Sense Organs

 Animals have sense organs or special structures to receive the

various forms of chemical, mechanical, and electromagnetic energy
that exist on earth.
 These energy are converted by the receptors into action potentials.
 In multicellular animals sense organs are found on the surface and
around the body but more concentrated anteriorly in bilaterally
symmetrical animals.
 These sense organs contain special nervous tissues (receptors)
capable of receiving stimuli in the environment of the organism.
 On the basis of the energy to which the sense organs respond, they
are classified as: chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and electroreceptors.

Receptors
 Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in the chemical
environment.
 Mechanoreceptors are responsive to mechanical stimuli such as
stretching or compression; include the senses of touch, pain,
proprioception, equilibrium, and lateral line sense of fishes and
amphibians, and hearing.
 Photoreceptors are sensitive to light waves.
 Thermoreceptors are sensitive to temperature.
 Electroreceptors are sensitive to electric signals, like that in few
fishes.

Chemoreceptors for the Sense of Taste

 The chemoreceptors for the perception of taste are the taste buds.
 These are groups of slender modified epithelial cells with the hairlike
microvilli.
 The hairs are clustered within a small external pore.
 They occur over the body of fishes but are confined in or about the
mouth in mammals.
 Taste Buds
 A taste bud is innervated by a sensory neuron.
 Human tastes include sweet, salty, acidic, and bitter (alkaloidal).
 Taste buds also help maintain the constancy of the body’s internal
environment.
Chemoreceptors for the Sense of Smell
 Smell or olfaction in humans is possible through neurons that have
directly exposed tips that lie in the mucous membrane high in the
nasal cavity.
 They have more sensitivity than taste buds and thousands of odors
can be detected.
Olfactory Receptors
 The olfactory neuron receptor is enlarged, somewhat rod-shaped,
and contains up to 20 motile cilialike filaments that are bathed by
mucus on the surface of the nasal epithelium; its axon passes
directly to the brain.
 In many wild animals the sense of smell is more sensitive.
 This aid them in finding food and mate and sometimes in avoiding
enemies.

