about the library‘s respective community – its
resources, history, customs, traditions, etc.
develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with The National Library as the center
in order to facilitate research and reference needs of patrons.
Cooperation with relevant partners – for example user groups and other professionals at local, regional,
national, as well as international – has to be ensured.
Services have to be physically accessible to all members of the community. This requires well suited
library buildings, good reading and study facilities, as well as relevant technologies and sufficient opening hours
convenient to users. It equally implies outreach services for those unable to visit the library.
The library must be adapted to the different needs of communities in urban and rural areas. The librarian is
an active intermediary between users and resources. Professional and continuing education of the librarian is
indispensable to ensure adequate services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided to help users
benefit from all the resources.
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Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public library service and
organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focus attention in the field. Standards are used as guides
when implementing goals for development and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries are local centers of information,
making all kinds of information readily available to its users. It does not cover the full variety of purposes and
activities that a public library can serve, but it does identify the most fundamental and common. These are
to contribute to lifelong education
to facilitate appreciation of the achievement of human knowledge and culture
to be the principal means whereby the record of man‘s thought and ideas, and the expression of his
creative imagination, are made freely available to all
to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media for relaxation and pleasure
to assist students
to provide technical, scientific, and sociological information
With the development of new public library standards, the tendency towards qualitative measure became
noticeable. Traditionally, standards are measured and expressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books,
etc. Modern standards start with the proposition that the public library system should themselves determine what is
appropriate in their particular circumstances. A good example of a traditional form of library standards is the
Standards for public libraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing for Public
Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure for Public Libraries.
The Standards for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in 2001. The revised edition
was submitted to the PRC Board for Librarians for review, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its
project – Standards for Philippine Libraries.
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personal services – to include salaries and wages and other common benefits common and due to all
civil service servants
maintenance and other operating expenses – to include among others funds for travel expenses,
attendance to seminars, trainings, conferences, etc.; and also subscription to publications lije
serials, newspapers, and periodicals.
capital outlay – to include funds to purchase library equipment, information technology equipment
and materials, furniture, and books
The library budget shall be adjusted annually to make it relevant with the time.
20.4 Collection
Collection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisition of books and other
library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance of professional staff. The clientele can also
recommend materials that can be considered. The collection must reflect the library‘s objectives and the needs of
the community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral materials, non-print material in various
formats like electronic databases and computer software application, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-
book materials like periodicals, maps, pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection of materials
on local history.
The size of the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from The National Library and
annual appropriations from the local government units. Every year, The National Library allocates books and other
forms of library materials to operational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the local government
unit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its public library. A Memorandum of
Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the above mentioned offices serves as the binding document which defines
their responsibilities and/or obligations.
Regardless of population, a minimum of 3,000 volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public
libraries in the regions, provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower class
municipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 in barangay reading centers. In
any public library, a provision of at least 10% increase in the collection must be regarded.
Aside from books and other library materials allocated by The National Library, collections in public
libraries also come from their local government units.
20.5 Physical Facilities
Public libraries must be centrally located within the community they serve. The library must be accessible
to all users by all means of transportation. The library building must provide access to physically disabled
individuals. They must have provisions for future growth and expansion. The library must be a component of an
integrated cultural complex in the development plan of the local government unit.
The size of any public library building must consider the following:
community population
growing library collection
size of staff
services to be offered
Public libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas, work rooms, multimedia rooms, storage
rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staff and the public, and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity
of 48-60 people at any one time is recommended for regional, congressional district, provincial, city, and first class
municipality libraries; at least 36-48 for lower class municipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers.
Functional equipment and furniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant and
effective use of materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of the library to keep abreast with the
time. Layout of equipment and furniture must permit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the materials.
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20.8 Networks
To ensure nationwide library coordination and cooperation, legislation and strategic plans must also be
defined and promote. A library network must be promoted based on agreed standard of service. The public library
network must be designed in relation to national, regional, research, and special libraries as well as libraries in
schools, colleges, and universities.
In order to efficiently maximize the services of public libraries to their clientele, public libraries are
encouraged to organize the Friends Group. This is an organization of volunteer workers in the community whose
activities and projects supplement and augment the library‘s activities. They also raise funds for the public library.
Membership comes from retired professionals and also from other community members who love to assist in
library work including those from civic organizations.
The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or volunteers to handle fund raising to
financially support the library and handle activities in line with library programs and services.
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The National Library is presently conducting other significant projects. These programs include the
continuing activity of preserving and conserving the precious cultural heritage of the country found at the
Filipiniana Rare Books and Manuscripts Section and at the Special Collections Section. This activity includes
microfilming and scanning of picture collections. Rare books of Filipiniana rare books, special collections, and
manuscripts are undergoing digitization. The National Library also producing guides to the different collections in
the different divisions to facilitate users in retrieving materials.
Installation of an Electronic Alarm System to entirely eliminate theft in the library‘s collection has already
been done in the Filipiniana Division. Hopefully, other reading rooms will avail of this facility.
The National Library continuously acquires books and other library materials for the collection
development of the reading areas of the central library and for allocation to the public library system. In addition, it
also houses books and materials appraised with permanent cultural and historical value. These include De Moluccis
Insulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The Filipiniana Division keeps an extant copy
about Magellan‘s expedition which was written in Spain in 1522 and was published in France the following year.
The 30-paged copy measured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The National Library is a facsimile of Doctrina Christiana,
the first book printed in the Philippines. Original copies of the work are kept in the Library of Congress in the
United States and in few libraries in Spain.
Continuous acquisition of government publications is also done since The National Library is also
mandated to collect, organize, and preserve all government publications of the different government branches and
agencies. In organizing these collections, The National Library and other libraries employs a tool in collecting and
organizing Philippine government documents – The Classification Scheme for Government Publications. This was
revised in 1994 and was prepared by the Special Committee on the revision of PHILDOC Classification Scheme.
Aside from government publications and documents, The National Library keeps in custody the collection
of Presidential Papers, which was initiated by President Manuel L. Quezon when he donated his official and
personal papers. This was followed by Presidents Sergio Osmeňa, Manuel Roxas, and Carlos Garcia.
The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division which aims to cater to special clientele
who are blind or visually handicapped. The collections contained in this division are Braille materials, large print
materials, and talking books (audio books). With support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, a complete set
of computers equipped with necessary software and accessories for visually-impaired and blind individuals, like
synthesizer and machine for enlarging fine printed materials.
The National Library employs staff development and continuous professional education. Members of its
staff are encouraged to take up further studies for professional growth.
The National Library is responsible in implementing laws related to librarianship practices such as RA
7743 and RA 8293 (otherwise known as the Intellectual Property Code under which is the Copyright Law). It
implements Book IV of the Copyright Law (under RA 8293), which took effect in 1999. Safeguards and safety
measures on copyright were formulated.
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–
––––– Unit 7
Collection Development
Chapter 23 – Principles of Collection Development
23.1 Definition and General Principles
23.2 Information Needs Assessment
23.3 Collection Development Policies
23.4 Trends and Issues
Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
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communication systems
social and educational organizations
cultural and recreational organizations
community information services
Data sources – can be from key informants and social indicators
Data collection methods – can be through community forums and field surveys
Data interpretation – interpreting in terms of social needs (normative or comparative; felt or
expressed)
23.3 Collection Development Policies
The phrase collection development policies are termed interchangeably with selection policies or
acquisition policies. This is a written statement of the plan to develop the library collection. It provides detailed
guidelines intended mainly for the library staff, representing the plan of action to guide the staff‘s thinking and
decision making. It as well serves as the mechanism for communication with the library patrons, and also for those
who provide for library funding. The collection development policy has the following uses:
informs everyone about the nature and scope of the collection
informs everyone of collection priorities
forces thinking about organizational priorities about the collection
generates some degree of commitment to meeting organizational goals
sets standards for inclusion and exclusion
reduces the influence of a single selector and personal biases
provides an orientation and training tool for the new staff
helps ensure a degree of consistency over time, regardless of staff turn-over
guides staff in handling complaints
aids in weeding and evaluating the collection
aids in rationalizing budget allocations
provides a public relations document
provides a means for assessing overall performance of the collection development program
provides outsiders with information about the purpose of collection development (an accountability
tool)
Collection development policies have the following integral elements
1. Overview – This is a clear statement of overall institutional objectives. It gives a brief description
about the community and identifies the library clientele.
2. Details of subject area and formats collected – This is a general statement about the parameters of the
collection. It describes in detail the type of programs and the patrons‘ information needs the
collection must meet. It also identifies where the responsibility for collection development lies
(who shall select and how shall they select).
3. Miscellaneous issues – This part deals with issues regarding gifts and exchanges, de-selection and
discards, evaluation, complaints and censorship, and issues concerning electronic materials.
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For books and periodicals, does the material have good print quality? Is the paper of appropriate
quality?
For audio-visual materials, will the material stand up to multiple uses?
3. Potential use
What will the demand for the material be?
What level of use justifies the acquisition?
How relevant is the material to the community?
4. Relation to the collection
How will the material strengthen the library collection? Will it fill a gap, complement something
that is already present, or provide an alternative opinion to what is already covered?
Are the materials available elsewhere in the community?
Is there fair coverage of disposing viewpoints?
5. Bibliographic considerations
What is the reputation of the publisher?
Is the type of publication and the format appropriate for your library?
What is the reputation and/or significance of the author?
What do the book reviews say about the material?
6. Cost
Almost all libraries have limited budgets and have to make very careful decisions about how to
allocate their funds during the selection process. One approach to the selection process is to rank
the materials desired for selection. More expensive materials that are ranked highly must still be
purchased, but then the library would be unable to purchase as many items. These decisions can
be difficult to make, but prioritizing patron needs is always a good way to start.
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It the book does not have a balanced treatment, does you book collection in the subject
address differing viewpoints?
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computer programs
films (8 mm. and 16 mm.)
filmstrips (with or without sound)
flat pictures (photographs, illustrations, artworks, posters, etc.)
games (recreational and educational)
globes (terrestrial and celestial)
maps (flat and relief)
microforms
mixed media packages or kits
printed music (performance and study scores)
slides (35 mm. and 4 x 4)
video formats (including games)
The following are points to consider in selecting multimedia materials.
the amount in the budget allocated for audiovisual materials (the cost per audiovisual item is greater
than for print materials)
the durability of the item (how well is it manufactured)
the visual and audio quality of the item
the ease of repairing the item in case of damage and the procedures in handling damages caused by
patrons
the type of equipment required for hearing or viewing the contents of the material
the likeliness that the audiovisual technology is long lasting
The following presents general evaluation criteria for multimedia materials.
1. Programming factors
Will the medium be used in formal instructional situations?
Is it only for recreational use?
Who is the primary audience: adults, children, or all ages?
Will the item circulate, or will the item be available only for in-house use?
Will the library be a member of resource sharing networks? If so, will the material become part of
the shared materials pool?
2. Content factors
What is the primary purpose of the item?
Is the length of the program appropriate?
Is the topic a fad, or is it likely to be a long-term interest?
Is the material well organized?
If the item is of relatively short duration and is an attempt to popularize a subject, does it do with
sufficient accuracy?
3. Technical factors
Are the visuals (assuming that there are) necessary?
Are the visuals in proper focus, the compositions effective, and the shots appropriate?
Is the material edited with skill?
Does the background audio contribute to the overall impact of the material?
Is there a good synchronization of visuals and audio?
How may the format be used – can it be viewed by small or large groups or by both?
Can the material be viewed in darkened, semi-lighted, or fully lighted room?
4. Format factors
Is the format the best one for the stated purposes of the producer?
Is the format the least expensive of those that are appropriate for the content?
Will the carrier medium stand up to the amount and type of use that library patrons would give it?
If damage occurs, can it be repaired, or must one buy a replacement copy, or does it require
maintenance?
What equipment is needed to access the material?
24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials
Audio materials have been an important commodity for library collections throughout most of this century
and include musical productions, books on tape, and language learning, as well as lectures, instructions, and
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inspirational messages. They are distributed in various formats, although the most common today are cassette tapes
and compact discs (CDs).
The most popular audio materials in libraries are spoken books on tape (talking books), which may also be
available in CDs. Language learning cassette tapes are of importance if the community includes many bilingual or
multi-lingual people to facilitate language learning of foreign languages and other languages of local interest.
Pointers to consider in selecting audio materials are the following.
How will the audio collection support your library‘s goals?
Will the audio collection focus on all or only certain groups?
Will you collect complete works or abridged versions? Does abridging the work affect the story?
How well does the reader project his/her voice?
How durable is the product?
What is the overall quality of the recording?
24.8 Selection Criteria for Video Materials
Video materials are extremely popular with library patrons. Not only do they provide entertainment but
can also serve as educational, cultural, and informational aids. They are available in different formats like VHS,
VCD, and DVD. VCD and DVD technology is starting to become more prevalent and maybe important to
audiovisual collections in the future.
Video materials are expensive to acquire and require appropriate equipments for viewing. In addition, they
have a relatively short life span. They are easily damaged and their popularity is only for short periods of time. It is
crucial that librarians are aware of copyright and censorship issues related to video materials.
The following are pointers to consider in selecting video materials.
How well are the sound and pictures/views organized?
How accurately does the video depict real life events? What message does the video intend to
convey?
Did the movie flap at the box office?
How does your library‘s video collection complement the selection of commercial video store present
in the area?
24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials
Graphic materials include maps, photographs, and globes (although there are other items such as sheet
music and prints that the library may collect). Because of their diversity of form graphic materials present special
difficulties. First, there is little bibliographic control, so you have to acquaint yourself with the various producers.
Second, there is a need to decide whether graphic materials will be circulated or just require them to be only used in
the library.
The following summarizes points to consider in selecting graphic materials.
scale
type of projection
information represented
amount of detail and accuracy
use of color and symbols
use and placement of nomenclature
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The library should carefully review licensing terms before purchasing a product, since it is
responsible for meeting all the terms of a signed agreement. Different companies and products
may have significant variations in licensing agreements, which all library staffs should know.
Agreements often include provisions for payment and delivery of the product, warranties and
limits, termination of the agreement, customer service information, and responsibility of the
license for the security of the product. The library should post signs to remind users of copyright
restrictions.
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http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire
o New York Times Book Reviews at
http://www.nytimes.com/pages/books/index.html
o AcqWeb‘s Directory of Book Reviews on the Web at
http://www.acqweb.library.vanderbilt.edu/acqweb/bookrev.html
b. ―Best of‖ books and recommended lists
These materials are intended for non-current reviews. They can be used as checklists to see
to it that no good book has been missed. If the selectors know that the library community‘s
reading choices are influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider
recommended lists in the book selection process. Examples of web sites that contain such
lists are
o Literary Lists at
http://www.stat.wharton.upenn.edu/~seller/litlists.html
o Oprah‘s Recommended Books at
http://www.2think.org/oprah/oprah.shtml
c. Subject lists
2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all of the books published in the United States, in a
bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so on. They can be useful for verifying the
bibliographic and purchasing information for a book, for identifying new book publications, for
facilitating the purchasing and ordering process, and for keeping up with publishing trends. Included
in the category are:
a. Publisher sources
These resources include catalog, flyers, and announcements to libraries from publishers to
publicize their publications. They may also be web sites of publishers that contain the most
current information about their publication. Examples of these web links are:
o AcqWeb‘s Directory of Publishers and Vendors at
http://www.acqweb.library.vanderbilt.edu/acqweb/pubr.html
o Publishers‘ Catalogues Home Page at
http://www.lights.com/publisher
o Bookwire at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire
b. Online bookstores
Online bookstores allow the selector to search and purchase print books over the internet.
They can provide a quick and easy way to find publication information for a wide range of
books. Online bookstores facilitate a convenient method for purchasing books urgently
needed. Example are:
o Amazon.com at http://www.amazon.com, the largest online bookstore in the world.
It is a full-service online bookstore providing lists of book sellers, award-winners,
and excerpts from review sources.
o Barnes and Noble at http://www.barnesandnoble.com, which offers over one million
books that can be searched for and purchased over the internet.
o Alt.bookstore at http://www.altbookstore.com, which claims two million books in
its inventory and allows searching of books by title.
c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books
These are resources for finding bibliographic and purchasing information of books that are
available for purchase, are about to be published, or are no longer being printed. Examples of
titles included in this category are
o Forthcoming Books
o Weekly Records
o Books in Print
d. National bibliographies
National bibliographies can be useful for checking what library owns a particular work in a
particular country. Such resources are usually published by national libraries or state
libraries. Examples of titles in this category include
o British National Bibliography
o National Union Catalog
o Bibloiographie Nationale Française
o Deutsche Nationalbibliographie
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Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
Publishing is the heart of book trade, the manufacture, publication, and distribution of published materials.
The origins of the book trade can be traced to the graven clay and stone tablets and the polygonal cylinders of the
ancient Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, or the bound bamboo strips of the earliest Chinese scribes, but most
authorities consider the papyrus scrolls of antiquity the true progenitors of the book.
The following summarizes the procedures accomplished by publishers in the book trade.
Publishers tap sources of materials (manuscripts).
Publishers raise and supply the capital to make publications.
Publishers aid in the development of the manuscript.
Publishers contract for the manufacture of the publications (printing and binding of the materials).
Publishers market their finished products (distribution, promotion, and advertising).
Publishers maintain records relating to the production and sales of publications (records of sales,
contracts, and correspondences).
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
The following are brief descriptions of different types of publishing firms.
1. Trade publishers produce a wide variety of titles, both fiction and non-fiction, that have wide sales
potentials. Many of these publishers have many divisions that produce specialty titles. They have
three major markets – bookstores, libraries, and wholesalers.
Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan
2. Specialty publishers have outputs restricted to a few areas of subjects. Compared to trade publishers,
their audiences are smaller and more critical. These areas include reference, paperback, children‘s,
and music.
Example: Gale Research
3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop a line of textbooks for
several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas in publishing.
Examples: Ginn or Scott, Foresman & Company
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4. Subject specialty publishers focus their marketing efforts on a limited number of buyers. They require
expensive graphic preparation or presswork.
Examples: Harry N. Abrams, E. C. Schimer, Academic Press
5. Vanity presses receive most of their operating funds from authors whose works they publish. They
offer editing assistance for free and can arrange to print as many copies as the author can afford.
Example: Exposition Press
6. Private presses, basically, are not for profit ventures. In many instances, they are more on an
avocation rather than vocation for the owners. The3 owners do not sell their products, but give them
away. Most of these presses are owned by individuals who enjoy fine printing and experimenting with
different fonts and designs.
Examples: Henry Morris, Bird, Poull Press
7. Scholarly publishers are mostly non-profit organizations and receive subsidies from usually, the
academic institution, research institution, or learned society they are part of. These presses are
established by scholars to produce scholarly books that would not be acceptable for many for-profit
publishers since scholarly books have limited sales appeal.
Example: University of California Press, American Philosophical Society
8. Government presses are the world‘s greatest publishers. Their publishing activity now goes beyond
the printing of legislative hearings and executive materials. They also publish essential and
inexpensive materials on nutrition, farming, building trades, travel, etc.
9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work – quality trade paperbacks and mass-market
paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that issue paperbound versions of books
previously issued in hardbound editions. Their distribution price is usually lower and is based on the
concept of mass sales.
10. Newspapers and periodicals publishers retain reporters or writers as members of their staffs.
Supplying current information is their primary objective.
11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print. Libraries and scholars are
their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are no longer in the public domain; that is, no longer
covered by copyrights.
12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are thought as literary presses by some. These
presses are usually operated by one person doing sidelines in publishing.
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
Standard publication numbers are numbers that serve to identify every book at every library or bookshop
in the world. The two standard publication numbers are the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), the
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN). In order to
ensure that each number issued is unique, standard publication numbers are administered by a central agency, based
in Berlin, with national bodies (such as the United Kingdom's Standard Book Numbering Agency based in London)
taking care of specific regions.
1. ISBN
ISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a specific edition of a book or
other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under a system recommended for
international use by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1969. In the ISBN
system, media such as audiorecordings, videorecordings, microfiche, and computer software are
considered monographic publications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed music are
excluded because other identification systems have been developed to cover them. The ISBN is
usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the dust jacket of a book published in
hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover in paperback editions. In AACR2, the ISBN is entered in
the standard number and terms of availability area of the bibliographic description.
The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a group number identifier
one to five digits in length identifying the national, language, geographic, or other area in which the
edition is published; a publisher prefix one to seven digits in length uniquely identifying the publisher;
a title number one to six digits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work; and a
check digit that allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by a
computer. For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginning identifies the United
States as the country of publication, the second element (8389) identifies the American Library
Association as the publisher, the third element (0847) identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata
Fundamentals for All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and the 0 at the end is the check digit. When a
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calculated check digit is the number 10, the letter X is used, but in the other parts of the ISBN only the
arabic numerals 0-9 are used.
The 10-digit ISBN system has a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Over the past 35
years, numbers have been assigned in over 150 countries and the rate of depletion has accelerated
with the proliferation of new publishing formats. To increase numbering capacity, ISO has announced
a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, to be implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit
number will be identical to the Bookland EAN barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, which
has an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated check digit. In the United States, allocation of publisher
prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed by R. R. Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed
in the Publishers' International ISBN Directory available from Bowker.
2. ISSN
ISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the International Serials Data System
(ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-0277, identifies the publication
Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN was extended to cover continuing resources in
general. The ISSN is usually given in the masthead of each issue or on the copyright page of each
volume or part of a series. When a continuing resource undergoes a title change, a new ISSN is
assigned. The ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a Web site at:
http://www.issn.org/.
3. ISMN
This is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for sale, hire, or free of
charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, the ISMN uniquely identifies a title
issued by a given publisher in a particular edition. The ISMN is not used for sound recordings
(audiotapes, CDs, etc.), videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in series
can have both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSN identifying the
ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. When both are assigned, the two
numbers are printed clearly on the copyright page.
Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is divided into four parts (two of
which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the example M-2306-7118-7, the letter M
distinguishes the code from standard numbers used to identify other types of material, the second part
(2306) is a unique publisher identifier assigned by an ISMN agency coordinated by the international
ISMN Agency in Berlin, the third part (7118) is an item identifier assigned by the publisher, and the
fourth part (7) is a computer-generated check digit that allows any errors in the preceding sequence to
be detected. R .R. Bowker is also the independent agent for the ISMN system in the United States.
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Economy and efficiency are the two basic considerations in selecting dealers and suppliers. These two
broad categories are further subdivided as follows.
service (representatives, contact numbers, websites, etc.)
quality of service
speed of fulfillment
discounts and pricing
financial viability of the company
ability to work with the library‘s automation system
special services available
Some dealers and vendors may have any of the following added services which the librarian may also
consider.
acquisition assistance (searching and verification)
automated selection assistance programs
book rental plans
cataloging and shelf-ready processing
customized management data
economic financial transactions
alternative information formats
provision of electronic table of contents, indexes, or machine readable data
give away items (library furniture and supplies)
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Librarians must familiarize and acquaint themselves on several symbols and abbreviations used in
invoices. Some commonly used are the following.
BO – back order OPP – out of print at present
CWO – cash required with order OS – out of stock
NEP or NE – new edition, pending OSC – out of stock, cancelled
NOP – not our publication OSI – out of stock, indefinitely
NR – non-refundable (no returns TOP – temporarily out of print
allowed) TOS – temporarily out of stock
NYP – not yet published XR – non-refundable
OC – order cancelled
OP – out of print
27.5 Other Means of Acquisition –
Gifts and Exchange
Gifts are materials given to the library from various local and foreign sources (individuals, institutions,
foundations, Friends of the Library, alumni, etc.). Selection and acceptance criteria for gifts should be the same
with those for purchased materials. Unwanted items must as well be disposed.
The library may also compromise with other libraries or organizations to exchange unwanted or duplicate
materials in the collection. This may also deal with exchange of own publications or materials between
libraries/institutions.
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1. Clapp-Jordan formula – This is a quantitative method, developed be Verner W. Clapp and Robert T.
Jordan. This formula calculates the total number of volumes required for minimum-level
collection adequacy in an academic library.
2. Conspectus – This is a comprehensive survey instrument. It was first developed by Research Library
Group to record current collection strengths collection intensities, and intended future intensities.
It is sometimes called collection mapping or inventory profiling.
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––––– –Unit 8
Cataloging and Classification Episode 1
-
Descriptive Cataloging
Chapter 29 – Bibliographic Control: Basic Concepts and History
29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control
29.2 Cataloging Principles and Operations
29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging
29.4 Modern Cataloging
29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging
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Original cataloging is performed when no record exists or no record is accessible to the library or
cataloging agency. The cataloger supplies all the bibliographic and other data needed to describe the
materials.
29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging
Cataloging has already been a practice since the ancient period. Greeks were already applying the
principle of author entry then. The most famous library at that time which practiced cataloging is the Alexandrian
library under the librarianship of Callimachus, a scholar of Alexandria who reputedly wrote more than 800 books.
Of his learned works in prose one of the most important was the Pinakes, a huge catalogue of the works contained
in the Alexandrian library.
The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories and lists for librarians‘ use
gained more importance. Union lists for English libraries came during the 13 th century. The use of location codes
similar to the call numbers we use today marked the 14th century. The periods from 15th to 18th centuries
bequeathed further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use cross references. Johann Tritheim introduced his
concept of bibliography in chronological order. Konrad Genser, considered as the ―father of bibliography‖
advocated the compilation of a bibliography by author with a subject index. An early scheme of classification and
call numbers as well as the use of multiple entries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English
bookseller, advocated that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set up uniform entries for the
Bible. Sir Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser‘s work. He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog
with an alphabetical index of authors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a divided
catalog. He also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansive shelf arrangement. The French
were the pioneer in using catalogs in the library.
As the modern period came, more significant developments in cataloging arrived. More libraries realized
the importance of Library catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizzi formulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939
for the British Museum. Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for the catalog of the
Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett‘s Rules originated the principle of corporate author and
―US‖ as the author of public documents. In 1908, American and British libraries started to adapt author and title
entries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two cataloging systems became popular – the
Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. The Prussian Instructions was originally developed as a standardized
system of cataloging for Prussian libraries. It was adopted by many libraries in Germanic and Scandinavian
countries. The Vatican Code, on the other hand, were developed for the purpose of compiling a general catalog of
printed books in the Vatican Library after its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an ―international code
with a definite American bias‖.
The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALA Catalog Rules: Author
and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted the Rules for Descriptive Cataloging on the Library of
Congress. Later, ALA released ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.
In 1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The major product of this event
was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavily from Lubetzky‘s 1960 draft code. This made a major
influence in AACR‘s principles on entry and headings.
In 1969, the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen, Denmark. The event
gave birth to the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of
special punctuation marks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971 by the
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).
