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Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

DOI 10.1007/s00271-008-0112-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Yield, water-use eYciencies and root distribution of soybean,


chickpea and pumpkin under diVerent subsurface drip irrigation
depths and oxygation treatments in vertisols
S. P. Bhattarai · D. J. Midmore · L. Pendergast

Received: 3 December 2007 / Accepted: 7 April 2008 / Published online: 28 May 2008
© Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract Most trickle irrigation in the world is surface mediated through greater root activity, as observed by gen-
drip yet subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) can substantially eral increase in root weight, root length density, and soil
improve irrigation water use eYciency (IWUE) by mini- respiration in the trialed species. Our data show increased
mizing evaporative loss and maximizing capture of in-sea- moisture content at depth with a lower soil oxygen concen-
son rainfall by the soil proWle. However, SDI emitters are tration causing hypoxia. Oxygation oVsets to a degree the
placed at depths, and in many soil types sustained wetting negative eVect of deep emitter placement on yield and
fronts are created that lead to hypoxia of the rhizosphere, WUE of SDI crops.
which is detrimental to eVective plant functioning. Oxyga-
tion (aerated irrigation water) can ameliorate hypoxia of
SDI crops and realize the full beneWt of SDI systems. Oxy- Introduction
gation eVects on yield, WUE and rooting patterns of soy-
bean, chickpeas, and pumpkin in glasshouse and Weld trials Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) oVers opportunities for
with SDI at diVerent emitter depths (5, 15, 25, and 35 cm) improving water use eYciency (WUE) and minimizing the
were evaluated. The eVect of oxygation was prominent with negative environmental impacts of irrigation. In the face of
increasing emitter depths due to the alleviation of hypoxia. escalating competition for irrigation water with industrial,
The eVect of oxygation on yield in the shallow-rooted crop domestic and environmental Xows, water-use eYcient
vegetable soybean was greatest (+43%), and moderate on methods become the only viable alternatives for sustainable
medium (chickpea +11%) and deep-rooted crops (pumpkin irrigated agriculture (Thompson et al. 2002). SDI oVers a
+15%). Oxygation invariably increased season-long WUE strong competitive edge because of its greater WUE com-
(WUEsl) for fruit and biomass yield and instantaneous leaf pared to other irrigation methods such as Xood, furrow,
transpiration rate. In general, the beneWcial eVects of sprinkler and surface trickle irrigation. Appropriately man-
oxygation at greater SDI depth on a heavy clay soil were aged, SDI recorded irrigation eYciency (IE) of as much as
95–100% (Schneider and Howell 2001). SDI applications
along with fertigation have been found suitable for a large
number of crops (Lamm et al. 1995).
Communicated by S. Ortega-Farias. Drip irrigation becomes advantageous in tropical
climates, with dry and warm summers and high evapotrans-
S. P. Bhattarai (&) · D. J. Midmore · L. Pendergast piration rates throughout the growing season. These are
Centre for Plant and Water Science, Faculty of Science, conditions that make SDI a suitable alternative to surface
Engineering and Health, Central Queensland University,
Rockhampton, QLD 4702, Australia irrigation. With SDI, evaporation from the topsoil is
e-mail: s.bhattarai@cqu.edu.au reduced and water runoV is negligible (Phene et al. 1991,
D. J. Midmore 1992). In addition, with SDI, roots grow preferentially
e-mail: d.midmore@cqu.edu.au around the emitter area (Machado et al. 2003), which in
L. Pendergast turn can contribute to improved water availability to plants.
e-mail: l.pendergast@cqu.edu.au Several investigations on horticultural crops to analyze the

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440 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

inXuence of SDI on yield showed that when crops were root growth is largely limited by ODR whereas under deW-
supplied with SDI, yields were equal to or greater than cit irrigation, root growth may be limited by lack of water
those obtained by surface drip (Phene et al. 1987; Bar- or high soil strength (Klepper 1991). When irrigation is
Yosef et al. 1991; Camp et al. 1993; Bhattarai et al. 2006). maintained to wet-up the rooting zone, most of the root sys-
This behavior can be attributed to factors aVecting evapora- tem is found around the wetting front, close to the location
tion from topsoil (Camp 1998); the burying of the SDI tape of emitter depth, where the majority of the water is also
according to Phene et al. (1992) contains topsoil evapora- taken up by the crop. Sustained wetting fronts, which
tion. In processing tomato, during the Wrst stage of crop develop with SDI, limit the diVusion of oxygen to the crop
growth when the canopy is incomplete SDI increased the root and subsequently plants experience hypoxia.
eYciency of water use compared with surface irrigation The negative eVect associated with deeper emitter depth
(Machado et al. 2003), due to a decrease in crop evapo- for crop yield is largely associated with poor oxygen in the
transpiration (ETc). wetting front. We noted that this eVect is very prominent in
A drier soil surface, besides minimizing the evaporative heavy clay soil at higher irrigation rates, especially in the
loss, also maintains a dry upper proWle to maximize rain summer (Bhattarai et al. 2004). An innovative approach for
interception. Such advantages become prominent at greater delivering oxygen with SDI water to the crop root zone, as
emitter depths. However, deeper emitter depth may need suggested by Bhattarai et al. (2006), opened up the poten-
alternative initial surface irrigation to ensure uniform ger- tial of oxygation in SDI irrigation systems. Oxygation
mination and establishment of the crop (Mann 2006). Addi- allowed simultaneous application of water and air directly
tionally, increasing emitter depth had been implicated in to the crop root zone irrespective of rooting depth. Our pre-
decreased yields in some crops and soil types. Marouelli vious research on aerated SDI showed beneWts of oxygation
and Silva (2002) reported a 32% yield reduction at 40-cm on a range of crop species in diVerent soil types under vary-
depth compared to emitter depth at 20 cm on tomato in ing soil moisture regimes (Bhattarai et al. 2005). As the
Central Brazil. Similarly, Machado et al. (2003) reported a eYciency of oxygation is quite possibly dependent on the
2.5% decrease in processing tomato yield in a Regosol at depth of drip placement, plant response to oxygation at
40-cm emitter depth compared to that at 20 cm. Optimum diVering emitter depths was studied in a semi-controlled
emitter depth speciWc to soil and crop type is therefore cru- environment (with vegetable soybean and chickpea) and at
cial to realise a high IE. SDI at greater depth, particularly in a commercial Weld scale (pumpkin).
heavy soils, induces oxygen deWciency in the rhizosphere
and with a limited root volume, imposing a restriction on
plant ability to extract water for transpiration. Materials and methods
Over the longer term, factors such as depth of SDI place-
ment may aVect soil structure and hydraulic properties In the experiments we evaluated the eVects of oxygation at
(Loch et al. 2005). It has been hypothesized that the soil diVerent emitter depths on yield, WUE, root distribution
chemical and physical properties around the emitter change and physiological responses of vegetable soybean (Glycine
over time resulting in poor subsurface water distribution max L.) herein referred as edamame, chickpea (Cicer ariet-
(Barber et al. 2001). Such physical and chemical problems inum) and pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), representing shal-
in the soil of SDI crops can cause limitations to eVective low, medium and deep rooted system, respectively, under
oxygen diVusion into the crop root zone. Plant roots require semi-controlled and Weld situations.
substantial amounts of oxygen for eVective root respiration.
Reduced root respiration caused by low oxygen availability Location and crop details
severely impedes plant growth by reducing transpiration
and increasing indiscriminate Xow of ions and salt ingress Pot experiments were conducted on shallow- and medium-
into the plant that can reach toxic levels. Increased aeration rooted crops and the Weld experiment was conducted with
of the root-zone through aerated irrigation (we call it oxy- the deep-rooted crop. Edamame variety C 748-1-2-1 was
gation) would, therefore, provide beneWts to the plant by sown on 14 March 2006, and chickpea variety Desi Moti
reducing such eVects of oxygen limitation. was sown on 12 June 2006 in pots (28 £ 40 cm-high white
Soil environment and plant genetic makeup of roots plastic buckets) in trials in the screen-house (67% of full
largely dictate the gravitropic penetration of root systems in sunlight) at Rockhampton (23° 22⬘ 0.345⬙S; 150° 31⬘
the Weld conditions. In well-watered soil, root proliferation 0.53⬙E; 13 masl altitude), whereas the pumpkin variety Oak
generally declines exponentially with depth. In irrigated was sown on 31 May 2006 in a Weld trial at Alton Downs
soil, oxygen diVusion rate (ODR), water content and soil (23° 22⬘ 20.2⬙S; 148° 19⬘ 9.6⬙E; 65 masl altitude), central
strength are most critical soil properties for root growth. Queensland, Australia. The region is described as a semi-
However, under excess irrigation, especially in heavy soils, arid tropical environment, with summer-dominant rainfall.

