Hydrdoacoustic Biological Assessment Guidance

(Assessment of Underwater Sound Pressure)

1.0 Introduction

In-water work activities contribute to increased underwater sound pressure in marine and
freshwater environments. Underwater sound pressure from pile driving activities are an issue of
concern for both NOAA Fisheries, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Services) and the
California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Fish kills have resulted from in-water pile driving
activities in Puget Sound, San Francisco Bay, and British Columbia, Canada.
The purpose of this hydroacoustic guidance document is to provide Department of
Transportation biologists and consultants in Washington, Oregon, and California with guidance
related to assessing potential impacts to fish and their habitat from sound generated from pile
driving, and to assist in preparing Endangered Species Act (ESA) biological assessments (BA),
Essential Fish Habitat Assessments (EFH) and other environmental documentation for projects
involving pile driving.
State-specific guidance is available to project biologists in California and Washington in the
following documents:

• California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) “Technical Guidance for Assessment

and Mitigation of Hydroacoustic Effects of Pile Driving on Fish” can be found
at; http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm, or
• Washington State Department Of Transportation (WSDOT) “Biological Assessment
Preparation for Transportation Projects – Advanced Training Manual – Version
2012/2013” located
at; http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm. and
• WSDOT Underwater Noise Monitoring Plan Template located
at: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAtemplates.htm#Noise or
• Calrans Underwater Noise Monitoring Template located on the following web page:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm
These internet sites provide state-specific guidance for preparing an underwater noise assessment
as part of a biological assessment, including the process of collecting information and analyzing
effects.

1.1 Common Terms

The purpose of this section is to provide a definition of common terminology used in describing
underwater sound.
ambient sound – The total of all sound sources in a specific area excluding anthropogenic
sources.

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background sound – The total of all sound sources that are present including those produced by
human or mechanical sources, but absent the sound levels produced by the proposed activity. For
projects occurring in water, this will include sound from ship traffic and other sounds.

cumulative sound exposure level (cSEL) – In an evaluation of pile driving impacts on fish, it is
necessary to estimate the cumulative SEL associated with a series of pile strike events. The
NMFS calculator can estimate the cSEL.

decibel (dB) –A unit describing the amplitude of sound. The reference pressure for water is 1
micro-Pascal (μPa).

micro pascal (μPa) — Unit of measure for pressure equal to 1 X 10-6 Pascals. Most underwater
acoustic sound pressure measurements are stated in terms of a pressure relative to 1 micro pascal.

pascal (Pa) — A linear unit of pressure equal to 1 newton per square meter. .
1Pa (pascal) = 0.000145037738 Psi (Pound per Square Inch)

peak sound pressure level (PEAK) – The largest absolute value of the instantaneous maximum
overpressure or underpressure observed during each pulse and can be presented in Pascals (Pa)
or sound pressure level (SPL). This pressure is expressed as a decibel, commonly reported as
dB peak

Permanent threshold shift (PTS) - A permanent loss of hearing or auditory damage that occurs
as a result of exposure to impulse or continuous sound. The level and duration of exposure that
causes PTS varies widely and can be affected by factors such as repetition rate of the sound,
pressure level, frequency, duration, size and life history stage of the organism, and many other
factors.

root mean square (RMS) sound pressure level –Decibel measure of the square root of the
mean of the squares (RMS) pressure. For impulses, the average of the squared pressures over the
time that comprise that portion of the waveform containing 90 percent of the sound energy of the
impulse. Commonly reported as dB RMS

sound – small disturbances in a fluid or other media from ambient conditions through which
energy is transferred away from a source by progressive fluctuations of pressure (or sound
waves).

sound exposure level (SEL) –SEL is a measure of the total sound energy that a fish would be
exposed to for each individual pile strike which can help to determine the potential for injury to
fishes. SEL is calculated by integrating the squared pressures over the duration of the event. The
units for SEL are dB re: 1 µPa2 sec.
sound pressure level (SPL) – An expression of the sound pressure using the decibel (dB) scale
and the standard reference pressures of 1 micro-Pascal (μPa) for water and biological tissues.
Sound pressure is the sound force per unit area, usually expressed in micro-Pascals. The SPL is
the quantity that is directly measured by a sound level meter.

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temporary threshold shift (TTS) – A temporary loss of hearing as a result of exposure to
impulse or continuous sound. The level and duration of exposure that causes TTS varies widely
and can be affected by factors such as repetition rate of the sound, pressure level, frequency,
duration, size and life history stage of the organism, and many other factors. Both peak sound
pressure level and sound exposure level can be used to predict these effects. TSS will occur at
lower levels than auditory tissue damage.