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A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited by Michael Gorman and Paul
W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices of ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging,
and the Library Association (UK).
AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes in information formats.
The 1998 revision includes changes and corrections authorized since 1988 by the Joint Steering Committee for
Revision of AACR (JSC), including amendments authorized through 1997. Member organizations in the JSC are
the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian Committee on Cataloging,.
Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version, Anglo-American Cataloguing
Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002), includes extensive revisions to chapter 12 on continuing
resources (formerly known as serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext version published by ALA Editions that includes all
amendments through 2001.
In addition to AACR is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of standards
adopted in 1971 by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), governing the bibliographic
description of items collected by libraries. The general standard ISBD(G) serves as a guide for describing all types
of library materials. Standards have also been developed for specific formats: ISBD(CM) for cartographic
materials, ISBD(PM) for printed music, ISBD(S) for serials, etc. ISBDs have been integrated into several catalog
codes around the world, including AACR2.
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than that of a non-print item (e.g. 3 filmstrips : col. ; 35 mm. + 3 sound cassettes + 3 guides). Physical description is
synonymous with collation.
Usually, this area starts a new paragraph in the bibliographic description, instead of being preceded by a
full stop-space-long dash-space.
The following constitutes the physical description area for book materials.
1. Extent of item
This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3 x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.).
2. Other physical detail
This gives information about illustrative matter in the materials (transcribed as ―ill.‖ or ―col. ill/‖
for colored illustrative matter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (― ; ―).
3. Dimension
This is the height of the book given in centimeters rounded off to the next whole centimeter if not
an exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. is transcribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space
semicolon-space (― ; ―).
4. Accompanying material\
This is a material issued with and intended to be used with the item. Accompanying materials are
usually in a different medium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a space-plus
sign-space (― + ―).
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contents
library‘s holdings
―with‖ notes
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For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the original and an added
entry under the heading of the translator.
For items published with biographical/critical material: If a work or works by a writer
accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material by another person is presented
in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged as a biographical or critical work, enter
it as such with an added entry appropriate to the work or works included.
2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24)
For collaborations between an artist and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration
between an artist and a writer under the one who is named first under the chief source of information
of the item being cataloged unless the other‘s name is given greater prominence by the wording or
layout, and make an added entry under the heading for the other one.
For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of the person(s)
interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter), enter under the principal
participant, participant named first in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged, or
title, and make an added entry under the heading for the reporter if he or she is named prominently in
the item.
31.7 Forms of Headings
Headings are terms placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point.
They can be name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized
content descriptor (subject heading). The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the
corresponding AACR provisions for each.
1. Headings for persons
Choice of name (Rule 22.1)
In general, choose as the basis of the heading for a person, the name by which he or she is
commonly known. This can be the person‘s real name, pseudonym, title of nobility, nickname,
initials, or other appellations. Determine the name by which a person is commonly known from
the chief source of information or works by that person issued in his/ her language.
Entry element (Rule 22.4)
If a person‘s name consists of several parts, select the entry element that part of the name
under which the person would normally be listed in authoritative alphabetic list in his/her
language or country of residence or activity.
Here are specific rules for the order of elements.
i. If the entry element is the first element of the name, enter the name in direct order
Example: Ram Gopal
ii. If the first element is a surname, follow it by a comma (,).
Example: Chiang, Kai-shek
iii. If the entry element is not the first element in the name, transpose the elements of the
name preceding the entry element and follow the entry element by a comma (,).
Example: Cassat, Mary
iv. If the entry element is the proper name in a title of nobility, follow it by the personal
name and the part of the title denoting rank by commas (,).
Example: Caradon, Hugh Foot, Baron
2. Geographic names
General rule (Rule 23.2)
Use the English form of the name of a place if there is one in general use (determine this
form gazetteers and other reference sources published in English-speaking countries). Use the
form in the official language in the country if there is no English form in general use.
3. Headings for corporate bodies
General rule (Rule 24.1)
Enter the corporate body directly under the name by which it is commonly identified, except
when under the name of a higher or related body or under the name of a government (specific
rules apply for such cases).
4. Uniform titles
A uniform title is a title that brings together entries for different publications of the same work,
when those publications have different titles proper.
If the entry is under a name heading, place the uniform title between the name heading and the
title proper, and enclose the uniform title in square brackets.
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––––– –Unit 9
Cataloging and Classification Episode 2
-
Subject Cataloging
Chapter 32 –Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging
32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose
32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging
32.3 Types of Catalogs
32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems
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Choice of terms must be different between libraries serving the general public and libraries
serving specialists.
Example: Lizards instead of Lacertilia
Obsolete or current terms
In establishing a new heading, a current term must be chosen over an obsolete term.
Example: Computers instead of Electronic-calculating machines
4. Unique heading
Each heading should represent only one subject and this concerns the presence of homographs.
Example: Rings (Jewelry)
Rings (Geometry)
Rings (Gymnastics)
5. Specific entry and co-extensivity
The principle of specific entry means that the item is entered under its subject heading0, not
under the heading of the class which includes the subject.
Example: ―The Cat‖
Subject headings: Cats (specific direct entry)
Zoology – Vertebrates – Mammals – Domestic animals –
Cats (specific indirect entry)
There are several factors considered in defining ―specificity‖.
hierarchical structure of a particular indexing language
collection being indexed (literary warrant)
document being indexed
depth of indexing
6. Pre-coordination and post-coordination
In pre-coordinate systems, multiple terms representing a topic and its aspects are pre-combined in
the source vocabulary or by the cataloger or by the indexer as the time of cataloging or indexing using
prepositions or other devices to show how the terms are interrelated.
On the other hand, in post-coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and its aspects are
simply listed separately and the searchers combine the terms at the point of retrieval.
32.3 Types of Catalogs
Basically, there are five (5) basic types of catalogs – classed/classified catalog, alphabetical specific
catalog, dictionary catalog, divided catalog, and online catalog.
1. Classed/classified catalog
In this type of catalog, a classed entry begins with the term at the top of the hierarchy to which
the subject being represented belongs, with each level in the hierarchy included in the subject heading.
Such catalogs usually use symbols, letters, and/or numbers so that closely related classes are brought
together in sequence. This type is also known as class catalog, classified subject catalog, or systematic
catalog.
Example: Plants – Trees – Evergreens – Pines – Southern pines
2. Alphabetical specific catalog
Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principle of specific and direct entry. The entries are
arranged alphabetically without regard to their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is
also known as alphabetical subject catalog.
Example: (Based from the previous example)
Southern pines
3. Dictionary catalog
In a dictionary catalog, entries (for author, title, subject, series, etc.) and the cross references are
interfiled in one alphabetical sequence.
4. Divided catalog
In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate files according to some criteria (i.e. author
entries form one distinct file and subject entries as another file).
5. Online catalog
This catalog is based on MARC records accessible in an interactive mode. Arrangement of
subject entries is of no concern to users, since they cannot actually see how they are arranged in the
computer memory. These catalogs offer improved subject access through more flexible means like
keyword searching, selective search combination through Boolean operators, and automatic switching
from lead-in terms to controlled terms.
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(Legendary character)
iii. The qualifier (Fictitious character) is used with names of characters of literary or
artistic invention, as opposed to legendary characters originating from myths,
legends, or folklore.
(e.g. Bond, James (Fictitious character); Tarzan
(Fictitious character)
iv. Names of comic characters are also established n the form of
[Name of character] (Fictitious character)
e.g. Snoopy (Fictitious character; Spider man
(Fictitious character)
v. Biblical figures are established with appropriate qualifiers.
e.g. Moses (Biblical leader); Abraham (Biblical patriarch)
Names of gods and goddesses are established in the form of
[Name of god or goddess] ([Ethnic adjective] deity)
e.g. Apollo (Greek deity); Minerva (Roman deity)
b. Corporate Bodies
Works related to origin, development, activities, and functions of individual corporate bodies
are assigned subject entries under their names. These headings include public and private
organizations, societies, institutions, associations, government agencies, commercial firms,
churches, and other groups identified by a name, such as conferences and exploring expeditions.
e.g. Rand Corporation; Philippine Heart Center
c. Geographic names
There are two basic types of geographic names – jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional
geographic names.
Jurisdictional geographic names are names of countries and political or administrative
divisions within countries such as cities, provinces, towns, etc.
e.g. London (England); Alaminos (Laguna, Philippines)
Non-jurisdictional geographic names are names of natural features or man-made structures
associated with places. Names of the following are also non-jurisdictional geographic names.
o archaeological sites, historic cities, etc.
o areas and regions
o canals
o city sections
o dams
o farms, ranches, gardens
o forests, grasslands
o geographic features (e.g. caves, desserts, lakes, mountains, etc.)
o parks, reserves, recreation areas, etc.
o roads, streets, rails
e.g. Oregon National Historic Trail; Pinatubo, Mount;
Grand Canyon (Ariz.)
There are specific important things to consider about geographic names.
The English form of the geographic name is preferred unless there is no English name in
common use.
e.g. Spain not Espaňa;
Germany not Deutschland
West Lake (China) not His-hu
The vernacular form is chosen when there is no English form in general use or it is
widely accepted in English-language works.
e.g. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
Rio de la Plata (Argentina and Uruguay)
For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions are added in
alphabetical order unless the entry is located principally in one of the jurisdictions,
which will then be the one listed first...
e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal);
Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)
For a river, the place of origin is always listed first.
e.g. Wye River (Wales and England)
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1865
English language – Grammar – 1950-
4. Geographic subdivisions
These indicate the place of origin or the locality of the main subject and may be used with
subjects that lend themselves to geographic treatment. Headings that may be subdivided by place
carry the designation (May Subd. Geog.) immediately after their listing. The designation (Not Subd.
Geog.) after the heading indicates that the subject cannot be subdivided by place.
Examples: Education (May Subd. Geog.)
Developing countries (Not Subd. Geog.)
Indirect geographic subdivisions mean that the name of the larger geographic entity is interposed
between the main heading and the place in question.
Example: Music – Philippines – Bicol
Direct geographic subdivisions means that the place follows the heading or another subdivision
immediately without the interposition of a larger geographic entity.
Examples: Education – Florida
Agriculture – Thailand
5. Free floating subdivisions
These subdivisions may be used under any existing appropriate subject heading for the first time
without establishing the usage editorially. To illustrate, assuming that you are looking at the heading
―Periodicals‖, one is given the following instruction.
SA English [French, etc.] periodicals;
and subdivision Periodicals under specific subjects
Therefore, an item entitled ―A monthly magazine for dentists‖ will have the subject heading Dentistry
– Periodicals.
Free-floating subdivisions of general application are form and topical subdivisions that are
applicable to a large number of headings.
Examples: – Abstract
– Cost effectiveness
Free-floating subdivisions under specific types of headings are only applicable to, and only
authorized for use under specific categories of main headings such as classes of persons, names of
places, ethnic groups, names of corporate bodies, etc.
Examples: Actors – Political activity
Asian-Americans – Race identity
Free-floating subdivisions controlled by pattern headings are form or topical subdivisions that
are common in a particular subject field or applicable to headings in a particular category, instead of
authorizing them heading by heading and repeating them under each heading within the category. For
example, the heading
English language
is the pattern heading for languages. Therefore, all the subdivisions listed under this heading are
applicable to other headings for other types of languages.
33.4 Cross References
Cross references are provided to connect related headings in the catalog. There are three kinds.
1. See (or Use) Reference
This is a reference from the term or the name not used as a heading to one that is used.
Example: Third world countries
See Developing countries
2. See also reference (including BT, RT, and NT)
These references connect related in some way, either hierarchically or otherwise.
Example: Poetry
RT Literature
NT Classical poetry
Lyric poetry
3. General reference
This type directs he user to a group or category of headings instead of to individual members of
the group or category. It is sometimes called a blanket reference and is represented by the symbol
―SA‖.
Example: Atlases
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Rule of three
If a broad heading exists but includes more than two or three topics in question, assign two or
three headings, not the broader heading.
Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk
[Subject] Child development
Infants – Development
Adolescence
Rule of four
This means that specific headings are preferred when the work being cataloged deals with
four topics, each of which forms only a portion small of the general topic.
Example: The first golden age of Viennese symphony : Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and
Schubert / by Peter Brown
[Subjects] Symphony – 18th century
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When the required term referring to a special class of persons is not found in subject authority
lists (LCSH in particular), the subject heading consists of the name of the relevant subject or
discipline with the subdivision – Biography.
Example: Art – Biography
(for all kinds of people associated with the art
including artists, dealers, collectors, museums, personnel, etc.)
If the work contains lists of works of authors active in particular fields as well as biographic
information about those authors, the subdivision – Bio-bibliography is used.
Example: Philippine literature – Bio-bibliography
Individual biographies
If the biography focuses on a specific aspect of a person‘s life, an appropriate subdivision taken from
the list Free-Floating Subdivisions Used Under Names of Persons, or from pattern headings [like
Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 (for literary authors)] is added.
Example: Marcos, Ferdinand E. – Correspondence
Joaquin, Nick
In addition to the personal name heading, a biographical heading in the form of [Class of
persons] – [Place] – [Subdivision indicating type of biographic work] is used.
Example: Franz Boas, social activist : the dynamics of ethnicity / Marshall Hyatt
[Subjects] Boas, Franz, 1858-1942
Anthropologists – United States –
Biography
Anthropology – History
United States – Ethnic relations
Three (3) types of headings are assigned to a work of a statesman (ruler or head of a state) which
contains information about his life:
o the personal name heading with applicable subdivision(s)
o a biographical heading
o a heading for the event or period of the country‘s history in which a person is involved
Example: The presidency of Corazon C. Aquino
[Subjects] Philippines – Presidents – 1986-1992
Aquino, Corazon Cojuangco
Presidents – Philippines – Biography
Corporate headings (e.g. Great Britain, Sovereign, 1660-1685 : Charles II), which are used as
main or added entries in descriptive cataloging are not used as subject entries. Instead, the personal
name heading and the appropriate heading for the history of the period are used.
34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process
Subject cataloging process is divided into two – subject analysis and translation.
Subject analysis or conceptual analysis is the process of identifying the concepts/topics in a work and
determining what aspects of it the user will be interested in. The following steps serve as a guide for
its effective undertaking.
o Jot down the title of the document or the item in question. This title is referred to as the raw title.
Example: How to manage barangay finances
o Read through the other parts of the item (e.g. introduction, preface, table of contents, etc.) in
order to identify and express the specific contents of the item. This is called the expressive title.
Below are the parts of an item that will be useful in doing this step.
Item Part Remarks
Title may or may not be helpful
Subtitle often more useful
Author may provide an identification of the broad topic if the
author is already established in publishing in the area
Foreword, preface, usually state the author‘s intention
introduction
Publisher may give an introduction if the publisher specializes in
a particular subject area
Series may sometimes be useful
Comments and index usually indicate the main topics
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––––– –Unit 10
Cataloging and Classification Episode 3
-
Classification
Chapter 35 – An Overview of Classification
35.1 Terminologies in Classification
35.2 Purpose of a Classification System
35.3 Types of Classifications
35.4 Notation
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4. Broad classification
This system means that a work is placed in a broad class by use of notation that has been
logically abridged. For example, a work on French cooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal
Classification System at 641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 is
assigned to France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking).
35.4 Notation
Notation is a device consisting of numerals, letters, and/or symbols used to represent the main and
subordinate divisions of a classification scheme.
There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbols used, they may either be
pure notation or mixed notation.
Pure notation – a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e. purely alphabetic or
numeric)
Mixed notation – a notation system using a combination of two or more kinds of symbols (i.e. a
combination of letters and numbers)
Notation may also be classified according to the system they employ on how to represent subjects.
Hierarchical notation – this notation reflects the structural order or hierarchy of the classification
scheme; it may be either in pure or mixed notation
Expressive notation – this reflects the relationship among coordinate subjects; may also be either
in pure or mixed notation
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into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four
lines.
Brown‘s Subject Classification
This classification system was designed by James Duff Brown
(1862-1914), It had three (3) editions: 1906, 1914, 1939 (revised by Brown‘s nephew after his death).
This classification scheme was well-received in both the U.K. and the U.S. This was originally
designed for shelf browsing in an open stack public library.
Brown‘s Subject Classification was established in the general order of
Matter and Force (Generalia and Physical Sciences)
Life (Biology, Ethnology, Medicine, Economic Biology, Domestic Arts)
Mind (Philosophy, Religion, Political and Social Science)
Record (Language, Literature, Literary forms, History, Geography, Biography)
Main Classes Divisions Subject Titles
Matter and Force A Generalia
B, C, D Physical Science
Life E, F Biological Science
G. H Ethnological and Medical Science
I Economic Biology and Domestic Arts
Mind J, K Philosophy and Religion
L Social and Political Science
Record M Language and Literature
N Literary Forms
O-W History, Geography
X Biography
Brown advocated the principle of ―one-place‖ classification – ―concrete‖ subjects should have
only one place, qualified by ―standpoints‖. For example, ―Rose‖ could be qualified by its standpoints
(i.e. Biological, Botanical, Horticultural, Historical, Geographical, Ethical, Decorative, Legal,
Emblematical, Bibliographical, Poetical, Musical, Sociological, and so on to any extent).
This idea carried out in the classification by three kinds of notational synthesis:
1. Intra-class synthesis – synthesis from two sections of the same main class achieved by + and
omission of the main class letter.
Example: Cats and dogs = F952 + F918 = F952 + 918
There is no preferred citation order.
2. Inter-class synthesis – synthesis from two main classes by + and retention of the main
class letter
Example: Logic and rhetoric = A300 + M170
Gambling in dog racing = L933 + F944
Such are called ―composite subjects‖ or ―composite books‖. In this notational synthesis,
there is no preferred citation order.
3. Categorical table – a table of forms, phases, standpoints, qualifications, etc., which apply
more or less to every subject or subdivision of a subject; it is in two parts
Notational order (e.g., .25 Diaries)
Alphabetical order (e.g., Art .116)
Numerical notation preceded by a dot, which is not a decimal (.). There is no synthesis
within the Categorical Table. Categorical Table numbers are added to any notation from
the schedules.
Examples: Economics of universities = A180.760
Universities = A180 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
Economics of musical competitions = C798.760
Musical competitions = C798 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
These synthetic notations provided more flexibility than any classification of its time (except
UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has now).
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Colon Classification
This classification system was developed by S. R. Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not
the inventor of facet analysis. He is credited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is
said that his idea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeing that the
salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces in a different way, he builds
his classification scheme by this analogy.
The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes, starts with a number of main
classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is then analyzed and broken down
into its basic elements, grouped together by common attributes, called facets. Upon examining all the
facets, Ranganthan notices that there are five main groups into which the facets fall, and he calls these
the fundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in an order of decreasing
concreteness.
Personality
- can be understood as the primary facet.
- the most prominent attribute
Matter
- physical material
Energy
- action
Space
- location
Time
- time period
There are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called common isolates.
Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used more than once.
Notations, such as numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, while punctuation marks
are used to indicate the nature and type of the following facets. The classifier's job, therefore, is to
combine the available terms that are appropriate in describing the information package in hand.
Let us consider the construction of a notation using the Ranganathan's Colon Classification.
Suppose we have a book that is about "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray
conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The call number will be as follows:
L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5
The notations represent
[Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950]
It is amazing how the notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject of the item. Such a
classification scheme is considered to be "hospitable" to all sorts of complex topics. It is therefore a
"dynamic" scheme.
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––––– –Unit 11
Cataloging and Classification Episode 4
-
Non-Book Materials
Chapter 38 – Introduction to Non-book Materials
38.1 Defining Non-book Materials
38.2 Types of Non-book Materials
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The following is a listing of the most common GMDs and SMDs used for various forms of library
materials taken from the list of British GMDs.
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sound tape(s)/reel(s)
sound disc(s) (for record
and compact discs)
three-dimensional items
realia [realia] name of object
models [model] model(s) (or descriptive
terms)
games [game] name of components
jigsaw puzzles [game] jigsaw puzzle
toys [toy] name of the items/pieces
dioramas [diorama] diorama(s)
kits and electronic materials
kits [kit] name of components
computer/electronic materials [computer file] computer disk(s) (for floppy
disks)
computer laser optical disc
(CD-ROM, DVD-ROM)
Chapter 40 – Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials
40.1 Description and Headings
The most authoritative internationally recognized code of rules for descriptive cataloging is the Anglo
American Cataloging Rules (AACR2R 2002). The following is a summary of some points derived from AACR2R
in cataloging non-book materials.
Cataloging of materials as individuals or sets
Many materials are sold in sets and can be processed either as units or as separate items with a
series added entry indicating their relationship. In deciding whether to keep a set together or to break
it up and catalog each item separately, the cataloger must consider the type of materials, the library or
the media center, and the needs of the user. This decision is often affected by subject analysis. If each
item within a set would have significantly different classification numbers and subject headings, it
may be advantageous to catalog each part of the set separately. On the other hand, if the items within
the set have the same classification and subject headings, it is more efficient to catalog the series as a
unit.
Added entries
The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to find a particular item by some name or title
other than the selected as the main entry heading. Added entries also add group materials in useful
ways, e.g. by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the catalog use in
each library or media center. The following policy should be considered when establishing a policy
for added entries.
An added entry policy should be applied consistently to book and non-book materials.
The policy should be keeping with the chosen level of description, e.g. more added entries in
third level description than in first level description.
Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are traced. Added entries may be made for
any one of all of these if the cataloger believes that a patron may search for an item under a
particular heading.
Designation of function
If a media center has special requirements for the retrieval of particular information, such as the
quick identification of a person‘s function or the need to group functions, a designation chosen from a
standard list may be added to a heading.
40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials
The subject analysis chosen by a library for its book collection should be used for all media.
Subject headings
Preference should be given to a subject heading system which is comprehensive and is
periodically revised. The systems most commonly used by certain types of libraries and media centers
are the Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Sears List of Subject Headings. Special libraries
devoted to specific disciplines may use specialized subject authority lists, such as the Medical Subject
Headings (MeSH) for health science collections. When appropriate, these subject heading lists can be
supplemented with other subject authority list titles.
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The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic
description specific to certain types of non-book materials. This area adopts different names,
depending on the type of material being cataloged.
o Cartographic materials
For materials of this type, the MSD area becomes the mathematical and other specific data
area. The elements of bibliographic information that comprise this area are the following:
i. statement of scale
ii. statement of projection
iii. statement of coordinates and equinoxes (optional)
o Electronic resources
This area becomes the file characteristics area for electronic resources. This is composed of
two elements of bibliographic information.
i. designation [computer file(s), computer program(s), or computer file(s) and program(s)]
ii. number of records (for data, transcribe the number of files, records, and/or bytes; for
programs, transcribe the number of files, statements, and/or bytes)
o Continuing resources (serials)
For these materials, this area becomes the numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological, or other
designation area. This has two elements:
i. numeric and/or alphabetic designation
ii. chronological designation
o Music
The musical presentation statement area for printed music describes the physical form of the
presentation, whether it is a full score, miniature score, piano score, vocal score, etc.
Publication, Distribution, etc. area
This is formerly known as the imprint. This area records all information about the place, name,
and date related to publication, distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this
area are information relating to the manufacture of the item.
An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of the statement of function
of the publisher, distributor, producer, or production company. This may be necessary for some non-
book materials where the producer or the production company and the distributor are different entities
and their respective functions need to be specified.
Example: New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Files
[production company] ; London : Educational
Service [distributor], 1975.
Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of distribution, the latter may
be added if it is considered to be significant by the cataloging agency. If the publisher and distributor
are different, the dates must be given after the names to which they apply.
Example: New York : American Broadcasting Co., 1975 ; San
Francisco : Released by Pyramid Films, 1972.
In the description of art originals and other unpublished graphic materials, only the date is given
in this area. Neither the place of publication nor the name of publisher is given. This is also true for
naturally occurring objects or realia, other than those mounted for viewing or packaged for
presentation, and artifacts not intended primarily for communication such as models, dioramas, and
games. In the case of naturally occurring objects other than those mounted for viewing or packaged
for presentation, not even the date is given. But for artifacts, it is given as the first element in this area.
The place and name of manufacture follows, enclosed in parentheses.
Example: The heart [model]. – 1962 (Philadelphia : DCA
Educational Products)
Physical description area
This area is formerly known as the collation, and it consists of four elements.
o Extent of item – This element is expressed in number of units of the item being described and
the material designation.
Examples: 3 filmstrips
1 sound disc
4 microfiches
If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings, and
videorecordings, the duration or running time is given enclosed in parentheses.
Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)
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o Other physical details – The extent or duration is not covered here. This element varies with
form or type of material of the item. Thus for instance in sound recordings or video
recordings, appropriate details about the type of recording, playing speed either in
revolutions per minute (rpm) or unit length per minute (e.g. inches/centimeters per minute,
track configurations, number of sound channels (e.g. mono, stereo, quad.., etc.) and
recording and reproduction characteristics should be given in that order. A filmstrip, on the
other hand, will need indication of sound only if the sound is integral, as well as the color
(col. or b & w).
This element is preceded by a colon, and within it, the items are separated by commas.
Example: 1 sound tape reel (50 mins.) : 1 7/8 ipm., 2 tracks,
mono.
o Dimensions – This would again vary with the form of the materials as diameter for discs
(given in in.), width for filmstrips, motion pictures, or microfilms (given in mm.), width for
videotapes (given in in.), height and width for transparencies, charts, pictures, microfiches,
and slides (given in cm.). This element is preceded by a semi-colon.
o Accompanying materials – Such materials may be in printed formats (e.g. booklet, pamphlet,
guide), or in other formats . Optionally, the physical details of the accompanying material
may be given.
Example: 1 microfilm reel : 16 cm. + 1 pamphlet (20 p. ; ill. ;
28 cm.)
Series area
If applicable, a series statement in parentheses follows the physical description area. The series
area includes the following elements.
o title proper of series
o parallel title
o other title information
o statement of responsibility
o International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
o numbering within series
o subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement of responsibility
o ISSN of subseries
o numbering of subseries
If an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and a subseries, each series is
enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statements may be omitted. However, series statements to
be traced and those which add substantially to an understanding of the catalog record should be listed.
Notes area
Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted into other areas of bibliographic
description. Notes that may be contained in this area vary for different kinds of materials. Notes may
be considered optional in that their inclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described
and the purpose of the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may only
need one or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined into one note.