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Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450 441

Total rainfall from 1 May–31 December was recorded as treatment to keep soil moisture close to Weld capacity
622 mm out of which 318.9 mm occurred during the crop (43 mm H2O per 100 mm soil depth). Water applied to
period equivalent to 861 L plant¡1. individual plots was measured from the calibrated gradu-
ated supply tank. The nutrient requirement of the crop was
Soil and pot set up supplied as fertigation using a Peter’s Professional general-
purpose water-soluble fertilizer (20:8.7:16.6 NPK and
A black cracking clay, which is referred to as a Vertisol 0.01% B, 0.004% Cu, 0.05% Fe, 0.03% Mn, 0.001% Mo,
(Australian Soil ClassiWcation System as 6AUG-12), and 0.003% Zn) at the rate of 0.5 g L¡1 of irrigation water con-
previously cropped with dry land cotton was used for all tri- tinuously throughout the crop season. To account for diVer-
als. For pot trials 28.8 kg soil was Wlled in pots and main- ent uptake rates of water between treatments, at times
tained the bulk density (Db) at 1.3 g m¡3. The soil had a pH irrigation was applied without fertigation to ensure that all
of 7.5 and an organic C content of 1.7 g kg¡1. Soil NO3-N plants received the same amount of nutrients.
was 4 mg kg¡1 before planting. Pots were arranged in the For pumpkin, irrigation to the 36 SDI plots was individ-
row, and each plot consisted of four adjacent pots. Seeds ually controlled and delivered to rows with T-Tape of
were sown into the pots at a depth of 2–3 cm, three to four 22 mm diameter and 0.30 m emitter spacing. The emitter
seeds per location, at 75 cm £ 10 cm between and within Xow rate was 0.58 L h¡1 per emitter at 103 kPa (15 PSI). A
rows. Seedlings were thinned to two plants per hill accom- 200-mesh rotary disk Wlter with semi-automatic Xush sys-
modating six plants per pot at 15 days after seeding for both tem manufactured by Rain Bird was installed for Wltration.
pot trials. Pumpkin was sown by a tractor-driven seeder in The irrigation commenced when the soil moisture reached
rows spaced at 300 cm on 10 cm high, 100 cm beds with reWll point (32 mm H2O per 100 mm soil depth) at 20 cm
the crop establishment at 90 cm between the plants in the soil depth (measured halfway between the two emitters in
row. the crop row) based on the readings from the calibrated
Micro-Gopher. This was aimed at maintaining water con-
Experimental design and treatments tent between Weld capacity (43 mm per 100 mm soil depth)
and reWll point. All crop nutrients, except the basal dose,
The pot experiments were laid out as factorial Randomized were supplied by the drip system uniformly to all the treat-
Complete Block Designs with three replications for edam- ments as per the standard recommendation. All the plots
ame and chickpea, and nine replications for pumpkin. Four received exactly the same nutrients, irrespective of the
emitter depths (5, 15, 25 and 35 cm) for edamame and water quantity applied. For pumpkin in the Weld, soil mois-
chickpeas, and two emitter depths (5 and 15 cm) for pump- ture measurement access tubes were placed in an array in
kin with and without oxygation comprised the factorial the selected plant row to the depth of 90 cm from the sur-
treatments. Oxygation treatments commenced at 7 days face. Two access tubes were placed along the row length
after emergence, as the crop after seeding was hand- between two plants at 22.5 and 45 cm from the plant stem
watered to ensure uniform germination and plant popula- or emitter. Similarly, four access tubes were also placed
tion across the treatments for edamame and chickpea. The perpendicular to the row at 25, 50, 100 and 150 cm away
pumpkin crop was drip irrigated starting on the day of seed- from a plant stem (colocated with an emitter) to map the
ing. Plot size for Weld trial was 300 m £ 9 m, i.e., 3 rows of soil moisture distribution. Probe calibration was carried out
300 m length per plot for pumpkin. for the soil to determine the Weld capacity. Soil moisture
was recorded before crop planting to determine the mois-
Irrigation and fertigation ture stored in the soil before the commencement of the irri-
gation, before and after irrigation at diVerent stages of the
For edamame and chickpea each pot was Wtted with a Net- crop, and for the residual moisture after the crop harvest.
aWm pot dripper placed at 5, 15, 25 or 35 cm below the soil
surface. The dripper delivery rate of 1 L h¡1 was operated Air injection and monitoring of soil oxygen
under a pressure of 62–76 kPa (9–11 PSI). The use of pot
drippers was to mimic the SDI in the Weld. Soil water was Mazzei model 384 and 2081™ air injectors were installed
measured at the depth of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm, daily ini- in-line immediately following the pump for pot and Weld
tially and then weekly in one pot per plot using a calibrated experiment, respectively, and regulated to ingress 12% air
Micro-Gopher system (Soil Moisture Technology, Austra- by volume of water following Bhattarai et al. (2006). The
lia), the probe of which consists of a capacitance sensor. diVerence in water volume of oxygation plots was adjusted
Irrigation was imposed on a 1–3 day interval, between by extending irrigation duration in these plots by 12% com-
0700–1200 h, based on the averaged readings from the pared to control, which received no additional air. The O2
Micro-Gopher with timing and quantity speciWc to each concentration in the soil at 15 cm for edamame and chick-

