Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Network perspective of embodied PM2.5 e A case study

Muhammad Wakeel a, Siyuan Yang a, Bin Chen a, b, *, Tasawar Hayat b, c, Ahmed Alsaedi b,
Bashir Ahmad b
a
State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
b
NAAM Group, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
c
Department of Mathematics, Quaid-i-Azam University, 45320, Islamabad, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Economic growth due to social activities such as industrialization, urbanization, population growth, and
Received 3 September 2016 transportation in countries like India is coupling with an increase in PM2.5 emissions, which are main
Received in revised form contributors to air pollution. In this paper, the embodied PM2.5 emissions generated from economic
13 October 2016
activities in India were investigated. We quantified the PM2.5 emissions from each economic sector based
Accepted 24 October 2016
Available online 24 October 2016
on input-output analysis (IOA). Also, the control relations within these economic sectors were identified
based on ecological network analysis (ENA) to determine the dominance and dependency of each sector.
The results showed that 86% (4858 kt) of total PM2.5 emissions were direct and 14% (812 kt) were indirect
Keywords:
Air pollution
in 2010. Furthermore, ENA-based results represented the pairwise control relationships among sectors
Embodied PM2.5 emissions inventory by finding that “Sale, maintenance, and repair of motor vehicles, retail sale of fuel”, “Chemicals and
Network control analysis chemical products”, “Smelting of nonmetal mineral products” and “Ordinary & special machinery &
Input-output analysis equipment” were the dominant sectors that controlled the flow of embodied PM2.5 emissions from other
sectors such as “Construction”, “Agriculture”, “Mining and dressing”, “Catering services”, and “Waste
manufacturing and recycling”. It is suggested that ENA be adopted as a more systematic approach to
uncover PM2.5 flow pattern among the economic sectors, as compared to traditional methods.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction socioeconomic activities affect PM2.5 and how to maintain future

In recent years, socioeconomic activities in India have increased
to dramatic levels because of rapid industrialization, urbanization,
population growth, and transportation, which in turn, increased
emissions that critically affected the atmospheric environment,
especially with regards to contamination by atmospheric particu-
late matter (PM) (Correia et al., 2013; Yin and Harrison, 2008; Singh
et al., 2014; Das et al., 2015). Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which
includes particles less than 2.5 mm in size, is produced by either
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass or by various
reactions of gaseous pollutants, such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
SO2, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (Zhang et al., 2012;
Pope et al., 2009). Many cities in India have remarkably higher
levels of PM2.5 than the upper limit of the WHO standard level
(WHO, 2013) as shown in Fig. 1, leading to questions of how
* Corresponding author. State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation
and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing,
100875, China.
E-mail address: chenb@bnu.edu.cn (B. Chen).
economic activities with minimum output of PM2.5 emissions,
which is compulsory for stable pollution management and clean
environment.
The reduction or control of PM2.5 emissions in any country is
possible only by the identification of PM sources, which effectively
helps in developing mitigation strategies. Source apportionment is
an important task in air pollution management and control, which
could lead to the implementation of better policy options in con-
trolling concentration levels (Begum et al., 2010). Various studies
worldwide related to airborne PM have focused either on “Pro-
duction-based emissions accounting” or “Consumption-based
emissions accounting” (Zhang et al., 2015; Tao et al., 2014; Yang
et al., 2015; Streets et al., 2006). Production-based emissions ac-
counting is based mostly on chemical and technological approaches
that are the most effective ways to trace back to the sources that are
main producers of PM2.5. For example, in India, various studies
were done from a production-based perspective with conclusions
that the main sources of PM2.5 emissions are biomass burning,
transportation, and coal combustion (Police et al., 2016; Karar and
Gupta, 2007; Das et al., 2015; Joon et al., 2011; Sahu et al., 2011; Dey