Mechanoreceptors
 Cells called mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical deformation,
which causes receptor potentials in one of two ways:
 - by stretching the membrane receptor cell (as
in receptors for touch and pressure) or
 - by bending “hairs” that project from the
receptor cell membrane.
Receptors for Sound, Motion, and Gravity
 Receptors for sound, motion and gravity bear hairlike structures and
are called “hair cells”.
 Currents of fluid, motion, or the weight of dense objects bend the
hairs, initiating a receptor potential.
Mechanoreceptors
 Mechanoreceptors in the walls of the stomach, rectum, and bladder
signal fullness by responding to stretch.
  Other mechanoreceptive endings in the joints and muscles sense the
orientation and direction of movement of various body parts.
 These position sensors, collectively called proprioceptors, allow one
to walk without watching one’s feet or eat without watching the fork
on its way to the mouth.
Receptors for Sound, Motion, and Gravity
 In lower vertebrates like fish and aquatic forms of amphibians, the
organs that detect sound, gravity and motion almost certainly
evolved from the lateral line organ.
 It detects water movement, consists of a series of clusters of hair
cells located in pits or tubes that form a strip beginning in the head
and extending along either side of the body.
 The “hairs” of the hair cells are embedded in a gelatinous cap, the
cupula, which is deflected by water currents, causing the hairs to
bend.
The Human Ear
 The human ear ear has an external sound-collecting appendage, the
pinna, around a tubular external auditory canal.
 At the end of the canal, sound waves act to set the eardrum
(tympanic membrane) into vibration which is amplified and
transmitted by three auditory ossicles – malleus, incus, and stapes –
to the oval membrane.
 This produces vibrations in the fluid filling the spiral cochlea of the
inner ear.
 The tympanic membrane is about twenty times the area of the oval
membrane, so that much more sound energy is directed to the latter
than could be collected by it alone.
 The lever action of the ossicles also enhances the effect.
 This provides the pressure necessary to move the cochlear fluid.
 Within the cochlea is the organ of Corti, consisting of a basilar
membrane which contain fibers of different lengths and rows of hair
cells, the tips of which are embedded in the overhanging tectorial
membrane.
Physiology of the Ear
 When sound waves enter the ear, they vibrate first the tympanic
membrane, then the bones of the middle ear, the membrane of the
oval window, and finally the fluid in the cochlea.
 The vibrating fluid in the cochlea vibrates the basilar membrane,
causing it to move relative to the tectorial membrane.
 This bends the hairs spanning the gap between the membranes,
producing receptor potentials in the hair cells.
 The hair cells release transmitter onto neurons of the auditory nerve.
 Action potentials are triggered in the auditory nerve axons and travel
to the brain.
Photoreceptors
 Photoreceptors are sensitive to light. They are present in earthworm
and are called eyespots, on various cnidarians and some mollusks.
 Arthropods have simple and compound eyes, and cephalopods
mollusks have eyes that are similar to those of the vertebrates
Vertebrate Eye
 Vertebrate eye is similar in structure to that of a camera.
It consists of three basic parts:
- a light sensitive layer (the retina),
- a lens for focusing light, and
− a set of muscles for adjusting focus by moving or changing the shape of
the lens.
−
 The Human Eye
 Incoming light first encounters the cornea, a transparent covering
over the front of the eyeball.
 Behind the cornea is a chamber filled with a watery fluid called
aqueous humor, which provides nourishment for the lens.
 The amount of light entering the eye is adjusted by a muscular
tissue, the iris, whose circular opening, the pupil can be expanded or
contracted.
 Light passing through the pupil encounters the lens, a structure
resembling a flattened sphere and composed of transparent
proteinaceous fibers.
 The lens is suspended behind the pupil by ligaments and muscles
that regulate its shape.
 Behind the lens is another, much larger chamber filled with a clear
jellylike substance, the vitreous humor, which helps maintain the
shape of the eye.
 As light reaches the retina, light energy is converted into electrical
nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain.
 The retina is richly supplied with blood vessels and contains a layer
of pigment that absorbs stray light rays that escape the
photoreceptors.
Photoreceptors
 The photoreceptors called rods and cones after their shapes, have
their light-gathering elements farthest away from the light, at the
rear of the retina.
 Cones are photoreceptors for daylight vision, while rods are for dim
light vision.
Layers of the Eye
 Behind the retina is a darkly pigmented tissue, the choroid.
 Its dark pigment also absorbs stray light whose reflection inside the
eyeball would interfere with clear vision.
 Surrounding the outer portion of the eyeball is a tough connective
tissue layer, the sclera, visible as the white of the eye.
 Focusing in the Human Eye
 The visual image is focused most sharply on a small area of the
retina called the fovea.
 Focusing is aided by the cornea, which contributes significantly to
the bending of incoming light rays, producing an image of
approximately the right size in the general vicinity of the retina.
 The shape of the cornea cannot be adjusted, and the lens is
responsible for final sharp focusing.
 The shape of the lens can be adjusted so that it is more rounded or
more flattened when viewed from the side.
 This adjustment is accomplished by a circular muscle surrounding
the lens.