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442 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

pea was monitored near Xowering for 3–7 days using PSt3 no drainage holes and surface evaporation was avoided. To
O2 sensitive Wbre-optic minisensors with a Wbox-3 oxygen avoid surface evaporation the surface soil was mulched
meter (PreSens GmbH, Germany) as described by Klimant with black plastic beads for the pot experiment and the Weld
et al. (1995). Sensors were placed in the soil for 3 days experiment with plastic mulch. In the pumpkin Weld experi-
before data were recorded. ment, rain amounting to 70 mm in early growing season
contributed to uniform, early establishment and initiation of
Determination of yield parameters early rapid plant growth, and an additional 248.9 (total of
318.9 mm) rainfall was noted in later stage of crop growth.
Ten systematically sampled plants per plot were harvested Decisions for subsequent irrigations were based on soil
and separated into leaf, stem, roots and fruits as appropri- moisture availability. Irrigation of oxygation and non-oxy-
ate, and were dried for 72 h to a constant weight at 70°C. gation plots took place in sequence. During peak demand,
Root biomass was determined by digging tap root plus esti- as much as 4-h daily irrigation was provided to the crop to
mating Wbrous root for the volume of soil occupied per meet pumpkin crop water requirements for transpiration.
plant based on the Wbrous root collected from the core sam- Instantaneous water use eYciency (WUEi) was calculated
pling. Fruit quality in pumpkin was determined on 10 fruits as mol CO2 Wxed mmol¡1 of water transpired by the leaf
per plot (each chosen to represent one mid-season fruit per derived from IRGA data. IRGA procedures are described in
plant) as total soluble solids, dry matter percentage, and the following section.
using a Konica Minolta’s new Chroma Meters model CR-
400/410 lycopene and carotenoids. Growth and develop- Leaf and soil gas exchange
ment parameters (plant height, number of shoots, number
of nodes, stem diameter, leaf number, leaf area, leaf size) Leaf photosynthesis (A), transpiration (E) and stomatal
and reproductive parameters (days to Xowering, fruit set, conductance (SC) were measured at fortnightly intervals
number of pods) were recorded on ten sampled individual using an Infrared Gas Analyser (IRGA) LCA-4 (ADC, UK)
bordered plants at fortnightly intervals and at Wnal harvest. on two fully-expanded topmost sunlit leaves per plot on
The yield data, including number and mean fruit weight, each occasion between 1000–1200 h following Adams
were recorded from bordered plants harvested at R7 stage et al. (2002). Soil respiration was measured in the soil
for edamame and at complete seed or fruit maturity for 3–5 cm away from the plant main stem at the R5 stage for
chickpea and pumpkin. edamame and at Xowering for chickpea and pumpkin, at
1000–1200 h, using the IRGA principle with an EGM-3
Root sample analysis from PP Systems (UK) following Hanson et al. (2000).

One core sample per pot centre, collected at harvest Data analysis
(90 days after seeding), was obtained by soil coring with a
3 cm diameter soil corer to the entire depth of each pot for The fruit yields, dry matter partitioning, root properties and
edamame from the centre of the pot whereas 90 cm deep WUE data from each experiment were subjected to analysis
soil cores were collected for pumpkin. The latter were sepa- of variance (ANOVA) using the generalized linear model
rated into 10–30 cm (referred to as 20 cm), 30–50 cm (GLM) for a factorial randomized complete block design to
(40 cm), 50–70 cm (60 cm) and 70–90 cm (80 cm). Pump- determine the eVect of emitter depth and oxygation. Means
kin soil cores were collected at 22.5 cm from the plant in separation were calculated using the appropriate standard
the row (IR) (22IR), 45 cm from the plant (45IR), 25 cm error term following Gomez and Gomez (1984). Where inter-
from plant between the rows (BR) (25BR), 50, 100 and actions were not signiWcant, only main eVects are presented in
150 cm from the plant between the rows (50BR, 100 BR tabular form, and where interactions were signiWcant the data
and 150 BR). Root washing and scanning were carried out are presented in the form of graphs. All statistical analyses
following the method described in Bhattarai et al. (2006). including correlations were computed using the statistical
software Systat version 9.0 (SPSS Inc. 1999).
Water use eYciency

The season-long water use eYciency (WUEsl) was calcu- Results and discussion
lated for fruit yield of the trialed crops. Fruit yield of each
crop was divided by the crop-applied water over the season Weather data
(plus rainfall in the Weld trial) to calculate the WUEsl. For
plants in pots, the fruit yield was divided by water applied, Mean temperature over the edamame crop was 21.5°C
which is equivalent to water transpired since the pots had (range 10.7–30.4°C), and gradually declined over the crop