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.138
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331
Fig. 1. Most polluted cities by PM2.5 emissions. Note: India (IN); Pakistan (PK); Bangladesh (BH); China (CN); Russia (RU); France (FR); United- –Kingdom (UK); Qatar (QR).
Source: WHO, 2013.
et al., 2012).
Consumption-based emissions accounting (during supply and
final consumption of goods) provides alternative ways to under-
stand the fundamental causes of emissions discharge. It was first
introduced by Wiedmann et al. (2007) and further utilized by other
scientists to calculate CO2 emissions for consumers (Minx et al.,
2009; Davis and Caldeira, 2010). Hertwich and Peters, (2009)
quantified air pollutants associated with the final consumption of
goods and services in 73 nations and found that 72% of emissions
were related to household consumption, 18% to investments, and
10% to government consumption. Zhao et al. (2015) focused on
interprovincial virtual air pollution in China with the help of a
consumption-based emissions framework. Guan et al. (2014) pre-
sented an interdisciplinary study in order to measure the magni-
tude of socioeconomic drivers of primary PM2.5 emissions in China
between 1997 and 2010. However, in the existing literature,
consumption-based emissions accounting studies related to India
are scarce, although many studies related to production- and
consumption-based emissions inventories have been done inter-
nationally. For example, Takahashi et al. (2014) estimated the
production-based emissions and consumption-based emissions in
Asia and found that China emitted 75% of production- and 77% of
consumption-based total emissions. Huo et al. (2014) examined air
pollutants in China by using production- and consumption-based
accounting, concluding that 50% of air pollutants came from the
machinery, equipment, device manufacturing, and construction
sectors, while the service sectors were the lowest contributors of
air pollutants.
Some recent emissions accounting studies have borrowed the
concept of “embodied emissions”, previously used for energy
analysis (Li et al., 2016a). Embodied emissions are all the emissions
created from “cradle to grave” of an item (Yohanis and Norton,
2002). For example, Jiang et al. (2016) examined the embodied
mercury emissions in Beijing. Chen et al. (2013) investigated the
embodied carbon dioxide emissions at global level. Yang et al.
(2016) analyzed the embodied PM2.5 emissions in Beijing and
found that smelting & press of metals, non-mineral products, and
metal products had the highest control levels, whereas the catering
service, agricultural sectors, and residential sectors were the lowest
ranking sectors and the heavy industrial sectors were the main
contributors of embodied emissions.
Basically, embodied emissions are quantified with the help of
bottom-up and top-down approaches. The bottom-up approach is
data extensive, based on process analysis, which is why it deals
from cradle to grave, and can be used to calculate the
3323
environmental effect of any individual product (Wiedmann and
Minx, 2008; Wakeel et al., 2016). However, it cannot explain the
role of intermediate and final consumers (Zuhdi, 2015). The top-
down approach completely relies on input-output analysis (IOA),
which can describe the material flows in different economic sectors
to quantify the amount of embodied emissions that are emitted
during the manufacturing of products (Leontief, 1986). This method
is constructed based on an economic input-output (I-O) table that
shows inter-sectoral relationships in the form of monetary flow
(Leontief et al., 1965; Leontief, 1970). Various researchers have
quantified the embodied emissions flow at domestic, national, and
global scales in the socioeconomic system via IOA. (Peters, 2008;
Zhang et al., 2009; Miller and Blair, 2009; Zhao et al., 2011).
Furthermore, some recent studies have introduced the concept
of virtual material flow (Fang and Chen, 2015; Chen and Chen,
2013) that can be extended to calculate the inner interactions and
linkages of embodied PM2.5 in a system. To analyze the inner in-
teractions and linkages of embodied emissions within a system, a
systematic approach is needed. Ecological network analysis (ENA),
originally derived by Hannon (1973) from IOA, has been success-
fully applied to not only specific ecosystems (Schramski et al., 2006,
2007; Ulanowicz and Tuttle, 1992; Jørgensen et al., 2010; Chen and
Chen, 2011; Jørgensen, 2016), but also complex socioeconomic