1.2 Common Underwater Noise Concepts

The information and concepts presented here apply to both fresh and saltwater environments.
The substrate has distinct boundaries, to include the water’s surface, which can substantially
affect propagation characteristics. In addition, when pile driving is the source of underwater
sound pressure, there is the potential for refractionary pressure, which results from the pile being
struck by the hammer, sound pressure traveling into the substrate, then re-radiating that sound
pressure back into the water. Bottom topography, underwater structures and land masses can
block, reflect, or diffract sound waves.
Underwater sound levels are monitored to determine if they are within the predicted values
calculated for the BA, and to determine the effectiveness of sound attenuation devices.
Underwater sound levels are measured with a hydrophone, or underwater microphone, which is a
transducer that converts the sound pressure to an electrical signal. 1 In an effort to standardize the
data collection to allow easy comparison between sites and projects, most hydroacoustic data is
currently being collected by placing the hydrophone 10 meters from the source (the pile being
driven). A recent NOAA guidance document on Data Collection Methods to Characterize
Impact and Vibratory Pile Driving Source Levels recommends setting the hydrophone at a
distance of 3 H from the pile, where H is the depth of the water at the pile (NOAA 2012). The
hydrophone sensor is normally placed in a water column at least 1 meter deep. All three state
DOT’s have developed a state-specific monitoring plan that can be found on their websites.
Monitoring plans should specify the minimum water column depth and the depth of the
hydrophone.
Sound levels underwater are not weighted (dB) and thus measure all frequencies unmodified
within the range of interest, which may extend below and above the audible range of many
organisms.
Several descriptors are used to describe underwater sound. Two common descriptors are the
instantaneous peak sound pressure level (dB peak ) and the root mean square (dB RMS ) pressure
level during the impulse, sometimes referred to as the peak and RMS level, respectively. RMS
has been used by NMFS to describe disturbance-related effects (i.e., harassment) to fish and
marine mammals from exposure to underwater sounds. When evaluating potential injury impacts

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. Measurements are typically recorded for later analysis. Units of pressure, such as Pa or psi, can easily be
converted to decibels (dB) using the following equation: SPL (dB) = 20 log(p/pref)
Where p is the pressure in microPascals (µPa) and pref is the reference pressure. For in-air SPLs, a reference
pressure of 20 µPa is used. This value is based on studies of human hearing and represents the auditory threshold of
the average young person at 1 kHz. Underwater SPLs generally use a reference pressure of 1 µPa. All underwater
sound pressure levels given in this chapter are in dB referenced to 1 µPa.

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to fish, peak sound pressure (dB peak ) is one of two metrics used, the other being sound exposure
level (SEL). SEL is a measure of the total sound energy that a fish would be exposed to for each
individual pile strike which is used to determine the potential for injury to fishes.

2.0 Underwater Sound Generated by In Water Construction

Although there are many sources of sound in the underwater environment, the most common
sources of sound associated with construction activities is pile driving. Underwater sound from
pile driving is generated using different types and diameters of piles, types of hammers, and in
varied substrate types. Each configuration can produce differing sound levels and waveform
characteristics.
Sound generated by impact pile driving is impulsive in nature. Impulsive sounds have a short
duration and consist of a broad range of frequencies. NOAA has developed guidance for more
accurately characterizing and collecting source sound data from impact and vibratory pile
driving, for use in marine mammal consultations and permit applications. This guidance is
available on the web at:
http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/protected_species/marine_mammals/killer_whale/defining_areas_of_p
otential_sound_effects.html.

Sound generated by vibratory hammers is considered a continuous sound. The wave form has a
slower rise time and the energy produced is spread out over the time it takes to drive the pile.
Vibratory driving noise levels are generally 10 to 20 dB lower than impact hammer driving.
There is no current threshold for fish, related to vibratory pile driving.

Additional information on pile driving and the sound generated by pile driving is available at:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/files/Guidance_Manual_2_09.pdf

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/448B609A-A84E-4670-811B-
9BC68AAD3000/0/BA_ManualChapter7.pdf

2.1 Pile Type, Pile Size, and Substrate

The size and type of pile also affect the sound generated by pile-driving activities. Example sound
pressure levels associated with each of these types of piles are provided in the Caltrans
Compendium and WSDOT:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/files/hydroacstc_compendium.pdf

WSDOT - Environment - Air Quality - Pile Driving Reports

Other considerations include:

 Peak levels are generally 10 to 20 dB higher than RMS levels.

 Peak pressures occur between 1 millisecond (msec) very close to the pile and 5 to
6 msec after the strike at a distance of 20 meters from the pile.

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 The greater the pile surface exposed under the water, the more acoustic energy
radiates directly into the water.

 Shallower water (e.g., water less than about 2 feet deep) does not propagate sound
energy effectively, especially at lower frequencies (Urick 1983). However, sound
levels may still be high due to propagation of the sound waves through the substrate
and radiation back into the water (refraction).

