A

Saminar project report

On
Renewable solar energy source
Submitted in partial fulfilment
For the award of the degree of
Bachelor of technology
(Rajasthan technical university, kota)
In
Electrical engineering

SESSION (2018-2019)
Submitted to:- Submitted by:-
Mr. S.N. Joshi Shabanam
Mr. Saalim Qureshi IV Year (EEE)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GOVT. WOMEN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER

Contents:-
1.Introduction

2.Electricity from solar energy

3.Concentrated solar power

4.Photo voltaic cell

5.Structure of solar cell

6.Working of solar cell

7.Types of solar electric system

8.uses of solar energy

9.Advantages of solar energy

10. disadvantages of solar energy

11.Application
 INTRODUCTION
The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Solar energy is the sun’s rays
(solar radiation) that reach the earth. Solar energy can be converted into other
forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. In the 1830s, the British
astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box (a device that
absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to Africa.
Today, people use the sun's energy for lots of things. Solar energy can be
converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to Heat water for use in
homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Heat spaces inside greenhouses, homes,
and other buildings. Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:
Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells” change sunlight directly into
electricity. PV systems are often used in remote locations that are not
connected to the electric grid. They are also used to power watches,
calculators, and lighted road signs. Solar Power Plants - indirectly generate
electricity when the heat from solar thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid
which produces steam that is used to power generator. Out of the 15 known
solar electric generating units operating in the United States at the end of
2006, 10 of these are in California, and 5 in Arizona. No statistics are being
collected on solar plants that produce less than 1 megawatt of electricity, so
there may be smaller solar plants in a number of other states. The major
disadvantages of solar energy are: The amount of sunlight that arrives at the
earth's surface is not constant. It depends on location, time of day, time of
year, and weather conditions. Because the sun doesn't deliver that much
energy to any one place at any one time, a large surface area is required to
collect the energy at a useful rate.
solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans – which cover about
71% of the globe – and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the
oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a
high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds,
which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of
water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such
as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C.By photosynthesis,
green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces
food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in
one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately
3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of
the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be
obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and
mined uranium combined.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly

using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar
power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems
to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into
electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Solar power is anticipated to become the world's largest source of
electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar
power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption,
respectively. In 2016, after another year of rapid growth, solar generated
1.3% of global power.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the
1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, in the Mojave Desert
of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large
concentrated solar power plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar
Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in
Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States,
and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world's
largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being
developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop
arrays of less than 5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net
metering and/or a feed-in tariff.]
Electricity production
Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic
cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar
energy directly into electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a nonmechanical
device usually made from silicon alloys.

Solar system is arguably the cleanest, most reliable form of renewable

enegy available, and it can be used in several forms to help power your home
or business. Solar power photovoltaic (PV) panels convert the sun's rays into
electricity by exciting electrons in silicon cells using the photons of light from
the sun.Solar panels, also known as modules, contain photovoltaic cells
made from silicon that transform incoming sunlight into electricity rather
than heat. (”Photovoltaic” means electricity from light photo = light,
voltaic = electricity.)Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar
energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to
the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a
photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed.
Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When
enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor),
electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the
material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more
receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.
When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many
electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of
the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back
surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of
a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load,
electricity flows. The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a
photovoltaic system. Individual cell

Capturing Solar Energy

Solar energy can be captured in two forms, either as heat or as electrical energy.
 Thermal Systems
Thermal systems capture the Sun's heat energy (infra red radiation) in some form
of solar collector and use it to mostly to provide hot water or for space heating,
but the heat can also used to generate electricity by heating the working fluid in
heat engine which in turn drives a generator.
 Photovoltaic Systems
 Photovoltaic systems capture the sun's higher frequency radiation (visible and ultra
violet) in an array of semiconductor, photovoltaic cells which convert the radiant
energy directly into electricity.

The actual solar energy or insolation reaching a solar collector or array depends on
its position on the Earth, its orientation and it also varies continuously with time as
well as weather conditions.
The amount of energy captured is directly proportional to the area of the Sun's
energy front intercepted by the collector.

Some Geometry
The orientation of the solar collector or the photovoltaic array with respect to the
position of the Sun is a major determinant in the efficiency of the solar power system.

 Inclined Planes
Angle of Incidence
The amount of energy impinging on a
collector or array is directly proportional
to the area of the radiation wave-front it
intercepts. For optimum energy capture
the collector must be perpendicular to
the Sun's rays when the angle of
incidence is 90°. For a flat plate on the
ground this occurs only when the Sun is
directly overhead. Unfortunately unless
you live in the tropics this will never be
the case and solar arrays must be tilted
towards the Sun to receive the
maximum insolation.