systems. For example, Yang and Chen (2016) used ENA to investi-
gate the dominant sectors and pathways of energy-water circula-
tion and mutual relationship between pairwise components of
wind power generation systems. Particularly, Yang and Chen (2016)
first employed ENA to account regional PM2.5 emissions. Network
control analysis (NCA) was another useful tool derived from ENA
(Patten, 1978, 1982; Patten and Auble, 1981), which can be used to
describe the control and dependency relationships underlying the
PM2.5 emission flows among various economic sectors. In addition,
cumulative pathways of emissions flows can be highlighted based
on the allocation of integral control (Chen and Chen, 2012). How-
ever, studies in the existing literature related to embodied PM2.5
emissions in socioeconomic networks using ENA are still rare.
The objective of this paper was to construct a PM2.5 emissions
inventory framework at the sectoral scale, following the economic
I-O model for India. The PM2.5 emissions generated from 16 sectors
during economic activities were quantified. NCA derived from ENA
was also employed to study the structure and function of each
sector and to calculate the distribution of control level through the
interactions between sectors. Furthermore, the contribution of
each sector in the form of direct and indirect emissions was
investigated by combining ENA with IOA. Finally, the dominant
3324 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331
sectors were highlighted in the context of their linkages.
The following sections described the detailed organization of
the present study, Section 2 briefly explained the methodologies of
IOA and ENA, and Section 3 presented the quantification of direct
and indirect emissions, control analysis and a range of results.
Discussion, future perspective and policy implications were given
in Section 4. Finally, a range of conclusions were presented in
Section 5.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area
India is the seventh-largest country in the world (see Fig. 2),
with a total area of 3,287,263 km2 (IEB, 2012), and the world's
second largest population of 1.32 billion, 72.2% of which living
rurally and 27.8% living in urban and town agglomerations (WB,
2014). The concentration of PM2.5 in India is quite a serious issue,
80% of which is caused by biomass burning, fuel adulteration,
vehicle emissions, and traffic congestion (WHO, 2011). According to
the status and trends of national ambient air quality, more than 80%
of Indian cities violate the WHO PM2.5 level (CPCB, 2014). For
example, in Delhi, the average concentration of daily PM2.5 in 2014
was 153 mg/m3, which is more than four times higher than the
standard level of PM2.5 concentration of 35 mg/m3 (TERI, 2015).
In view of the current situation, the Indian Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) sponsored an ambitious project deemed the
Fig. 2. Map of study area.
System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research
(SAFAR), which was conceived, developed, and implemented by the
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM, MoES) (Gufran et al.,
2015). In addition, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) also
legislated daily limits of PM to line up with the international levels
for PM10 and PM2.5 (MoEF, 2009).
2.2. Data sources
We collected PM2.5 emissions data from 106 sectors with the
help of a greenhouse gas-air pollution interaction and synergies
(GAINS) model that was established by the International Institute
for Applied System Analysis. The percentages of total embodied
PM2.5 emissions in different regions are depicted in Fig. 3. The I-O
table of 35 economic sectors was obtained from “the Statistical
Bureau of India”. The national economy was divided into 35 eco-
nomic sectors to compile urban I-O with emissions. These 35 eco-
nomic sectors were further aggregated into 16 large sectors to
understand the embodied emission flows within the system and
identify the sectors with intensive PM2.5 emissions (see Table 1).
The rest of the data was obtained from “India's Statistical Year-
book” and existing published reports in the literature (India
Statistical Yearbook, 2007; WB, 2014). In addition, two aggregated
sectors (Construction & Manufacturing) were removed from
further calculations of direct and indirect emissions because their
PM2.5 emission data were unavailable in the GAINS model.
 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331 3325