Some important notes which ought to be given for non-book materials are:
o nature of artistic form of the item
o language, translation, and/or adaptation
o source of title proper
o variations in title
o parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title and statement of
responsibility area)
o statements of responsibility (credits or performers notes; may include additional information
not listed in the title and statement of responsibility area or statements of responsibility not
taken from the chief source of information)
o edition and history
o material specific details
o additional information about publication, distribution, etc.
o additional information concerning physical description, particularly if such information
affects the item‘s use (e.g. notes about system requirements for electronic resources)
o accompanying materials and supplements (if not listed elsewhere)
o additional information about series
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o intended audience
o other formats
o brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another area gives enough
information)
o full or partial contents
o numbers associated with the item other than standard numbers
o peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g. incomplete
holdings, restrictions on use, other formats of the same item available in the library or media
center)
o ―with‖ notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has no collective title)
o information concerning the originality or the reproduction (either reproduction from another
copy or formats, or reproduction to other copies or formats)
The provision of such notes will preclude the unnecessary handling of the material and assist the
reader in his choice of materials through the catalog.
Standard numbers and terms of availability area
This area gives the international standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being
described, if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way they appear in the
materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of the numbers. If two standard numbers
appear on the item, list the one that applies to the item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the
one that applies to the whole item. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is
separated by space-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there are two
standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows each number.
The terms of availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item is available. It is
preceded by a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit price of the item (if the item is for sale),
or a brief statement of other terms (if the item is not for sale). Special terms of availability are also
qualified.
The following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual non-book materials.
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
Tracings
Call
Number Title proper [GMD] = parallel title : other title information / first statement
of responsibility ; subsequent statement of responsibility. – Edition
statement / statement of responsibility relating to edition ; subsequent
statement of responsibility relating to edition. – Material specific details. –
Place of publication : publisher, date of publication (place of manufacture :
name of manufacturer, date of manufacture)
Extent of item : other physical details ; dimensions + accompanying
material. – (Series statement ; numbering within the series)
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
Tracings
––––– –Unit 12
Reference and Information:
Sources and Services
Chapter 41 – Reference and Information Sources
41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types
41.2 Bibliographies
41.3 Library Catalogs
41.4 Indexes and Abstracts
41.5 Encyclopedias
41.6 Dictionaries and Thesauri
41.7 Compendiums – Almanacs and Yearbooks/Annuals
41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals
41.9 Concordances
41.10 Directories
41.11 Biographical Information Sources
41.12 Geographical Information Sources
41.13 Serials
41.14 Government Publications
41.15 Company and Trade Literature
41.16 Technical Information Sources
41.18 Dissertations and Theses
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To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in nonprint format, when one of the following is
known:
a. The author
b. The title
c. The subject
1. To show what the library has
d. By a given author
e. On a given and related subjects
f. In a given kind of literature
2. To assist in the choice of a work
g. As to the bibliographic edition
h. As to its character (literary or topical)
The preparation of entries for a library catalog (called cataloging) is performed by a librarian known as a
cataloger. Particulars about library catalogs and aspects of cataloging are already covered in the previous chapters.
41.4 Indexes and Abstracts
An index is a tool used to locate information in a document or in a group of documents. It is an
alphabetically arranged list of headings consisting of the personal names, places, and subjects treated in a written
work, with directional indicators (page numbers or some other sort) to refer the reader to the point in the text at
which information pertaining to the heading is found. In single-volume works of reference and nonfiction, any
indexes appear at the end of the back matter. In a multi-volume work, they are found at the end of the last volume.
In very large multivolume reference works (such as encyclopedias), the last volume may be devoted entirely to
indexes.
Works of fiction are rarely indexed. The publisher of a periodical may provide an index to each volume at
the end of the last issue of the publication year. For best results, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.
Index also refers to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic field or discipline (e.g.
Philosopher's Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g. Biography Index) or published in a specific format
(e.g. Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g. New York
Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterly paperback supplements, cumulated
annually. Citations are usually listed by author and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence
under a system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary, developed over time by the
indexing service. I
An abstract is somehow the same as an index. However, it has a brief, objective summary of the essential
content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, or other works, presenting the main points in the same order
as the original but with no independent literary value. An abstract can be indicative, informative, critical, or written
from a particular point of view (slanted).
41.5 Encyclopedias
An encyclopedia is a book or numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information about
a variety of topics in the form of short essays, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or classified in some
manner. The term encyclopedia is derived from the Greek word (derived from Greek enkyklios paideia (all-
embracing education).
The encyclopedia is an effort to bring together information from all branches of knowledge or from a
single subject area and arrange it in an alphabetical order for ready reference. An entry may be signed or unsigned,
with or without illustration or a list of references for further reading. Headwords and text are usually revised
periodically for publication in a new edition. In a multivolume encyclopedia, any indexes are usually located at the
end of the last volume.
Encyclopedias may be general (e.g. Encyclopedia Americana) or specialized, usually by subject (e.g.
Encyclopedia of Bad Taste) or discipline (e.g. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science).
The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the Historia Naturalis (Natural History, c. ad 79) of Pliny the
Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science. Another encyclopedic work held in great esteem for many centuries
is the Etymologiarum, seu Originum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in 623 by the
Spanish ecclesiastic and scholar Isidore of Seville. The modern encyclopedia began with the 21-volume
Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, compiled and edited by Denis
Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment (Cornell
University Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of the first formats to include multimedia and
interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia).
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There are many companies who are responsible in publishing encyclopedias. Among them are the
following:
Encyclopedia Britanica Educational Corp.
World Book International
Grolier, Inc.
Macmillan Educational Corp.
Funk & Wagnalls
Encyclopedias can be grouped according to the following categories. Each group enumerates a few
famous titles.
Adult encyclopedias
The New Encyclopedia Britanica
(familiarly known as Britannica 3, which consisted of three parts – Propaedia, which outlines the
―circle of modern knowledge‖; Micropaedia with contains ready reference entries; and
Macropaedia, which contains longer articles offering ―knowledge in depth‖)
The Encyclopedia Americana
Popular adult and high school sets
Academic American Encyclopedia
Collier‘s Encyclopedia
Funk & Wagnall‘s New Encyclopedia
Juvenile and young adults‘ Encyclopedia
World Book Encyclopedia
Merit Students Encyclopedia
Compton‘s Encyclopedia and Fact Index
Compton‘s Picture Encyclopedia
Oxford Children‘s Encyclopedia
New Book of Knowledge
Children‘s Britanica
One-volume encyclopedias
Concise Columbia Encyclopedia
The Cambridge Encyclopedia
The Random House Encyclopedia
Foreign published encyclopedias
Grand Dictionaire Encyclopedique Larousse (French)
Brockhaus Enzyklopadie (German)
Enciclopedia Europea (Italian)
Encyclopedia Italiana
Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan
The Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana – Espasa (Spanish)
Subject specific encyclopedias
International Encyclopedia of Information Library Science
Encyclopedia of Philippine Art
Encyclopedia of Social Work
Non-print encyclopedias
Academic American Encyclopedia Online
(first online encyclopedia)
Grolier Encyclopedia (in CD)
(first encyclopedia in CD-ROM format)
Compton‘s MultiMedia Encyclopedia
(first multimedia encyclopedia)
Microsoft Encarta
(multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM based initially on text published in the 29-volume Funk
& Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)
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map, historical map, location map, pictorial map, political map, road map, schematic map, thematic
map, topographic map, world map, etc.).
An atlas is a collection almost entirely of maps. Traditionally, atlases have been collections of maps
about related themes with most of the maps on a common scale. Most, but not all of them, have the
maps bound together in a book.
A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe (spherical map of the earth) is
the only true cartographic representation of the Earth and possesses several advantages over flat maps:
distances, directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A celestial globe (spherical map of the
sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre in showing the positions of the stars.
A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary in which political and physical features of the Earth, such as
countries, cities, rivers, and mountains, are listed alphabetically, and some information, usually
descriptive and statistical, is given about them.
A travel guidebook is a handbook that provides useful current information for travelers to a city, state,
region, country, or other geographic area or for visitors to a museum, park, historical site, etc.
Maps and atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect of geographic interest. Such
interest may be historical, economic, political, and related matters which may be shown graphically in a map.
The following is a classified list of some titles of geographical information sources.
Major-size world atlases
Time Atlas of the World (London: Times Newspaper)
The New York Times Atlas of the World
The New International Atlas (Rand McNally)
Intermediate to small-scale atlases
Gold Medallion World Atlas
Citation World Atlas
National Geographic Atlas
Ran McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas
Thematic atlases
The Times Atlas of World History
William Shepherd‘s Historical Atlas
Rand McNally World Atlas of History
41.13 Serials
Serials are publications in any medium (print, electronic, micro-format, etc.) issued under the same title in
a succession of discrete parts, bearing numerical or chronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular
intervals with no predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type of continuing resource.
The serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following.
Periodicals – a serial appearing or intended to appear indefinitely at regular or stated intervals,
generally more frequently than annually, each of which is numbered or dated consecutively and
normally contains separate articles, stories, or other writings.
Magazine – a periodical for general reading containing articles on various subjects by different
authors.
Journal – a periodical, especially one containing scholarly articles and/or disseminating current
information on research and development in a particular subject field.
Monographic series (series) – a group of separate bibliographic items related to one another by the
fact that each item bears, in addition to its own title proper, a collective title applying to the group
as a whole.
Conference proceedings – considered as serials if they have the same name and are differentiated only
by number, place, and date, and the titles proper of the publications themselves must vary only
slightly, if at all.
Annual (report, yearbook, etc). – a publication issued yearly.
Continuing directories – any directory that is being published into successions to be continued
indefinitely.
Newsletter – a printed report or letter containing news of interest to a particular group, for example
the members of a society or employees of an organization, circulated to them periodically.
The following is a listing of some bibliographic materials and databases for serials.
Ulrich‘s International Periodical Directory (R.R. Bowker)
The Serials Directory (EBSCO)
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They can also be located in the WorldCat database in OCLC FirstSearch. For digital theses, scan be accessed
through Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD).
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material needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian, the information needed by
the user is delivered through any of the different channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail,
postal service, etc.).
Answering research questions
Research questions are the most complex in nature compared to the other types of queries. It
entails a systematic, painstaking investigation of a topic, or in a field of study, often employing
hypothesis and experimentation, undertaken by a person intent on revealing new facts, theories, or
principles, or determining the current state of knowledge of the subject. The reference librarian does
not really conduct the research himself/herself, but provides the researcher useful information for the
completion of the research work.
Current awareness service
This service is designed to keep library users aware of new materials acquires, new services, or
any other developments in the library. This can be through public bulletin, library publication, or any
other possible means.
Selective dissemination of information (SDI)
This is a customized service offered most frequently to researches in academic or special
libraries. This aims to review newly available documents and select most relevant items to the needs
of an individual or group and recording them so that notification may be sent to them. A library that
offers this type of service maintains records of users‘ profiles (description of users‘ needs and interest,
usually transcribed in machine-readable form) and document records (description of the materials in
machine-readable form). Through these records, the reference librarian determines the hit – the
positive matching of a user‘s and document‘s discipline.
Database searches
The library may allow the user to search databases available for access in the library. There are
two basic types of library databases.
1. Bibliographic databases contain data on how to identify and access the appropriate material
that can help the user. These are generally the machine-readable form of indexes, abstracts,
and catalogs.
2. Non-bibliographic databases are a variety of databases distinguished from bibliographic
databases by content, style, and format.
a. Full text databases – The base record in these databases is the full paper, document, or
article itself, with the associated bibliographic information rather than a citation to a
paper or other documents located outside the database.
b. Numeric databases – The base record in such databases are statistical tables, along with
the citation to the printed counterpart from which these table have been drawn.
c. Graphics databases – The key element in the base records here are in graphic
representations.
d. Directory/addresses databases – In such databases, the base record is a name, address,
and telephone number. Business directories have additional information related to
business activities, employees, etc. in their base records.
Nowadays, information is considered by many as a commodity that can be bought, sold, and traded for
gain. People who deal with specific problems to come up with citations and documents which will aid the user in
the solution of a problem are known as information brokers. Their services is usually for a fee.
42.4 Instructional Services
There are several means of giving instructional service to library users. These include the following.
Library orientation
According to James Rice, this is the first level of giving instructional services to library users. It
comprises service activities designed to welcome and introduce users and potential users to library
services, collection building layout, as well as the organization of materials.
Library instruction
Considered as the 2nd level in instructional services, this aims to give instructions in the use of
libraries with an emphasis on institution-specific procedures, collections, and policies. It concentrates
on tools and mechanics, including techniques in using periodical indexes, reference sources, card and
online catalogs, and bibliographies.
Bibliographic instruction (BI)
This is any activity designed to teach users how to locate information they need. In contrast to
library instruction, it goes beyond the physical boundaries of the library and beyond institution-
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soecific confines. Bibliographic instruction intends to teach principles of information organization and
retrieval to provide learners with the knowledge to function in a broad range of information situations
and environments.
Information management education
This term emerged from medical librarianship in the 1980s. It refers to instructing the users in the
identification, retrieval, evaluation, and use of information. This education demands that librarians
depart from their traditional roles as mere providers of information, by instructing users how to use
and manage information.
42.5 Guidance
The following are varied types of services that aim to advise and assist users in the identification and
selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic or subject,
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directories
biographical information sources
indexes
electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats)
networks and online resources (consortia and online databases)
43.2 Encyclopedias and Other Multivolume Works
The following encyclopedias and multivolume Filipiniana reference sources are listed chronologically,
dating back from 1903 up to 2001.
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 … (translated from the originals, edited and annotated by Emma
H. Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with historical introduction and additional notes by
Edward Gaylord Bourn. Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903-1909. 55 v.)
This multi-volume work encapsulates the following topics, which date back 1493.
explorations by early navigators
description of the islands and their early people
history and record of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and
manuscripts
political, economic, commercial, and religious conditions of early Philippine islands from
their earliest European relations up to the early 19th century.
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Eloquence: a Complete Collection of the Masterpieces and Notable
Addresses of the Foremost Living Orators of the Philippines (Andres R Casamura, publisher and
editor; Venancio S. Duque, associate editor. Manila: The Philippine Encyclopedia, [1936]. 431 p.)
This contains the oratorical pieces and addresses of notable Filipinos who lived at the time of its
publication.
Encyclopedia of the Philippines (Zoilo Galang, ed. 3rd ed. Manila: Exequiel Floro [Printed by
McCullough Printing, 1950-1958]. 20 v.
This is actually a collection of materials written by various authors on different subjects arranged
by subject. It lacks a comprehensive index but has a simplified index which reproduces the table of
contents and list of illustrations of every volume. The volumes contain topics on the following
subject.
Volume 1-2 – Literature
Volume 3-4 – Biography
Volume 5-6 – Commerce and industry
Volume 7-8 – Art
Volume 9 – Education
Volume 10 – Religion
Volume 11-12 – Government and politics
Volume 13-14 – Science
Volume 15-16 – History
Volume 17-18 – Builders
Volume 19-20 – General information; Index
Philippine Encyclopedia of Law and Jurisprudence: … (Pedro A. Venida. Quezon City: JMC Press,
1975-
This work is a comprehensive and cyclopedic compilation of all coden cases and commentaries
from Philippine, Spanish, and Anglo-American sources containing all important laws and pertinent
decisions, published and un published, of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, from August 8, 1901
to December 31, 1968, with the annual supplements thereafter, and important decisions of the Court
of Appeals alphabetically arranged for easy-searching and easy-going research. (This information
encapsulates the additional title information of this publication.)
The Wonderful World of Women: a Mini Encyclopedia (Lolita R. Lizano. Quezon City: New Bay,
c1976. 285 p.)
This mini-encyclopedia is a useful reference for solutions to problems pertaining to personal
beauty, child care and development, food, and home management. It has an index.
Filipino Heritage: the Making of the Nation ([edited by] Alfredo Roces. Quezon City: Lahing
Pilipino Pub., 1977-. 10 v.)
The contents of this work are divided into three basic periods.
Volume 1-3 – Prehistory (stone age, metal age, and age of trade and contacts)
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Volume 4-7 – Spanish period (from the colonization by Legaspi to the founding of the
Katipunan)
Volume 8-9– Narration of the various armed struggles against Spain and the US, the peaceful
political; struggle , followed by World War II, until the gaining of Philippine Independence
in 1946.
Volume 10 – Index
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman. Manila: Philippine
Association of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.)
The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of the purpose and function of social work
profession. It is divided into five parts.
Part 1 – consists of 60 articles on social work, social welfare, and other related topics
Part 2 – compendium of social statistics for development planning
Part 3 – directory of facilities and resources
Part 4 – overview of 14 international organizations on social welfare in the Philippines
Part 5 – glossary, which is a compilation of technical terms commonly used by social
workers
Sports Encyclopedia (Manila: M.A.K, c1978. 76 p.)
This fully illustrated work lists 17 priority sports and games profounded by different
agencies/associations on Philippine sports. Sports are presented by type or classification: indigenous
sports, individual sports, individual sports with weight classification, and team sports. Rules and
regulations on sports are included.
Bayang Magiliw: ang Pilipinas at ang Mamamayang Pilipino: Gabay sa Mag-aaral (Quezon City:
Instructional Materials, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, 1986. 2 v.)
This work deals on our country‘s people, geography, history, culture, economy, and political and
social institutions. The 4,000 entries are based on knowledge and events up to 1986, arranged
according to the Filipino alphabet.
Philippine Legal Encyclopedia (Jose Agaton Sibal. Quezon City: Central Lawbook, c1986. 1187 p.)
Philippine Science Encyclopedia (National Research Council of the Philippines. Bicutan, Taguig:
NRCP, [198-]-1986. 8 v.)
Considered as the first of its kind in the country and the biggest project of the NRCP in its more
than 50 years of existence, the eight-volume set covers these broad subjects/divisions.
Volume 1 – Governmental, educational, and international policies
Volume 2 – Physical and mathematical sciences
Volume 3 – Medical science
Volume 4 – Chemical and pharmaceutical science
Volume 5 – Biological; science
Volume 6 – Agriculture and forestry
Volume 7 – Engineering industrial research
Volume 8 – Social science.
Each division has a project leader, usually the chairman of the division, a number of contributors,
and an editor or editors.
Documentary Sources of Philippine History (compiled, edited, and arranged by Gregorio F. Zayde.
Manila: National Book Store, 1990. 12 v.)
This 12-volume monumental work contains a total of 725 historical documents. The first
document is ―A.D 982: First Authentic Date in Sino-Philippine Relation‖, and the last document is
―The 1986 Constitution of the Philippines‖. It is arranged according to the dates when the dates
occurred or when they were written or published.
Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (compiled and edited by Francisco R.
Demetrio, assisted by Marcelino B. Panis, Jr. … [et. al.]. Enl. and rev. ed. Cagayan de Oro City:
Xavier University, c1991. 2 v.)
This is a revised and enlarged edition of the four-volume encyclopedia published in 1970. The
encyclopedia puts together the folk beliefs and customs from published works or field works from
1967 to 1987. It consists of 25 chapters numbered sequentially. Volume 1 has 20 chapters covering
actions, amulets and talismans, animals, aswangs or witches, birth, death, direction, diseases and
sicknesses, engkantos and spirits, and feasts and celebrations. It has an appendix on the distribution of
folk beliefs and customs from the different provinces. References included published and unpublished
works. The index is by chapter, alphabetically arranged by subject or topic.
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about diamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips, selected words for scrabble, Christmas
songs, the Philippine National Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly used abbreviations.
Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited by Carolina Elayda. Antipolo,
Rizal: Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205 p.)
This work is divided into three parts.
Part 1 – Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, which claims to be the in Philippine
herbology
Part 2 – Compilation of excerpts from the author‘s ―Philippine Herbal Medicine‖ (with
version in Filipino) which includes sketches of Philippine indigenous plants
Part 3 – Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbal plants with their scientific
names and sketches
Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: Asia Publishing Co. Ltd., c1998.
10 v.)
This work is claimed as ―a comprehensive, readable, and reliable history of the Filipino people‖,
because each volume is written by one or more of the country‘s most authoritative experts in the field.
There is an index and a list of all sources at the end of each volume. The 10 th volume is a general
glossary. The following are the titles of each volume with their respective authors.
Volume 1 – The Philippine archipelago / Raymundo S. Punongbayan, Precillano S. Zamora,
[and] Perry S. Ong
Volume 2 – The earliest Filipinos / Fr. Gabriel Casol, Eusebio Z. Dizon, Wilfredo P.
Ronquillo, [and] Cecilio S. Salcedo
Volume 3 – The Spanish conquest / Jose S. Arcillo, SJ
Volume 4 – The life in the colony / Maria Serena I. Diokno [and] Ramon N. Villegas
Volume 5 – Reform and revolution / Milagros C. Guerrero [and] John N. Schumacher
Volume 6 – Under stars and stripes / Milagros C. Guerrero
Volume 7 – The Japanese occupation / Ricardo T. Jose
Volume 8 – Up from the ashes / Ma. Serena I. Diokno
Volume 9 – A nation reborn / Alexander R. Magno
Volume 10 – A timeline of Philippine history / Henry S. Totanes, research editor
(The timeline starts from the formation of planet Earth 4.5 billion years before prehistory and
ends with February 25, 1986, the date when former President Corazon C. Aquino took her
oath of office as duly elected President of the Philippines.)
Encyclopedia of Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Jerry Keenan. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC CLIO., c2001. xxxii, 467 p.)
This work provides basic information about the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars
ranging from names, dates, and summaries of the significant events related to those wars. Entries are
arranged alphabetically; however, there is a chronology of events from October 10, 1868 to April 7,
1903. It has a bibliography and an index.
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New Vcassan’s English-Pilipino Dictionary (by Vito C. Santos and Luningning E. Santos, with
a foreword by Bro. Andrew B. Gonzales and introduction by Jovito R. Salonga. Pasig, Metrro
Manila: Anvil Pub., c1995. 1603 p.)
My Travel Companion in the Philippines (Amado M. Calderon. Quezon City: [Printed by
Nazarene Printers], 1996. 217 p.)
Diksiyonaryong Hiligaynon-Filipino (Ruby G. Alcantara. Lungsod Quezon: Sentro ng Wikang
Pilipino, Office of Research Coordination, U.P., c1997. 538 p.)
New Japanese-English-Pilipino Dictionary (compiled by Julio F. Silverio. Metro Manila:
National Book Store, c1997.)
Gabby’s Practical English-Filipino Dictionary (compiled, translated, computerized, and edited
by Luciano Linsangan Gabby. Quezon City: Milmar Soyuz Trading, c1999. 1 v.)
A Contemporary English-Filipino Dictionary (Ernesto A. Constantino. Quezon City: Cecilio
Lopez Archives of the Philippines and the Department of Linguistics-CSSP, UP Diliman, c1999.
500 p.)
Diksiyonaryong Filipino Filipino 2000 ([Maynila]: Sangay ng mga Paaralang Lungsod, [2000].
481 p.)
The New ISP Webster Philippine’s Comprehensive Dictionary (International encyclopedia ed.
[s. l.]: Kimball Enterprise, c2001. 476 [377] p.)
UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino (Virgilio S. Almario, punong editor. Quezon City: Sentro ng
Wikang Filipino, UP Diliman, c2001. 961 p.)
Itbayat-English Dictionary (compiled by Yukihiro Yamada. Kyoto: Nakamishi Printing Co.,
2002. 314 p.)
Subject dictionaries
Philippine Labor Dictionary (Romeo V. Isidro. Manila: National Book Store, 1966. 113 p.)
A Dictionary of International Law and Diplomacy (Melquiades L. Gamboa. Quezon City:
Central Law Books Pub., 1973. 351 p.)
Dictionary on Jose Rizal’s Thoughts, Teachings, Principles (arranged and edited by Diosdado
G. Capino. Quezon City: Philippine Education Co., c1979. 383 p.)
Dictionary of Business and Economic Terms (Bernardo M. Villegas [and] Ramon Quesada.
Manila: Sinagtala Pub., c1988. 204 p.)
Tagalog Slang Dictionary (compiled by R. David Zorc and Rachel San Miguel. Manila: De La
Salle University, 1993. 164 p.)
Plant World of the Philippines: an Illustrated Dictionary of Visayan Plant names With Their
Scientific, Tagalog, and English Equivalents Franz Seidenschwarz. Cebu City: University of
San Carlos, 1994. 368 p.)
A Dictionary of Tagalog Slang and Expressions (Rosario P. Pacheco. Quezon City: Rex Book
Store, c1996.)
INNERTAP-PNN Thesaurus on Energy (editors and compilers, Evangeline J. Adventurado,
Jose Edmund P. Fajardo. Quezon City: PNOC-EDC Energy Research and Development Center,
1998. 55 p.)
The University of the Philippines Cultural Dictionary for Filipinos (Thelma B. Kintanar and
associates, foreword and overview of Jose V. Abueva. Quezon City: UP Press [and] Anvil Pub.,
1996. 1022 p.)
The Dictionary of Values (by Tomas Andres. Quezon City: Giraffe Books, c2000. 166 p.)
A Guide to Commonly Used Chemistry Terms (compiled and edited by Victoria L. Magtangol.
Quezon City: Great Books Trading, 2000. 150 p.)
Tumbasang Diksiyonaryo ng mga Katagang Pangmilitar – Ingles, Filipino, Cebuano,
Hiligaynon, Maranao, Tausug, Maguindanao (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino. Iligan City:
Iligan Institute of Technology, 2000. 383 p.)
Booklet of Idioms (compiled and arranged by Rogelio S. Olina. 2001 ed. Cebu City: RSO
Trading, c2001. 104 p.)
A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names (by Soming A. Madulid. Makati City: Bookmark,
c2001. 2 v.)
Bokabularyong Traylingual: Maranao, Filipino, Ingles (Manila: Komisyon ng Wikang
Filipino, 2003. 132 p.)
Learn to Speak Japanese, English, Filipino (Paz M. Belvez. Manila: Rex Book Store, c2003.
143 p.)
Dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms
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Fighting sexual Harassment in the Bureaucracy: a Manual (Manila: Civil service Commission,
2002. 105 p.)
A Handbook on Medical Services (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government,
c2002. 235 p.)
Tatu: a Guide on Tattoos and Body Pierces (Manila: Remedios AIDS Foundation, c2002. 132
p.)
Creative non-Fiction: a Manual for Filipino Writers (Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo. Quezon City:
University of the Philippines Press, 2003. 202 p.)
Guidebook on Monitoring and Evaluation of Programmes/Projects (Cesar M. Mercado.
Quezon City: Development Consultants for Asia-Africa-Pacific, [2003?]. 109 leaves.)
Handbook on Colleges and Universities (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government,
c2003. 304 leaves.)
Philippine Migration Journalism: a Practical Handbook ([edited by] Paulyn P. Sicam. Quezon
City: Institute of Church and Social Issues, Overseas Filipino Workers Consortium, 2003. 199 p.)
43.5 Geographical Information Sources
This genre of Filipiniana reference sources consist of maps, atlases, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks.
Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islanda, United States of
America, with maps, charts, and illustrations (prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Insular
Department (September 30, 1900). Washington: Government Printing Office, 1902. 933 p.)
Gazetteer to Maps of Philippine Islands, Map Series AMS S401 second edition, scales 1:500,000
(Washington: Army Services, 1944. 239 p.)
The Philippine Atlas (Fund for Assistance to Private Education. Manila: FAPE, 1975. 2 v.)
Dining Guide to Manila’s Best Restaurants (edited by Rafael Ma. Guerrero and Greg V. Trinidad.
Makati: Hotel and Restaurant Associations of the Philippines, in cooperation with the Ministry of
Toruism and Philippine Airlines, 1986. 88 p.)
Guidebook to Museums of Metro Manila (text and project coordination by Regalado Trota Jose.
Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1988. 115 p.)
Guidebook to Museums of Mindanao (text and project coordination by Francisco Demetrio, S.J..
Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1991. 85 p.)
Metro Manila Motorists Commercial Guide (Makati, Metro Manila: Philippine Motorists Guide,
1991. [232] p.)
1993-1994 Metro Manila Citiguide: the Super Detailed Atlas of Metro Manila (Rev. advance ed.
Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Citiguide, [1993-]. 2 v.)
This atlas contains 160 maps, 498 tabular data, figures, and textural write-ups covering the
Philippines and its 12 regions. Volume 1 presents the National Summary of the entire Philippines and
Regions 1-5. Volume 2 covers Regions 6-12. Carefully given in details are the following data.
administrative boundary maps
legal bases of provinces and cities
maps on climate
maps on soil
maps on slope
maps on mineral resources
surface hydrology
fisheries
population density
vegetation
land classification
Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: Manila Philippine Guide, Inc.,
1997-1998. 235 p.)
This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13 cities and 34 towns of Metro
Manila.
Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced by the Environmental
Center of the Philippines Foundation in cooperation with the DENR; edited by Gregorio Loarca
Magdaraog. Quezon City: ECPF, 1998. 395 p.)
This atlas presents the natural and socio-anthropological history of the Philippines. It is divided
into nine (9) chapters. The first chapter defines what an atlas is, gives background information on
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maps and map-making, identifies uses of maps, and gives an overview of the succeeding chapters.
The topics in the next eight chapters are contributed by experts on the field of the subtopics covered.
The Philippine Atlas (Manila: The Philippine Guides, Inc., c1998. 216 p.)
This reference provides basic facts and figures about the country and profiles of the 16 regions
and 78 provinces of the archipelago. It also features special events in Philippine history,
commemorating the first 100 years of Philippine independence. Maps are printed in color.
E-Z Philippine Travel Atlas (Ken Buchanan. Angeles City: United Tourist Promotion, c1999, 2000.
105 p.)
This is the first comprehensive atlas covering all parts of the nation. The accompanying text and
directory provides information about foods, accommodation, shopping, nightlife, major attractions,
and recreational activities.
Citiatlas Metro Manila (Mandaluyong City: Asia Type, Inc., c2000, 118 p.)
This atlas features streets and landmarks in Metro Manila. It includes subdivisions, bridges, major
buildings, churches, hospitals, and malls. It has an alphabetical general index of areas.
The Ins and Outs of Metro Manila: Street and Building Guide (Corazon de Jesus. Bacoor, Cavite:
Philippine Guide, Inc., 2003.)
This work features more than 5,000 buildings and landmarks, 142 sectional maps of Metro
Manila, 32 detailed maps, and commercial centers.
43.6 Directories
The following directory titles cover a wide range of subject areas about the Philippines.
Cornejo’s Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines (Encyclopedic ed. Manila: M.R. Cornejo,
[1918-?].)
Directory of Libraries in the Philippines (edited by Marina G. Dayrit, [et. al.]. Diliman, Quezon City:
U.P. Library, c1973. 131 p.}
Directory of Publishers and Printers (compiled by Iluminada A. Del Rosario. Manila: Bibliography
Division, TNL, 1978. 86 leaves.)
Philippine Directory of Financial Institutions (Manila: Sinag-Tala, c1979-.)
Directory of Librarians in Southeast Asia (Marina G. Dayrit, editor. Quezon City: Published for the
Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries by the U.P. Library, 1980. 140 p.)
Directory of Librarians in the Philippines (editors: Eleanor G. Arriola, Corazon M. Nera. [Manila]:
Philippine Library Association, 1980. 114 p.)
A Directory of Linguists and Language Education Specialists in the Philippines (compiled by
Andrew Gonzales, Arlene Matocinos. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1981. 133
leaves.)
Metro Cebu Business Directory (compiled and edited by Research Library and Information Division,
National Research Council of the Philippines; Romeo F. Abarquez, project leader. Taguig: NRCP,
[1982?]. 260 p.)
Directory of Resource Agencies for Philippine NGOs (Rev. ed. Makati: PHILDHRRA, c1988. 62 p.)
The New ZIP Code Directory of the Philippines (Manila: Pride Pub., 1988. 32p.)
Philippine Computer Directory (Quezon City: Computer Connection, 1988.)
Directory of Philippine NGOs (Manila: Philippine Partnership for the Development of Human
Resource in Rural Areas, 1988. 144 p.)
The Philippine Congress, 1987-1992. (Manila: Executive Computech Pub., 1988. 387 p.)
A Directory of Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Samahang Nayons, Associations, and Federations
(Quezon City: Cooperative Foundations Philippines, c1989.)
Philippine Government Directory (Manila: Diplomatic Post, 1989-.)
Women Research Directory (Manila: National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, c1989.
246 p.)
Directory of Government-Developed Software (Quezon City: Information Technology Resource
Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1990-.)
Directory of Information Technology Specialists in the Government (Quezon City: IT Resources
Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1991. 150 p.)
Philippine Manufacturers Directory (Manila: Pacific Pub. House, c1991-.)
Directory of Specialists (Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private Education, c1992. 331 p.)
Philippine Company Profiles (Michael G. Say, editor/publisher. Manila: The Mahal Kong Pilipinas
Foundation, c1987-1993.)
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Philippine Fax Directory (1993-1994 ed. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas, Inc. 199-.)
Media Directory of the Philiuppines (Makati: Diplomat Post Pub., c1995.)
Special Libraries and Information Centers (Manila: ASLP, c1995.)
Philippine Export Directory, 1996 (Makati: Pacific Trade Media Publications, c199-.)
Katutubo Directory (Manila: Global Indigenous Cultural Olympics Summit (GICOS), [1996?]. 110
p.)
Philippine Construction Directory, 1997 (Makati City: Pacific Trade Publications, [1997]. 238 p.)
Philippine Electronics Guide (1997 ed. Makati City: Belgosa Business Publications, Inc., 1997.)
2000 NBDB Directory of Registrants as of June 15, 2000 (Manila: National Book Development
Board, 2000. 243 p.)
Directory of Licensed Librarians in the Philippines (compiled and edited by Dante O. Perez. makati
City: LISCO multi-Purpose Cooperative, 2002. 361 p.)
43.7 Biographical Information Sources
The following is a chronological listing of biographical information sources.
Directorio Biographico Filipino (ed. P. Reyes. Manila: Imp. y Litografia ―Germania‖ Alix, 1908. 59
p.)
This is a compilation of biographies of famous Filipinos who lived in the 19 th century. Among
those included are Mariano Abella, Macario Adriatico, Cayetano Arellano, Sergio Osmeňa, Felipe
Calderon, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Jose I. Paterno.
Builders of a Nation: Series of Biographical Sketches (Morilla M. Norton. Manila: 1914. 266 p.)
Featured in this work is a collection of biographies of the leading figures in the Philippines at
their time. It includes writings of Mariano Ponce about the Philippines,; Epifanio de los Santos on
literature; Gregorio Nieva on the Philippine assembly; and Austin Craig on the history of the
University of the Philippines.
Galeria de Filipnos Ilustres: Biografias a Cantor Desde los Primeraos Tiempos de la Dominacion
Hispana, de los Hijos Pais que en sus Respectivas Profesiones Descollaron a Hayan Alconzado
algun Puesto de Distincion en Sociedad (Manuel Artigas y Cuerva. Manila: Imp. Casa Editora
Renacimiento, 1917-18. 178 p.)
This work showcases an alphabetic biographical sketches of Filipinos who have excelled in their
respective professions from the Spanish times to the early 1900s.
Sons of the Philippine Revolution: Lives and Memoirs (Rafael C. Londres; foreword by E. Finley
Johnson. Manila: National Federation of Filipino Teachers, [1923], 178 p.)
This reference is divided into three parts.
Part 1 – The government of the revolution
Part 2 – Biographical sketches
Part 3 – Rise and fall of the Philippine Republic (by Apolinatio Mabini)
Who’s Who in the Philippines (Rodrigo C. Lim. Manila: Claudio Nera, [c1929]. 213 p.)
This is a compilation of biographies, with portraits of successful men and women of the
Philippines at that time.
Who’s Who in the Philippines (ed. by Rodrigo C. Lim. Chinese ed. Manila: U,P, Press, 1930. 212 p.)
These are biographies of over 100 Chinese residents in the Philippines grouped under Manila,
Cebu, Iloilo, etc., with the oldest and/or most important persona presented first.
Men of the Philippines (George F. Nellist. Manila: Sugar News Co., 1931.)
This work is patterned under ―Men of Hawaii‖, and contains biographies and portraits of many
individuals, who, through thei personal and community efforts, have contributed to the material and
cultural advancement of the Philippines.
Leaders of the Philippines: Inspiring Biographies of Successful Men and Women of the
Philippines Zoilo M. Galang. Manila: National Pub., 1932. 324 p.)
This provides original biographies and portraits of people who have led colorful and successful
lives. It includes officials of the government from the Governor-General down to the municipal
officials and other persons who have contributed to the development of the Philippines.
Who’s Who in the Philippines: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men of the Philippine
Islands (Franz J. Weisblatt. Manila: McCollough Printing, 1937. 2 v.)
This work contains biographies of notable living men in the Philippines, including foreigners,
before World War II. It gives general information and statistics about the Philippines.
The Philper :or Philippine Personalities and Other Features ([Manila: Melicor Enterprise, 1947-.)
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This consists of biographical sketches of Philippine personalities in the government from Manuel
Roxas to the various congressmen. It includes inspirational verses, stories, esays, and anecdotes.
Masonic Personalities (Mauro Baradi. Manila: Villamanr Pub., 1952. 147 p.)
This is a collection of the author‘s editorials published in ―Cable Tow‖, the official organ of The
Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands. It contains
biographical sketches of men who served the fraternity and the country.
Men of Destiny (Alejandro P. Capitulo. Manila: 1953?.)
This work was serialized daily in 1953 by ―The Manila Chronicle‖. It provides biographies of
famous men and women all over the world.
Dictionary of Philippine Biography (Espiridion Arsenio Manuel. Quezon City: Filipiniana
Publications, 1955-.)
This is a dictionary of biographical sketches of deceased men and women who have made
significant contributions to Philippine life and progress. The information includes names, tes of birth,
parentage, occupation and distinction of ancestors, education, activities, family data, and bibliography
of works. Each volume has a separate name and subject index.
Philippines Who’s Who (Isidro L. Retizos and D.H. Soriano. Quezon City: Capitol Pub. House,
[c1957]. 327 p.)
This is a collection of 400 living Filipinos and members of the foreign community.
Tableau: Encyclopedia of Distinguished Personalities in the Philippines (Ed Godofredo Jacinto, et.
al. Manila: National Souvenir Pub., 1957. 658 p.)
This work features biographical sketches and portraits of eminent Filipinos of the age. It has two
parts – The first lists the pioneers, while the second gives the personalities.
Our Presidents: Profiles in History (Jesus V. Merritt. Manila: Filipino Pub. Co., c1962. 126 p.)
This work gives information about the personal and political lives of Philippine presidents from
Quezon to Macapagal. It includes articles about the presidents, their letters, speeches, messages, and
administrative and executive orders which marks the highlights of their administration.
The Philippine Presidents from Aguinaldo to Marcos: Their Lives and Messages (Eufronio M. Alip.
New rev. ed. Manila: Alip and Sons, 1967. 156 p.)
This contains a compilation of the inaugural addresses of the Philippine presidents together with
their short biographical sketches, the country‘s condition during their times, as well as problems and
their corresponding solotions.
Eminent Filipinos ([by] Hector K. Villegas [and others]. Manila: 1965. 294 p.)
This work compiles biographical sketches of men and women who became prominent during
their time because of their significant contributions to the country through their respective
professions. It starts with Jose Abad Santos and ends with Clemente Zulueta.
Know Them: a Book of Biographies (Wilfredo P. Valenzuela, editor. Manila: Dotela Pub., 1966. 236
p.)
This is composed of biographies of Jose Rizal and government officials from the president down
to the congressmen before 1966.
Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding Filipino Women of the Past and the
Present (Jovita Varias de Guzman, [et. al.]. [Manila: Bukang Liwayway, c1967] 243 p.)
This contains biographical essays of Filipino women who have shown heroism and leadership in
their chosen professions and have had outstanding achievements worthy of emulation by every
Filipino.
Great Filipinos in History: and Epic of Filipino Greatness in War and Peace (Gregorio F. Zayde.
Manila: Verde Book Store, 1970. 675 p.)
This reference has biographies of Filipino men and women who in time of war have demonstrated
their courage and love of country as well as Filipinos who in time of peace have contributed
significantly to the growth and development of the country through their respective professions or
areas of specializations. Some entries include photographs.
The Outstanding Leaders of the Philippines 1980 (Manila: Asia research Systems. c1980)
This gives brief but comprehensive information about the leading figures from the upper echelons
of the government, business, industry, and the professions at the time of its publication. It includes the
portraits of featured persons.
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Filipino Women Writers and Their Works (Manila: National Centennial Commission – Women
sector, Task force for the Librarians Group, c1999. 574 p.)
This is the fourth of a centennial series of five volumes on Filipino women. This work highlights
the lives of 520 Filipino women from varied fields who have led exemplary lives as evidenced by
their outstanding achievements and roles in our history and nation building.
Liping Kabitenyo: Talambuhay ng mga Kilala at Di-kilalang Kabitenyo (tinipon at isinalin sa
Filipino ni Emanuel Franco Calairo. Dasmariňas, Cavite: Cavite Studies Center, De La Salle
University, 1999. 202 p.)
This contains the biography, with black and white portraits, of some 99 known and unknown
living and deceased Caviteňos.
Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Rosario M. Cortes. Quezon City: New Day Pub., 1999. 210
leaves.)
This contains information, including photographs of the Philippine presidents from Aguinaldo to
Estrada. It includes an index, bibliography, and short biographies of the writers involved in the book.
The Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Pasig City: Anvil
Publishing, c2000. 149 p.)
This contains biographical information of the 20 Chief justices of the Supreme Court from 1901
to 1999. It also covers the associate justices.
100 Taon: 100 Filipino sa Digmaan at Kapayapaan (Leonardo N. Camacho. Quezon City: SBA
Printers, c2000. [248 p.])
This work is about 100 Filipinos who played significant roles in the Philippine history. Their
portraits are also included.
The Presidents of the Senate of the Republic of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Quezon City:
Giraffe Books, c2000. 152p.)
This features the biographical sketches of the 17 senate Presidents of the Philippines from 1916
to 1999. The officials are arranged in their sequence of service.
Philippine First Ladies Portraits (Jose R. Rodriguez. Manila: Tantoco Rustia Foundation, 2003. 143
p.)
This is a portrait collection and insight into the lives of 12 First ladies of the Philippines from
Hilaria del Rosario-Aguinaldo to Luisa Pimentel-Ejercito Estrada.
43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents
These bibliographical information sources include bibliographies and catalogs (including union catalogs).
Government documents that function as are also covered in this section.
Biblioteca de Filipina: a Sea, Catalogo Razonada de los Impresos, Tanto Insulares con
Eztranjeros, Relativos a la Historia, la Etnografia, la Linguistica, la Botanica, la Fauna, la Flora,
… (Trinidad Pardo de Tavera. Washington: Government printing Office, 1903. 3 v.)
Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas: Deducido de la Coleccion que Posee en
Barcelona la Compania General de Tabacos de Diches islas (Wenceslao E. G. Retano. Madrid:
Imprenta de la Sucesora de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1906. 3 v.)
Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, Printed and Manuscripts, preceded by a Descriptive
Account of the Most important Archives and Collection Containing Philippina (James A.
Robertson. Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co., c1908. Reprinted by Kraus, Co., 1979.)
Checklist of the Publications of the Government of the Philippine Islands, September 1, 1900 to
December 31, 1917 (compiled by Emma O. Elmer, Legislative Reference Division, National Library
of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. 288 p.)
Legal Bibliography (Vicente J. Francisco. [Revised]. Manila: East Pub., 1959. 345 p.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1917-1949 (Consolacion B. Rebadavia. Quezon
City: University of the Philippines, 1960. 817 p.)
Bibliography of Philippine bibliographies ([compiled by] Gabriel A. Bernardo. Quezon City: Ateneo
University Press, 1968. 192 p.)
Philippine Libraries and Librarianship: a Bibliography (Filomena C. Mercado. Manila: 1969. 58 p.)
Guide to Doctoral Dissertations in Microfilm, 1937-1968 (Concepcion S. Baylon. Manila: National
library, Filipiniana Division, 1971. 92 leaves.)
Philippine Ethnography: a Critically Annotated and Selected bibliography (Shiro Saito. Honolulu:
The University of Hawaii Press, 1971. 512 p.)
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Filipiniana Materials in the National Library ([compiled by] Isagani Medina. Quezon City: national
Library of the Philippines and University of the Philippines Press, c1972. 352 p.)
Catalog of Filipiniana at Valladolid (edited by Helen R. Tubangui. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 1973. 364 p.)
Philippine National Bibliography (The national Library of the Philippines. Manila: TNL, 1974-.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1949-1962 (Divina Cuňada. Unpublished MLS
special problem, University of the Philippines, 1977. 2 v.)
Muslim Filipinos: an Annotated Bibliography (Alfredo Tiamson. Makati: Filipinas Foundation, Inc.,
1979. 386 p.)
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1963-1973 (Carmelita Austria. Unpublished MLS
thesis, University of the Philippines, 1985. 3 v.)
Chinese in the Philippines: a Bibliography (Chinben See and Teresita Ang See. Manila: Chinese
Studies Program, de La Salle University, c1990. 208 p.)
Bibliography of Philippine Languages (Rex Johnson. Manila: Linguistics Society of the Philippines,
1996. 355 p.)
43.9 Indexes
These Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine and law to arts and letters.
Philippine Index Medicus (Manila: Medical Library, College of Medicine, U.P. Manila, and the
Philippine Council for Health Research Development, 19-.)
Supreme Court Reports Annotated (compiled and edited by the Editorial Staff of the Central
Lawbook Publishing Co. Manila: Central Book Supply, 19-.)
Index to Philippine Republic Acts Nos. 1- (prepared by Isabela C. Moran; assisted by Sixto de la
Costa. Manila: PJL Publications, c1935.)
Index to Philippine Periodicals (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Library, U.P. Diliman,
1946-.)
U.P. Theses and Dissertations Index, 1946-1968 (Quezon City: The Library, University of the
Philippines, 1969. 367 p.)
Accounting to Auditing Index: an Updated Compendium of Laws, Rules, Regulations, and Digests
of Selected decisions, Prewar to 1968 (by Patricia C. Fernando and Mena M. Caparros. Quezon City:
Manlapaz Pub., 1971. 697 p.)
Subject Guide to Supreme Court Decisions, 1st – 1973- (Quezon City: law Center, University of the
Philippines, [1974-].)
Guide to Presidential Decrees and Other Presidential issuances (Myrna Feliciano. Quezon City:
Law Center, University of the Philippines, 1975. 523 p.)
Philippine Short Story index (compiled by Maria Nena Mata. Quezon City: Rizal Library, Ateneo de
Manila University, 1976.)
Index to Philippine Plays, (1923-1983) (Manila: national Book Store, c1984. 67 p.)
Index to Philippine Poetry in English, 1905-1950 (compiled by Edna Z. Manlapaz, Gemino Abad.
Metro Manila: National Book Store, c1988. 746 p.)
43.10 Electronic Resources
The following is a listing of Filipiniana reference sources in electronic formats, primarily in CD-ROM.
Some of these titles were previously issued in printed formats.
Bulacan 2000 Interactive CD-ROM (2nd ed. Malolos, Bulacan: Compulogic, c2000.)
This is an interactive information source on the province of Bulacan. It provides general
information, history, tourism and culture, and business of the province. Extensive information about
the municipalities is also available.
Castles of the Sea: a Story of the Manila Galleon ([s. l.]: Ayala Foundation, Inc. c1997.)
This is the story of the giant ships that for 250 years have sailed the length of the Pacific from
Manila to Acapulco, which carried vital global commerce from the east to the west part of the world.
This formed a link in a chain of trade that brought Asia, Europe, and the Americas together. The
reference focuses on how the ships were built and what and who they carried.
CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art ([Manila]: Cultural Center of the Philippines, c1998.)
This was previously published in a 10-volume set in 1994. The CD-ROM edition of the
encyclopedia provides an enriching multimedia tour of the Philippine cultural landscape, as lived and
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practiced by the Filipino people, expressed in music, dance, literature, architecture, visual arts, film,
and theater.
The Compleat Island Traveler: a Multimedia Carousel on Philippine Travel ([Manila]: Department
of Tourism, [c1998].)
This is a visitor‘s guide to the Philippines as it tells them where to go, how to get to a certain
place, what to see and where to stay, dine, and shop. It showcases over 500 images and over 50 video
clips.
Discover the Philippine Islands ([Pasig City]: Philippine Business Profiles and Perspectives, Inc.,
[20-].)
This contains essential information and actual footages of the Philippine islands. It gives access
to detailed directories on online bookings, transportations, accommodations, foreign embassies, and
other information relevant to traveling in the country. It has an updated online counterpart
(www.filonline.com/travel).
Filipinas: Isang Kasaysayan ([Metro Manila]: Ayala Foundation, Inc., c1997.)
This unveils Philippine history from the Tabon caves to the Spanish conquistadores, and the
American colonial period, to revolution and independence using the dioramas of the Ayala Museum
as guide.
Filipiniana Reference Sources Database (Nathalie Dela Torre, editor: Institute of Library and
Information Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2003.)
This bibliographic database contains 1,746 titles of Filipiniana reference sources in the sciences,
the social sciences, and the humanities, with publication dates from 1880 to 1988. Using the Micro-
CDS/ISIS software, the database is searchable by name of author, title, subject, call number, or
publication date. Each entry is complemented with an abstract.
Filipino Philosophy: a Critical Bibliography, 1774-1997 (Rolando M. Gripaldo. 2nd ed. Manila: De
La Salle university Press, c2000.)
This reference is presented in three parts. Prt 1 is composed of nine essays that include a
discussion on the bibliography on Filipino philosophy from 1774 to 1997 and on the state of
philosophy in the Philippines today. Part 2 is the bibliography proper of the original work (1774-
1992), and continues in Part 3 (1993-1997).
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Philippine Islands, 1493-1998 (Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, editors 1903;
with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne; Antonio E.A. defensor,
editor 2000. [manila]: [s. n.], 2000.)
Politica: Everyman’s guide to Philippine Elections (produced by XKOM, Inc.; programming,
graphical, and animations by Quantum Systems, Inc. Quezon City: XKOM, Inc., c1998?.)
This contains a discussion on the different stages of the Philippine electoral process, full text of
election laws and related issuances, court decisions, legal procedures, election forms, facts and
figures, proposed electoral reform laws, the vote count, automation programs, and a timetable of the
Philippine political and electoral history.
The Public’s Eye: Investigative Reports, 1989-1999 (Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.
[Manila]: PCIJ, 2000.)
This compiles information about the PCIJ, its timeline from 1989 to 1999, abstracts of articles
and books authored by the members of the center, as well as video documentaries on varied topics.
The features are derived from ―The Investigative Journal‖, a quarterly magazine, showcasing the
writers‘ best works with sections on politics, women, environment, information technology, and
journalism.
The 2002 Philippine Yearbook: Facts and Figures ([Manila]: [s. n.], c2002.)
This contains information about the Philippine government, diplomatic and media directories,
listings of top 5,000 corporations in the country, the regions and provinces of the Philippines, and a
services directory.
43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources
The following is a listing of library networks and online Filipiniana reference sources.
AGRIS (International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology)
ALINET (Academic libraries Information Network in Mindanao)
ARALIN (Association of Research and Academic Library Information Network)
DACUN (Davao Colleges and Universities Network)
DOST-ESEP (Department of Science and Technology – Engineering and Science Education
Program)
HAIN (Health Action information Network)
HERDIN (Health Research and Development Information Network)
LibraryLINK
NATLINE (National Labor Information Network)
NUTRIENT (Nutrition Research and Development Information Network)
PAARLNET (Philippine Association of Academic and Research Libraries Network)
PAIS (Philippine Agricultural and Information Service)
PASFIS (Philippine Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System)
Philippine e-Lib Project
PHNET (Philippine Network Foundation, Inc.)
PREGINET
Robles Chan Virtual Library
Supreme Court e-Library
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––––– –Unit 13
Bibliographies and
the Development of Books and Libraries
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more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many
times. Additional leaves of parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came to
consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way somewhat similar to how present books are
bound. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the
observance of the Christian liturgy.
44.3 Books in Medieval Period – Europe
In the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by Churchmen for other Churchmen and
for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical
texts. The books were laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin,
―writing rooms‖) of monasteries.
At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical
scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Charlemagne in the 8 th century, scribes shifted to capital
and minuscule (small) letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the 12th century,
however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular
letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read.
Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the start of a new section
of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders. Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with
metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and
silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle
Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were
commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read.
The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began
in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.
44.4 Development of Books in the Orient
Perhaps the earliest form of book in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tied with cord. This had been
used as early as the 3rd millennium B.C. Chinese used ideographic characters in their writing system. Another early
form was strips of silk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2 nd century A.D. At first,
the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they
were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper – or
cloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined within temples alone.
In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The first book known to
have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868.
The Tripitaka, (another Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972. Printing
from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than copying by hand, but each
block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work.
In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in
different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, for the great number of characters
required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable.
44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period
In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books.
One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The
other was movable metal type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer Johann Gutenberg
pioneered the use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimes identified as the first European to print with
hand-set type cast in moulds.
The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456). These innovations
simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy
increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the
Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Consequently, in the 16th century
both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public
demand for books.
Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in book publishing since
that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and
clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the
designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify
the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet
folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is called a folio. A sheet folded
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twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers
continue to use these terms.
Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction.
Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.