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Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450 443

period (25.6–17°C in March–June). Daily mean (exterior) 1,132 and 1,164 L per plant for oxyation and control,
solar radiation was 15.65 MJ m¡2d¡1 (range 11.9– respectively.
21.8 MJ m¡2d¡1), and also decreased gradually during crop
period. Chickpea planted in June experienced decreasing Soil moisture
temperature up to August and temperature started increas-
ing towards the maturity in September 2006. The mean In edamame, average soil moisture increased signiWcantly
temperature over the pumpkin period was 21.3°C (range from 10 to 20 cm depths and then stabilized irrespective of
16.6–26.2°C), and gradually increased over the crop period the emitter depths. As the pots did not have drainage, and
(May–December, 18.5–26.2°C). Daily mean solar radiation irrigation was carried out daily to replenish the crop water
was 19.13 MJ m¡2d¡1 (range 12–25.4 MJ m¡2d¡1), and uptake by transpiration, some moisture built up and
increased gradually from August–December 2006. Total remained at FC or slightly higher on some occasions at the
eVective rain over the pumpkin crop season was 318.9 mm. lower depths in the pot (Fig. 1). The surface layer of the pot
remained well below the reWll point irrespective of the emit-
Water use ter depths. These observations are consistent with the Wnd-
ings by Camp (1998), which suggested that SDI can
The amount of applied irrigation water signiWcantly maintain a drier soil surface without undergoing soil mois-
increased with oxygation compared to the control for chick- ture and crop water deWcit at depth. For Weld crops, the dry
pea and pumpkin whereas the reverse was so for edamame. surface could intercept any additional rain and mitigate
Although the eVect of emitter depth on applied water was runoV and/or deep drainage. This makes SDI eVective to
not noted for chickpea, crop applied water decreased with maximise the interception of rain, to minimize both oV-farm
increasing emitter depths on edamame whereas on pumpkin movements and deep drainage (McHugh et al. 2008), and to
applied water increased marginally with greater emitter improve the supply of water held for crop transpiration.
depth (Table 1). The shallow emitter developed moisture at In the pumpkin Weld trial, soil moisture close to the sur-
the surface and therefore potentially could lose more water face was also maintained below the reWll point (32 mm
from evaporation compared to deep emitter depths, espe- H2O per 100 mm soil) and dry for most of the crop season,
cially early in the season but the surface of the containers in particularly with greater emitter depth (15 cm) and
the current experiments were plastic mulched, and hence remained less dry at shallow depth (5 cm) without oxyga-
reduced evaporative loss. Consistent with our Wndings, tion (Fig. 2). Soil moisture at 100 cm or more distance from
Machado et al. (2003) showed a greater evaporative loss for the emitters and deeper than 40 cm remained at and above
shallow compared to deeper emitter depth with Weld grown FC, particularly after rainfall and immediately after irriga-
SDI tomato, but the diVerence was much greater compared tion. As most root activities were conWned close to 40-cm
to those reported herein (Table 1), most likely due to a depth and closer to the emitters (Fig. 4), soil moisture in
greater soil evaporation in that Weld environment. Our sea- excess of FC could have contributed to deep drainage
son was unusually wet for pumpkin, and rain accounted for (Fig. 2). Regular irrigation was ceased when the soil mois-
861 L per plant. With the rain included, the water use was ture at 30-cm depth was close to or above FC. A gradual

Table 1 Applied water over the season for edamame, chickpea and pumpkin with (+) and without (¡) oxygation (Oxy) at diVerent depths
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame (L plant¡1) Chickpea (L plant¡1) Pumpkin (L plant¡1)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 10.5 10.7 10.6 (2)a 10.3 9.8 10.1 (5) 269.0 252.7 260.9 (2) b
15 10.4 10.6 10.5 (2)ab 9.8 9.5 9.7 (3) 269.2 252.9 261.1 (2) a
25 10.3 10.5 10.4 (2)b 10.0 9.3 9.7 (7) – – –
35 10.3 10.5 10.4 (2)b 9.3 9.1 9.2 (2) – – –
Mean 10.5b 10.6a 10.5 (2) 9.8a 9.4b 9.6 (4) 269.1a 252.8b 260.9 (2)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.054* Oxy (df 52) = 0.021* Oxy (df 18) = 0.85*
SEd: Depth (df 8) = 0.077** Depth (df 52) = ns Depth (df 18) = 0.91*
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns Oxy £ D (df 52) = ns Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within columns and rows, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or % change over diVerent depths

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444 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

50 (Fig. 3). The moisture extraction pattern in the oxygation


Soil moisture (mm 100 mm -1)
+ Oxy – 5 cm
45 plots was diVerent to that of the control, particularly in the
40 - Oxy – 5 cm
active root zone, as larger areas in the control were under
35 + Oxy – 15 cm
saturation with no oxygation. Soil core taken from control
30 - Oxy – 15 cm plots showed a reduced soil condition as evidenced by the
25
20
+ Oxy – 25 cm mottling of the soil cores at the depth greater than 50 cm
15 - Oxy – 25 cm depth (observation on the soil core, data not presented) and
10 + Oxy – 35 cm was associated with the presence of reduced form of iron,
5 - Oxy – 35 cm
ferrous ion (Fe2+) instead of oxidized form of iron, ferric
0 ion (Fe3+), and such reduced condition in the core depth
10 20 30 40
was not obvious in the without oxygation plots.
Soil depth (cm)

Fig. 1 Soil moisture in diVerent treatments at various depths from Soil oxygen
edamame pot culture in a heavy clay soil

depletion of soil moisture followed in the subsurface zone Soil oxygen concentration (3-day means) for edamame at
at the depth of 60–70 cm suggesting root proliferation and 30 cm depth was lower in the control (4.4 ppm, range 0.03–
subsequently water extraction by the plants at that depth 8.16) than the oxygation (8.9 ppm, range 7.7–9.6 ppm).