When the incident energy is not

perpendicular to the collector, the angle
of incidence is (90° - Θ) and the effective
area of the collector
is A.cosΘ where A is the area of the
collector and Θ is the deviation from
perpendicular of the radiation.
Solar Collectors
A solar collector is simply a heat collecting surface which intercepts the Sun's
radiated energy and heats up a thermal working fluid. In practical thermal systems it
is usually more convenient to focus the Suns heat energy on to a small receiver in
order to obtain a higher temperature rise of the working fluid. Such collectors are
called concentrators. The units used by the solar concentrator community to express
the degree of concentration of the mirror system, similar to the magnification factor of
a lens are called "Suns". Note that this unit is not a precisely defined quantity.

Concentrators
Typical concentrators are constructed from parabolic mirrors which reflect the Sun's
parallel rays on to a single spot at the focus of the mirror.

 Parabolic Dish
A parabolic dish will capture the energy intercepted by the dish and concentrate it
on a suitable heat absorber located at the focus. The amount of energy captured
and hence the temperature rise of the absorber will be proportional to the area of
the dish. Size limitations of the dish limit its application to small systems of from
10kW to 50kW.

 Parabolic Trough
Larger systems use arrays of parabolic trough shaped mirrors oriented north-
south to concentrate the solar radiation. They usually also include a tracking
system to track the Sun's path throughout the day.
Photovoltaic cell

Th

Figure 1. A solar panel, consisting of many photovoltaic cells.[1]

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that

converts solar energy into useful electricity through a process called
the photovoltaic effect. There are several different types of PV
cells which all use semiconductors to interact with
incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.

Layers of a PV Cell

A photovoltaic cell is comprised of many layers of materials, each with a

specific purpose. The most important layer of a photovoltaic cell is the
specially treated semiconductor layer. It is comprised of two distinct
layers (p-type and n-type—see Figure 3), and is what actually converts
the Sun's energy into useful electricity through a process called
the photovoltaic effect (see below). On either side of the semiconductor
 is a layer of conducting material which "collects" the electricity produced.
Note that the backside or shaded side of the cell can afford to be
completely covered in the conductor, whereas the front or illuminated
side must use the conductors sparingly to avoid blocking too much of
the Sun's radiation from reaching the semiconductor. The final layer
which is applied only to the illuminated side of the cell is the anti-
reflection coating. Since all semiconductors are naturally reflective,
reflection loss can be significant. The solution is to use one or several
layers of an anti-reflection coating (similar to those used for eyeglasses
and cameras) to reduce the amount of solar radiation that is reflected off
the surface of the cell.[2]

Figure 2. The basic operation of a PV cell

Photovoltaic Effect
 The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in
a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight. These solar cells are composed
of two different types of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type—that are joined
together to create a p-n junction. By joining these two types of semiconductors,
an electric field is formed in the region of the junction as electronsmove to the
positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-side. This field causes
negatively charged particles to move in one direction and positively charged
particles in the other direction.[5] Light is composed of photons, which are simply
small bundles of electromagnetic radiation or energy. When light of a
suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the photon is
transferred to an electron of the semiconducting material, causing it to jump to a
higher energy state known as the conduction band. In their excited state in the
conduction band, these electrons are free to move through the material, and it is
this motion of the electron that creates an electric current in the cell.

Solar Power Plant System

Solar Power Plant also called Solar Energy System convert
sunlight into DC or AC electricity using array of Solar Photovoltaic Panels.
Basically, there are 3 types of solar power plant or solar systems. Type-1
is Off-Grid System, type-2 is On-grid System, type-3 is Hybrid Solar
System and we have divided into 5 cattegories/types. See below the
complete detail, area requirement, working, technical specification, Govt.
Subsidy, net-metering system and cost of the all type of solar systems.

Solar Power Plants Installations

Types of Solar Power Plants:

Off-Grid Solar Power Plants
On-Grid Solar Power Plants
Off-Grid Type Solar Power Plant System
"If you to save electricity but don't have a electricity connection or a
reliable grid, then Off-grid Solar Power Plant is system recommend for
you."
Off-grid solar power Plant is system with battery Bank, this type of power
plants also stores DC electricity in batteries bank provided with the
system. The addition of an inverter allows this system to convert DC
electrical current coming from the batteries into AC (alternating current).
AC is the standard form of electricity for anything that "plugs in" to utility
power and is the appropriate current for common household appliances.