2.2 Installation Equipment – Impact Hammer v. Vibratory

There are two pile-driving hammer types that are commonly used: vibratory and impact hammer.
Wave forms generated by each of these hammer types are described below.
Vibratory drivers vibrate the pile into the sediment by use of a vertically-oscillating head placed
on top of the pile. The vibratory action causes the sediment immediately surrounding the pile to
liquefy and the pile will sink into the sediment. In some cases, temporary or shoring piles can be
vibrated to a load bearing depth but the bearing capacity will need to be tested with an impact
hammer. This is referred to as proofing. To proof a pile it is struck with an impact hammer until
the bearing capacity can be measured. This may take just a few strikes or many strikes depending
on site-specific characteristics.
Vibratory peak sound levels for very large piles can exceed 206 dB at 10 meters from the pile;
however, the rise time is relatively slow. Vibratory driving sound levels are generally 10 to 20
dB lower than impact hammer driving. Vibratory installation of steel piles in a river in California
resulted in sound pressure levels that were not measurable above the background sound created
by the current (Reyff 2006).
Although impacts on fishes or other aquatic organisms have not been observed in association
with vibratory hammers, this debate is ongoing. This may be due to the slower rise time and the
fact that the energy produced is spread out over the time it takes to drive the pile. As such,
vibratory driving of piles is considered less harmful to fish. However, the continuous sound
thresholds for marine mammals are quite low and projects that only conduct vibratory
installation can result in effects to marine mammals.

3.0 Transmission Loss

Transmission loss (TL) underwater is the accumulated decrease in acoustic intensity as an
acoustic pressure wave propagates outwards from a source. The intensity of the underwater
sound pressure is reduced with increasing distance due to spreading. Spreading can be
categorized into two models, spherical spreading and cylindrical spreading models.

3.1 Transmission Loss Calculations for Underwater Noise Levels

Spherical (free-field) spreading occurs when the source is free to expand with no refraction or
reflection from boundaries (e.g., the sediment or water surface). The TL for spherical spreading
is defined by the formula:

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 TL = 20 log(R)
R is the range or distance from the source. Spherical spreading results in a general 6 dB decrease
in the intensity of the noise per doubling of distance.

Cylindrical spreading applies when noise energy spreads outwards in a cylindrical fashion
bounded by the sediment and water surface. Cylindrical spreading is defined by the formula:
TL = 10 log(R)
This results generally in 4 dB per doubling of distance transmission loss of underwater noise.
However, many construction projects produce noise in shallow water, and reflections from the
sediment or water surface can reduce spreading considerably. Because of the complexity of these
reflections it is difficult to define TL. Since noise energy is not perfectly contained by reflection
and refraction, most experts agree that the true spreading is often somewhere between 3 and 6 dB
per doubling of distance or approximately 4.5 dB per doubling of distance (Vagle 2003).

Currently, the Services use the practical spreading loss calculation as described by Davidson
(2004) and Thomsen et al. (2006), where:

TL = 15Log(R 1 /R 2 )
Where:

• R1 is the range or distance at which transmission loss is estimated.

• R2 is the range or distance of the known or measured sound level

Conversely the distance to where the source sound level drops off to some pre-determined sound
level (e.g., the background sound level) can be calculated by rearranging the terms in the
equation above giving:

R 1 = R 2* 10(TL/15)
Where:
• TL = the difference between the source sound level and the background or other
sound level at some distance.

This calculation assumes that noise energy decreases at a rate of 4.5 dB per doubling of distance,
which is in between the spherical (6 dB) and cylindrical (3 dB) calculation.
For example: to calculate the furthest extent of effects of an impact pile driving project, driving
36 inch steel piles (191 dB RMS) ) in an area where the background sound level is 124 dB RMS :

Where R1 = R2 * 10((191-124)/15)) where R1 is 182 miles.

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The complete equation for transmission loss includes a linear term in addition to the geometric
term. A complete transmission loss equation might look like:
TL = 15 log(R 1 /R 2 ) + αR
Where:
• αR is the linear absorption and scattering loss.

The linear term will have a greater influence on transmission loss 1,000 meters beyond the
source. There is not common agreement on what should be used for the alpha term in the
equation above, particularly for shallow water environments. Therefore, the linear term should
be ignored for the present time until a decision can be made on the appropriate value to be used
for alpha.

Dahl et al (2012) state that the underlying characteristic of transmission loss for pile driving in
marine environments is cylindrical spreading; however, like propagation in air, a number of
other factors, such as temperature gradients and currents, modify this characteristic. The
common occurrence of decreasing temperature with depth can create significant shadow zones
(noise refracts or bends towards the colder deeper water as it does in air) where the SPL can be
as much as 30 dB lower than that from cylindrical spreading. In shallow water (less than
200 meters depth), reflections from the surface and bottom combine in such a way that the sound
field becomes homogenous throughout the water column at distance of approximately 3H where
H is the water depth at the pile (Dahl et al., 2012). Thus, underwater noise propagation is highly
variable. Monitoring data from some pile driving projects indicate that the actual spreading loss
is intermediate between cylindrical and spherical spreading (Reyff 2003; Thomsen et al. 2006)
while other data indicates that the actual spreading loss is closer to spherical spreading (Laughlin
2010a, 2010b). Therefore, until a better spreading model can be developed and agreed on, a
practical spreading model, as described by Davidson (2004) and Thomsen et al. (2006) is most
appropriate.

If multiple projects are completed at the same location, site specific information may allow for
the development of a site specific model. The Services will allow the use of a site specific
model.