Fig. 2 Soil moisture content


(a) (b)
(mm 100 mm¡1) in pumpkin
plots at fruiting stage (93 days) 10 10
before an irrigation. a Shallow 44-55 44-55
20 20
(5 cm) ¡Oxygation. b Deep
(15 cm) –Oxygation. c Shallow 30 30
(5 cm) +Oxygation. d Deep 33-44 33-44
(15 cm) +Oxygation. (X axis: 40 40
22.5IR (22.5 cm from plant in
50 22-33 50 22-33
the row (IR), 45IR (45 cm from
plant IR), 25BR (25 cm from
60 60
plant between the rows (BR),
11-22 11-22
50BR 100 BR, and 150 BR (50, 70 70
100 and 150 cm from the plant
between the rows). Y axis repre- 80 80
0-11 0-11
sents the depth (cm) for soil
moisture monitoring 90 90
45IR
22.5IR

100BR

150BR
25BR

50BR

45IR

100BR

150BR
22.5IR

25BR

50BR

(c) (d)
10 10
44-55 44-55
20 20

30 30 33-44
33-44

40 40

22-33 22-33
50 50

60 60
11-22
11-22
70 70

80 80 0-11
0-11
90 90
45IR

25BR

50BR

100BR

150BR
22.5IR

100BR

150BR
25BR

50BR
45IR
22.5IR

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Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450 445

Fig. 3 Soil moisture content in (a) (b)


pumpkin plots at fruiting stage 10 10
(93 days), 6 h after irrigation a 44-55 44-55
Shallow (5 cm) –Oxygation. b 20 20
Deep (15 cm) ¡Oxygation. c 30 30
Shallow (5 cm) +Oxygation. d 33-44 33-44
40
Deep (15 cm) +Oxygation. (X 40
axis: 22.5IR (22.5 cm from plant 50 22-33 50 22-33
in the row (IR), 45IR (45 cm
60
from plant IR), 25BR (25 cm 60
from plant between the rows 70 11-22
70 11-22
(BR), 50BR 100 BR, and 150
80
BR (50, 100 and 150 cm from 80
the plant between the rows). Y 90 0-11
0-11

45IR

25BR

50BR
22.5IR

100BR

150BR
axis represents the depth (cm) 90

25BR
45IR

100BR

150BR
22.5IR

50BR
for soil moisture monitoring

(c) (d)
10 10
44-55 44-55
20 20

30 30
33-44 33-44
40 40

50 22-33 50 22-33

60 60

70 11-22 70 11-22

80 80
0-11 0-11
90 90
22.5IR

45IR

25BR

50BR

100BR

150BR
25BR

50BR
22.5IR

45IR

100BR

150BR

However, the soil oxygen concentration at 10 cm depth on average RLD increased signiWcantly with oxygation at the
the same day was greater for both oxygation (9.8 § greater emitter depth (Fig. 4). Some root activity and lack
1.0 ppm, range 9.0–10.8) and control (5.6 § 0.7 ppm, range of mottling in soil was also observed up to 90 cm depth for
1.21–8.06) compared to those at depth. Weld-grown pumpkin specially in the oxygation treatment
whereas in the control treatment mottling symptoms were
Root length density, root respiration and root weight observed in cored soil which represent reduced soil condi-
tions. SigniWcantly greater soil respiration was recorded for
Root length density (RLD) in edamame increased with oxy- the oxygation treatment at deeper emitter depths in shallow
gation compared to that of the control, and decreased with rooted edamame whereas in deeper rooted pumpkin, oxyga-
increasing emitter depth (Table 2). Decrease in RLD with tion increased root respiration, more so at shallow than
increasing emitter depths at 25 and 35 cm without oxyga- deeper emitter depth (Table 2).
tion can be attributed to reduced oxygen concentration in In a well-irrigated Weld crop RLD generally declines
the rhizosphere. In general, average RLD increased by 9% with depth. In an SDI crop the RLD distribution in the soil
with oxygation, and a signiWcant rise in RLD was noted at is largely inXuenced by the emitter depth and soil types.
soil depths of 20 and 30 cm with oxygation (26 vs. 21 and Kamara et al. (1991) showed that the cotton root-length dis-
21 vs. 19 cm cm¡3 for 20 and 30 cm depths, respectively). tributions were not signiWcantly diVerent at 15–90 cm when
For edamame with shallow emitters, root mass was greater surface irrigation was compared with a 45-cm deep SDI on
in the upper soil (0–10 cm) whereas with deeper emitters an Amarillo Wne sandy loam (Wne loamy, mixed thermic
more root mass was located at the soil depth of 20–30 cm Aridic Paleustalf) at Lubbock, Texas. But in contrast Bhat-
(data not presented). Similarly, an increase (12.3%) in crop tarai et al. (2006) showed that RLD decreased at depth par-
root biomass was also noted with oxygation (data not ticularly at higher SDI irrigation rate, and implicated it with
presented). In pumpkin, root mapping revealed that the the sustained hypoxia. Earlier work by Machado et al.

123
446 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

Table 2 Soil respiration of edamame and pumpkin crops at Xowering and root length density (RLD) of edamame at harvest as aVected by emitter
depth and oxygation
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame soil respiration Edamame RLD Pumpkin soil
(g CO2 m¡2 h¡1) (cm cm¡3) respiration (g CO2 m¡2 h¡1)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 0.96 0.75 0.86 (28)a 27 27 27.0 (0)a 1.02 0.58 1.30 (76)
15 0.87 0.63 0.75 (38)ab 26 25 25.5 (4)ab 0.82 0.59 0.71 (39)
25 0.80 0.58 0.69 (38)ab 26 21 23.5 (24)ab
35 0.70 0.42 0.56 (67)b 21 18 19.5 (17)b
Mean 0.83a 0.59b 0.71 (41) 25a 23b 24.0 (9) 0.92a 0.58b 0.75 (59)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.06* Oxy (df 8) = 1.31* Oxy (df18 ) = 0.07**
SEd: Depth (df 8) = 0.12* Depth (df 8) = 1.84* Depth (df18) = 0.07ns
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.08* Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.10*
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within columns and rows, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

Fig. 4 Root length density of


pumpkin during the fruiting
30.1
stage measured at diVerent
24.0
depths in response to emitter 8.3
depth and oxygation (top left
2.1 2.4
¡Oxygation, 15 cm; top right 0.6 1.0 0.3
1.1 15.7 1.1 1.0
2.7 0.9 0.1
+Oxygation, 15 cm; bottom left 20 1.8 20
1.1
Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)
0.4 0.8
¡Oxygation, 5 cm; bottom right 40 0.4
40 0.4 1.1 0.4 0.6
1.9
+Oxygation, 5 cm). (X axis: 0.2 0.6
1.1
0.2
0.7
1.3 0.5 0.4
60 1.3 0.6 0.2
22IR (22.5 cm from plant in the 60
0.7 0.3 0.5
0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
row (IR), 45IR (45 cm from 80 0.1 80 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.2
plant IR), 25BR (25 cm from
150BR
100BR
50BR