44.6 Contemporary Books
Since the Industrial Revolution, book production has become highly mechanized. The more efficient
manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical
casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration have
made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at a relatively low price. The subject
matter of books has become literally universal.
While books as a means of communication have been challenged by such 20 th century technological
devices as the Internet, radio, television, films, and tape recorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination
of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or
imagined.
44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
The following table summarizes all the important events that took place along the development of the
book.
People Approximate Writing system and forms of Status of Libraries
Dates the book
PREHISTORY
People used pictographs and
landmarks to convey ideas (e.g.
cave paintings). Communication
is chiefly in oral form.
ANTIQUITY
Sumerians, 3600-626 B.C. People used clay tablets, clay Libraries were in four types –
Babylonians, cylinders, and stylus in writing. temple, government, private,
Assyrians The predominant writing system and royal (e.g. libraries of
is cuneiform. Noted writing Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh).
during this period is the Code of
Hamurabi.
Egyptians 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics was used as Libraries in this society was in
system of writing. Papyrus temples, governments, and
sheets was used as writing private ownership (e.g libraries
material. People wrote using of .Gizeh and Teloh).
reed brush and ink. They
developed an alphabet which
consisted 24 consonants. Books
were in roil form (scroll). Famous
works include Prise Papyrus,
Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions.
Phoenicians. 2756 B.C They developed and alphabet of
22 consonants.
Chinese 3000 B.C They used ideographic Libraries are solely in temples.
characters in writing. They wrote
in bamboo (tablet and roll), bone,
silk, and linen.
Greeks (Crete) 2000 B.C- System of writing used is Linear Libraries were in private, royal,
146 B.C A and Linear B. The Phoenician and government ownership.
alphabet was added with Famous Greek libraries of
consonants. People wrote in antiquity include the
papyrus, vellum, parchment, and Alexandrian Library, Library of
wax-coated boards. Pergamum, and Aristotle’s
Library.
Romans 753 B.C-476 Romans adopted the Greek The library was opened to the
A.D. alphabet and writing medium. public; religious libraries were
They used quills in writing. The segmented to Christians and
book was in various forms – roll, Pagans. The Ulpian library
codex, diptych, and wax tablet.. was noted at this period.
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MEDIEVAL
Monasteries in 400 A.D. – The modern alphabet became Aside from royal and private
England, Ireland 1200s widely used, along with the ownership, libraries became
and Western development of various part of religious domain in
Europe handwriting styles in each churches and monasteries.
monastery. Book rolls and
codexes were still the forms of
the book. The Book of Kells is a
known product of literature at this
period.
RENAISSANCE
1200s-1500s The modern book started to In addition to private, royal,
flourish, though it was and religious libraries,
handwritten. Greek and Latin university libraries were born.
was the medium. People still An example is University of
used parchment and velum. Paris Library.
Notable writings produced during
these period include the Book of
Hours.
1500s This period was marked with the Public libraries started to serve
invention of printing with movable communities which private,
types. Paper was used in royal, and government libraries
addition to parchment and velum. did not.
Books came both in handwritten
and printed forms. Leaflets and
calendars also gained popularity.
The Guttenberg Bible may be the
most popular book product at this
point.
MODERNITY
Europeans 1500s and Paper became the major writing National libraries started to rise
1900 medium. Books that are in addition to public, private,
produced all in printed forms, university, royal, and religious
though there are still handwritten libraries. Ther Vatical Library,
books. Other materials like university libraries of Oxford
periodicals, maps, pamphlets, and Cambridge, Library of the
and newspapers became British Museum, and
significant.. Bibliotheque Nationale in
France were the famous
libraries that rose during this
period.
Americans 1607-1776 Paper and printing with movable College libraries in addition to
types was brought to America university libraries started to
(1639). This brought about the support academic instruction.
publication of almanacs, These included libraries in the
magazines, government, universities of Yale, Harvard,
publications, pamphlets, and and Princeton, and the library
broadsides. The Bay Psalm Book in the College of William and
is one of the popular publications Mary.
produces during this period.
1700s-1800s Publishers started to produce Public and government libraries
books in paperbacks. started to flourish. Included are the
Library of Congress and the
Boston Public Library.
1900s-present Aside from printed resources, other Libraries were classified in the
media were introduces. These following categories – academic,
include materials that presented special, public, school, research,
information in video, audio, or private, government, and rare-
audiovisual formats. Examples are book archives. Among libraries of
films, tapes, discs, microforms, etc. present time, the most popular
The invention of the computer gave nowadays may be the Library of
birth to electronic and digitized Congress..
information resources, such as
databases, CD-ROMs, CD-I,
electronic books and serials, etc.
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British National Bibliography (BNB) – This is based on the books deposited with
the British Copyright Office, limited to works published within Great Britain. It
is arranged according to DDC with author, title, and subject indexes.
Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF) – This was published since 1811,
recording all titles received by Bibliotheque National (National Library of
France) through legal deposit.
Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) – This is a quarterly publication of The
National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts
(Part 1 –books, music scores, government publications, periodicals, conference
proceedings; Part 2 – theses and dissertations). It is classified according to
DDC and includes author, title, series, and subject indexes.
National library catalogs
This is a list of all the works cataloged and/or owned by a national library and other
member libraries; therefore, they are not limited to works published within the country alone.
Example titles of national catalogs are the following.
National Union Catalog (NUC) of the Library of Congress – This was issued in
microfiche in 1983. It has an online version which is MARC, which can be
accessed through DIALOG (n).
National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints (London: Marsell, 1968-1981) – This
is available on microform and online via REMARC (Retrospective MARC)..
Trade bibliographies
The primary objective of these is to list commercial publications to aid in the selection
and acquisition of recently published materials, specifically trade books. Information
presented in such bibliographies is gathered from the publisher and is not examined by the
bibliography compiler. Example titles include the following.
Books in Print (R.R. Bowke, 1948 ff.) – This can be accessed through printed, online
(through database vendors like DIALOG), CD-ROM (Books in Print Plus), and
microfiche versions
Publishers Weekly (1872 ff.)
Cumulative Book Index (1933 ff.)
Publishers' Trade List Annual (1873 ff.);
Subject Guide to Books in Print (1957 ff.)
Biblio (1935 ff.) - This is one among the French trade bibliographies. Since 1972
has been continued by Bibliographie de la France—Biblio.
Deutsche Nationalbibliographie (Leipzig, 1931 ff.) – This is one of several German
trade listings
British Books in Print (1874 ff.)
British National Bibliography (1950 ff.)
Subject bibliographies
These bibliographies list materials that relate to a particular topic. They are intended for
research workers and others in special areas. An example title is
The Humanities: A Selective Guide to Information Sources (by Ron Blazek and
Elizabeth Aversa)
Guides to reference materials
These bibliographies include the ―best‖ works for a given situation or audience (e.g. guides
to reference books, special reading lists by a library and items devoted to the best works for a
particular group of people). They aim to introduce the user to general reference sources which
will be of assistance in research in all fields, and specific reference sources which will aid in
research in particular fields. Example titles of these are the following.
Guide to Reference Books (compiled by Eugene P. Sheehy – Chicago: ALA)
This publication concentrated on American, Canadian, and some British titles,
divided into five (5) major areas.
Guide to Reference Materials (edited by Albert J. Walford – London: LA)
This one is concentrated on British and European reference works.
American Reference Books Annuasl (by Bohdan A. Wynar)
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This provides a record of the reference books published or distributed in the US and
Canada during the preceding year. It has annotations which are signed, critical, and more
expository than those found in Sheehy or Walford.
Analytical and textual bibliographies
Analytical Bibliographies are generally concerned with the physical description of books.
Textual bibliographies highlight certain textual variations between a manuscript and the printed
book.
Daily-use bibliographies
These bibliographies direct the user to an item and are primarily used to find a specific use of
article.
2. Selective bibliographies (selection aids)
These bibliographies are generally used in selection and acquisition of library materials. Trade
bibliographies are also considered under this category. Here are some popular titles.
Choice (Chicago: ALA, 1964 ff.)
Choice evaluates a number of reference titles of value to all libraries (approximately
68,000 reviews are for reference titles). Choice is published monthly.
Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication is a yearly review of reference titles, usually written by
librarians and teachers.
RQ (Chicago: ALA 1960 ff.)
This quarterly publication that reviews 140,000 to 150,000 titles yearly, with around 200
words for each review.
Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication provides current, accurate, and in-depth reviews of
general reference works.
Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.)
This publication is issued monthly. It devotes one section to ―Current Reference Books‖.
Since only one author is responsible for the reviews, only about 20 to 30 are reviewed each
month.
Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.)
This monthly publication provides full bibliographic information and a short (about 50
to 70 words) annotation.
3. Bibliography of bibliographies
These are listings of bibliographies that were created as a means pf bibliographic control. Some
popular titles are listed below.
World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical Catalogs Calendars, Abstracts,
Digests, Indexes, and the Like or Besterman (by Theodore Besterman – Lausanne: Societas
Bibliographica, 1965-1966)
This is the best-known and greatest non-specialist bibliography of bibliographies. It is
comprised of four (4) volumes and covers about 117,000 volumes of separately published
bibliographies in more than 40 languages. The entries are international in scope and are
classified under 16,000 subject headings. Besterman included other substantial
bibliographies but were not current. It lists separately published bibliographies only. The last
edition covers materials through 1963. This was supplemented by Alice F. Toomey‘s World
Bibliography of Bibliographies (1964-1974). This supplement was compiled from Library of
Congress printed cards and arranged by subject according to LCSH.
Bibliographic Index
This is a subject index to bibliographies, which have been published in books,
pamphlets, and periodicals. This is an excellent source for beginning a search for scholarly
and/or popular works in many subjects. Each entry gives complete information on the
bibliography and indicates whether it is annotated or not. Entries are arranged according to
LCSH. Bibliographic Index has an online counterpart (WILSONLINE) , which covers
bibliographies from 1984 onwards.
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This is an online serials union list operated by the Library of Congress as an extension of
National Union Catalog.
45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies
Another way of classifying bibliography is by grouping the whether they are current or retrospective.
Current bibliographies list materials close to the time at which they are being published. Retrospective
bibliographies, on the other hand, cover materials published during an earlier time period.
In the following list are examples of current and retrospective bibliographies.
Current bibliographies
Cumulative Book Index (New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.)
This is issued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-subject international list of
books published in the English language. It provides information on author‘s full name, complete
title, edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication, price Library of Congress
call number, and ISBN. It can be accessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-ROM
version entitled Wilson-Disc.
American Book Publishing Record (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961 ff.)
This monthly publication provides complete cataloging records for books as they are
published. It excludes government publications, subscription books, pamphlets, and dissertations.
Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and title indexes.
Retrospective bibliographies
American Bibliography (by Charles Evans – New York: Evans, 1903-1934)
This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in the US from 1639
to 1806. The titles are listed in chronological order by date of publication. Included are indexes to
authors, printers, and publishers.
Early American Imprints (produced by Readers Microprint)
This is a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles in Evan‘s work.
American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist
This covers publications dating from 1801 to 1819.
Bibliotheca Americana (by Joseph Sabin)
This lists books relating to the US from its European discovery (October 12, 1942) dating to
1868. It provides complete bibliographic description and locations of copies as well as references
to reviews.
A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of English
Books Printed Abroad (by A.W. Pollard and G.R. Redgrave – 2nd ed. London: Bibliographical
Society, 1976-1991)
This is a three-volume work whose first and second volumes include about 37,000 titles
arranged alphabetically by author. The third volume provides a comprehensive index, which
includes printers, publishers, and geographic names.
Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and British
America, and of English Books Printed in Other Countries (by compiled by D.G. Wing – 2nd ed.,
rev. and enlarged, New York: Index Committee of the Modern Language Association of
America, 1972-1988)
This is also a three-volume work which covers 120,000 entries arranged by author.
Eighteenth Century Short Title Catalogue (London: British Library)
This can be accessed online through BLAISE-Line and RLIN and also in CD-ROM as
ESTC.
45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources
and Guides to Bibliographic Databases
Aside through print medium, bibliographies and bibliographic guides can be accessed electronically. A
very popular electronic media of bibliographies is the CD-ROM, a high-capacity read only optical disk that is
intended for publishing data and information. It can be intended for database publishing and distribution. It may
also contain databases of bibliographic records that are distributed to customer sites. Some databases available in
CD-ROM are listed below.
Bibliofile (Library Corporation)
Bibliofile is a MARC database management utility that provides access to catalog records by
main entry, title, ISBN/ISSN, and LC call number.
CD-MARC Bibliographic
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Books
[One author]
Anderson, W.D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1994.
Hakemi, A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Center in Iran. Translated
by S.M.S> Sajjadi. New Delhi: Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1997.
[Edited work]
Langdon, S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1995.
Christianson, Elin B., David E. King, and Janet L. Ahrensfeld. Special Libraries: A Guide for
Management. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: SLA, 1991.
Pahlen, Kurt, et. al. The World of the Oratorio: Oratorio, Mass, Requiem, Te Deum,
Stabat Mater and Large Cantatas. Aldershot: Scolar, 1990.
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[No author]
Journal article
Magazine article
Jackson, Richard. ―Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional Inequality in Papua New
Guinea.‖ Australian Geographer. 14 (May 1979): 175-84.
Newspaper article
Manegold, Catherine S. ―Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free, Ban by Ban.‖ New York
Times. 22 Mar. 1994, late ed. A1.
Unpublished materials
Hoff, M.C. ―The Roman Agora at Athens.‖ Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1988.
Government documents
United Nations, Center on Transnational Cooperations. Foreign Direct Investment, the Service
Sector, and International Banking. (New York: United Nations, 1987) 4-6.
Electronic sources
Oxford English Dictionary Computer File: On Compact Disc. 2 nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford:
University Press, 1992.
Schneiderman, R.A. (1997). Libraries can make sense of the Net. San Antonio Business
Journal, (11)31, pp. 58+. Retrieved January 1999 from EBSCO Database (Masterfile) on
the World Wide Web: http://www.ebsco.com
American Psychological Association. (1995, September 15).APA public policy action alert:
Legislation would affect grant recipients [Announcement]. Washington, DC: Author.
Retrieved January 25, 1996 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.apa.org/ppo/istook.html.
Mitchell, William J. City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn [Book online]. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1995, accessed 25 September, 1995: available from
http://www-mitpress.mit.edu:80/City_of_Bits/Pulling_Glass/index.html; Internet.
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–Unit 14
Indexing
–––––
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Alphabetical index
This index is based on the orderly principles of letters in the alphabet and is used for the
arrangement of subject headings, cross references, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings. It
is more convenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar to any user. However, problems of
synonymy and scattering may arise. Scattering means that subcategories of a subject are not drawn
together under the generic term, but are frequently cross referenced from the not preferred terms to the
preferred ones. Users might be slowed in their searches since there is always a possibility of searching
under the not preferred term. For example if a user wishes to get information about ―national
libraries‖, what term does the user search – libraries or national libraries?
Classified index
The classified index has its contents arranged on the basis of relation among concepts represented
by headings (e.g. hierarchy, inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are often
based on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC).
Such indexes are useful for generic searches when retrieval is aiming for classes of documents.
Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user is immediately made aware of terms closely related
to a concept. They bring similar things together.
Looking at the other side, classified indexes are usually difficult to use for some users primarily
because they do not know how they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in the
classified list, a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. For entries which follow the
sequence of notational symbols, one cannot enter to the item directly as one can with alphabetical-
sequenced listing. A conversion table must be consulted first in order to translate natural language
words into their notational equivalents.
Entries in classified indexes may appear under highly specific class numbers derived from a
general or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they may be grouped under relatively
broad subject categories and subcategories.
Concordance
A concordance is an alphabetical index of all the principal words appearing in a single text or in
the multi-volume work of a single author with a pointer to the precise point at which the word occurs.
The index shows very contextual occurrence of a word.
The need for indexes was first felt when the English Bible was made available to ordinary people.
This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737 to prepare The Concordance of the Bible.
A concordance is used to
to locate a partly or completely remembered passage
to assemble subject matter
to compare and analyze word meaning and usage
Numerical or serial order
Included in this group are patent-number indexes (e.g. The Numerical Patent Index of Chemical
Abstracts) and table indexes.
46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed
Indexes are also classified by the type of material being indexed, such as the following.
Book index
The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is an alphabetical list of words, or group of words at
the back of the book giving a page location of the subject or name associated with each word or group
of words. A book index is prepared in order to
reduce the frustration of information overload
permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior to purchase
collect the different ways of wording the same concept
provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings of unanalyzed page references
guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic
filter information for the reader
The contents of the index must satisfy the following conditions.
It must bring together references to similar concepts that are scattered in the text
All significant items in the text must appear in the index.
Items and concepts in the text must be represented by appropriate, precise, accurate
unambiguous headings.
Index entry headings should be consistent in form and in usage.
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The book index should represent the text and is not a vehicle for expressing the indexer‘s
own views and interests.
A book index has the following components.
Entry – This is the principal subdivision of the index.
Heading – This identifies the subject and is the top line in the index entry hierarchy.
Subentry/subheading – This is a line of indented text that immediately follows the heading. It
usually represents some aspect of the main heading.
Locator – This tells the reader where to find the item or material pertaining to the subject.
Cross reference – This is an internal index navigation guide. They usually take the forms See
and See also.
The following is a sample entry from a book index.
Dogs
breeding of, 134-139
breeds listed, 15-19
longevity, 22-25
nutritional requirements, 90-93
training, 45-47
whelping of puppies, 142-145
See also American Kennel Club
Periodical index
The periodical index is based on the same principles and has the same general objective as a book
index but has a broader scope. Periodical indexes are open-ended projects usually performed by a
group of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal with unrelated topics by several authors, written
in different styles and aimed at different users.
The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book and periodical indexes.
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image of a particular type of scene, and this in turn could be used as input to find others like
it.
Sound databases
Usually these are neural networks (retrieval; indexes created automatically). They
usually feature sound browsers which allow fuzzy searches on audio databases (e.g. find
sounds similar to…).
There are sound databases that can utilize speech recognition technology for retrieving
television news segments. Such is used to create transcripts of the audio portion of the
broadcast, which are then stored in a searchable form. Speech recognition requires that a
system identifies the words in an utterance. This is useful for structured tasks such as data
entry and issuing simple commands.
Audio processing on sound databases can only identify broad categories (e.g. music).
46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature
The following indexes are classified by the type literature in the material being indexed, with an example
title for each type.
Index to short stories
Example: Short Story Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
This index lists stories in both book and periodical collections. It provides entries for author, title,
and subject. This index is issued annually, with over 3,000 stories included each year. Short story
index provides a list of books and periodicals that were analyzed. Five-year cumulation issues are also
provided.
Index to plays
Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
Unlike Short Story Index, this index is published irregularly. It provides author, title, and subject
index entries to individually published plays and play collections. An author entry contains the full
name of the author, title of the play, a brief description note, the number of acts and scenes, the size of
the cast, and the number of sets required. It contains a cast analysis that helps a librarian locate plays
for a number of players required.
Index to Poems
Example: The Columbia Granger‘s Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY: Columbia University
Press, 1990. 2048 p. Also available in CD-ROM)
This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies. It provides four (4) indexes: by first
line, author, subject, and title. It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a particular anthology. It is
also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first line or by subject. The index provides
access to over 40,000 poems.
: The Columbia Granger‘s Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY: Columbia
University Press, 1991)
This publication provides an annotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all the anthologies
indexed in the 9th edition of The Columbia Granger‘s Index to Poetry, with attention given to the
audience for the particular works. The annotations were prepared by William and Linda Katz.
Index to Essays
Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: Columbia University Press, 1990 ff.)
This index consists of analytical subject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collected
works on every subject from art to medicine. It is useful in approaching an author‘s work via his/her
name, as well as in locating criticism of the author‘s individual efforts. Regular issues of four-year
cumulation for the previous index issues are provided.
46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories
Indexes are also classified by their physical form These include the following.
Card indexes (e.g. card catalog)
Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) – These indexes contain indexer‘s
markings on the items. They are constructed through the use of bibliographic worksheets.
Microform indexes
Computerized indexes (e.g. online indexes, indexes in CD-ROM)
The intervention of computers in indexing can either be automated or computer-assisted. In automated
indexing, the computer is left to construct the index without human intervention. In computer-assisted indexing,
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humans are responsible for the intellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers (e.g.
sorting, organizing, etc.).
Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they contain. These include the following.
Subject index
This index provides access to the topics treated in documents and/or features of documentary
units (e.g. genre, format, etc.). Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically or in other
systematic order.
Author index
This index provides access to information on documents cited by the author‘s name in the
indexed document, or it lists documents distinguished by author‘s name in the indexed collection.
Name index
The name index provides access to names contained in documents, whether or persons,
organizations, or other animate or inanimate objects which are identified by a proper name.
Examples: Red Rum (racehorse)
Macrex (computer programs)
`This diagram illustrates the concept that summarization leads to document retrieval and depth
indexing leads to information retrieval. The line that runs halfway in between suggests that it is
possible to have a subject analysis system that is halfway between the two extremes.
Specificity
This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topic in a document is identified by a
precise term in the hierarchy of its genus-species relationship. If the heading used is parallel to the
concept contained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the level of specificity is
high.
Example: An information resource about musicians is entered under
Musicians and not Performing artists.
Coextensive entry
It should be noted that this concept is not exactly the same as the concept of specificity.
Coextensive entry means that the subject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts
covered in the document.
Example: For a document that deals both with musicians and dancers,
should be Musicians and dancers.
However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specific entry that can be assigned.
Instead, several entries are provided (Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). An
example of an indexing system that attempts to make subject headings coextensive with the concepts
covered in the document analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System (PRECIS).
Consistency
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This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index some
documents. It requires that items on the same subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the
same way. There are two types of consistency level.
Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers working as a team.
Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to
himself/herself.
Many studies identified two factors that influence indexing consistency.
Number of concepts represented – Consistency diminishes as more concepts are represented. That
is, the higher the Exhaustivity, the lower the consistency, and vice versa. It has been observed
that typically, indexers usually choose the same first term for the major subject of the document,
but consistency decreases as they choose more terms.
Size of vocabulary – As the size of vocabulary grows, consistency drops. That is, the more
choices indexers have, the less likely that they will choose the same term for describing a
concept.
47.2 Indexing Methods
The process of indexing can be exercised through two distinct methods.
Derived or derivative indexing
Also known as extractive indexing, this is a method by which words and phrases occurring in the
title or text of a documentary unit are extracted by a human or computer to serve as indexing terms.
Assigned indexing
In this method, terms, descriptors, or subject headings are selected to represent the topics or
features of a documentary unit. Assigned terms are often times taken from a source other than the
document itself.
47.3 Indexing Languages
An indexing language is a system of naming or identifying subjects contained in a document. Like
languages used in daily living, it also serves as a tool for communication, a means of expressing feeling or thoughts
and is a method of combining a group of words or word-like symbols so that they can be understood by daily users.
In indexing, it is used for the representation of topics and features of a documentary unit and for the retrieval of
documentary units from an information-retrieval system.
A indexing language has various features.
Vocabulary
This refers to terms selected for the indexing of concepts. It employs certain classes of words,
adjectives, participles and gerunds, few prepositions and conjunctions, almost no adverbs, pronouns
or verbs, and no interjections.
Syntax
This refers to the combination and modification of terms to form headings and multi-level
headings or to form search statements for non-displayed indexes. It is concerned with the clearness of
expression, with efficient and unambiguous communication and is language dependent. Syntactic
relationships may be shown in several ways.
Order of sequence
Example: Training of employees ↔ Employees, training of
Use of ―markers‖ – This may take the form of inflections (such as ‗s) or prepositions (such
as of).
Example: Dog‘s hair ↔ Hair of the dog
Semantics
This is actually the study of meaning expressed in communications such as words. In indexing,
semantics indicate class relations among index terms. Semantic relationships are categorizes as
follows.
Equivalence relationship
This kind of semantic relationship implies that there will be more than one term
denoting the same concept. Equivalence is expressed through any of the following.
synonyms (e.g. Feminism ↔ Women‘s Liberation Movement)
quasi-synonyms (e.g. Economics ↔ Cost and financing)
preferred spelling (e.g. Program ↔ Programme)
acronyms and abbreviations (e.g. ALA →American Library Association)
current and established terms (e.g. Developing countries ↔ Third world ↔
Underdeveloped areas ↔ Less developed countries)
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It helps searchers to focus their thoughts when they approach the information system without
a full and precise realization of what information they need.
Coupled with these advantages are some disadvantages.
Indexing with controlled vocabulary can mean high input costs, since it is usually done by
people who must read the document, discern the various ideas it contains, then match these
with appropriate terms in the authority lists.
Controlled vocabulary indexing is prone to human error in interpreting a document‘s subject
matter.
Different indexing languages may be incompatible, even with the same discipline or subject,
making searching in different databases difficult.
There is a possibility that the controlled vocabulary may be inadequate. The indexer and the
searcher are limited to the terminology used, to the scope of each content (term or notation),
and to the structure of the existing system.
47.4 Subject Heading Lists and Thesauri
Controlled vocabulary is channeled in two basic forms.
Subject heading list
This is an alphabetical list of subject headings with cross references from not preferred terms and
headings to preferred ones, and linking devices between related terms and headings. It often includes
separate sequences of standardized subheadings that may be combined with subject headings. Rules
for applying subheadings usually accompany the list. A subject heading is used primarily to index
textual, book-length documents, with one or two terms that capture what the document is all about.
Examples of subject heading lists are the following.
Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)
LCSH is used in conjunction with the Subject Cataloging Manual: Subject Headings, a
document that contains policies and practices of the Library of Congress. LCSH is updated
continuously. Electronic updates are available via subscriptions to Cataloger‘s Desktop and
through various bibliographic utilities such as RLIN and OCLC.
Sears List of Subject Headings
This list is intended for small collections used by persons with general needs. Its main
users are public and school libraries. It is also continuously updated (updates are available in
electronic form).
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
This list is used to provide subject access points on every bibliographic record created at
the National Library of Medicine. In printed version, MeSH is comprised of three (3)
volumes – one volume for a hierarchical listing, another volume that is alphabetically-
arranged that includes scope note, and a volume of permuted alphabetical listing. in which
every word of a phrase is brought into lead position.
Thesaurus
The term thesaurus is derived from Latin, which means ―treasure‖. It is used to control indexing
vocabulary in one subject or field of interest, ranging from Agriculture to Vocational Training and to
the European Communities. It is a controlled indexing language vocabulary arranged in a known
order and structured so that equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and associative relationship
indicators among terms arte displayed clearly and identified by standardized relationship indicators
that are reciprocally employed. More than the subject heading list, a thesaurus is based on terms and
concepts that appear on the actual text of documents being indexed. A thesaurus aims to promote
consistency in the indexing of documents, predominantly for post-coordinate information retrieval
systems, and to facilitate searching by linking lead0in terms with descriptors.