The Services have created calculators that calculate the distances to the threshold levels. They
are available at:

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm

3.2 Noise Reduction Factors

Bottom Topography
The method of determining how noise attenuates as it moves away from the source can be
difficult and site specific. It is dependent on sediment types, bottom topography, structures in the
water, the slope of bottom, temperature gradients, currents, tidal flux and wave height.

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River Sinuosity
Noise propagation in rivers is limited by the sinuosity of a system. For example, where a river
bends, noise is unlikely to propagate as readily.

4.0 Effects of Underwater Sound on Listed Species

Sound generated by impact pile driving has the potential to affect listed fish in several ways. The
range of effects potentially includes alteration of behavior to physical injury or mortality,
depending on the intensity and characteristics of the sound, the distance and location of fish in
the water column relative to the sound source, the size and mass, and the anatomical
characteristics (Yelverton et al. 1975—cited in Hastings and Popper 2005). For more
information on the effects of underwater sound refer to the following documents:

• California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) “Technical Guidance for Assessment

and Mitigation of Hydroacoustic Effects of Pile Driving on Fish” can be found
at; http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm, or

• Washington State Department Of Transportation (WSDOT) “Biological Assessment

Preparation for Transportation Projects – Advanced Training Manual – Version
2012/2013” located
at; http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm.

5.0 Current Harm and Harassment Thresholds

5.1 Fish Thresholds

Beginning in 2002, several studies made various recommendations for injury and behavioral
effects thresholds for salmon. These recommendations have been modified over time and based
on recommendations of the Fisheries Hydroacoustic Working Group (FHWG). In June of 2008,
Caltrans, the Federal Highways Administration, WSDOT, Oregon DOT, Regions 1 and 8 of the
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and NMFS reached agreement on the interim
fish sound exposure thresholds.
The current interim thresholds for onset of injury from impact pile driving for fish are as follows:

• 206 dB peak –the onset of injury is expected in fishes exposed to peak SPLs at or above
206 dB.
• 187 dB cumulative SEL for fish > 2 grams –fish > 2 grams will experience the onset of
injury after a cSEL at or above 187 dB over the accumulation period.
• 183 dB cumulative SEL for fish < 2 grams – fish smaller than 2 grams will experience
the onset of injury after a cSEL at or above 183 dB over the accumulation period.

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The NMFS calculator can be used to estimate the cumulative SEL, which is calculated as:
cSEL = highest single strike SEL + 10 * log (# strikes).
The number of strikes is based on how many pile strikes are estimated to occur in an
accumulation period. Typically, the accumulation period includes all piles driven in no more
than a 12-hour day with a break of twelve hours or longer before the next driving event. The
clock resets only after a twelve hour or longer break occurs. The break allows fish to move out
of the affected areas and to recover from sub-injurious accumulation of sound energy. If the
cumulative SEL threshold is exceeded, physical injury to fish is possible. Whether or not
physical injury occurs is dependent on the project, and site-specific factors, such as local habitat
conditions, as well as species specific factors. One factor to consider is whether the fish being
analyzed are stationary or are migrating through an area. Most consultations assume that the fish
are stationary. It is important to note that NMFS and USFWS assume that single strike SELs
below 150 dB RMS do not accumulate to cause injury (“effective quiet”) and sets a limit on the
maximum distance from a pile that a fish could be injured.
While not in the interim criteria, the Services have set a 150 dB RMS as a guideline for where
underwater sound pressure levels may result in behavioral (i.e., sub-injury) effects to fish. The
150 dB RMS guideline for potential behavioral effects may be considered in some consultations
depending on location and the time of year the work is occurring. More research and discussions
will be needed to get a better understanding of the behavioral component of the thresholds.
Sound pressure levels in excess of 150 dB RMS are expected to cause temporary behavioral
changes, such as elicitation of a startle response, disruption of feeding, or avoidance of an area.
Depending on site specific conditions, project timing, project duration, species life history and
other factors, exposure to these levels may cause behavioral changes that rise to the level of
“take”. Those levels are not expected to cause direct permanent injury, but may indirectly affect
the individual (such as impairing predator detection).
The interim thresholds were set to establish sound pressure levels that current science has
identified as causing injury to fish. Under ESA, it is possible to harm listed species if the
Services allows the incidental take through the ESA section 7 consultation process. However,
prior to being issued an incidental take statement, the project must minimize impacts as much as
possible. Minimization measures for pile driving projects can include using a vibratory driver or
incorporating sound attenuation methods such as a bubble curtain or other devices when impact
driving.
State-specific guidance for applying fish thresholds is available to project biologists:

• Caltrans “Technical Guidance for Assessment and Mitigation of Hydroacoustic Effects of

Pile Driving on Fish” can be found
at; http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm, or
• Washington State DOT “Biological Assessment Preparation for Transportation Projects –
Advanced Training Manual – Version 2012/2013” located
at; http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm.
• A summary of thresholds is available on the WSDOT website at:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm#noise

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The threshold levels described in the above sections can be used to define the zone of harm and
harassment or zones of injury for ESA listed fish. For example, the zone of injury would occur in
the area where project-related sound levels have not yet attenuated below the injury threshold
level. These distances can be calculated by using the NMFS calculator, which can be accessed at:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm#noise
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm

6.0 Underwater Sound Impact Assessment

This section describes the approaches and information necessary to evaluate potential project-
related effects generated by pile driving. Best management practices (BMPs), avoidance and
minimization measures, and performance standards are addressed. The analyses will require a
detailed project description that identifies the purpose and need of the project and the alternatives
that were considered and rejected.