The Nervous System

 Most higher organisms have a nervous system to perceive stimuli, to
transmit these to various parts of the body, and to effect responses.
 This system serves also to coordinate and integrate the functions of
cells, tissues, and organ systems so that they act harmoniously as a
unit.
Nervous Mechanisms Among Invertebrates
 Cnidarians have a nerve net type whereby the bipolar or multipolar
 nerve cells may be separated from each other by synaptic junctions
but form an extensive network that is found in and under the
ectoderm all over the body.
 Echinoderm on the other hand has a central neural ring which
extends the impulses to the rest parts of the body through radial
nerves.
 Flatworms are provided with two anterior ganglia of nerve cells from
which two main nerve trunks run posteriorly, with lateral branches
extending to the various parts of the body, thus beginning a central
and peripheral differentiation.
 This is the first appearance of the linear type of nervous system,
which is more developed in higher vertebrates.
 Higher invertebrates have a more centralized nervous system, with
two longitudinal nerve cords fused and many ganglia present.
 Arthropods have a well-developed nervous system consisting of
sensory and motor neurons, nerve cords and fibers.
 Mollusks have a system of three pairs of ganglia; one pair near the
mouth, another pair at the base of the foot, and one pair in the
viscera.
 The nerve cord in all invertebrates is ventral to the alimentary canal
and is solid. This arrangement is in contrast with the nerve cord of
vertebrates which is dorsal to the digestive system, single and
hollow.
Vertebrate Nervous System
 In all vertebrates the nervous system has a comparable embryonic
origin.
 It consists of: the central nervous system, with large anterior brain
connected to a spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system of 10
or 12 pairs of cranial nerves from the brain, a pair of spinal nerves
from the cord for each primitive body segment, and the autonomic
nervous system, divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems.

Components of the Nervous System

 Nervous systems are composed of nerve cells, or neurons, with cell
processes known as dendrites and axons.
 Different animals have various forms of neurons.
 The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous
system which constitute about 10% of the cells in the human
nervous system.
 The remainder are glial cells which are not electrically excitable but
which support the neurons physically and are believed to participate
actively in brain function.
Synapses
 Between any two related neurons in function there is a close
association, or synapse which passes nerve impulse in only one
direction, from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of the other.
 A nerve consists of one to many neurons (axons or dendrites) bound
together by connective tissue and including blood vessels to supply
nutrients and oxygen.
The Spinal Cord
  The spinal cord varies in size with different vertebrates.
 In the average man, it is about 18 inches long, extending only to the
level of the first lumbar vertebra.
 It is protected by three layers of meninges – the dura mater,
arachnoid, and pia mater.
mater.
 Spaces between these protective layers contain cerebrospinal fluid
which forms a protective cushion.
 The spinal cord is also protected by the bones of the vertebral
column, the vertebrae.

Spinal Nerves
 Between the vertebrae, nerves called dorsal roots and ventral roots
arise from the dorsal and ventral portions of the spinal cord,
respectively; these merge to form the spinal nerves.
 In the center of the spinal cord is a cavity, the central canal surrounded
by neuron cell bodies, which form a butterfly-shaped area of gray matter.
These are surrounded by bundles of axons called white mater owing to
their white insulating myelin coating.
The spinal cord relays signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and
contains the neural circuitry for certain behaviors, including reflexes.
Spinal Nerves
 There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that moved out from the spinal
cord through the intervertebral foramina at the sides of the vertebral
column.
 There are 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic spinal
nerves, 5 pairs of lumbar spinal nerves, 5 pairs of sacral spinal
nerves and a pair of coccygeal spinal nerves.

The Brain
 There are five divisions of the brain in adult vertebrates: (1)
Telencephalon or cerebrum,
cerebrum, the anterior and largest division. It is the
seat of consiousness, intelligence, sensory perception of sight,
olfactory, and auditory senses, and coordination of body movements,
(2) Diencephalon or twixt brain,
brain, the part posterior to the cerebrum
and connects the cerebrum with the other motor center for visual
sensation, (3) Mesencephalon or optic lobe,
lobe, the center for visual
sensation, (4) Metencephalon or cerebellum,
cerebellum, the seat of unconscious
motor coordination and maintenance of muscular equilibrium, and
(5) Myelencephalon or medulla oblongata,
oblongata, the center of various
secretory functions and movement of the digestive tract, heart,
blood vessels, and lungs.
 The Cerebrum
 The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum.
 It contains about half the nerve cells in the brain.
 The surface is called cerebral cortex and is thrown into folds, called
convolutions, that greatly increase its area.
 The cell bodies of neurons predominate in the cortex which receive
information, process it, store some in memory for future use, and
direct voluntary motor output.