Off-Grid Type Solar Power Plant System

"If you to save electricity but don't have a electricity connection or a
reliable grid, then Off-grid Solar Power Plant is system recommend for
you."
Off-grid solar power Plant is system with battery Bank, this type of power
plants also stores DC electricity in batteries bank provided with the
system. The addition of an inverter allows this system to convert DC
electrical current coming from the batteries into AC (alternating current).
AC is the standard form of electricity for anything that "plugs in" to utility
power and is the appropriate current for common household appliances.

Off-grid Solar Panel System

Know more detail, technical specifications, advantage-disadvantage and best
prices of 1kW-10kW Off-Grid Solar Power Plants Off-Grid Solar System .

On-Grid Type Solar Power Plant System

"If you have a reliable grid but your electricity bills are high,
then On-Grid Solar Power Plant is recommend for you."
On-Grid Systems are solar pv systems that only generate power
when the utility power grid is available. They must connect to
the grid to function. They can send excess power generated back
to the grid when you are overproducing so you credit it for later
use through Net MeteringSystem by Indian Govt.

On-Grid Solar Panel System Price List

Know more detail, technical specifications, advantage-disadvantage and
best prices of 1kW-10kW
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

1. Renewable Energy Source – Among the several benefits of solar

panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is truly a renewable
resource. It can be utilized in all areas of the world and is available every
day. We can never run out of solar energy unlike some of the other sources
that are being used excessively. Solar energy is readily accessible and
available to us for as long as we have the sun which according to scientists
is going to stay for at least next 5 billion years. The cost of solar panels has
also fallen by 75% that should encourage everyone to go for solar.

2. Provides energy security – Another top benefit of installing solar

panels is that no one can go and buy or turn sunlight into a monopoly.
Combined with the ease of solar panels, this also provides a notable solar
power advantage of energy security. This is why governments are investing
huge amount of money into the development and installation of solar power
systems.

3. Decrease the carbon footprint – Solar power decreases your carbon

footprint as well. Carbon dioxide has been known to cause global warming
that is causing havoc on our Earth further causing glaciers to melt, animals
to be endangered and shorelines to erode. For example, solar power can
help conserve more than 16000 gallons of water per year and also
decrease dependence on non-renewable sources of energy. Reducing the
mileage from 15,000 to 10,000 can save more than a ton of CO2 which is
around 15% of the average person’s footprint.

4. Technology Development – The technology in the solar power industry

is continuously advancing and improvements are sure to intensify in the
future. Innovations in nanotechnology and quantum physics can increase
the effectiveness of solar panels or increase multi-folds the electrical
output.
5. Low Maintenance Costs – Solar power systems don’t require a lot of
maintenance. All you need to do is keep them relatively clean. The
reliable solar power companies give 20-25 years of warranty. There is no
wear and tear and the inverter is the only part that needs to be changed
after 5-10 years. Basically, there is very little spending on maintenance and
repair work. For example, the average cost of an annual inspection for a
household rooftop solar PV system is approximately $150.00

6. Diverse Uses – Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes such as
to generate electricity or heat. It can also be used to produce electricity in
areas without access to energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited
water supplies, power satellites in space, in residential properties and
recreational homes. These are some of the most popular diverse uses of
solar power.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
Although a lot of good stuff is said every day about solar energy, people
should familiarize themselves with the disadvantages of solar energy before
committing any financial resource. Here is an outline of basic disadvantages
to solar energy:

 1.It’s not 100% reliable

This means that when the sun is not shining, there is no generation of energy.
The generation of power is mostly affected at night and during winter
months. Most people have now invested in battery backup systems, which
store up power to be used when the sun is not shining. However, investing in
backup systems can ramp up the overall cost of installing a solar panel. It
mostly ends up not adding value to the solar energy technology.

Unlike other renewable energy sources which can also be operated during
night, solar panels prove to be useless which means you have to depend on
the local utility grid to draw power in the night or you can buy solar batteries
to store excess power which you can later utilize in the night. Apart from
that, storms or hurricanes also reduce your ability to draw power during those
days.

 High initial capital costs

Although installation of solar panels would bring immense benefits in the

long run, the upfront costs can be punitive. Depending on the company you
choose to buy solar panels from, it could cost an arm and leg. It’s even
difficult to quantify the entire cost of installation without the help of
manufacturing companies. Some nations have introduced rebates and tax
credits to enable lots of people to install solar panels, but unless you are
putting some money aside for this, it can be an unbearable cost. Also, it
might take up to 10 years to 15 years before you can break even with your
initial investment. Its not about how much payback period is, anything that
can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels is worth trying.