The project components should be described in sufficient detail to support the discussion of pile
driving activities that would be necessary for the project. Typically, this information is collected
by the author of the biological assessment in coordination with the project development team, to
include the structures engineer. This initial description should include all pile driving activities
associated with the project and define all temporary and permanent pile types, sizes and the
location of those piles in or near surface waters. Description of the construction methods or
attenuation methods that may be used (e.g., construction site isolation from open water
[cofferdams or water bladders], dewatering of the isolation structure, construction of footings,
methods of demolition of the structure being replaced, temporary bridges or trestles, temporary
fill, use of barges, etc.) is important because they would contribute to the level, attenuation, or
duration of underwater sound generation.

The information gathered is required to estimate the underwater sound that is expected to be
generated during the project. The pile size and type and pile driver type are factors for estimating
the peak sound pressure level and cSEL. These metrics are further refined if some method of
sound attenuation is used (e.g., a bubble curtain, cofferdam, or isolation casing). The number of
piles, number of strikes per pile, estimated number of pile strikes per day, and phasing of pile
driving activities is used to estimate the cSEL that a fish might receive during a pile driving
event (e.g., 1 day of pile driving)

Information on the consultation history typically refers to any coordination with USFWS, NOAA
Fisheries, and /or state fish and wildlife agency regarding project-related potential effects on
federally or state-listed species and their habitat. It is particularly important to discuss any
modifications to the project design or timing in response to federal, state, or local agency
requirements or recommendations.

A description of special-status fish species is required to determine which species and life
histories may be exposed to underwater sound during pile driving. The project biologist should
contact NOAA Fisheries, USFWS, and the state fish and wildlife agency to determine which
species to address for the watershed in which the project occurs. The discussion should address

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federally- and state-listed species, the presence of any essential fish habitat (EFH), and the
potential presence of other fish species in the project action area.

To assess the species and number of fish potentially affected, a description of the habitat types in
the area and the life history phases potentially present is required. Many of the listed species
addressed are anadromous, which means that spawning and some duration of juvenile rearing
occurs in freshwater, the juvenile fish migrate to the ocean to rear to adults, and the adults then
return to their natal freshwater to spawn. The location of the project in the watershed and the
timing of the project in relation to this anadromous cycle are important factors in determining the
species and numbers of fish that could be exposed to pile driving sound. NOAA Fisheries,
USFWS, and state fish and wildlife agency staff should be contacted to determine the approved
in-water work windows during which pile driving can occur. The agencies have established these
timing windows to minimize the potential for the juveniles of anadromous fishes (particularly
salmon and steelhead) to be present in the project area that could be affected by the construction
activities.

In some locations, sensitive fish species are present year-round. For instance, rearing coho
salmon and steelhead can be present throughout the year, particularly in coastal streams. Green
sturgeon is considered present year-round in the Bay Delta and Sacramento River. Species of
Eulachon, Sacramento splittail, tidewater goby and delta and longfin smelts are present year-
round. Other listed species occur year-round in restricted habitats throughout the Pacific states.

The timing and duration of pile driving activities and the life history phase of fish exposed to
sound generated by pile driving are important factors in determining effects on the various
species of fish that could be present during pile driving activities.

6.1 Gathering Information for Evaluating the Projects Effects

The first step in calculating the project’s action area and completing an effects analysis is to
work with the Project engineers to obtain the following information.

6.2 Types, Size and Numbers of Piles and Equipment

Obtain information regarding how many of each size and pile type (temporary and permanent)
will be used for the project. Work with the engineers to obtain estimates of the number of piles
that will be installed per day and the number of strikes that will be required to install each pile.
Data from past projects on the actual number of pile strikes per pile and per day are available at
both the Washington DOT and Caltrans websites. The table below summarizes examples of
typical strike data for a range of pile types. The data reported below are based on examples of
past projects and may not be representative of other projects that use different construction
techniques (e.g., pile driving from barge vs. trestle or vibing piles before impact driving). It is
recommended that state- or site-specific information be used whenever available

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Summary of Typical Strike Data
In preparation of the Biological Assessment, the Compendium should be used to determine a
suitable comparison project with commensurate pile types and sizes. Examples of some typical
pile types and strike counts are below.

Typical
Typical Strikes
Pile Type, Size & Shape Typical Use Installation
per Pile
Duration
Concrete, 24-inch hexagon Wharf construction
1 to 5 piles per day 580
projects
Thin steel H-pile, small Temporary
6 piles per day 550
Construction projects
Steel pipe pile, 40-inch Permanent
1 to 5 piles per day 600
diameter construction projects
Cast-in-steel shell (CISS) Permanent 1,600 to 2,400
2 to 4 piles per day
pipe pile, 30-inch diameter construction projects per day
CISS pipe pile, 96-inch Permanent 1 to 3 pile sections
diameter construction projects per day
Source: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/files/Guidance_Manual_2_09.pdf

6.3 Attenuation/Sound Reduction Strategies

Various measures have been developed to reduce underwater sound generated by in-water pile
driving. These measures fall into two general categories:
• Reducing the transmission of sound through the water, and
• Methodology that reduces the sound that is generated by the pile.