150BR
25BR
45IR

100BR
22IR

50BR
45IR

25BR
plant between the rows (BR), 22IR
50BR 100 BR, and 150 BR (50,
Distance (cm)
100 and 150 cm from the plant Distance (cm)
between the rows). Y axis repre-
sents the depth (cm) for RLD
sampling. NADeep: non-aerated 14.1 13.9
21.3
(¡oxy) 15-cm emitter depth, and 11.0

ADeep: aerated (+oxy) 15-cm 8.2

emitter depth 7.3


14.7
1.7 1.7 2.7
2.2 0.5 0.2
4.6 20
20 3.4 2.4
2.2 1.0 2.2
Depth (cm)

1.4 1.8 0.6 0.4


Depth (cm)

1.1
40 40
2.2
1.4 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.2 1.1 0.5
0.7 0.7 0.3
60 60
1.7 1.4
0.7 0.8 1.1 0.3 2.0 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.2
80 0.4
80
150BR

150BR
100BR

100BR
50BR

50BR
25BR

25BR
45IR

45IR
22IR

22IR

Distance (cm) Distance (cm)

(2003) also revealed that with SDI tomato, 94% of the roots ing volume, which in turn can extract water from larger soil
were in the upper 30–40 cm depth and roots grew preferen- area to improve water availability to the plants. The current
tially around the emitter area especially when the horizon results are consistent with our earlier Wndings where we
below the emitter contained soil with a high bulk density. noted greater RLD below the emitter on edamame and zuc-
But in non-compacted and in medium textured soil, SDI chini with response to oxygation but not in the control
crops could also develop diVerential RLD over larger root- (Bhattarai et al. 2004), suggesting that hypoxia can inXu-

123
Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450 447

ence both the root respiration and root growth in SDI crops In chickpea, a medium-rooted crop, oxygation increased
when they are close to wetting fronts. yield by 11%. The yield was lowest at 15 cm depth treat-
ment compared to the shallower and deeper depths. In the
Physiological response Weld experiment with deep-rooted pumpkin, yield increased
by 15% with oxygation (Table 4). The eVect of oxygation
Edamame leaf photosynthesis was greater in plants receiv- was similar at emitter depths of both 5 and 15 cm, suggest-
ing than not receiving oxygation. Emitter depth did not ing that the eVect of oxygation can be realized even at the
inXuence the rate of leaf photosynthesis in either edamame shallower emitter depth in a heavy clay soil. Oxygation also
or pumpkin (Table 3). In pumpkin, the diVerence between showed a positive eVect on the reduction of foliage disease
treatments was not signiWcant, but the leaf photosynthetic as the intensity of downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cub-
rate was greatest with oxygation at the deeper depth ensis) on the leaf was largely limited to control plots along
(Table 3). The stomatal conductance and leaf transpiration the length of drip tape (Weld observation).
rate in edamame was greater and in pumpkin was signiW- In the shallow-rooted crop, the oxygation eVect on yield
cantly higher at deeper compared to shallower SDI and increased with increasing emitter depths, whereas in the
with oxygation compared to the control treatment (data not medium-rooted crop the response was only one quarter that
presented). Rate of leaf photosynthesis was always higher of the shallow-rooted crop and the response was limited to
with oxygation for vegetable soybean, tomato and cotton in deeper placement only, whereas in the deep-rooted crop the
our previous experiments (Bhattarai et al. 2006). eVect of oxygation was similar at both 5 and 15 cm. The top
10 cm of the soil in the pots was dry for most of the time
Yield and quality during the season (Fig. 1), therefore, very limited root
activities could occur at this depth. The shallow-rooted crop
In edamame, a shallow-rooted crop, increasing emitter concentrated most of the root activities at 20–30 cm depths,
depths without oxygation resulted in declining fresh pod whereas in medium-rooted crop the root penetration was
yield (Table 4). Oxygation increased pod yield (43%) com- noted as deep as 45 cm, and in deep-rooted pumpkin ade-
pared to the control. Oxygen content in the rhizosphere quate root activities was recorded to the depth of 90 cm.
becomes a limitation in heavy clay soil, particularly at Hence, in the shallow-rooted crop most of the root activi-
higher soil moisture (Midmore et al. 2007). The soil mois- ties could take place within the inXuence of wetting front
ture recorded at 15, 25 and 35 cm was consistently close to zone where oxygation was eVected. In medium and deep-
FC. This would limit the soil oxygen diVusion, thereby cre- rooted crops, a considerable amount of root mass is distrib-
ating a hypoxic rhizosphere. Earlier work by Bhattarai et al. uted outside the inXuence of wetting front zone. Hence, it is
(2005) also noted low oxygen, reduced RLD, and less res- likely that only part of the total root mass is able to acquire
piration leading to lower crop yields in heavy clay soil the additional oxygen added through aerated irrigation
under FC and drier conditions, the negative eVects of which water. Therefore, the eVect of oxygation declined with the
were ameliorated with oxygation. increasing rooting depth of the crop. Similar results were

Table 3 Leaf photosynthesis as inXuenced by dripper depth and oxygation (Oxy) on edamame (68 days) and pumpkin (124 days)
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame photosynthesis Pumpkin photosynthesis
(mol CO2 m¡2 s¡1 ) (mol CO2 m¡2 s¡1)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 12.2 11.4 11.8 (8) 21.9 19.5 20.7 (12)


15 11.8 9.7 10.8 (22) 22.9 21.3 22.1 (8)
25 12.5 10.7 11.6 (17)
35 11.9 8.8 11.9 (35)
Mean 12.1a 10.1b 11.1 (20) 22.5 20.4 21.5 (10)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.766** Oxy (df 18) = ns
SEd: Depth (df 8) = ns Depth (df 18) = ns
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within each column, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