The following table summarizes the similarities and differences between subject heading ists and thesauri.
Similarities
Both attempt to provide subject access to information resources by providing terminology that can
be consistent rather than uncontrolled and unpredictable.
Both choose preferred terms and make references from not preferred terms.
Both provide hierarchies so that terms are presented in relation to their broader terms, narrower
terms, and related terms.
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Differences
Subject heading lists Thesauri
Subject heading lists have phrases and other Thesauri are made up of single terms and
pre-coordinated terms in addition to single bound terms representing single concepts.
terms Bound terms occur when some concepts
can only be represented by two or more
words (e.g. Type A personality).
Entries in subject heading lists are called Entries in thesauri are known as descriptors.
subject headings.
Entries in subject heading lists exhibit various Thesauri are more strictly hierarchical.
types of relationships (hierarchical, associative, Because they are made up usually of single
etc.). terms, each term usually has only one
broader term.
Subject heading lists tend to be more general Thesauri are narrow in scope. They are
in scope, covering a broad subject area, or the usually made up of terms from one specific
entire scope of knowledge. subject area.
Subject heading lists are generally unilingual. Thesauri are more likely multilingual.
Because single terms are used, equivalents
in other languages are easier to find and
maintain.
Chapter 48 – Indexes and Indexing Systems
48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes
A title-based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining and analyzing contexts present in
document or article titles. There are two (2) known indexing systems that are centered in this principle.
KWIC (Keyword in Context) indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhn in 1959. It is a rotated
index commonly derived from the titles of documents. Each keyword appearing in the title becomes
an entry point and highlighting in some way by setting it off at the center of the page.
KWIC indexing employs the following principles.
Titles are generally informative.
The words extracted from the title can be used effectively to guide the user to an article or a paper
likely to contain desired information.
Although the meaning of the word viewed in isolation may be ambiguous or too general, the
context surrounding the word helps to define and explain its meaning.
KWOK (Keyword Out of Context) indexing system is also a rotated index, but uses a different method.
Keywords that become the access points are set off on the left hand margin of the page or sometimes,
they are used as though they were subject headings. A keyword used as an entry point in a KWOC
index is not usually repeated in the title but is replaced by an asterisk (*) or some other symbols.
Below are some examples how KWIC and KWOC indexes are constructed.
Examples: Document titles – Blue-Eyed Cats in Texas
The Cat and the Fiddle
Dogs and Cats and Their Diseases
The Cat and the Economy
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capitals; a subheading, in mixed upper and lower case boldface; and a subheading, in typeface of
ordinary weight. A lead term repeated in the subheading is capitalized; author dates appear only in the
heading.
Examples: HENDIADYS
English literature
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS. Source in
Vigil. Linguistic approach.
LINGUISTIC APPROACH
English literature. Tragedy. 1500-1599
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in
Vigil. LINGUISTIC APPROACH.
Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-conveying words in the title as
subject entry points in the index.
Through permuted indexing, indexing can be done easily at minimum cost. It does not need the expertise
of a professional indexer because it is entirely done by a computer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some
documents may not be accurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do not exactly
reflect the subject content of the work. The limited number of terms restricts complete subject indication. Most title
indexes are unappealing to the eye and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the
retrieval of irrelevant documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists (words that are not
suitable as subject indicators).
48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes
Faceted indexes are products of a type of systematic classification that is often called as analytico-
synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly controlled process by which simple concepts are organized into
carefully defined categories buy connecting class numbers on the basic concepts.
A faceted index is pre-coordinated at the time of indexing and is arranged in classification order rather
than straight alphabetical order. Faceted classification system was introduced by S.R. Ranganathan by publishing
his basic works in the system on the 1930s.
Chain indexes are prepared though a simple technique of constructing an organized set of entries for an
alphabetical subject index of a classified catalog. They provide that every concept becomes linked, or chained, to its
directly related concept in the hierarchy system.
Chain indexing involves the creation of multi-level headings that consist of ―chains‖ of terms extracted
from a classification scheme, arranged in an inverse citation order of facets to that of the classification scheme
itself. This was also introduced by S.R. Ranganathan as part of his Colon Classification, which uses synthesis or
number building. The number that represents some complex subject is arrived at by joining the notational elements
that represent more elemental subjects.
Example: Topic : Victorian period English poetry
Hierarchy:
8 Literature
2 English
1 Poetry
8 Victorian period
Chain index entries:
Victorian period: Poetry: English: Literature 821.8
Poetry: English: Literature 821
English Literature 820
Literature 800
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Title – Despite the fact that some titles are vague and are not related at all to the subjects of
the document, they are still considered as basic indexing units and serve as the first sop in
determining subject content.
Abstract – This is the actual information-packed miniature of the document. Good abstracts
can be fundamental indicators of subject content
List of contents – This gives an overview of the actual contents of the document.
Text – It is also necessary to examine the4 introduction, summary, and conclusion. Likewise,
section headings and first and last sentences of paragraphs should also be given primary
attention.
Illustrations, diagrams, tables, and their captions
Reference section (bibliography) – The references for the work cited by authors are also
considered subject indicators.
Subject determination
At this point, the indexer determines the aboutness of the document. It entails the formulation of a
concept list. The following guidelines must be observed.
Choose the concept which would be regarded as the most appropriate by a given community
of users, bearing in mind the purpose of the index.
If necessary, modify both indexing tools and procedures as a result of feedback from
inquiries. Such modification should not be taken to a point where the structure or logic of the
indexing language is distorted.
No arbitrary limit should be set on the number of terms or descriptors which can be assigned
to a document. This should be determined entirely by the amount of information contained in
the document, related to the expected needs of the users of the index.
Concepts should be identified as specifically as possible. More general concepts may be
preferred in some circumstances, depending upon the following factors.
Extent to which the indexer considers that over-specificity might adversely affect the
performance of the indexing system – For example, an indexer might decide that very
specific models of equipment may be represented by more general terms such as the
name of the maker and perhaps of the family of models, especially when these concepts
occur in the fringe areas of the subject field covered by the index.
Weight attached to a concept by the author – If an indexer considers that an idea is not
fully developed, or is referred to only casually by the author, indexing at a more general
level might be justified.
Conversion to the index language
Terms in the concept list must be matched against those available in the controlled vocabulary.
The following practices must be observed in the translation process.
Concepts which are already translated into indexing terms should be translated into their
preferred terms.
Terms which represent new concepts should be checked for accuracy and acceptability in
reference tools such as:
dictionaries and encyclopedias recognized by authorities in their fields
thesauri (especially those constructed in accordance with ISO 2788 or ISO 5964)
classification schemes
subject specialists (especially those with some knowledge in indexing or documentation)
If the concepts are not yet present in an existing thesaurus or classification scheme, these may be
expressed by terms or descriptors which are admitted to the indexing language immediately, or
they may be represented temporarily by more general terms, the new concepts being proposed as
candidates for later addition.
Preparation of index entries
The indexer may use a pre-printed form or bibliographic sheet encoding to prepare and organize
the index entries obtained. The process of editing index elements (e/g/ cross references, spelling,
punctuation, headings, subheadings, missing entries, and unnecessary entries) is also undertaken at
this point.
In organizing the index entries, the indexer may opt to arrange the entries alphabetically (either
word by word or letter by letter), or in a classified system.
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Typography should be used to differentiate between types of headings and to distinguish item
from numerals indicating volumes, parts, and pages.
Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofread the typescript against the
cards. Check the alphabetical order of all entries and conduct a final review.
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Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname, followed by any given
name or initials. When surnames are not used, the name that customarily comes first should properly
be used as the entry word.
Example: Inuran Khan
Persons identified only be a given name or forename should be indexed under that name,
qualified if necessary, by a title of office or other distinguishing epithet.
Examples: Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni
Leonardo da Vinci
Persons normally identified by a title of honor or nobility should be indexed under that title,
expanded if necessary by their family name.
Examples: Dalai Lama
Marlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of
Compound and multiple surnames, whether hyphenated or not, should be indexed under the first
part.
Examples: Layzell Ward, Patricia
Perez de Cuellar, Javier
Corporate names
Names of corporate bodies should normally be indexed without transposition and in as full a form
as necessary. An initial article is omitted, unless specifically required for semantic or grammatical
reasons.
Example: The British Museum → British Museum
Transposition may, however, be used if it is considered that this would help the user of the index.
Example: Department of Agriculture See Department of Agriculture.
J. Whitaker & Sons See Whitaker, (J) & Sons
Choose the most recent, or the most commonly used form of corporate name as the main heading
and add See cross references from other forms.
Example: John Moores University See Liverpool John Moores
University
Liverpool John Moores University
Geographic names
Geographic names should be as full as necessary for clarity, with additions to avoid confusion
with otherwise identical names.
Example: San Fernando City (Pampanga) See City of San Fernando
San Fernando City (La Union)
An article or preposition should be retained in a geographic name of which it forms an integral
part. Where the articles and prepositions does not form an integral part of a name, it should be
omitted.
Examples: La Paz
Las Vegas
New Forest rather than The New Forest
Reihnfall rather that Der Reihnfall
Titles of documents
Titles of documents should normally be italicized, underlined, or otherwise distinguished. If
necessary for identification, names of creators, place of publication, dates, or other qualifier may be
added within parentheses.
Examples: Ave Maria (Gonoud)
Ave Maria (Schubert)
Ave Maria (Verdi)
In an English index, articles in titles are conventionally transposed to the end of the heading so
that filing order is explicit.
Example: Hunting of the Snark, The
Kapital, Das
A preposition at the beginning of the title should be retained.
Example: To the Lighthouse
First lines of poems
Conventionally in an index of first lines of poems, the article is retained without transposition and
is recognized for purposes of alphabetical arrangement.
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Cost
Is the price of the index reasonable for its content?
Standards
Does the index conform with prevailing recognized standards (e.g. ISO)?
There are two highlighted aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the quality of an index.
Recall ratio
This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of relevant documents
potentially available in the file. Recall depends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the indexing
policy.
Relevance ratio
This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the total number of documents retrieved.
Relevance or position depends on the terminology of the text being indexed and the specificity of the
indexing language used.
49.9 Indexing Software Applications
Whether in doing computer assisted or automated indexing, the indexer has a broad range of indexing
software application he/she can choose from. Some of these are listed as follows, with some basic descriptions on
their features.
Aythex Plus (Teeswater, ON: Reference Press)
This was primarily developed for newspaper and magazine indexing. This software requires the
intellectual input and labor of an indexer. The indexer must decide how to classify articles and build a
database of citations and headings. The software sorts the inputs, add cross references, and formats
pages. Authex Plus can also be used for bibliographies, abstracts, vertical file indexes, thesaurus
construction, community information databases, library patron databases, and local history indexes.
CINDEX (New York: Indexing Research)
This program is uniquely capable for preparing book indexes and indexes to newspapers and
other periodical publications. It performs sorting, checking, cross-referencing, and formatting.
MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes)
This software was designed to assist the indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the
author‘s manuscript, or an already completed book. This software performs routinary tasks such as
sorting, printing, repagination, etc.
SKY Index ™ (Winchester, VA: SKY Software)
This so9ftware employs spreadsheet approach to data entry and editing. It contains special
features for sorting order, including frequency of use, and last time of use. The software works for
cross references and it can even be used as a controlled vocabulary tool. It allows the indexer to
specify index entries that will be automatically double-posted and how they will be posted. SKY
Index also allows dragging of entries from the program to word-processed documents.
wINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services)
This software is capable of alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks, combining of identical
entries, and formatting instantaneously and correctly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or
word-by-word. The indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing. He/she may
also specify what words to ignore in alphabetizing subentries. The indexer can choose from either
paragraph style or line-for-line formats. The indexer can also choose whether to apply standard
numbering or chapter-page styles of manuals. Entries and subentries can be sorted by page number or
alphabetical order. The indexer working with this software can make notes on other word-processing
applications without leaving the indexing program. This software also permits the creation of
wINDEX files on word processing applications and merging indexes contained in separate files.
HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown – Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.)
This program serves as a tool for creating and maintaining real indexes for websites, intranets,
and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp, etc.
49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes
There are local and international institutions that serve as models or guidelines for the analysis of
documents, construction and organization of indexes, indexing terminology, construction and use of thesauri, etc.
These institutions promote consistency and uniformity. Among these institutions are the following.
International Organization for Standardization
ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of 146 countries, on the basis of one member
per country. The Central Secretariat which coordinates the system is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
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The following are the ISO documentations that concern the practice of indexing.
ISO 2788-1996 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
monolingual thesauri
ISO 5964-1985 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
multilingual thesauri
ISO 5963-1985 – Documentation – Methods for examining documents, determining their
subjects, and selecting indexing terms
ISO 999-1996 – Information and documentation– Guidelines for the content, organization,
and presentation of indexes
ISO 4-1997 – Information and documentation – Rules for the abbreviation of title words and
titles of publications (It publishes List of Serial Title Word Abbreviations which includes
title word abbreviations in over 50 languages.)
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This standard provides general techniques for document analysis and concept
identification, especially applicable to systems in which subjects of documents are expressed
in summary form, and concepts recorded in the terms of a controlled indexing language.
BS ISO 999-1996 – Information and documentation– Guidelines for the content,
organization, and presentation of indexes
BS DD CEN/TS 14463: 2003 – Health informatics
This is a standard of syntax to represent the content of medical classification systems
(ClaML).
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––––– –Unit 15
Abstracting
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Brevity – Apparently, an abstract should be much shorter that the original document from which they
are derived. . This saves the users‘ time in searching and retrieving their desired information, and
lowers the cost of producing abstracts as well. To achieve this, loss of novelty should not be
sacrificed. Brevity should also mean the prevention of redundancy.
Clarity – This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts of ambiguities. As much as
possible, an abstract is written in a language and style clearly understood by the user.
Chapter 51 – Types of Abstracts
51.1 By Type of Information
Abstracts can be classified into four (4) according to the type of information they contain.
1. Indicative (descriptive) abstract
This abstract simply describes or indicates what the document is about. Its main purpose is to
indicate to the reader of the abstract whether or not he/she would want to read the original document.
2. Informative abstract
This provides readers with quantitative and qualitative information in the present document.
Ideally, such an abstract obviates the necessity to refer to the original. It is intended for experimental
studies but not for theoretical studies or opinion articles.
An abstract can also become indicative-informative if it has the qualities of both.
3. Critical abstract
This abstract does not only describe the document content but also evaluates the work and its
presentation. It indicates the depth and extent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the
quality of work of the author and compares/contrasts it with other works.
Examples: Abstracts found in the following publications:
Applied Mechanics Review
Referativnyi Zhurnal Mekhanika
Mathematical Reviews
At times, this abstract makes value judgment or editorial comment on general papers with broad
overviews, on reviews, and on monographs. If it is heavily editorial, it cannot convey much basic
information and is really just a review of the document rather than a true indication of the contents of
the document.
4. Slanted or special purpose abstract
There are two types.
Discipline-oriented abstract – This one is in which the information or description reported in
a document is oriented to a specific discipline to which the abstracting service is devoted. In
this type of abstract, emphasis may be given to the collateral information like modification of
methods, new instruments, newly discovered documents or data sources, or findings that
were only incidental to the author‘s major purpose.
Mission-oriented abstract – This abstract is written to support application activities that may
or may not be interdisciplinary in nature. It highlights or concentrates on a selected portion of
a document‘s subject content. Mission-oriented abstracts are produced to meet the needs of a
particular industry or group of individuals whose interests are more homogenous and
specialized.
Indicative abstracts should preferably be prepared only when the nature or length of the document being
abstracted will not permit the writing of an informative or informative-indicative abstract. The following are some
typical examples for each type.
Indicative abstract
ADVANCES IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF TANK CARS 3:
THE DESIGNER’S VIEWPOINT
A brief survey covers the gradual development of tank car design from low capacity riveted two-axle
tanks to the two-truck, four axle high-payload cars of today; tank cars designed for the transportation
of class IIIa liquid productsat 1 atm., including the required wall thickness, quality of steel, manner of
construction, accessories, pressure tests of the welded seams, maximum capacity, and load;
pressurized cars for carrying class Id liquefied gases, including the materials specifications, steel
components, X-ray testing of welds, safety valves, level gauges, hydraulic pressure testing, and
separate draining equipment for the liquid and gas phases; frame construction (central guider or side
frame); truck construction (springs and shock absorbers); and trends towards unified European
regulations covering transportation by tank cars, higher speeds and loads, and automatic coupling.
Informative abstract
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51.2 By Writer
There are three (3) possible groups who can prepare abstracts – authors, subject experts, and professional
abstractors.
1. Author-prepared abstract
These abstracts are prepared by authors of documents for publication together with the document.
This is submitted on time since it generally accompanies the article for publication. However, authors
do not necessarily write the best abstracts since they lack training and experience in abstracting as
well as knowledge of abstracting rules.
2. Subject-expert prepared abstract
This type of abstract is prepared by a professional in the subject field concerned. It may be an
excellent high-quality abstract if the subject expert is trained and experienced in the methods and
procedures of abstracting. In general, subject experts volunteer as abstractors, but may not submit
their abstracts on time. They are given a modest honorarium or none at all if they volunteer. Another
agendum they might have is to be up-to-date to developments in their fields by getting liberal access
to information in the documents they abstract.
3. Professional abstractor-prepared abstract
This kind of abstract is prepared by a professional abstractor, a person who has been trained in
the procedures and methods of abstracting. He/she is one who has attained experience in abstracting,
has foreign language expertise, and can cover subject areas in which subject areas cannot be found.
51.3 By Form
There are five (5) possible forms of abstracts.
1. Statistical or tabular abstract
This abstract is a summary of the data presented in tabular form. This is used in certain
specialized subjects, such as economics, sociology and other social sciences, and in applied sciences
like engineering, where data is frequently emphasized exclusively in statistical and tabular form.
Example: Abstracts in Statistical Abstracts of the United States
2. Modular abstract
This abstract is a full content description of a document and consists of five (5) parts.
citation
annotation
indicative abstract
informative abstract
critical abstract
This was designed with the intention that abstracting service could process it to conform to its
own unique requirements with a minimum of effort. Any one of the abstracts could be used, intact or
edited as the case may be. Its purpose is to eliminate duplication and waste of intellectual effort
involved in the independent abstracting of the same documents by several abstracting services.
The following is an example.
Ablation of fiberglass-reinforced phenolic resin. R.E. Rosenweig and N. Beecher.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal 1, 1802-9 (1963)
Annotation
A model was developed for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassy
ablation combined with char-layer-molten-glass reaction.
Indicative
Variables in ablasion of a fiberglass-phenolic resin composite include glass ablation
and plastic pyrolysis, flow of melt, mass loss, reaction-heat absorption, mass injection, and
coupling between pressure and chemical reaction. Mathematical developments and
approximations are discussed. Parametric examinations are made.
Informative
Melting and pyrolysis and other chemical reactions are considered in this theory of
ablation of phenolic-resin fiberglass composite. In this theory, reaction occurs in a surface
film in which carbon from pyrolysis of the resin reacts with the glass. For IRBM reentry,
there is little temperature drop in the reaction zone, usually less than 1% and 6%
maximum. Depth of the reaction zone was one thousandth that of the thermal thickness.
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The unreacting runoff in the melt was 40-80% and was a function of the possible reaction-
enthalpy level. More than 89% of the material reaching the reaction zone was affected. At
1000-2000OC, the reaction assumed was: SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2O. Up to a 25% increase in
the ablation rate appeared only at lower reaction rates. Changing reaction enthalpy three
times changed the reaction rate less than 10%. The value calculated according to this
theory for peak reentry ablation rate was 38% below experimental value,
Critical
This theory of ablation of carbon-contaminated glass extends the work of Bethe and
Adams (Cr. Avco-Everett Research Laboratory, Research Report No. 38, 1958) on glasses.
Experimental ablation was 38% greater than the calculated by this theory. Thorough error
analysis was not included. Spalding (Aero Quarterly 223-74 (Aug. 1961)), and Scala
(General Electric Co. MSVD. report R59SD401 (July 1959); ARS Journal, 917-24) have
treated similar problems.
3. Structured abstract
This refers to an abstract in non-narrative form wherein the abstractor lists the items in a
worksheet or template as these are found in the document. This kind of abstract works well only for a
subject area in which the essential elements/items are more or less the same from one study to
another. This abstract may also take a form in which subheadings (e.g. background of the study,
objectives, methods, results, and conclusion) are included to facilitate scanning. Such type is
commonly used in abstracting medical journals. Below is an example of a structured abstract.
BACKGROUND: Structured abstracts – which, like the present one, contain several
subheadings – have replaced traditional abstracts in most medical journals. Evaluation
studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, are of a higher quality,
facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed.
AIM: The aim of the studies reported here was to investigate a possible advantage for
structured abstracts – namely: whether or not they are easier to search.
METHOD: Two studies are reported. In study 1, using an electronic database, 52 readers
were asked to find the answers to two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the other
format (say, traditional, followed by two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the
other format). Time and error data were recorded automatically. In Study 2, using a printed
database, 56 readers were asked to find five abstracts that reported a particular kind of
study (e.g., studies with school children and reading tests) and then to find five more that
reported another kind of study. Again, the order of presentation of the format of ther
abstracts was counterbalanced. Time and error data were recorded manually.
RESULTS: In Study 1, the participants performed significantly faster and made
significantly fewer errors using the structured abstracts. There were, however, some
unexplainable practice effects. In Study 2, the participants again performed significantly
faster and made significantly fewer errors with the structured abstracts. In Study 2,
however, there were asymmetrical transfer effects; participants who responded first to the
structured abstracts responded more quickly to the following traditional ones than did those
participants who responded first to the traditional abstracts.
CONCLUSIONS: The overall findings, notwithstanding certain caveats, support the
hypothesis that it is easier for readers to search structured abstracts than it is to search
traditional ones.
4. Mini abstract
This is a highly-structured abstract designed primarily for computer-aided searches. It actually is
an index-cum-abstract rolled into one. The terms used in this abstract are drawn from a controlled
vocabulary and are arranged in a specific sequence nearly approximating that of a sentence structure.
It is also known as machine-readable index-abstract.
Example: Statement: A method is described for the determination
of strontium and barium in human bone by radioactive
analysis.
Mini abstract: /METHOD/DETERM/STRONTIUM/BARIUM/
BONE/HUMAN/RADIOACTIVATION/
ANALYSIS
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5. Telegraphic abstract
This document representation is presented in complete sentences which resemble a telegram. At
times, it is just a string of terms without syntax. It originated in the early computerized retrieval
system development at Western Reserve University.
Chapter 52 – Abstracting: Techniques, Methods, and Standards
52.1 Abstracting Plan
An abstracting plan is a record of basic abstracting decisions. It should be developed in advance of any
actual abstracting activity. This should be maintained, revised, and updated periodically. There are some reasons
why an abstracting plan should be developed.
to ensure that the principles of abstracting (i.e. accuracy, brevity, and clarity) are always borne in
mind in order that researchers will be lead to the relevant documents
to save the reading time of the user
to be consistent in the type of abstracts to be produced
to keep the abstract within reasonable limits
to ensure that the abstractor follows the library‘s or information center‘s policy as to how the abstract
should be structured.
The following criteria should be carefully considered in developing an abstracting plan.
Users of the abstract
Determine who the users are, their information-seeking behavior, and their needs with regard to
the currency, accuracy, and reliability of the abstract, their point of view, and their terminology
preferences.
Documents to be abstracted
Which documents acquired by the library/information need to be abstracted?
Parts of the documents to be abstracted
Which items in the documents will be of utmost interest to the users of the abstract?
Type of abstract to produce
This will determine if abstracts will be indicative, informative, indicative-informative, structured,
slanted, slanted but indicative, slanted but informative, and so on.
52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures
Relative to the abstracting plan, an abstracting manual of procedures provides specific guidelines in
abstracting various types of documents. It is considered more as a manual of style in abstracting.
The following are usually included in the manual of procedures in abstracting.
a summary of the abstracting process (i.e. reading and understanding the document, selecting the
important phrases and passages, organizing these to produce a rough draft, and writing the final draft)
instructions on transcribing the bibliographic reference whether on paper or electronic worksheets
rules on the sequence of the bibliographic elements
transcribing the author‘s/authors‘ name(s)
number of author‘s name(s) to be transcribed if there are more than three
natural or inverted order of transcribing
transcribing the title of the article
which words in the title should be capitalized
transcribing the title of the periodical
in full or abbreviated form (if abbreviated, what standards must be observed)
italicized or underlined
transcribing the volume and/or issue number
transcribing inclusive pages of article
transcribing date of publication
abbreviations for month and year
instructions on style of writing, particularly on the following items
Topic sentence – Begin the abstract with a topic sentence.
Sentences within the abstract – Use complete sentences but simple, and transitional words and
phrases for coherence.
Verbs – Use verbs in the active voice.
Pronouns – Use third-person pronouns.
Language – Use simple language.
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Objective or purpose – This should be stated unless this is already clear from the title of the
document or can be derived from the remainder part of the abstract.
Methodology – The techniques of approaches employed should be described but only to the
degree necessary for comprehension. New techniques should be identified clearly and the basic
methodological principle, the range of operation and the accuracy obtained would be described as
well.
Results and conclusion – Results and conclusions should be clearly presented. These may be
abstracted jointly to avoid redundancy.
In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must be highlighted. Furthermore,
collateral and additional information may be added. Collateral information includes findings or information
incidental to the main purpose of the study, including modification of methods, new instruments, new compounds,
and newly discovered documents or data sources. Additional information includes tables, illustrations, and
references. These may be included in an abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract.
Example: 4 tab., 5 fig., 10 ref.
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In special cases, abstracts may run to as many as 205-500 words. The following table lists the component
of typical abstracts of scientific documents and their approximate proportion to the total length of the abstract.
Description for each component is also given.
Component Description Approximate
Proportion
Nature and scope of States the ―what‖ and the boundaries and 3%
study limitations of the study
Objectives States the ―why‖ of the study 7%
Research methods Describes briefly but comprehensively the 15%
techniques or approaches used, the tests and
the measurements employed, and the
respondents studied
Findings Presents concisely the results of the study 70%
Conclusion Gives the conclusions of the study and 5%
suggested courses of action to be taken
52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools
The following is a summary of popular titles of abstracting tools that flourished throughout their history.