The first category includes confined and unconfined air bubble curtains, and lined or double
walled casings and cofferdams. The second category includes alternative hammer types, such as
vibratory drivers and oscillating, rotating, or press-in systems. Information is currently available
on the general effectiveness of various attenuation devices such as air bubble curtain systems and
cofferdams. Vibratory drivers are generally much quieter than impact hammers, at least in terms
of sound amplitude.

The use of a sound attenuation device can reduce in-water sound levels. However, because of the
large variability in the effectiveness of bubble curtains, the expected level of attenuation from
these or any other sound attenuation device should be discussed with the Services prior to
submitting the BA. Use similar site-specific and attenuation-device-specific data if it is
available. Otherwise, select attenuation-device-specific-data and report the mean and standard
deviation of the expected noise reduction. If there are a wide range of attenuation values
available from several projects for a specific attenuation device, report the means and standard
deviations from those projects. You will need to use the NMFS calculator several times to
capture potential scenarios and to assess an accurate range of expected sound attenuation for
each pile type and size.

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6.4 Location of Piles in the Channel, Substrate and Water Depth
Information regarding the proposed location of piles to be installed, the substrate, and water
depth in the project area can be obtained from project and structures engineers. This information
is important in evaluating effects to listed species, critical habitat, and Essential Fish Habitat.

6.5 Calculating the Acoustic Impact Area, Action Area and Zones of Effect
The established threshold levels can be used to define the zone of potential impact for fish and
marine mammals, if they are in the project area. For example, the zone of impact for injury to
these species would occur in an area where project-related sound has not yet attenuated below
the injury threshold level. To facilitate these calculations, NOAA Fisheries and USFWS have
developed calculators.
The process of determining the project action area for in-water pile driving typically focuses on
sound pressure levels anticipated to be produced by the pile driving activity. State-specific
guidance should be reviewed when defining the extent of project-related sound. The following
general steps are used to determine the underwater extent of project-generated sound:
1. Obtain the broadband background sound level and use data from that locality, if
available. If background sound levels are not available, estimate the typical broadband
background sound level using measured data from a similar environment. In some cases,
such as in the case of a highly controversial project or if marine mammals are involved in
the biological assessment, it may be appropriate to actually measure the background
sound level in the water at the project site. The background sound level should be
reported as dB RMS .
2. The next step is to identify a transmission loss factor appropriate for the environment that
is based on measured data from a similar environment or to use the default value of 15,
which is the assumed value in the NMFS calculator.
3. The predicted pile driving sound pressure level, the transmission loss factor, and the
background sound pressure level are then used in practical spreading formula to
determine the distance at which the pile driving sound pressure level attenuates to a level
that is equal to the background sound level.
For the purposes of determining the project action area, the RMS pile driving sound pressure
level can be compared to the RMS background sound pressure level.
In open water conditions such as San Francisco Bay, the project action area typically will be
defined by the distance at which the pile driving sound attenuates to a level that is equal to the
background sound level in all directions, or to landforms, whichever is encountered first.
When completing a freshwater in-water pile installation analysis and consultation, the action area
should be calculated using the broadband background number (in RMS) to calculate the furthest
extent of effects of the project. Background sound levels in rivers should be based on a state or
site specific value if available. For example: the estimated lowest daytime dB RMS for background
sound in a particular river system is 140 dB RMS – thus the project would calculate how far out the
sound generated by the pile with the highest source number would travel until it is
indistinguishable from the background of 140 dB RMS . In rivers and streams, the project action
area can extend bank to bank across the river and the distance upstream and downstream at

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which the pile driving sound attenuates to the background sound level. Normally, the sound will
encounter bends in the river that help to further attenuate sound pressure to background levels.
The following general steps are used to define the zone of potential impact for fish:

1. Estimate the peak, RMS, and single strike SEL levels for the piles used in the
project. If site specific data for the location, pile size, and pile type are available, use
them as an estimate of the expected source levels of pile driving sound for the project. If
site specific data is not available then look at the state specific data. Look for data from
projects that have used the same type and size of piles, installation method, have similar
soils, and similar bathymetry. If state specific data is not available, use data from other
states. For example if the project is in California and the Caltrans Pile Driving
Compendium does not have any similar data, then look at the Washington data. If there
is no similar data, it is acceptable to use data from a project that installed a pile that was
larger than what the proposed project is installing. For example, if the project is
installing 24 inch steel piles with an impact hammer at the Vashon Ferry Terminal, and
the only information that was available was for installing 36 inch steel piles with an
impact hammer at the Fauntleroy Ferry Terminal, use that data, and point out the
differences in bathymetry and soils and describe how that could affect transmission loss.
To assure the values are agreed to by the Services, they should be discussed during early
coordination.
Information on sound generated by piles is available in the Caltrans Pile Driving
Compendium and in the pile driving monitoring reports on the WSDOT website.
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/files/hydroacstc_compendium.pdf
http://wsdot.wa.gov/environment/air/piledrivingreports.htm