123
448 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

Table 4 Yield of edamame (fresh pod), chickpea (dry bean) and pumpkin (marketable fruit) with (+) and without (¡) oxygation (Oxy) at diVerent
emitter depths
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame (kg m¡2) Chickpea (g m¡2) Pumpkin (kg m¡2)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 1.35 1.25 1.30 (8)a 61.7 57.8 59.8 (7)ab 8.34 7.30 7.82 (14)a
15 1.17 0.92 1.05 (27)b 55.2 52.3 53.8 (6)b 7.51 6.51 7.01 (15)b
25 1.20 0.81 1.01 (48)b 67.2 62.3 64.8 (8)a – – –
35 1.30 0.69 0.99 (88)b 68.3 55.2 61.8 (24)ab – – –
Mean 1.26a 0.92b 1.09 (43) 63.1a 56.9b 60.0 (11) 7.93a 6.90b 7.42 (15)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.073** Oxy (df 52) = 2.79* Oxy (df 18) = 0.08**
SEd: Depth (df 8) = 0.103* Depth (df 52) = 3.95* Depth (df 18) = 0.42*
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.145ns Oxy £ D (df 52) = 4.78ns Oxy £ D (df 8) = ns
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within each column, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

Table 5 Mean fruit wt, fruit dry matter content and total soluble solids in mature fruits of pumpkin at harvest with (+) and without (¡) oxygation
at 5 and 15 cm emitter depths
Emitter depth (cm) Mean fruit weight (kg) Dry matter content (%) Total soluble solids (°brix)
a a
+Oxy ¡Oxy Average +Oxy ¡Oxy Average +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 2.48 2.35 2.42 (5.5)a 40.2 38.0 39.1 (5.8) 13.8 13.2 13.5 (4.5)a
15 2.46 2.32 2.39 (6.0)b 39.8 38.8 39.3 (2.6) 13.5 12.4 13.0 (8.9)b
Mean 2.47a 2.33b 2.40 (5.7) 40.0 38.4 39.2 (4.2) 13.6a 12.8b 13.2 (6.7)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.021** Oxy (df 52) = ns Oxy (df 18) = 0.32*
SEd: Depth (df 8) = 0.032** Depth (df 52) = ns Depth (df 18) = 0.41*
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.145ns Oxy £ D (df 52) = 0.05* Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.35*
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within each column, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

observed in our earlier experiments where the eVects of surements such as luminosity, Hunter a and Hunter b
oxygation were high in shallow-rooted crops such as vege- readings of the fruit samples (data not presented).
table soybean and moderate on deep-rooted crops such as Crops yields with respect to emitter depths were highly
tomato and cotton (Bhattarai et al. 2004). The biomass variable in previous studies (Camp 1998). Machado et al.
yield and partitioning of pumpkin harvested before matu- (2003) observed more vegetative growth with sprinkler and
rity when the crop was at an early fruit growth stage surface drip (SD), compared to SDI emitter depth at 40 cm.
(134 days after sowing) revealed that the number of fruit Marketable yield of tomato (124 t ha¡1) increased by 32,
set was signiWcantly greater with oxygation compared to and 15% in SD, compared to SDI at 40 cm and sprinkle irri-
the control, suggesting an earlier fruit set. This eVect gation, respectively. Yield increments were basically due to
becomes economically important if the immature fruits are more fruits per plant, since Wnal stand and mean fruit mass
also to be sold for fresh vegetable purpose. Average har- were not aVected by treatments. However, Marouelli and
vested fruit size increased in response to oxygation and the Silva (2002) reported no signiWcant yield diVerence
increase in pumpkin yield by oxygation was attributed between SD and SDI at 20 cm emitter depth in medium-
more to an increased fruit size than fruit number. Ripe rooted crop tomato on a loamy soil. In deep-rooted crop
fruits were with higher dry matter content and total soluble cotton, lint yield was greater for the 30 than 20 cm emitter
solids (TSS) with oxygation (Table 5), consistent with our depth (Enciso et al. 2005), probably because of the higher
Wndings on watermelon crop (Midmore et al. 2007). How- soil evaporation of the shallower emitter depth, in a clay
ever, no distinct trends were noted for other quality mea- loam soil with good drainage (27% sand, 42% silt, and 29%

123
Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450 449

clay). These results are inconsistent with our Wndings, par- WUEsl at deeper emitter depth noted in the edamame was
ticularly because yield reductions with increasing emitter probably due to reduced evaporative loss over that with
depth were more prominent in a heavy clay soil, and oxyga- shallower drip placement. But at depths the WUEsl was
tion oVered positive beneWt to alleviate such limitation of relatively greater with oxygation compared to control sug-
by the depth of emitter placement. gesting a sustained hypoxia, limiting the root respiration.
In the pumpkin crop, plots were plastic mulched; hence the
Water use eYciency WUE in the shallower emitter depth was comparable to
deeper emitter depth. But at depths the WUEsl with oxyga-
Season-long water use eYciency (WUEsl) in edamame and tion was signiWcantly greater than the control suggesting
chickpea, expressed as grams of pods and dry grain per the occurrence of an hypoxic environment. In general, the
liter of applied irrigation water, respectively, was higher leaf transpiration rate increased with oxygation compared
for the oxygation compared to that of the control in chick- to the control. Similarly, the instantaneous leaf transpira-
peas, but only marginally so in edamame (Table 6). In tion rate increased with oxygation for edamame and pump-
pumpkin, the positive eVect of oxygation on WUEsl kin was 10 and 15% greater than their respective controls
increased with increasing emitter depth (Table 6). Higher (Table 7).