Practical Consideration
 Damage to the cortex due to trauma, stroke, or a tumor results in
specific deficits, such as problems with speech, difficulty in reading,
or inability to sense or move specific parts of the body.

 Since brain cells cannot reproduce, once a brain region is destroyed

it cannot be repaired or replaced, so these deficits are often
permanent.
The Diencephalon
 The diencephalon has a slender dorsal pineal body, or epiphysis.
Below the diencephalon is the optic chiasma followed by the infundibulum, with
the hypophysis, or pituitary gland, at its posterior end.

The Hindbrain
 The hindbrain is represented by the medulla oblongata, the pons,
and the cerebellum. This constitute the “brainstem”.
 The medulla oblongata is the most posterior division of the brain,
and is a conical continuation of the spinal cord.this is the respiratory
center of the body.
 Between the medulla and the midbrain is a thick bundle of fibers, the
pons (“bridge”) that carry impulses from one side of the cerebellum
to the other.
The Cerebellum
 The cerebellum lies above the medulla and is concerend with
equilibrium, posture, and movement.
 Its development is directly correlated with the animal’s mode of
locomotion, agility of limb movement, and balance.

The Midbrain
 Between the medulla and the diencephalon is the midbrain.It is
extremely reduced in humans, but an important relay center, the
reticular formation, passes through it.
 The neurons of the reticular formation extend all the way from the
central core of the medulla, through the pons, the midbrain, and
onto the lower regions of the forebrain.
 It receives input from virtually aevery sense and every part of the
body, and from many areas of the brain as well.

The Forebrain
 The forebrain can be divided into three functional parts: the
thalamus, limbic system and the cerebrum.

 Most of the neural information that reaches the cerebrum is

channeled through the thalamus. This includes sensory input from
auditory and visual pathways, as well as sensations from the skin
and from within the body.
Limbic System
 The limbic system is a diverse group of structures located in an arc
between the thalamus and the cerebrum.
 These structures work together to produce our most basic and
primitive emotions, drives, and behaviors, including fear, rage,
tranquility, hunger, thirst, pleasure, and sexual responses.
Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus contains many different clusters of neurons.
 Some of these are neurosecretory cells that release hormones.
 Through this hormone production and neural connections, the
hypothalamus acts as a major coordinating center, controlling body
temperature, hunger, the menstrual cycle, water balance, and the
autonomic nervous system.
 In addition, stimulation of specific areas of the hypothalamus elicits
emotions such as rage, fear, pleasure, and sexual arousal.
Amygdala
 The amygdala is believed to be responsible for the production of
appropriate behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.
 It receives input from many sources, including the auditory and
visual areas of the cerebral cortex.
 Different neurons in the amygdala produces sensations of pleasure,
punishment, or sexual arousal when stimulated.
Hippocampus
 Hippocampus curves around the thalamus.
 Stimulation of portions of the hippocampus can elicit behaviors that
reflect a variety of emotions, including rage and sexual arousal.
 It also plays an important role in the formation of long-term memory,
and thus is required for learning.

Autonomic Nervous System

 The autonomic nerves govern the involuntary functions of the body
which do not ordinarily affect consciousness.
 Autonomic nerves control the movements of most organs in the
body. Although these nerves have both sensory and motor
components, the former are considered of minor importance.
 Their actions are antagonistic.

Subdivisions of the Autonomic Nerves

 Parasympathetic division – centered partly in the brain and partly in
the lower end of the spinal cord.
 It is for this reason that it is regarded as craniosacral division of the
autonomic nervous system.
 Once stimulated, it is for the rest and repose response of the body.
 The sympathetic division is centered in the middle part of the spinal
cord. Thus it is also known as the thoracolumbar division.
  Sympathetic fibers excite the heart, blood vessels, sphincters of the
intestines, urinary bladder, dilator muscles of the iris and others.
 It is for the fight or flight response of the individual.
individual.