Fig. 3. Percentage of total embodied PM2.5 emissions from different regions of India.

Table 1
Compilation of economic sectors.

16 aggregated sectors 35 original sectors Original sector number

Agriculture Farming, Forestry, Animal Husbandry, Fishery 1

Mining Mining & Quarrying 2
Manufacturing Food, Beverages and Tobacco 3
Textiles and Textile Products 4
Leather, Leather and Footwear 5
Rubber and Plastics 6
Wood and Products of Wood and Cork 7
Paper Industry Paper, Paper, Printing, and Publishing & Printing 8
Petroleum Processing Petroleum Processing and Coking 9
Chemical Products Chemicals and Chemical Products 10
Non minerals Nonmetal Mineral Products 11
Rubber 12
Metals Basic Metals and Fabricated Metal 13
Machinery & Equipment Machinery, Nec 14
Electrical and Optical Equipment 15
Manufacturing, Nec; Recycling Manufacturing, Nec; Recycling 16
Electricity & Water Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 17
Construction Construction 18
Sale, Maintenance and Repair Sale, Maintenance and Repair of Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles; Retail Sale of Fuel 19
Wholesale Trade and Commission Trade, Except of Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles 20
Retail Trade, Except of Motor Vehicles and Motorcycles; Repair of Household Goods 21
Catering Services Catering Services (Hotel and Restaurants) 22
Transportation Transportation 23
Transport Equipment 24
Water Transport 25
Air Transport 26
Other Supporting and Auxiliary Transport Activities; Activities of Travel Agencies 27
Residential Services Post and Telecommunications 28
Real Estate Activities 29
Renting of M&Eq and Other Business Activities 20
Public Admin and Defense; Compulsory Social Security 31
Education 32
Health and Social Work 33
Other Community, Social and Personal Services 34
Private Households with Employed Persons 35

2.3. Input-output analysis
IOA is a useful top-down approach that can account embodied
emissions or energy and material flows during the production and
consumption of goods by relying on sectoral interactions and ex-
changes in a concerned system (Huang et al., 2016; Finnveden and
Moberg, 2005; Li et al., 2016b; Chen et al., 2011). It is initially ar-
ticulated by Leontief (1936, 1937) and further enhanced by various
applications to environmental impact assessment (Leontief, 1970;
Lenzen, 1998; Yu et al., 2013; Chen and Chen, 2015). The advan-
tage of IOA is that it can account for both direct and indirect
environmental emissions, energy and water consumption during
trade and services from interconnected economic sectors (Miller
and Blair, 2009; Fang et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2016). However,
before using IOA for embodied PM2.5 emissions, one has to accept
several key assumptions, especially during the accounting of
consumption-based PM2.5 emissions to set the system boundary
and avoid double counting. For example, the value of the emission
coefficient in both cases, whether goods and services are produced
locally or imported from another country or region within the same
country, is assumed to be identical (Wiedmann, 2009).
3326 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331
X
n
xi ¼ Xij þ yi
j¼1
where xi is the total economic output of the ith sectors, n refers to
the number of economic sectors, Xij represents the monetary flows
from the ith to the jth sectors, and yi is the final demand of sector i.

A ¼ xij xj
x ¼ ðI  AÞ1 y
where x indicates the sectorial output, I is the identity matrix, A is
the matrix coefficient, y refers to the final demand, and (I-A)1 is
known as the Leontief inverse matrix.
ki ¼ Ei =xi
where ki is the ith PM2.5 emission coefficient, and Ei represents the
total PM2.5 emissions from the ith sector.
Ei ¼ ki ðI  AÞ1 y
 
Ei ¼ ðki y þ ki AyÞ þ ki A2 y þ ki A3 y þ …
DPM ¼ kðI  AÞ1 y
Ind PM ¼ kðI  AÞ1 y  DPM
where DPM and Ind PM indicate the direct and indirect PM2.5 emis-
sions, respectively. Using Eqs. (7) and (8), one can calculate the
direct and indirect PM2.5 emissions of each sector from the total
emissions.
2.4. Ecological network analysis
ENA can be performed to investigate interrelationships between
the components of the system and the resulting hierarchy
(Ulanowicz, 1972; Hannon, 1973). Network control analysis (NCA) is
derived from ENA to describe the complete control and dependency
relationships within ecosystem or sectors (Patten, 1978, 1982;
Patten and Auble, 1981). In this respect, “control” is distributed
among the system components, represented by the combination of
their input/output environs. We used this concept for embodied
PM2.5 emission accounting to determine how much of the emis-
sions are controlled by different economic sectors. Here we modi-
fied ENA to calculate the material flows and degrees of control
relationship between each economic sector in context of the
embodied PM2.5 emissions. All the equations used for flow analysis
and control analysis were adopted from existing studies in the
literature based on pairwise integrals to quantify the degrees of
control and dependency of each sector on the other sectors (Fath,
2004; Fath et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2016). Network flow analysis
is similar to the IOA used to calculate the network-based control
differences and ratios among sectors. Non-dimensional input-ori-
ented inter-sectoral flows of embodied emissions are defined as:
. from these five sectors was only around 1% of the total emissions.
G ¼ gij ¼ fij Tj
 