Table 6 Season-long water use eYciency (WUEsl) of applied water for edamame, chickpea and pumpkin with (+) and without (¡) oxygation at
diVerent emitter depths
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame (g L¡1) Chickpea (g L¡1) Pumpkin (g L¡1)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 4.38 4.30 4.34 (1.9)b 0.23 0.22 0.22 (1.5) 12.22 10.83 11.53 (12.8)a
15 4.41 4.32 4.37 (2.1)ab 0.21 0.21 0.21 (2.8) 10.97 9.28 10.13 (18.2)b
25 4.44 4.36 4.40 (1.8)ab 0.25 0.25 0.25 (0.4) – –
35 4.47 4.37 4.42 (2.3)a 0.28a 0.23b 0.26 (21.2) – –
Mean 4.43a 4.34b 4.39 (2.0) 0.24 0.23 0.23 (6.4) 11.95a 10.05b 11.0 (15.5)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.021** Oxy (df 52) = ns Oxy (df 18) = 0.32*
SEd: Depth (df 8) = 0.032** Depth (df 52) = ns Depth (df 18) = 0.41*
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.145ns Oxy £ D (df 52) = 0.05* Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.35*
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within each column, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

Table 7 Instantaneous leaf transpiration rate for edamame, and pumpkin with (+) and without (¡) oxygation at diVerent emitter depths
Emitter depth (cm) Edamame transpiration Pumpkin transpiration
rate (mmol m¡2 S¡1) rate (mmol m¡2 S¡1)

+Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea +Oxy ¡Oxy Averagea

5 2.12 1.28 1.70 (66) 4.55 4.31 4.43 (6) a


15 1.03 0.62 0.83 (66) 5.72 3.90 4.81 (47) b
25 0.86 1.49 1.18 (42) – –
35 0.73 1.22 0.98 (40) – –
Mean 1.28a 1.16b 1.22 (10) 5.14a 4.11b 4.62 (25)
SEd: Oxy (df 8) = 0.35* Oxy (df 18) = 0.41*
SEd: Depth (df 8) = ns Depth (df 18) = 0.47*
SEd: Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.70* Oxy £ D (df 8) = 0.58*
Separation by SEd test at the 95% conWdence level. Within each column, diVerent letters indicate signiWcant diVerence at P < 0.05
SEd Standard error of diVerence, ns not signiWcant
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
a
Value in parenthesis in the Average column are % change from ¡oxy to +oxy or %

123
450 Irrig Sci (2008) 26:439–450

Conclusions Bhattarai SP, Pendergast L, Midmore DJ (2006) Root aeration im-


proves yield performance and water use eYciency of tomato in
heavy clay and saline soils. Sci Hortic 108:278–288
In the shallow-rooted crop, edamame, oxygation signiW- Camp CR (1998) Subsurface drip irrigation: a review. Trans ASAE
cantly increased green pod yield, on average by 43%. Pod 41(5):1353–1367
yield declined rapidly with increasing emitter depths over Camp CR, Garrett JT, Sadler EJ, Busscher WJ (1993) Microirrigation
the range of 5–35 cm without oxygation, but with oxyga- management for double-cropped vegetables in a humid area.
Trans ASAE 36(6):1639–1644
tion yield remained constant over emitter depths. In the Enciso J, Multer W, Scott R, Sturtz S, Quigg R, Schwartz F (2005)
medium-rooted crop, chickpea, the eVect of oxygation on Salinity management with pressurized irrigation systems and
yield was less profound, and the yield increased by only deWcit irrigation conditions. Result demonstration report. The Ag
11% with oxygation compared to the control. In the deep- Extension Service, pp 1–8
Gomez KA, Gomez AA (1984) Statistical procedures for agricultural
rooted crop, pumpkin, yield was greater by 15% with oxy- research. 2nd edn., International Rice Research Institute, Philip-
gation compared to the control and on average yield pines
decreased by 12% at greater emitter depth (15 cm). In all Hanson PJ, Edwards NT, Garten CT (2000) Separating root and soil
three crops, yield invariably decreased with increasing microbial contributions to soil respiration: a review of methods
and observations. Biogeochemistry 48:115–146
emitter depth without oxygation. Oxygation in shallow- Kamara L, Zartman R, Ramsey RH (1991) Cotton-root distribution as
rooted edamame and deep-rooted pumpkin also contributed a function of trickle irrigation emitter depth. Irrig Sci 12:141–144
towards improved WUE. The WUE increased by 2 and Klepper B (1991) Cotton root system responses to irrigation. Irrig Sci
16% due to oxygation in the shallow- and deep-rooted 12(3):105–108
Klimant L, Meyer V, Kuhl M (1995) Fibre-optic oxygen micro-sen-
crops. The WUE in general increased at depth due to less sors, a new tool in aquatic biology. Limnol Oceanogr 40:1159–
evaporation, but at depth roots experienced more hypoxia 1165
causing lower WUEsl. Oxygation ameliorated the root Lamm FR, Manges HL, Stone LR, Khan AH, Rogers DH (1995) Water
hypoxia at depth and therefore lead to higher WUE. Oxyga- requirement of subsurface drip-irrigated corn in northwest Kan-
sas. Trans ASAE 38:441–448
tion promoted greater RLD, soil respiration and leaf photo- Loch RJ, Grant CG, McKenzie DC, Raine SR (2005) Improving plants
synthesis leading to enhanced WUE and yield. Overall, we water use eYciency and potential impacts from soil structure
may conclude that yield decreased with increasing emitter change. Research investment opportunities. Final report to the
depths due to reduced oxygen availability for root respira- National Program for Sustainable Irrigation. CRCIF, Too-
woomba, Australia, pp 1–31
tion. Oxygation oVset the negative eVect of deep emitter Machado RMA, Oliveira M do RG, Portas CAM (2003) Tomato root
depth on yield and, therefore, could potentially maintain distribution, yield and fruit quality under subsurface drip irriga-
yields compared to those from surface emitters and increase tion. Plant Soil 255:333–341
WUE. Further Weld-scale experiments to validate these Mann L (2006) Demonstrating improved irrigation practices to the
processing tomato industry. Irrig Aust 21(1):22–23
indicative relationships between the emitter depths, oxyga- Marouelli WAY, Silva WLC (2002) Drip line placement depth for pro-
tion, and rooting depth in diVerent crops are suggested. cessing tomatoes crop. Hortic Bras 20:206–210
McHugh AD, Bhattarai SP, Lotz G, Midmore DJ (2008) Soil erosion
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Mr Graham Pye and Ian and oV-site movements of nutrients and pesticides from furrow
Kennedy for cooperation, to Bianca Pischick and Clemence Salvaudon and subsurface drip irrigation on cotton in vertisol. Paper submit-
for assistance in Weld and laboratory work, and to Phul Subedi and Tek ted, Agronomy for Sustainable Development
Gotame for pumpkin fruit quality assessment. Midmore DJ, Bhattarai SP, Prendergast L, Torabi M (2007) Oxyga-
tion: aeration of subsurface drip irrigation water and its advanta-
ges for crop production. Paper published in the proceedings of the
ANCID conference 2007. http://www.ancid.org.au/publish/
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