17th to 19th century
Le Journal de Scavans. Paris: French Academy of Sciences, 1665-
Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt. 1830-
Physics Abstracts. London: Institute of Electrical Engineering, 1898-
Science Abstracts. 1898-
20th century
Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: BIOSIS, 1926-
Bulletin Signelatique. Paris, 1940-
Chemical Abstracts. Columbus, Ohio: American Chemical Society, 1907-
Dissertation Abstracts International. Ann-Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International,
1938-
Electroanalytic Abstracts. 1963-
Excerpts Medica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1948-
Fertilizer Abstracts. Muscle Shoals, Ala.: Tennessee Valley Authority, National Fertilizer
Development Center, Technical Library, 1968-
Historical Abstracts. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1955-
Journal of Current Laser Abstracts. 1967-
Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: The Library Association. 1969-
Mathematical Reviews. Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 194?-
Nucleic Acid Abstracts. 1971-
Psychological Abstracts. Wash., D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1927-
Referativnyi Zhurnal. Moscow, 1954-
Sociological Abstracts
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–Unit 16
IT for LIS Episode 1:
–––––
Computers and Data Resource Management
Chapter 53 – The Development of Computers and Information Systems
53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines
53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the Analytical Engine
53.3 Early Computers
53.4 First Generation of Computers
53.5 Second Generation of Computers
53.6 Third Generation of Computers
53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
53.9 Computers and Information System
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It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never became operational because of the involvement of the
inventors in US military efforts in World War II.
In 1944, Howard Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the Automatic Sequence
controlled Calculator), the first electromechanical computer. It can solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster
than existing machines.
The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to perform quickly and accurately the complex
calculations that gunners needed to aim their artillery weapons. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a
speed of several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired into the processor and
had to be manually altered.
The scientists of the Cambridge University in England designed the world‘s first electronic computer that
stored its program of instructions, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more
flexibility in the use of the computer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage, based on
the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann of Pennsylvania University. The
instructions, like the data, were stored within a ―memory‖, freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the
paper-tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the computer. This
concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at Bletchley Park, north of
London, created one of the first all-electronic digital computers: Colossus. By December 1943, Colossus, which
incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes, was operational. It was used by the team headed by Alan Turing, in the largely
successful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the Enigma code.
53.4 First Generation of Computers
The first generation of computers (1951-1959) is characterized by use of the vacuum tube and were very
large in size (a mainframe can occupy the whole room).
The first business computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), was developed in 1951. It
was invented to improve information processing in business organizations.
In 1953, IBM produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701—a machine designed to be mass-produced
and easily installed in a customer‘s building. The success of the 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines
for commercial data processing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such a healthy
share of today‘s computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly good indicator of how rapidly the
business world accepted electronic data processing. Initial sales forecasts were extremely low because the machine
was thought to be too expensive, but over 1,800 were eventually made and sold.
The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas Instruments in 1958 is considered
as a great invention which changed how the world functions. It is the heart of all electronic equipment today.
Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace Murray Hopper. It is a verbose, English-like
programming language. Its establishment as a required language by the United States Department of Defense, its
emphasis on data structures, and its English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage, especially in
business applications. It is a champion of standardized programming languages that are hardware independent.
COBOL is run in many types of computers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.
53.5 Second Generation of Computers
The invention of the transistor marked the start of second generation of computers (ca. 1954-1964) which
were smaller in size (a mainframe can be the size of a closet). Second generation computers were smaller, faster,
and more versatile logical elements than were possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much
less power and have a much longer life, components became smaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the
system became much less expensive to build. The Honeywell 400 computer is the first in the line op of second
generation computers.
In the 1950‘s and 1960‘s, only the largest companies could afford the six to seven digit tags of mainframe
computers. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the PDP-8, which is generally considered as the first
successful transistor-based microcomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands from business
and scientific organizations.
53.6 Third Generation of Computers
Even if the first IC was invented earlier during the era of first generation computers, it was only in late
1960s when it was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with
interconnecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure rate. This was
the start of third generation computers (mid-1960s to mid 1970s).
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Some historians consider the IBM System/360 of computers the single most important innovation in the
history of computers. It was conceived as a family of computers with upward compatibility, when a company
outgrew one model it could move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data. This made all
previous computers obsolete.
In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC). a high-level programming language,
was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity
mostly because it can be learned and used quickly. The language has changed over the years, from a teaching
language into a versatile and powerful language of both business and scientific applications.
In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, developed a
multi-user computer system named Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service). They eventually
implemented a rudimentary operating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the name became
UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability: the operating system can run in all types
of computers, is machine-independent, and supports multi-user processing, multitasking, and networking. UNIX is
used in high-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which was also developed by Ritchie and
Thompson.
53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers
The introduction of large-scale integration of circuitry (more circuits per unit of space) is the mark of the
beginning of fourth generation of computers. The base technology, though, is still the IC, had significant
innovations after two decades have passed. The computer industry actually experienced a mind-bogging succession
of advancements in the further miniaturization of circuitry, data communications, and the design of computer
hardware and software. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large-
scale integrated (LSI) circuit.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the computer industry. They developed the BASIC programming
language for the first commercially-available microcomputer, the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the
project, the two formed Microsoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influential software
company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when its operating system software, MS-DOS was
selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates, now the wealthiest person in the world, provides the company‘s vision of
new product ideas and technologies.
One important entrepreneurial venture during the early years is the Apple II personal computer, which was
introduced in 1977. This event has forever changed how society perceives computers: that computing is made
available to individuals and very small companies.
IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBM personal computer in 1981.
By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold. When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM
PC, many companies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM PC and its clones have
become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.
In 1982, Michael Kapor founded the Lotus Development Company, a subsidiary of IBM. It introduced an
electronic spreadsheet product (Lotus 123) and gave IBM PC credibility in the business marketplace. Sales of IBM
PC and Lotus 123 soared.
In 1984, Apple Macintosh introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with a very friendly graphical user
interface (GUI). This was a proof that computers can be easy and fun to use. GUI began to change the complexion
of the software industry. They have changed the interaction between the user and the computer from a short,
character-oriented exchange modeled from the teletypewriter to the now famous WIMP interface (WIMP stands for
windows, icons, menus, and pointing devices).
It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating system for IBM PC compatible
computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptance until 1990, with the release of Windows 3.0. It gave a
huge boost to the software industry because larger, more complex programs could not be run on IBM-PC
compatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to use, fueling the PC explosion in the 1990s.
In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed LINUX, a reliable and compactly designed operating system that is an
offshoot of UNIX and can be run on many different hardware platforms. It is available free or at very low cost.
LINUX was used as an alternative to the costly Windows Operating System.
In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel microprocessor chips, then a succession of
even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium and its successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the
integration of motion, video, animation, graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered Intel
Pentium processors and their ability to handle multimedia applications changed the way people view and use PCs.
It was also in this year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet for news. The World Wide
Web (WWW), one of several internet-based applications, came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is
unique that it enabled Web pages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers were introduced
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(e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by Marc Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by
Microsoft Corporation). These browsers enabled users to navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW
is the foundation for most Internet communications and services. The World Wide Web was actually created in
1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer in Geneva, Switzerland.
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit
(microchip), with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also
characterized by network computers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.
The year 1996 marked the 50th year of computer history. The US Postal service issued stamps that
commemorated the 50th anniversary of ENIAC, the first full-scale computer and the 50 years of computer
technology that followed. It was during this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to the
world that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand. Nowadays, millions of people
rely on handhelds for a variety of personal information management applications, including e-mail.
In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as the millennium bug. It may
have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confront the businesses of the world. For most of the 20 th century,
information systems had only two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But what would happen when the
20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-compliant computers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for
January 1, 2000 as being January 1, 1900. Y2K heightened management‘s awareness of how critical information
technology is to the operation of any organization.
Jack Kilbey‘s first IC contained a single transistor. Tens of thousands engineers around the world have
built on his invention, such that each year, our society is the beneficiary of smaller, more powerful, cheaper chips.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit
elements into smaller and smaller chip space. In 1999, scientists developed a circuit the size of a single layer of
molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that it had developed new technology to produce computer chips that
operate five times faster than the most advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovered a way to
transfer information on an atomic level without relying on traditional wires or circuits. This effect, dubbed the
quantum mirage, describes how an atom of matter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects
itself at other points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are also trying to speed up
circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance
observed in certain materials at very low temperatures.
Whether we are moving into a fifth generation of computing is a subject of debate since the concept of
generations may no longer fit the continual, rapid changes occurring in computer hardware, software, data, and
networking technologies. But in any case, we can be sure that progress in computing will continue to accelerate and
that the development of Internet-based technologies and applications will be one of the major forces driving
computing in the 21st century.
53.9 Computers and Information Systems
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store and execute a
program of instructions, perform mathematical and logical operations on data, and report the results. A computer
system has the following common features regardless of brand, type, or size.
input and output devices
primary and secondary storage
processor and control unit
peripheral devices
Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be
divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance.
Mainframe computer – This is a large, expensive machine with the capability of serving the needs of
major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments, or the like.
Midrange computer or minicomputer – This is a middle-sized computer that is capable of supporting
the computing needs of smaller organizations or of managing networks of other computers. It is
generally too expensive for personal use, and has capabilities suited to a business, school, or
laboratory
Microcomputer – This is a small computer used in systems for universities, factories, or research
laboratories. Under this category are the following:
personal computer – a relatively low-cost machine, usually of desktop size (though laptops are
small enough to fit in a briefcase, and palmtops can fit into a pocket, or even wearable PCs);
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server – computer that is specifically optimized to provide software and other resources to other
computers over a network; and
server farm – a large group of servers maintained by a commercial vendor and made available via
subscription for electronic commervce and other activities requiring heavy use of servers.
Workstation – This is a desktop computer with enhanced graphics, mathematical, and
communications capabilities that make it especially useful to perform complicated tasks at once. They
are ideal for office work.;
Supercomputers – This is a highly sophisticated and powerful computer that can perform very
complex operations in extreme speed.
Thin client – This computer functions only when connected to a server.
Information system is not a concept that is purely confined in computers. An information system (IS) is a
set of people, procedures, and resources that collects, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization.
It is a system that accepts data resources as input and process them as information products as output.
An information system can be an organized combination of:
hardware (physical equipment, machines, media; may be mechanical, electronic, electrical, magnetic,
or optical device)
software (computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of the information system)
data/information
Data – streams of raw facts
Information – processed data
people (information specialists, librarians, knowledge workers, IT people, etc.)
communication networks (LAN, client/server networks, internet, intranet, etc.)
A computer-based information system (CBIS) relies on computer hardware and software for processing
and disseminating information. The librarian or information specialist provides and delivers information systems
services, which nowadays is usually computer-based.
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Mouse – This was invented by Douglas Englebert and was popularized by its inclusion as standard
equipment with the Apple Macintosh. It helps a user navigate through a graphical computer interface.
It is generally mapped so that an on-screen cursor may be controlled by moving the mouse across a
flat surface. There are many variations on mouse design, but they all work in a similar manner. Some
mouse units feature a scroller, which provides a better way of scrolling through documents vertically
and/or horizontally. The latter optomechanical mouse eliminates the need for many of the wear-
related repairs and maintenance necessary with purely mechanical mice.
.Joystick – This performs the same function as the mouse. It is favored for computer games. A
joystick usually has a square or rectangular plastic base to which is attached a vertical stem. Control
buttons are located on the base and sometimes on top of the stem. The stem can be moved in all
directions to control the movement of an object on the screen. The buttons activate various software
features, generally producing on-screen events. A joystick is usually a relative pointing device,
moving an object on the screen when the stem is moved from the centre and stopping the movement
when the stem is released. In industrial control applications, the joystick can also be an absolute
pointing device, with each position of the stem mapped to a specific on-screen location.
Trackball – This can be roughly described as a mouse on its back. It consists of a ball resting on two
rollers at right angles to each other, which translate the ball's motion into vertical and horizontal
movement on the screen. It typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. The only
functional difference between a mechanical mouse and a trackball is in how the ball is moved. With a
trackball, the housing is stationary, and the ball is rolled with the hand. A trackball is useful for fine
work because the user can exert fingertip control. Another major advantage of a trackball is that it
takes up little desktop surface. This replaces the mouse on some laptop computers.
Graphics tablet – This pointing device is also called a digitizing tablet. It is a flat plastic rectangle
with subsurface electronics, used in conjunction with a pointing device in many engineering and
design applications as well as in illustration work. When a pointing device, like a puck (or even the
finger), is moved on the surface of the tablet, the location of the device is translated to a specific on-
screen cursor position.
Puck – This is often used in engineering applications. It is a mouse-like device with buttons for
selecting items or choosing commands and a clear plastic section extending from one end with cross
hairs printed on it. The intersection of the cross hairs on the puck points to a location on the graphics
tablet, which in turn is mapped to a specific location on the screen. Since the puck's cross hairs are on
a transparent surface, a drawing can easily be traced by placing it between the graphics tablet and the
puck and moving the cross hairs over the lines of the drawing.
Scanner – This input device uses light-sensing equipment to read information in paper or another
medium, and translate the pattern of light and dark (or color) into a digital signal that can be
manipulated by either optical character recognition software or graphics software. A frequently
encountered type of scanner is flatbed, meaning that the scanning device moves across or reads across
a stationary document. Another type of flatbed scanner uses a scanning element placed in a stationary
housing above the document. Other scanners work by pulling in sheets of paper, which are scanned as
they pass over a stationary scanning mechanism, as in the common office fax machine. Some
specialized scanners, like barcode readers, work with a standard video camera, translating the video
signal into a digital signal for computer processing. Another popular type of scanner is the hand-held
scanner, a scanner held in the user‘s hand is moved over the document to be scanned.
Light pen – This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, which is attached to the
computer, up to the screen and selects items or chooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a
mouse click) either by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light pen against
the surface of the screen. The light pen doesn't require a special screen or screen coating, as does a
touch screen, but its disadvantage is that holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to
the user.
Touch screen – This is a computer screen designed or modified to recognize the location of a touch on
its surface. By touching the screen, the user can make a selection or move a cursor.. The touch
screen's popularity with personal-computer users has been limited because users must hold their hands
in midair to point at the screen, which is prohibitively tiring over extended periods. Also, touch
screens do not offer high resolution—the user is not able to touch only a specific point on the screen.
Touch screens are, however, immensely popular in applications such as information kiosks because
they offer pointing control without requiring any movable hardware and because touching the screen
is intuitive
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Card reader – This is a device that can acquire and process information stored in electronic cards like
ATM cards, ID cards, special privilege cards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly found in
commercial establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtain necessary information about
the customer or client.
Voice recognition system – It may be any device and software which together, take spoken words and
translate them into digital signals for the computer. A typical device used in speech recognition is a
microphone. Speech recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spoken word for the
purpose of receiving commands and data input from the speaker. This method is also fairly reliable
provided the speaker's speech patterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-
text conversion.
Storage devices can also be used to input data into the processing unit. An example is the transfer of data
from an external storage device to the computer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with stored images,
or any other external storage device.
54.3 Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system where manipulation of data,
(symbols, numbers, and letters) occurs. It also controls other parts of the system.
The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that
time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips
called microprocessors, common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory, logic, and control circuits
for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The development of the microprocessor was made possible through
miniaturization and integration techniques.
The speed and performance of a computer‘s microprocessor help determine a computer‘s processing
power. These are based on the following.
Word length – This refers to the number of bits that the computer can process at one time (e.g. a 64-
bit chip can process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in a single cycle). The larger the word length, the greater the
computer‘s speed.
Cycle speed – This is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This indicates the number of
cycles per second (e.g. a 500 MHz Intel Pentium III processor will have 500 million cycles per
second).
Data bus width – This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primary storage, and other devices,
which determines how much data can be moved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit word length
but only an 8-bit data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only be moved 8 bits at a
time).
Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections:
Arithmetic/logic unit – This gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and logical
operations.
Registers – These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold the
location and results of these operations.
Control section - The control section has three principal duties.
It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system
Its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates the pattern
into an activity, such as adding or comparing
Its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and regulates the
amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.
Internal bus. – This segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is a network of communication lines
that connects the internal elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that link the
processor to the other elements of the computer system. There are three types of CPU buses
Control bus – This consists of a line that senses input signals and another line that generates
control signals from within the CPU.
Address bus – This is a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data in
memory addresses.
Data bus – This is a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes new data
into memory.
There are certain ways that can speed up processing.
Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) – This technology is used to enhance the speed of
microprocessors by embedding only the most frequently used instructions on a chip.
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Parallel processing – This is a type of processing in which more than one instruction can be
processed at a time by breaking down a problem into smaller parts and processing them
simultaneously with multiple processors.
Massively parallel processing – This is similar to parallel processing, only that hundreds or thousands
of processing chips are used to attack large computing problems simultaneously.
The manner in which data are input into the computer affects how the data can be processed. Information
systems collect and process information in one or two ways.
Batch processing – This is a method of collecting and processing data in which transactions are
accumulated and stored until a specified time when it is convenient or necessary to process them as a
group.
On-line processing – This In this method, transactions are entered directly into the computer system
and processed immediately.
Aside from the computer‘s CPU, another computer hardware that can be considered under this category is
the motherboard (or the main board). This is the main circuit board containing the primary components of a
computer system. This board contains the microprocessor, main memory, support circuitry, and bus controller and
connector. Other boards, including expansion memory and input/output boards, may attach to the motherboard via
the bus connector.
54.4 Primary Storage
Primary storage refers to temporary storage of data and program instructions during processing. It is also
known as internal storage since it stores data in the computer memory. There are two types.
RAM (Random Access Memory) – These are chips that are mounted directly on the computer‘s main
circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computer‘s main circuit
board. They are called so because the computer can directly access any randomly chosen location in
the same amount of time. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to
changes in electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows
through the circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at
regular intervals—every two milliseconds or so—if they are not to lose their information. RAM is
used for short-term storage of data or program instructions. It is volatile – meaning its contents will be
lost when the computer‘s electric supply is turned off.
ROM (Read-Only Memory) – These chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer needs
to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and used
again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. ROM is non-volatile.
ROM can only be read from it; it cannot be written to. ROM chips come from manufacturers with
programs already burned in or stored. ROM is used in general-purpose computers to store important
or frequently-used programs. Like RAM, ROM chips are linked by circuitry to the CPU.
Primary storage has three main functions.
They store all or part of the software program that is being executed.
They store the operating system programs that manage the operation of he computer.
They hold the data that the program is using.
Computer storage is measured in bytes. A byte is equivalent to a string of eight bits. If byte is prefixed
with kilo (i.e. kilobyte), it becomes 1,000 bytes; such that 100 kilobytes (KB) is 100,000 bytes. Megabyte (MB) is
1,000,000 bytes; gigabyte (GB) is 1,000,000,000 bytes; and terabyte (TB) is 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.
54.5 Secondary Storage
Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used in processing. Relatively, they are
long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside the CPU or primary storage. Secondary storage is also known as
external storage because it does not use the computer memory to store data. External storage devices, which may
actually be located within the computer housing, are external to the main circuit board. These devices store data as
charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a
fine layer of metallic particles.
The most popular secondary storage devices include the following.
Magnetic disks – This broad category includes the following.
Floppy disk – The floppy disk in normal use stores about 800 KB or about 1.4 MB.
ZIP disk – A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greater capacity.
Hard disk – Hard, or ―fixed‖, disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which
contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks
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currently used with personal computers can store from several hundred megabytes to several
gigabytes.
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) – This is a disk storage technology to boost disk
performance by packing more than 100 smaller disk drives with a control chip and a specialized
software in a single large unit to deliver data over multiple paths simultaneously.
Optical disks – These disks use the same laser techniques that are used to create audio compact discs
(CDs). Under this genre are:
CD-ROM – This is an acronym for compact disc read-only memory, a form of storage
characterized by high capacity (roughly 600 MB) and the use of laser optics rather than magnetic
means for reading data.
WORM – This is an acronym for write once, read many. This is very much like the CD-ROM.
This type of optical disc can be read and reread but cannot be altered after it has been recorded.
WORMs are high-capacity storage devices. Because they cannot be erased and re-recorded, they
are suited to storing archives and other large bodies of unchanging information.
CD-R and CD-RW – In simple definition, these are blank CD-ROM that are ready for data
storage. A CD-R is similar to a WORM which cannot be erased or re-recorded. A CD-RW is
capable of being erased and re-recorded.
DVD - This is short for digital versatile disc. The group of DVD disc formats includes various
forms of data recording for computer purposes, including discs that contain pre-recorded data
(DVD-ROM) and discs that can be rewritten many times (DVD-RAM). These are several times
the capacity of CD-ROMs. The simple single-layer version of the DVD holds between 3.7 and
4.38 GB (with double-layer versions holding 15.9 GB), compared to the 650 MB of CD-ROMs.
These higher capacity discs are used particularly for computer games and in multimedia
applications.
DVD-R and DVD-RW – These are blank optical disks in DVD format ready for data storage, just
like CD-R and CR-RW.
54.6 Output Devices
Output devices enable the user to see the results of the computer‘s calculations or data manipulations.
They present data in a form the user of the computer can understand.
The most common output device can deliver either the soft copy or the hard copy of the data. Devices that
render soft copy are the following
Video display unit (VDU) – This is commonly known as the monitor, which displays characters and
graphics on a television-like screen. It usually has a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set,
but small, portable computers use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescent screens.
Audio output devices – These are responsible for the sound that the user hears from the computer.
These include the sound card and the speakers. The sound card is a computer circuit board that allows
the computer to receive sound in digital form and reproduce it through speakers.
External storage devices – These include floppy disks, compact disks,, external hard disks, etc.
Interactive multimedia – This is the combination of audio, video, and text on high-capacity compact
discs. CD-I includes such features as image display and resolution, animation, special effects, and
audio. Interactive multimedia includes the following materials.
e-books and e-newspapers
electronic classroom presentation technologies
full motion videoconferencing
imaging
graphic design tools
video and voice mail
interactive web pages
multimedia web sites (they render digitized music and videos)
There are only two output devices known to reindeer hard copy of data.
Printers – These are computer peripherals that put text or a computer-generated image on paper or on
another medium, such as a transparency. Printers can be categorized in several different ways. The
most common distinction is impact and non-impact.
Impact printers physically strike the paper and are exemplified by pin dot-matrix printers and
daisy-wheel printers.
Non-impact printers include every other type of print mechanism, including thermal, ink-jet, and
laser printers.
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Other possible methods of categorizing printers include (but are not limited to) the following:
Print technology – Chief among these, with microcomputers, are pin dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser,
thermal, and (although somewhat outdated) daisy-wheel or thimble printers. Pin dot-matrix
printers can be further classified by the number of pins in the print head: 9, 18, 24, and so on.
Character formation – Fully formed characters are made of continuous lines (for example, those
produced by a daisy-wheel printer) versus dot-matrix characters composed of patterns of dots
(such as those produced by standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, and thermal printers). Laser printers,
while technically dot-matrix, are generally considered to produce fully formed characters because
their output is very clear and the dots are extremely small and closely spaced.
Method of transmission – This is parallel (byte-by-byte transmission) versus serial (bit-by-bit
transmission). These categories refer to the means by which output is sent to the printer rather
than to any mechanical distinctions. Many printers are available in either serial or parallel
versions, and some printers offer both choices, yielding greater flexibility in installation options.
Method of printing – This can either be character by character, line by line, or page by page.
Character printers include standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, thermal, and daisy-wheel printers. Line
printers include the band, chain, and drum printers that are commonly associated with large
computer installations or networks. Page printers include the electrophotographic printers, such as
laser printers.
Print capability – Printers may print in either text-only or text-and-graphics modes. Text-only
printers, including most daisy-wheel and thimble printers and some dot-matrix and laser printers,
can reproduce only characters for which they have matching patterns, such as embossed type, or
internal character maps. Text-and-graphics printers—dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and others—can
reproduce all manner of images by ―drawing‖ each as a pattern of dots.
Computer-output microform – These are outpot devices that can render microscopic format of
documents.
54.7 Communication Devices
Communication devices control the passing of information to and from communication networks. It
consists of both physical devices and software that link the various pieces of hardware and transfer data from one
physical location to another. Computers and communications equipment can be connected in networks for sharing
voice, data, images, sound, video, or even a combination of all these.
The most familiar communication device in a typical computer is the modem. a device that converts
between analogue and digital signals. The modem works by, and derives its name from, a process of modulating
and demodulating. In the first instance, the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal. In the second,
the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals. Modems are most frequently used to
enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a
personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an Internet service provider. The service provider‘s premises
are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmit s data to
each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a
time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 megabits per second.
These are used as components in leading-edge communications services.
Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology to overcome that distance,
has the following system components.
Computer terminals which process information
Input and output devices that send or receive data
Communication channel. which include the telephone line, fiber-optic cables, coaxial cables, and
wireless transmission technologies like infra-red (IR) and Bluetooth technologies
Communication processors such as modems, multiplexers, controllers, and front end processors
Communication software, which control input and output activities and manage other function
networks in the communication networks
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screen savers
data recovery and back-up utilities
virus-detection programs
data compression and disk defragmenter tools
device drivers
spooling programs
internet security programs
55.3 Application Software
Application software is a program written for a specific application to perform function specified the the
end user. It must work through the system software in order to operate.
The following are features common to all application software programs.
WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) – What appers exactly in the computer monitor is
exactly as they would be finally produced.
White space – The area where the work is done is commonly white (unless the user changes the
default color).
Cursor – This indicates where particularly in the document are the current and next operations
applied.
Panning – The user can scroll through the document to the left or to the right.
Desktop – This is usually the entire screen area that is available for GUI.
Desktop accessories – These are features commonly found on a conventional office desktop like
toolbars, icons, forms, drop-down lists, check boxes, etc.
Clipart – These are artwork designed for import usually to text documents or charts.
Object linking embedding (OLE) – This lets one to embed an object created using one application into
another application. This is common in integrated software packages.
The following is a categorization of application software commonly used nowadays.
Word processing software – These are programs that are used to enter, store, manipulate, and print
text (or sometimes text with images) to produce documents.
Examples: MS Word
Office Writer
Star Office Writer
Electronic spreadsheets – These are programs that are used for file containing data and formulas in
tabular format. They are capable of easily recalculating numerical data.
Examples: MS Excel
SPSS
Calc
Database management software – These are used for creating and manipulating lists, creating files
and databases to store data, and combining information for reports.
Examples: MS Access
Integrated Library System Software
File Maker Pro
Presentation graphics software – These are programs that create quality graphics presentations that
can incorporate charts, sound, animation, photos, and video clips.
Examples: MS PowerPoint
Lotus Freelance Graphics
Integrated software packages and software suites – These come in bundles of two or more
applications, which provide easy transfer of data between them. Integrated software suites have
capabilities for supporting collaborative work on the Web or incorporating information from the Web
into documents (e.g. MS Office 2000, XP, and 2003).