N ¼ nij þ G0 þ G1 þ G2 þ G3 þ ……Gn ¼ ðI  GÞ1
where G is the forward-flow transfer efficiency, gij represents the
flow efficiency from sector j to sector i, fij is specific for embodied
emissions flow from sector j to sector i, Tj indicates the total outflow
(1)
from sector j. N is the dimensional integral flow matrix, I is the
identify matrix, and nij represents the integral dimensionless value
of gij, calculated with Leontief inverse matrix (Fath, 2004). G0 is the
self-feedback matrix, which represents the flows that return to the
same sector; G1 is the direct flow of embodied emissions; G2 refers
to the flow between two sectors; and Gn is the indirect flow of
(2) embodied emissions. A dimensionless integral flow is computed as
below:
.
(3)
G0 ¼ gij0 ¼ fij Ti (11)
N0 ¼ ðn0 ijÞ þ G00 þ G01 þ G02 þ G03 þ …… þ G0n ¼ ð1  G0 Þ
1
(12)
(4)
where G0 represents the backward-flow transfer efficiency, and N0
(n0 ij) is for the non-dimensional, input-oriented inter-component
flows from j to i. We can make a system-based comparison be-
tween minute (fractional) transfers values with the help of control
(5) difference but control ratio (CRij) can be used to reveal the pairwise
inter-sectoral comparisons.
(6) CDij ¼ hij  hji (13)
 .  
(7) CRij ¼ hij  hji max hij  hji (14)
(8) where CDij is the control difference between sector j and sector i,
the dependency and control levels among different sectors are
represented by its positive and negative values, respectively. A
positive value of CDij shows that sector j is dependent on sector i,
whereas a negative value shows that sector j is controlled by sector
i. CRij represents the control ratio between sector j and sector I, and
its value lies between zero and one, which determines the direction
of flow. If it has an absolute value of one, then flow is definite be-
tween sectors with dominant positions, which helps to differen-
tiate the subordinate position of pairwise sectors. If the value is
zero, there is a weak inter-sectoral relationship and the direction of
flow is indistinct, creating a negative effect on mutual flow, either
stopping or offsetting it.
3. Results
It is evident from Fig. 4 that “Catering services” at the residential
and commercial levels is the highest contributor of direct PM2.5
emissions, with 2274 kt, because of high combustion of biomass
and agriculture residuals in cooking and heating stoves, followed
by “Smelting process of nonmetal mineral product” and “Waste
manufacturing and recycling” with 828 kt and 541 kt, respectively.
Furthermore, the direct PM2.5 emissions from some other socio-
economic activities, such as “Agriculture” (21 kt), “Mining and
quarrying” (11 kt), “Chemicals and chemical products” (8 kt), “Sale,
maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles” (7 kt),
and “Papermaking & printing” (5 kt) were significantly small in
comparison with earlier socioeconomic activities. In addition, the
total amount of embodied PM2.5 emissions (direct and indirect)
(9) “Electricity, gas and water supply,” with 217 kt, was the highest
emitter of indirect PM2.5 emissions, followed by “Waste
manufacturing and recycling” and “Catering services” at the resi-
(10) dential and commercial levels, with 197 kt and 135 kt, respectively.
Overall, the entire socioeconomic system in India contributed to
the total embodied PM2.5 emissions (5670 kt), out of which 86%
 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331 3327

Fig. 4. Direct & indirect PM2.5 emissions from 16 aggregated sectors. Note: the sectors include Catering services at residential and commercial level (CAS); Smelting of nonmetal
mineral products (NMP); Waste manufacturing and recycling (WMR); Ordinary & special machinery & equipment (OSE); Electricity, gas, and water supply (EGW); Other residential
services (ORS); Transportation & storage (TRS); Petroleum processing & coking (PPC); Agriculture (AUG); Mining and dressing (MID); Chemicals and chemical products (CCP); Sale,
maintenance, and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles: retail sale of fuel (SMR); Papermaking & printing (PAP); and Other manufacturing services (OMR).