2. Estimate the number of strikes per summation period. The summation period extends
from the first pile strike until the last pile strike before there is a 12-hour period during
which no piles are struck. The number of pile strikes that occur during the summation
period depend on a variety of factors, including, but not limited to, the size/type of the
pile, the size/type of the pile driving hammer, substrate characteristics, project design,
and project schedule. Structures engineers are the best source for estimating both the pile
summation period and the number of strikes per period. Focus on selecting data that
reflects similarities to your site and project. If there is site specific data, or data from sites
with similar soils, use it. Also be sure to consider hammer size.

3. Estimate sound reduction from a bubble curtain or other sound attenuation devices.
As stated previously, the use of a sound attenuation device can reduce the sound levels at
the source and demonstrates that reasonable and feasible avoidance and minimization
measures are being included in project actions. However, because of the large variability
in the effectiveness of bubble curtains, the expected level of attenuation from these or any
other sound attenuation device should be discussed with the Services prior to submitting
the BA during early coordination. Use site-specific and attenuation-device-specific data if
it is available. Otherwise, select attenuation-device-specific-data and report the mean and

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 standard deviation. If there are a wide range of attenuation values available from several
projects, report the means and standard deviations from those projects. You will need to
run the calculator several times to capture potential scenarios and to assess an accurate
range of expected sound attenuation.

4. Determine if the fish being evaluated in the area affected by pile driving are less
than or greater than 2 grams. The fish size used in the analysis will be determined by
the species and life stage expected in the action area when the project is being
constructed. The best sources for this information are state, county, or local government
biologists who are familiar with the fishes in the action area. Use site-specific distinct
population segment (DPS) information for the area where the project is located, if
available. Note that separate ESA and EFH analyses may be required. All marine and
estuarine areas have fish less than 2 grams present at all times.

5. Use the NMFS Calculator to determine the extent of the distances to the thresholds
for injury and potential harm and harassment effects for fish and marine mammals,
if they are present. In some projects, some hydroacoustic measurements will be made
without the sound attenuation device operating so that the effectiveness of the device can
be measured. Therefore, estimates with and without the estimated reduction in SPL and
SEL from a sound attenuation device must be calculated. It is important to realize when
using the threshold levels identified above that the injury and disturbance thresholds are
measured in three different metrics, Peak, cSEL, and RMS. When using the models, it is
crucial to compare like values to ensure accuracy.

6. Estimate the area being affected. For the area within a mapped circular threshold, the
area is calculated simply as πR2. For irregular shaped areas, Geographic Information
System tools can be used.

7. If possible, estimate how many individuals are being affected. If fish distribution data
is available, use it to estimate the number of individuals likely to be present in the
affected area during pile driving.

7.0 Examples of Pile Driving Assessments

Examples of pile driving analyses can be found at the following links:

Washington: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/448B609A-A84E-4670-811B-
9BC68AAD3000/0/BA_ManualChapter7.pdf , Page 7.68.
California: (Appendix 1- Compendium of Pile Driving Sound
Data) http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/files/bio_tech_guidance_hydroacoustic_effects_110215.
pdf

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8.0 Checklist Tool for Hydroacoustic Project Information Related to
Preparation of a Biological Assessment

The information indicated is necessary in order to evaluate the effects of underwater sound
pressure levels, for fish and other in-water species. This checklist is for general project use.
Certain items may not be applicable to your specific project and/or additional items may be
required in consultation with state and federal resource agencies.
____ Project Description; describe the location, purpose and need, and basic design concepts
of the project.
____ Environmental Setting; Describe the drainage in the vicinity of the project. Indicate the
drainage width; depth; approximate flow; whether tidally influenced; whether freshwater,
salt water or estuarine conditions; and the types of habitat present.
____ Description of Pile and Pile Driving Activities;
____ Type(s) and number of piles; Specify the number, composition, size & locations
of piles (e.g. in water, within 5 meters of water). Identify locations of temporary
(if known) & permanent piles.