Examples: MS Office
Lotus Notes
Personal information management software – These are equipped with appointment scheduling
systems, calendars, contact lists, e-mail browsers, and other applications used for orfganizing personal
data and information.
Examples: MS Outlook
Palm OS
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HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) – This is the standard text formatting language for documents
on the World Wide Web since 1989. HTML documents are text files that contain two parts: content
that is meant to be rendered on a computer screen; and markup or tags, encoded information that
directs the text format on the screen and is generally hidden from the user. HTML is a subset of a
broader language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a system for
encoding and formatting documents, whether for output to a computer screen or to be printed on
paper.
XML (Extensible Markup Language) – This was created to structure, store, and send electronic
information. In appearance, XML is similar to the familiar HTML used to create pages on the World
Wide Web. The main difference between the two is that HTML is used to describe how Web pages
should look while XML is designed to describe what the information on a Web page actually means.
Put another way, HTML is about displaying information, while XML is about describing information.
XML is not a replacement for HTML; it was designed for a specific purpose with an overall intent
that it should complement HTML.
Chapter 56 – Data Resources Management
56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies
The management of data and information in computers typically involves databases. A database is a
collection of data organized for storage in a computer memory and designed for easy access by authorized users. It
serves many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. The data may be in the
form of text, numbers, or encoded graphics.
Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases have become so important in industrial
societies that they can be found in almost every field of information. Government, military, and industrial databases
are often highly restricted, and professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide range of commercial,
governmental, and non-profit databases are available to the general public and may be used by anyone who owns or
has access to the equipment that they require.
The organization of data in databases involves some terminologies.
character – consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol
field – a grouping of characters into a word, a grouping of words, or a complete number; such as a
person‘s name or age
record – a group of related fields
file – a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehow related
entity – a person, place, thing, or event about which information must be kept
attribute – a piece of information describing an entity
key field – a field in a record that uniquely identifies instances of that record so that it can be retrieved,
sorted, or updated
query - a statement defined by the user, which instructs the database management system (DBMS)
the find and retrieve the wanted record or information
tuple – a row or record in a relational database
56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure
Database management system (DVMS) is a special software or a computer program that controls the
creation, maintenance, and use of a database of an organization and its end users. It has three (3) components:
a data definition language
a data manipulation language
a data dictionary
Many database management software packages make use of SQL (Structured Query Language). It is the
most prominent data manipulation language today.
A typical database consists of several database objects. The following objects are the usual components of
a database. Other database management programs may use a different name for some of the objects.
Table
A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table‘s definition consists of a list of
fields, each of which stores a discrete piece of information for a single record.
Queries
Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a single table, from a group of related
tables, or from other queries, using criteria you define. By saving a query as a database object, the
query can be run at any time, using the current contents of the database. They may sometimes look
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exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each row of the query‘s results may consist of fields
drawn from several tables. A query may also contain calculated fields, which display results based on
the contents of other fields.
Forms
Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generally one record at a time. They can
closely resemble paper forms such as invoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry
with data validation rules. A form may also include a subforin that displays information from a related
table.
Reports
Reports enables the user to present data from one or more tables or queries in a readable style and
a professional format, generally for printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data,
with each row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statistical summary of a large quantity
of information. A report design can include grouping and sorting options.
Macro
A macro is a set of one or more actions that perform a particular operation, such as opening a
form or printing a report. Macros can help to automate common tasks. For example, the user can run a
macro that prints a report when a user clicks a command button. A macro can be one macro composed
of a sequence of actions, or it can be a macro group.
Module
A module is essentially a collection of declarations, statements, and procedures stored together as
one named unit to organize Visual Basic code or nay other code used by the database which are
generated by other programming languages.
In designing a database, the following steps should be applied.
Determine the purpose of your database.
The first step in designing a database is to determine its purpose and how it's to be used.
Talk to people who will use the database.
Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database to answer.
Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather the forms you currently use
to record your data.
As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want from the database
will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts you need to store in the database and
what subject each fact belongs to. These facts correspond to the fields (columns) in your database, and
the subjects that those facts belong to correspond to the tables.
Determine the fields you need in the database.
Each field is a fact about a particular subject. For example, you might need to store the following
facts about customers: company name, address, city, state, and phone number. You need to create a
separate field for each of these facts.
Determine the relationships between tables.
Now that you've divided your information into tables and identified primary key fields, you need
a way to tell the database how to bring related information back together again in meaningful ways.
To do this, you define relationships between tables.
Refine the design.
After designing the tables, fields, and relationships needed, it's time to study the design and detect
any flaws that might remain. It is easier to change the database design at this point than it will be after
you have filled the tables with data.
Test the design.
Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test the design. To test the relationships in the
database, see if you can create queries to get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of forms and
reports and see if they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications of data and
eliminate them.
Enter data and create other database objects.
If table structures meet the design principles described and is determined to serve its purpose
effectively, then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data to the tables. Other database objects can
already be created at this point, such as queries, forms, reports, macros, modules, and other available
objects.
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Computer viruses
A computer virus is a program that ―infects‖ computer files (usually other executable programs)
by inserting copies of itself in those files. This is usually done in such a manner that the copies will be
executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on.
Viruses often have damaging side effects, sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. PC users can
safeguard their files using anti-virus software packages such as Norton Anti virus, McAfee Virus
Scan, AVG Anti-Virus, and so on. These programs can detect viruses, and often repair the damage
done by them.
The increase in transactions over the Internet has greatly increased the chance of virus infection,
so anti-virus measures have been introduced to promote the growth of electronic business. Digital
certificates can be used to validate the identity of people and organizations on the Internet, digital
signatures can prove the identity of an individual, and Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
mechanisms have been developed to allow safe credit card transactions.
E-mail viruses remain a major threat, however—during 2000, many large organizations were
brought down by a virus attached to an e-mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of
virus appeared that allowed unauthorized users to access private information (such as credit card
details). This virus, known as ―Bugbear‖, was carried via e-mail and affected many users.
Data theft
This is a more serious problem than software piracy. Computer system hackers (or crackers)
mutilate the encryption of restricted databanks and databases and make unauthorized use of the
information/data contained in them. The use of these data may be intended for unlawful activities like
theft.
Spam and junk mails
Spam or unsolicited e-mail is the electronic equivalent of junk mail. People usually send spam in
order to sell products and services, to draw traffic to Web sites, or to promote moneymaking schemes.
Unlike physical junk mail, spam does not stop if it is unsuccessful. When marketing departments send
junk mail they incur some expense, so give up if they do not succeed. Spam costs virtually nothing to
send and so it persists, whatever the recipient does.
Spam can easily be confused with legitimate bulk e-mail. According to Mail Abuse Prevention
System (MAPS), an electronic message is regarded as spam only if the recipient's personal identity is
irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many others; the recipient has not granted
permission for it to be sent; and the message appears to the recipient to give a disproportionate benefit
to the sender. Spam has become a big problem over the past few years as it consumes large amounts
of the recipient‘s time and Internet capacity. It is also an enduring problem as it is virtually impossible
to determine where it originates. The first spam was sent as long ago as 1978 by a Digital Equipment
Corporation sales representative to advertise a computer equipment demonstration.
The initial defense against spam was to block mail from domains that are known to be senders
but it is relatively easy for spam senders to send from a new domain. The most effective measure now
available is to use one of the e-mail filters on the market that saves the user from having to manually
sift though his or her inbox.
Legislation introduced in the European Union in December 2003 makes it a criminal offence to
send spam unless the recipient has agreed in advance to accept it. Similar legislation was signed into
law in the US in the same month.
Obsolescence of hardware and software
The very fast developments in computer technology mean the very quick obsolescence of
computer devices. Both hardware and software are subject to this problem. This can be resolved by
downloading software updates from the Internet. Unused computers which are left because of
purchasing newer one can be donated to charitable institutions so that they become useful once more.
Computers drain critical resources such as electricity and paper. They also produce unwanted
electrical and chemical, and bulk-waste side effects. As a society, we should adopt a more
environmentally position with respect to use, manufacture, and disposal of computer equipment and
devices. This is known as green computing (environmentally sensible computing).
High costs in electricity
A computer will never work without electricity. The electrical consumption of computers
becomes a big deal if the institution has many computer units which are run simultaneously. Always
set the computer to a mode at which the monitor and the hard drive is automatically turned off when
not in use. Green computing is also a solution to this problem.
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Health issues
Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science and technology emphasizing the safety,
comfort, and ease of use of human-operated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce
systems that are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use.
Institutions which make use of computers in their daily activities should consider using
ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and tables) and devices (e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).
57.2 Trends and Future Developments
The following are just some of the trends in the development of information technology.
Computer system capabilities
Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less expensive to purchase and
maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks and other electronic gadgets and
devices.
Input technology trends
Input devices are becoming more natural and easy to use. Even programming languages are
becoming to be structured like human language, making them easier and faster to learn.
Output technology trends
Output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and
clearly.
Trends in storage media
The capacity of data storage media is continuously growing. Primary storage media are starting to
use microelectronic circuits while secondary storage media are using magnetic and optical media.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more
circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions
through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain
materials at very low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer processors are being
approached, scientists are exploring the potential of the next generation of computer technology, using, for
instance, devices based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The fifth-generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in ways that
might eventually merit the description ―creative‖ is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being
true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is parallel processing computing, which uses many
chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually be able to duplicate to
some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought. One important
parallel processing approach is the neural network, which mimics the architecture of the nervous system. Another
ongoing trend is the increase in computer networking, which now employs the worldwide data communications
system of satellite and cable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of research into the
possibility of ―optical‖ computers—hardware that processes not pulses of electricity but much faster pulses of light.
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–––– –Unit 17
IT for LIS Episode 2:
Internet and Networks
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of hosts grew dramatically, and Internet traffic consisted of other types of information media, such as graphics,
sound, and video).
In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW) at the European
Laboratory of Particle Physics (CERN), an international research centre straddling the French-Swiss border west of
Geneva. It is a system of hyperlinked documents created in HTML.
By 1993, web browsers were introduced to Internet users. Mosaic, a graphical Internet browser, was
released by Marc Andreesen at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA) in the University of
Illinois at Urbana, Champaign. It was immediately followed in 1994 by Netscape, also by Marc Andreesen with
Jim Clark. By 1996, 75% of Internet surfers use Netscape. In 1998, America On-Line (AOL) bought Netscape for
US$4.2 billion.
By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and encompassed around 100 million users. The
Internet and its technology continue to have a profound effect in promoting the sharing of information, making
possible rapid transactions among businesses, and supporting global collaboration among individuals and
organizations.
In 1999, 205 countries and territories in the world had at least one connection to the Internet. The
development of the World Wide Web is fuelling the rapid introduction of new business tools and activities that may
by then have led to annual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds. The potential
of web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safe transactions over the Net (for payment and funds
transfers), the construction of faster, more secure networks and the development of efficient search techniques
make the Internet an ideal trading medium
Future concerns are focused in a number of areas, including the efficiency of search engines—even the
most efficient of them cover less than a sixth of all publicly available pages—as well as privacy, security, and
Internet piracy. By its very nature, the Internet does not cope well with traffic that requires a dedicated link between
two points (such as voice) as end-to-end delay cannot readily be controlled. Several protocols that allow greater
predictability are being developed to guarantee an assured quality of service. The ability to integrate applications is
of increasing importance. Common data formats allow e-business applications to cooperate and services such as
Internet phones that are easy to install are being refined and deployed.
In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet—the network hardware that connects everyone
together—is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it to cope with ever-increasing traffic loads. The ―Internet 2‖
project has been under way for several years now and is building faster links and bigger switches that will power
the Internet for years to come.
58.3 Cyber Crimes
There are several kinds of cyber crimes that take place nowadays. Computer networks, specially the
Internet, are the usual commonplaces of these. Below are some of these cyber crimes.
Internet worm and computer viruses
A virus that propagates itself across computer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred
to as a worm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributed across the network.
In 1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduate of the Cornell University, wrote an
experimental, self-replicating, self-propagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed
to over 6,000 of 60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morris was sentenced of three
years of probation, 400 hours of community work, and a fine of US$10,050.
A known virus is the Trojan Horse, though technically not a virus, is a program disguised as
something useful, which when run does damage to the computer system while appearing to do
something else. Another is the Melissa virus, a virus that invades computers via e-mail and IRC
(Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct program which can run unaided.
Hackers, hacking and cracking
Originally, a hacker is a computerphile—a person totally engrossed in computer programming
and computer technology. Hacker also means someone who, beyond mere programming, likes to take
apart operating systems and programs to see what makes them tick. In the 1980s, with the advent of
personal computers and dial-up computer networks, hacker acquired a pejorative connotation, often
referring to someone who secretly invades the computers of others, inspecting or tampering with the
programs or data stored on them. The correct term such person is actually cracker, and their activity is
cracking.
58.4 Governing the Internet
Nobody owns the Internet. However, there are some institutions and organizations which define the
standards that must be observed in the Internet. Among these are:
Internet Architecture Board – for Internet Protocol (IP) development
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This is a simple connection to the public telephone system with no special features, as
distinguished from a private line or high-speed network connection. Dial-up connection to the Internet
uses the POTS.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a high-speed telephone line that can supply television, video, Internet access, and video
telephoning, often over standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capable of
operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
ISDN is an all-digital network that allows a whole host of services to be carried together on the
same circuits. It can be regarded as an extension of the public switched telephone network, the key
similarity to that being that it permits any two compatible pieces of connected equipment to talk to
each other. It can transmit both voice and data messages.
ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a technology that enables high-speed data to be carried between modems located at the
customer site and local telephone exchange via the twisted-pair copper local loop normally used for
telephone calls. It provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream.
T1 and T3 (synonymous with DS7 and DS3 respectively)
T1 is a term introduced by AT&T to refer to a dedicated digital circuit provided by the telephone
companies capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 1.544 Mbps, containing 24
individual channels, each capable of transmitting voice or data at the rate of 64 kbps. Individuals may
purchase one of these channels in an arrangement known as fractional T1 access. Businesses and
academic institutions lease T1 lines to connect to the Internet and may also use them for local area
networks. The monthly charge is usually determined by distance. T1 lines are also used by Internet
service providers to provide Internet access to individuals and small businesses.
The Internet backbone is constructed of higher-speed T3 lines. T3, also introduced by AT&T, is
capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 44.736 Mbps, used mainly by Internet service
providers to connect to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself. A T3 line contains 672
individual channels, each capable of transmitting 64 Kbps.
Wi-Fi and WiMax
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radio waves to connect notebook computers
and personal digital assistants (PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to a
wireless access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far as several kilometers.
Satellite connection
This connection is governed by an object put into orbit around Earth or any other planet in order
to relay communications signals or transmit data. It has a very wide coverage.relative to other network
connection media.
59.3 Modem
A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digital signals, which are used by
computers, are made up of separate units represented by a series of 1s and 0s (bits). Analogue signals vary
continuously; an example of an analogue signal is a sound wave. The modem works by, and derives its name from,
a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal) and demodulating (the
variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals).
Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone
lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The
service provider‘s premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of
modems transmit data to each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one
modem can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Modern modems are faster, cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds of over 56 kbps can be
achieved with commercial modems over normal telephone lines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit
inside a PC. Modems can use coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.
Modems using ISDN lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable of even higher speeds. A
standard known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) has evolved to cover
internal PC modems. PCMCIA type 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These are used as
components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yet commercially available.
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59.4 Broadband
Broadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range of frequencies or data rates. A
broadband connection can transfer information at a rate of at least 2 Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a
standard narrowband 56 kbps modem connection. Some broadband services can even offer 10 Mbps connection
but, in practice, most transfer information at a rate of around 512 kbps when downloading, and 128 kbps when
uploading.
There are a number of options for providing broadband. All involve some sort of link between an end user
and a switch connected to a wide area network (WAN).
The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two and install suitable transmission
equipment at each end. This allows very high-speed operation but is usually expensive.
A more affordable approach is to reuse existing telephone lines by adding technology that enhances
the rate at which information can be transferred over them. There are several ways in which this can
be achieved.
ISDN – This is widely available and allows connection speeds of up to 128 kbps.
DSL – This has recently been introduced and is capable of operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most
common format,
ADSL – This provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream. This means faster
download and slower download.
Etherloop – This shares many characteristics of DSL but which follows the format of the
ubiquitous local area network technology, Ethernet. Its performance is a little better than DSL.
Cable modems, which are offered by cable providers for Internet access via existing cable television lines.
Although capable of connection speed up to 2 Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore
liable to slow down when many users are active.
The real attraction of broadband from a user‘s point of view is that it provides true multimedia (for
example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that a narrowband connection incurs.
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destination. IP defines how data are divided into packets, and how they are transmitted, determining the path each
packet takes between computers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would be in charge of
addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives its proper destination.
TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as a standard protocol for the
Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf, together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of the Internet.
60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums
During the transmission process, it is possible that a packet may be lost across the Internet. This may be
caused by a link failure, or because the host is down. If the destination host has been waiting for a particular packet
for a certain time (known as timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit the packet.
There is no need to retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missing packet (which is identified by the sequence
number) needs to be retransmitted.
Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully, transmission error may also occur. There
is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At the destination, checksum is recalculated based on the
received data. The attached checksum and the newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is a mismatch,
transmission error has occurred.
60.4 DNS
For obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the ―dot address‖ of a computer. Although very
simple and effective for network operation, dot addresses are not very user-friendly. For the convenience of users,
names were given to each computer in the Internet. The names are known as DNS (Domain Name System). Like IP
address, DNS is also a method of translating Internet addresses so that computers connected in the Internet can
locate each other. A DNS server translates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90)
into a sequence of words, and vice versa.
A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by full stops, takes the form of
[username]@[hostname].[zone name] (for example: president@whitehouse.gov). Username is the name or account
number used to log on. The hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computer or Internet
provider; it may consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the type of organization. Common zone names
include:
.com (commercial organization)
.edu (educational)
.gov (government)
.co (company),
.org (non-profit organizations)
.net (networking organization)
.info (informational sites)
.biz (business
.name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an e-mail address)
.museum (museum)
.aero (aviation industry)
.coop (business cooperatives such as credit unions)
.pro (professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and physicians)
Zone names such as .com are called top level domain (TLD) names, Before 2001 there were just three:
.com, .net, and .org. Each country was also allocated its own country code, such as .uk for the United Kingdom and
.ph for the Philippines. With the rapid expansion in Internet use the demand for generic domain names exceeded
initial expectations. Accordingly, in October 2001 the introduction of seven new TLDs was announced. As of
March 2002, all of these domain name suffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.
60.5 URL
The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is method of naming documents or places on the Internet, used
most frequently on the World Wide Web (WWW). A URL is a string of characters that identifies the type of
document, the computer the document is on, the directories and subdirectories the document is in, and the name of
the document.
For example, the URL of the Web page (a document on the WWW) for the United Kingdom‘s ―open
government‖ initiative is http://www.open.gov.uk/services/standards.htm. The part of the URL before the colon
represents the scheme, or format used to retrieve the document. The following are schemes that can be found in
URLs, together with their meaning.
http – means the document is on the WWW.
ftp - means that that document could be accessed through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
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gopher – indicates that the document is on a Gopher system (a menu-driven document delivery system
for retrieving information from the Internet)
news – means that the document occurs on a Usenet newsgroup (a forum in which users can post and
respond to messages)
telnet – indicates Telnet (an access method in which the user logs on to a remote computer)
The next part of the URL is called the hostname and represents the computer on which the document can
be found. The .gov.uk extension identifies the computer as belonging to the United Kingdom government. Some
other common extensions are .com (commercial—also .co.uk in the United Kingdom; .co.fr in France, etc.), .ac and
.edu (academic and education respectively—usually a college or university).
After the computer and host names come the path, or chain of directories, on which the document is found;
in this case, the only directory is services. The last item to be listed is the document name—in this case,
standards.htm.
URLs are case-sensitive, which means that uppercase and lowercase letters are considered different letters,
so a user has to enter a URL with all letters in the correct case. URLs on the WWW are accessed with browsers, or
computer programs that can connect to the Internet and display Web pages.
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A search engine is a computer software that compiles lists of documents, most commonly those on the
World Wide Web (WWW), and the contents of those documents. Search engines respond to a user entry, or query,
by searching the lists and displaying a list of documents (called Web sites when on the WWW) that match the
search query. Some search engines include the opening portion of the text of Web pages in their lists, but others
include only the titles or addresses (URLs) of Web pages. Some search engines occur separately from the WWW,
indexing documents on a local area network or other system.
The major global general-purpose search engines include
AOL Anywhere (www.search.aol.com)
Google (www.google.com)
Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com)
MSN Search (www.msn.com)
AltaVista (www.altavista.com)
Lycos (www.lycos.com)
HotBot (www.hotbot.com)
Magellan (www.mckinley.com)
Some web directories are also feature search engines or vice versa, just like Google and Yahoo!. Yahoo! is
one of the first available search engines. It differs from most other search sites because the content and listings are
manually compiled and organized by subject into a directory. By the end of 2001, Google was ranked the most
comprehensive search engine available, with 1.5 billion pages indexed, recording 150 million searches per day
62.2 Metasearch Engines
A metasearch engine or all-in-one search engine is a Web-information-search tool that performs like a
typical search engine, only that it performs by using more than one other search engines to complete the search job.
A metasearch engine is more effective than a typical search engine because of its unique features.
It eliminates duplicate search results.
The search results are raned according to their relevance or how well they match with the query given.
It can access a lot of search engines, which opens a broader pool of possible hits.
Although a metasearch engine may offer these benefits, it also has its disadvantage. It has a high noise to
signal ratio; meaning, a lot of matches will not be suitable. Examples of metasearch engines are:
Metasearch (www.metasearch.com)
Metacrawler (www.metacrawler.com)
MetaFind (www.metafind.com).
62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages
White pages are Web services that allow a user to look up for information about individuals. Just like the
white pages of the telephone directory, they can be used to track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses,
and other personal data of particular persons.
Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a form of invasion to their
privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, they actually serve a good purpose. It is possible to contact
a long-lost person through white pages, if ever they are entered in this service. Popular white pages are:
Bigfoot (www.bigfoot.com)
Yahoo! People Search (www.people.yahoo.com)
Yahoo (www.yahoo.com)
WhoWhere (www.whowhere.com)
If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellow pages, kust like the
yellow pages in the telephone directory contain information about business. They usually serve as portals to Web
sites maintained by businesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact information of businesses.
Yahoo! Yellow Page (www.yp.yahoo.com)
SuperPages (www.superpages.com)
e-Tello Pages (www.eyp.com)
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If the query returns too many hits, there is a need to specialize the query. For pattern nmatching queries,
add more keywords, or use the ―-― for prohibited keywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other
keywords, or add NOT to exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns and names, or use
proper capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specific return for this case.
In doing a Web information search, the following tips will help.
Be natural. For example, if you wish to find information on whether cell phones are harmful, you may
query the search engine with ―cell phone AND harmful‖.
It is advisable to always type queries in the lower case. At some specific instances, use appropriate
capitalization. .
Think of uncommon but valid keywords. The use of uncommon keywords will yield the more specific
results.
For a required keyword, add ―+‖ before the keyword. The keyword will be returned in every match.
To eliminate unwanted words from the returns, add ―-― before the keyword.
Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings). Use the OR operator for
such instances (e.g. color OR colour).
Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by the search engine, unless the
search engine features an advanced search option which can accommodate these stop words. Add
more relevant keywords as long as necessary.
The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is the asterisk(*). For example, the query
―funk* ― will return funk, funky, and funkies.
It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URL
http://www.hit.com/A/B/C.htm refers to a dead link, try http://www.hit.com/A/B or http://hit.com/A.
63.4 Search Mechanisms in Search Engines
The search engine is very complex. In order to understand how it works, it needs to be broken down into
its different components and examine the mechanism of each.
User interface
This provides a mechanism for a user to submit a query to the search engine. It uses a search
form. It is user-friendly since it is quite easy to use – just type in the query, press the search button
and the search results are displayed in a very convenient fashion. A summary of each hit is also
included.
Searcher
This is a program that uses the search engine‘s database (which holds an extremely large number
of indexed Web pages) to locate the matches for a specific query. Ahighly efficient search algorithm
is necessary. The searching and sorting methods of a search engine was developed by computer
scientists for years.
Evaluator
Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactly relevant to the query. Search engines
rank the returns according to their relevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is
usually displayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevance score varies with
different search engines. This depends on any of the following.
the number of ties the word appears
the query words that appear in the title
the query words that appear in the META tag (special keywords embedded in the header of
the Web page)
Gatherer
This is also known in any of these names – bot, crawler, robot, spider, and worm. This is a
program that traverses the Web and gathers information about Web documents. It runs at short and
regular intervals. It returns information that will be indexed by the database.
Indexer
This organizes the data by creating a set of keys or an index. Indexes need to be rebuilt frequently
in order to ensure that the URL returns are not out-of-date. Some search engines use full-text indexes
(every word on every page is included during searching).
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Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons
may also fail the sending of the message.
E-mail viruses
E-mails are often the medium of transmission of viruses in computer networks. They are bound to
e-mail messages as attachments. On May 24, 1999, a virus, named Melissa virus, spread over the
Internet as an RTF file attachment to e-mails. 100,000 hosts in 300 organizations were affected. It was
reported that within 45 minutes, 32,000 copies of the infected e-mail was distributed. This virus is not
a worm. It requires user interaction in order to propagate. The name of the virus was derived after the
ati-virus software vendor which was able to eliminate the virus.
Spamming
Spam refers to unsolicited often commercial message transmitted through the Internet as a mass
mailing to a large number of recipients. They get into a user‘s mailbox because their sender was able
to obtain the user‘s e-mail address from
name cards, letter heads, published papers
search engine in online bulletin boards, newsgroups, directories, and similar sources
dumping of full user list in a server
The intrusion of spam in mailboxes is solved by filtering e-mail messages. Filtering is already
nowadays a feature embedded in e-mail clients and servers.
Spam is really a problem because
they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and are intended toi pull the
wool over the reader‘s eyes)
they are wasting other‘s resources (―stealing‖ of bandwidth
the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness and effectiveness of the
e-mail)
they violate cyber ethics
There are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-mail message Internet etiquette
(Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composing e-mail but also in participating in discussion boards and
newsgroups. Basically, the etiquette observed in writing a post mail applies in constructing an e-mail message..
Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL AT PEOPLE.
Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail.
Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part.
Avoid sending flames (abusive insulting messages).
Use emoticons, abbreviations, and acronyms.
There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens.
The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both).
The domain name server is down for quite some time.
Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons
may also fail the sending of the message.
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