(4858 kt) were direct and 14% (812 kt) were indirect emissions. The
proportions of direct to indirect PM2.5 emissions are depicted in
Fig. 5. It is obvious that the “Agriculture” and “Waste manufacturing
and recycling” sectors contributed the highest 95% of direct emis-
sions, followed by “Catering services” at residential and commercial
level (94%) and “Other residential services” (90%) because of the
burning of fossils fuels and biomass at the residential and com-
mercial levels. Meanwhile, “Mining and quarrying” (51%) had the
largest proportion of indirect PM2.5 emissions, followed by “Elec-
tricity, gas and water supply” and “Papermaking & printing” with
48% and 46%, respectively, showing that the goods produced in
these sectors were consumed in other sectors.
The control ratios of embodied PM2.5 flow for each sector were
also identified with NCA, which are important for determining the
most sectoral domination for emissions as illustrated in Fig. 6. The
value of control ratio from 0 to 1 is defined as the degree of
dominance, while the negative value shows the extent of de-
pendency. The magnitude of the control ratio from “Sale, mainte-
nance and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles, retail sale of
fuel (SMR)” to “Agriculture” was 0.95, which indicated that the
agricultural sector embodied PM2.5 emissions flow was controlled
by the former. Overall, the pairwise control relationships analyses
showed that “Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and
motorcycles, retail sale of fuel” (SMR) was a dominant sector that
controlled the flow of embodied PM2.5 emissions of other sectors
such as, “Petroleum processing & coking” (PPC), “Agriculture”
(AUG), “Chemicals and Chemical products” (CCP), “Smelting of
nonmetal mineral products” (NMP), and “Ordinary & special ma-
chinery &equipment” (OSE). Most of the flows from “Construction”
(CON) and “Catering services” (CAS) to the rest sectors were pre-
sented in dark blue, indicating that these two sectors were sub-
ordinators of the other connected sectors. Pairwise relationships
related to “Waste manufacturing and recycling” (WMR) were
shown in green, which meant the dominance/dependency of this
sector was not strong in terms of embodied PM2.5 flow pattern.
In addition, to the dominant sectors, the stronger and weaker
linkages among all sectors were identified. All the sectors, which
had a control ratio of more than 0.5 or below 0.5, showed a strong
linkage or relationship with other sectors. Strong linkages existed
between the following pairwise sectors, MID-AUG, SMR-OSE, MID-
BFM, SMR-EGW, and EGW-CCP and the weaker linkages, ranging
from 0.5 to 0.5, existed between CAS-PPC, CAS-OMR, OSE-NMP,
etc.
Fig. 7 shows the dependent intensity of the 16 aggregated sec-
tors based on NCA. It is evident that “Mining and dressing”, “Sale,
maintenance and repair of motor vehicles, retail sale of fuel”, and
“Electricity, gas, & water” were the main controllers of embodied
PM2.5 emissions for the whole system. The other sectors including
“Residential services”, “Construction”, and “Catering services” were
below the horizontal line, which were dominated and controlled in
the embodied PM2.5 emission network. The “Construction” sector
depended greatly upon others sectors, and its dependency or

Fig. 5. Comparison of percentage of direct and indirect PM2.5 emissions from 16 aggregated sectors.
3328 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331

Fig. 6. Pair-wise control/dependence ratios between each sector. Note: The control ratio relationships of each sector are indicated from the column to row. Positive numbers
represent dominant position while negative numbers refer to the subordinate position. For example, from “PPC” to “MID” is dark blue, indicating that “MID” has a strong dominant
position in their pairwise relationship. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 7. Control levels of 16 sectors within the whole system.