However, with most governments looking to get ahead of the severe global
warming impacts, they have liaised with solar panel manufacturers to dial
back on solar panel prices. Today, the average cost of a solar panel is $0.65
per watt. The same solar panels were selling at $0.74 per watt just a year ago.
This is a significant commitment to get everyone on board in the use of solar
energy.

 Problem of efficiency

A lot has been documented about the inefficiency of solar energy. Most
people do not understand what efficiency means. People look at 15%
efficiency and think that it’s not good enough. They think that the ideal
efficiency ought to be 100%. Efficiency is all about the amount of space it
takes to generate the energy. It would shock you to know that a 250-watt
solar panel featuring 15% efficiency produces the same power like a 250-
watt solar panel featuring 20% efficiency. The disparity is shown in size.
Smaller panels tend to be more efficient than larger panels.

Higher efficiency is vital when looking to power small electronics due to the
space aspect. Nonetheless, a roof is adequate to generate power for any
household use. This means people only invest in rooftop solar panels when
the roof space is small. It’s also good to note that more efficient panels are
relatively expensive.

 Complications when moving

Solar energy technologies like solar panels present challenges when looking
to move. The solar contracting company will switch the lease agreement to
the new user if you decide to move out. These companies do not want to
incur any further cost of taking the solar panels down. In fact, they have
expert personnel that work in conjunction with realtors, title agents, and
inspection agents to ensure smooth transition to the new tenant. In case you
choose to take the solar panel with you, plus the lease contract, the company
can expedite things, but you’ll have to take care of the de-installation and re-
installation cost.

 Materials used to make solar panels can cause pollution

There is no up-to-date information on the possibility to recycle PV panels.

Although solar panels have remarkable lifespan of about half a century,
disposing of these materials can have severe impacts on the environment.
This is a challenge that has been ignored over the years and must be
addressed now.

 Negative energy balance

The fact that the sun is unpredictable means solar energy cannot be relied
upon to power a country’s economy. Solar energy technologies are still being
developed, and scientists predict that the technologies will be able to cater to
a majority of world population by 2020. Until then, we will still rely on fossil
fuels as the main energy source.
 Installation Area

For home users, a solar energy installation may not require huge space as it
can be installed on rooftops that can produce sufficient energy but for big
companies, a large area is required for the system to be efficient in providing
electricity on a constant basis.

of the energy needs will be met by the solar power system, the energy
bills are sure to drop. It also depends on the size of the solar panel
system and the electricity usage. Not only you will save on the bill, but
also generate more electricity than you can use, the surplus of which will
be exported back to the grid provided it is connected. For example, you
have a consumption of 10,000 kWh and if the solar panels produce
10,000 kWh or more, you will end up saving a lot on your electricity bills.
The average electric bill can be as low as $10 or lower.

Benefits of solar energy

Following are some benefits of solar energy:
• Using the power of the sun to heat and light our houses is a very clean
and environmentally friendly way of generating power.
• Installing solar power in your home will guaran tee that you have much
lower fuel bills almost in stantly.
• These systems can fit into existing buildings and it does not
affect land use (Beerbaum 2000).
Applications of solar energy
- Larger solar power plants that collect the heat from the sun,
which is subsequently used to produce steam for powering a
generator
- Solar energy is harnessed to pump water in remote areas
- Solar cookers
- Solar cars, solar trams, solar buses and even satel- lites are
also seen to operate with the help of solar energy.
- Solar energy can be used to heat residential homes
- Many people use solar energy to heat their water supply and
their swimming pools as well
- Recreational vehicles and some boats may also run on solar
energy.
- Small gadgets that involve little energy, such as calculators
and watches, often use solar energy (Beerbaum, 2000).
Conclusion
Solar power is an immense source of directly useable energy
and ultimately creates other energy resources: biomass, wind,
hydropower and wave energy.
Most of the Earth's surface receives sufficient solar energy to
permit low-grade heating of water and buildings, although there
are large variations with latitude and season. At low latitudes,
simple mirror devices can concentrate solar energy sufficiently
for cooking and even for driving steam turbines.
The energy of light shifts electrons in some semiconducting
materials. This photovoltaic effect is capable of large-scale
electricity generation. However, the present low efficiency of
solar PV cells demands very large areas to supply electricity
demands.
Direct use of solar energy is the only renewable means capable
of ultimately supplanting current global energy supply from non-
renewable sources, but at the expense of a land area of at least
half a million km2.