____ Location of piles in the channel; Location of piles in the channel; Provide
drawings that include the water depth in profile view and the channel width in
design plan view. Illustrate the approximate locations of temporary (if known)
and permanent piles. Indicate the location and distance of piles not driven in the
water to ordinary high water.
____ Type(s) of Pile Driver(s) to be used; Identify whether impact hammer, vibratory
or other type of hammer would be used & if pre-drilling is proposed.
____ Project Phasing for Pile Driving; Indicate the duration and intent of the project,
(e.g. project work proposed to occur during which years and/or work windows).
____ Number of Pile Strikes per Day; Estimate the number of strikes per pile by pile
type/size, based on the pile type & project substrate (engineers estimate based on
suitable comparison project).
____ Number of piles Driven Per Day & Total Pile Driving Days; Provide a
conservative estimate of the number of piles that are anticipated to be driven in a
day & how many hours of pile driving are expected (per NMFS guidelines, a 12
hour rest period is required between driving events).
____ Cofferdams; Are cofferdams proposed for use to isolate pile footings? If so,
provide information regarding size, placement methodology, when they would be
installed and removed and if they would need to be dewatered.
____ Sound Attenuation; Identify the type of attenuation anticipated for use (e.g.
bubble curtain, isolation casing, dewatered cofferdam), and indicate which piles

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 the attenuation would be used for. Estimate the anticipated decrease in
transmitted pressure due to the attenuation device.
____ Methods of Evaluation; Describe the methods used to evaluate the potential effects on
fish of pile driving noise.
____ Results; Reporting the outcome of project specific noise analysis.
____ Pile Driving-Generated Sound; Estimate the sound generated from each pile
type/size with attenuation, if proposed, to include the metric referenced to the
pressure (i.e., peak dB re: 1 µPa, for SEL and RMS).
____ Project Action Area; Define the project action area for pile driving-generated
noise. The distance at which the generated underwater sound attenuates to the
background noise level is considered the project action area for pile driving noise,
although the injury threshold is generally a much smaller area.
____ Acoustic Impact Area; Estimate the attenuation of sound through water to the
background sound pressure level and to the injury threshold, as well as the
distance from the action area to the estimated default for sub-injurious impacts
(currently 150 dB RMS).
____ Special-Status Species; Identify the special-status species that have the potential to
occur in the project action area. Contact USFWS, NMFS, & DFG to identify federally
and state-listed species that have the potential to occur in the project action area. Also
document any designated critical habitat within the project action area.
____ Agency Consultation; Provide information regarding any ongoing consultations (e.g.
meeting, decisions, prior written documentation), and include any changes to the project
description.
____ Impact Assessment; Estimate the number of individual species and/or habitat area of
listed species or other species potentially affected by pile driving-generated noise.
____ Mitigation; Avoidance, Minimization & Mitigation
____ Proposed Mitigation; Identify other mitigation to avoid and minimize impacts,
(e.g. pile type, placement, type of driver used & project timing).
____ Best Management Practices; Identify any best management practices included in
the project, (e.g. bubble curtains, cofferdams, isolation casing & cushion blocks).
____ Performance Measures; Identify performance measures & any proposed
underwater noise monitoring.
____ Mitigation for take of Listed Species; Identify the potential mitigation for take of
state-listed species. Under CESA, the State requires mitigation for take of listed
species. The mitigation must offset the loss of individuals due to the project.

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 ____ Essential Fish Habitat (EFH); Identify EFH within the project action area. The EFH
analysis typically is included within the Biological Assessment. The Pacific Salmon
EFH in California includes only Chinook and coho salmon habitats.
For your use, Caltrans “Technical Guidance for Assessment and Mitigation of Hydroacoustic
Effects of Pile Driving on Fish” can be found
at; http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm, or Wash DOT “Biological
Assessment Preparation for Transportation Projects – Advanced Training Manual – Version
2012/2013” located at; http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/BA/BAguidance.htm

9.0 References
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) “Technical Guidance for Assessment and
Mitigation of Hydroacoustic Effects of Pile Driving on Fish” can be found
at; http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/bio/fisheries_bioacoustics.htm

Dahl, P.H. P.G. Reinhall and D.M. Farrell. 2012. Transmission loss and range, depth scaled
associated with impact pile riving. Proceedings of the 11th European Conference on Underwater
Acoustics.
Hastings, M.C. and A.N. Popper. 2005. Effects of Sound on Fish. White Paper. January 2005.

Laughlin, Jim. 2010a. Underwater sound levels associated with driving steel piles at the Vashon
ferry terminal. WSDOT Report.
Laughlin, Jim. 2010b. Vashon Ferry Terminal Test Pile Project – Vibratory Pile Monitoring
Technical Memorandum. WSDOT – Tech Memo.
Reinhall, P.G. and P. H. Dahl. 2011. Underwater Mach wave radiation from impact pile driving:
theory and observation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 130:1209-1216.

Reyff, J.A. 2006. Russian River Bridge at Geyserville: Underwater sound measurement data for
driving permanent 48-inch CISS piles. Illingworth and Rodkin, Inc., Petaluma, California.

NOAA. 2012. Guidance Document: Data Collection Methods to Characterize Impact and Vibratory
Pile Driving Source Levels Relevant to Marine Mammals. NMFS Northwest Region and Northwest
Fisheries Science Center, Memorandum.

Urick, R.J. 1983. Principles of Underwater Sound. Ch. 7 In: The Noise Background of the Sea.
Peninsula Publishing, Los Altos, California.

USFWS. 2004. Personal communication. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

USFWS. 2011. Biological Opinion for Second Explosives Handling Wharf at Naval Base Kitsap
Bangor in Kitsap County, Washington. Western Washington Fish and Wildlife Office, Lacey,
Washington, Novemebr 16, 2011. 137pp.

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