control intensity of “Transportation”, “Chemicals and chemical
products”, “Waste manufacturing & recycling”, and “Papermaking
& printing” fluctuated, indicating their positions in the system were
not determined by control or dependency level.
4. Discussion and future perspectives
PM2.5 emissions play a significant role in air pollution. PM2.5
emission accounting is based on either the production or con-
sumption of goods and services. Production-based PM2.5 inventory
is based on production processes, whereas consumption-based
emissions accounting is an alternative method that is helpful in
identifying the impact of consumers on PM2.5 emissions.
We adopted the term “embodied emission” that is extracted
from the embodied energy concept as an alternative approach that
deals with both production- and consumption-based PM2.5 emis-
sions. Embodied PM2.5 emissions comprise both direct and indirect
emissions (Li et al., 2015). Direct PM2.5 emissions are those emis-
sions deemed on-site emissions during production processes for
socioeconomic activities, whereas indirect PM2.5 emissions are
those emissions that are produced during production processes of
those items or products that are consumed in other sectors. For
example, emissions produced by the “Electricity and water sectors”
are called indirect emissions. Our results showed that “Catering
 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331
services,” which are the most complex systems involving people
and equipment at the residential and commercial levels, was a
major source of embodied PM2.5 emissions in India because most of
the Indian population (about 84%) relies on biomass as their pri-
mary fuel for cooking and heating stoves. Because of this high
consumption of biomass for cooking and heating, stoves at resi-
dential and commercial sectors were the highest emitters of
embodied PM2.5, which has also been found in previous studies.
Joon et al. (2011) concluded that biomass burning in the residential
and commercial sectors was a big contributor of PM.2.5 in India
because biomass consumer stoves for cooking and heating emit
11,000 mg/m3 PM2.5 emissions, as compared to natural gas stoves
with only 4.69 mg/m3 PM2.5 emissions. A similar study was done by
Nerín et al. (2011), during which fine breathable particles (PM2.5)
were measured as a marker of environmental smoke in the catering
services, and the conclusion was that smoky areas had eight times
higher levels of embodied PM2.5 than nonsmoking areas did. Lei
et al. (2011) also concluded that “Catering services” at residential
sector, with 80% emissions, is the largest emitter of embodied PM2.5
because of the high biomass consumption in cooking and heating
stoves. Ezzati et al. (2004) found that pollutants released from
biomass burning stoves are more than 10 times greater than those
specified in the relevant standards are.
In addition, two types of catering approaches called conven-
tional and deferred are used most commonly in India. In the former,
food is cooked and consumed at the same place (hotels, restaurants,
homes, etc.), whereas in the deferred catering approach a central
kitchen is used for cooking and food is supplied to different public
places (hospitals, weddings, etc.) by light (van) and heavy (trucks)
transport. Vehicles with diesel engines are additional significant
sources of PM2.5 emissions, as diesel engines emit more PM2.5 than
gasoline engines do (MECA, 2007).
Moreover, this study differentiated between direct and indirect
PM2.5 emissions, concluding that the agriculture sector led direct
PM2.5 emissions with 95%, because of the great agricultural volume
and consumption of various industrial products (fertilizer), petro-
leum products, and utilization of heavy transports for production
and transportation of agricultural products. In addition, agricultural
residuals are commonly used as biomass, especially in rural areas.
The “Agriculture” sector was followed by the “Industrial” sector,
with 94%, and then “Catering services” with 93%. “Mining and
dressing” was the highest contributor of indirect PM2.5 emissions
because most of machinery and petroleum products consumed in
this sector are produced in other sectors and less direct emissions
occur because India does not rely on domestic fossils fuels re-
sources, which is why India's dependence on imported fossil fuels
rose to 38% in 2012 (Sieminski, 2014). The “Construction” sector
was excluded during calculations of direct and indirect PM2.5
emissions because of the unavailability of relevant data.
Furthermore, ENA is a meaningful and systematic tool for
uncovering the pattern of mutual relationships and control re-
lationships underlying embodied PM2.5 emissions from among
socioeconomic sectors. It can also be further extended to nexus
studies of energy, water, carbon, and some other environmental
pollutants including PM2.5 emissions (Chen and Lu, 2015; Chen,
2016; Chen and Chen, 2016; Fang and Chen, 2016; Wang and
Chen, 2016). NCA is another useful tool of ENA for determining
the dependence and control relationships between pairwise com-
partments. NCA based control ratios can also explain the strength of
disparity between the two open-loop control magnitudes (Yang
et al., 2016), which is helpful when comparing the I-O transfer ra-
tio between two sectors. The magnitude of the control ratio ex-
plains the strong and weak linkages between pairwise sectors. In
this study, the results based on NCA showed that “Mining and
dressing”, “Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and
3329
motorcycles; retail sale of fuel”, “Electricity, gas & water”, and
“Agriculture” sectors were the main controllers of embodied PM2.5
emissions in the system. However, service sectors including “Res-
idential services, “Other manufacture services,” and “Catering ser-
vices” were below the horizontal line, which implied that service
sectors were controlled by other sectors in the embodied emission
network. The results based on NCA among sectors might be helpful
in establishing some recommendations and policies to minimize
the level of embodied PM2.5 emissions.
4.1. Emission control strategies
Emission control strategies may be helpful for achieving na-
tional emission ceilings set for India, and effective in reducing
human exposure to air pollution, in expediting air quality limit
values, and in increasing protection of natural ecosystems. The
main contributor of embodied PM2.5 emissions in India at the res-
idential and commercial levels was catering services. This is due to
the burning of agriculture residuals (biomass) in cooking and
heating stoves and the extensively used transportation for catering
services. We recommend the following as the most likely strategies
to be effective in controlling PM2.5 emissions in India.
Firstly, more than 80% of the Indian population relies on biomass
as its primary fuel source for heating and cooking, which is a main
contributor to PM2.5 emissions. PM2.5 emissions can be controlled
by using alternative fuels and efficient technologies at the resi-
dential and commercial levels for cooking and heating food. For
example, the Ruiru Youth Community Empowerment Program in
Kenya has developed a lower polluting firewood-burning stove that
is up to 60% more efficient than the open fires traditionally used in
rural areas (UNEP Year Book., 2014). The Indian government could
control the level of embodied PM2.5 emissions by introducing these
types of cooking and heating stoves in the rural areas. Youth vol-
unteers could be trained all over India to teach local women about
the advantages of the new stoves and how to install them that
might be a giant step to reduce embodied PM2.5level in various
cities of India.
Secondly, the heavy transportation network with diesel engines
was another main contributor of PM2.5 emissions and NOx into the
atmosphere during “catering services,” as diesel engines are
important power systems for on-road and off-road vehicles
because of their long record of reliability, high fuel-efficiency, high
torque output, ease of repair, inexpensive operation, and extreme
durability. PM2.5 emissions from transportation could be reduced
by adopting cleaner vehicle technologies, emissions standards, an
improved inspection program, and by replacing diesel engines with
gasoline engines because gasoline engines emit less PM2.5
compared to diesel engines (MECA, 2007). Some additional tech-
nologies designed to control PM from diesel engines include diesel
oxidation catalysts (DOCs), diesel particulate filters (DPFs), and
closed crankcase ventilation (CCV).
5. Conclusion
Industrialization, power generation, transportation, socioeco-
nomic activities, and the residential and commercial sectors are
main contributors to air pollution because of the combustion of
fossils fuels and biomass from such. The present study revealed the
embodied PM2.5 emissions, with the help of IOA and ENA. The re-
sults of this study strengthened the evidence that the use of
biomass fuels/traditional stoves in residential and commercial
sectors is the main source of embodied PM2.5 emissions in India.
According to the results based on the IOA, 14% (812 kt) of total PM2.5
emissions were indirect in 2010 in India, an amount that is
commonly neglected during policymaking or strategy development
3330 M. Wakeel et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (2017) 3322e3331
to decrease the amount of embodied PM2.5 emissions. In addition,
the results based on the ENA showed that strong linkages existed
between the following pairwise sectors, MID-AUG, SMR-OSE, MID-
BFM, SMR-EGW, and EGW-CCP, and weaker linkages existed be-
tween CAS-PPC, CAS-OMR, and OSE-NMP. Furthermore, control
analysis indicated that industrial sectors controlled the level of
embodied PM2.5 emissions for all services sectors. For example,
construction and other manufacturing services were controlled by
other sectors. By improving and altering fuel consumption and
adopting effective emissions control technologies, indoor and
outdoor embodied PM2.5 emissions will decrease, thus this strategy
could be a backbone step to improving air quality.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Key Research and
Development Program (2016 YFA0602304), National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (No.71573021), Specialized Research
Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China (No.
20130003110027), and China-EU Joint Project from Ministry of
Science and Technology of China (No. SQ2013ZOA000022).
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