Reproductive System
 Reproduction makes possible the continuity of the race.
 Its importance is shown in the physical and physiological activities
necessary to ensure the fertilization of the eggs, the many methods
of breeding, and the many devices for taking care of the offspring
during its development.
Types of Reproduction
There are two general types of reproduction

- asexual
reproduction
- sexual
reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
 In asexual reproduction, a single animal produces offspring through
repeated mitosis of cells in some part of its body.
 Therefore, the offspring is genetically identical to the parent.
 There are four kinds of asexual reproduction: fission, sporogamy,
budding, and fragmentation.
Sexual Reproduction
 In sexual reproduction, an animal produces haploid gametes, usually
from separate parents, that fuse to form a diploid offspring.
 Since an offspring receives genes from both parents, it is genetically
different from both of them.
 There are several forms of sexual reproduction: conjugation,
parthenogenesis, paedogenesis, hermaproditism, biparental
reproduction.
Vertebrate Reproductive System
 The plan of the reproductive system in vertebrates includes: the
gonads, which produce the sperm and eggs; the series of ducts, to
transport the gametes; special organs, fro transfering and receiving
gametes; and accessory glands to provide secretions necessary for
the reproductive process.
The Male Reproductive System
 The human male reproductive system includes testes, vasa
efferentia, vas deferens, penis, and glands.

The Testes
 The testes are paired of male gonads that are responsible for the
 production and development of the sperm.
 Each testis is made up of about 500 seminiferous tubules which
produce the sperm, and the interstitial tissue, lying among the
tubules, which produces the male sex hormone (testosterone).
 The two testes are housed in the scrotal sac, which hangs down
between the thighs as an appendage of the body.
Vasa Efferentia
 Are small tubes connecting the seminiferous tubules to a coiled vas
epididymis (one for each testis) which serves for the storage of the
sperm.
Vas Deferens
 Vas deferens is a tube which is a continuation of the epididymis and
runs to the urethra, which it joins opposite its mate from the other
testis.
Penis
 The penis is the external intromittent organ through which the
urethra runs. From this point, the urethra serves to carry both sperm
and urinary products.
 The penis contains erectile tissue for distention during the copulatory
act.
Glands
 There are at least three pairs of exocrine glands that open into the
reproductive channels.
 Fluid secreted by these glands furnishes food to the sperm,
lubricates the passageways of the sperm, and counteracts the
acidity of the urine, so that sperm will not be harmed.
 The seminal vesicle, which opens into each vas deferens before it
meets the urethra.
 The prostate gland, which really a single fusedgland in man.
 Near the base of the penis lies the thidr pair of glands, Cowper’s
glands, which also discharge into the urethra.
The Female Reproductive System
 The female reproductive system contains the ovaries, oviduct,
uterus, vagina, and vulva.
Ovaries
 The ovaries are paired gonads of the female and are contained
within the abdominal cavity, where they are held in position by
ligaments.
 Each is about as large as an almond and contains many thousands of
developing eggs (ova).
 Each egg develops within a Graafian follicle that enlarges and finally
ruptures to release the mature egg.
 Usually the ovaries may alternate in releasing an egg each month.
The Oviduct (fallopian tubes)
 The oviduct are egg-carrying tubes that are not closely attached to
the ovaries but have funnel-shaped ostia for receiving the eggs when
they emerge from the ovary.
 The oviduct is lined with cilia for propelling the egg in its course.
 The two ducts open into the upper corners of the uterus, or womb.
Uterus (womb)
 The uterus is specialized for housing the embryo during the nine
months of its intrauterine existence.
 It is provided with thick muscular walls, many blood vessels, and a
specialized lining – the endometrium.
The Vagina
 The vagina is a large muscular tube that runs from the uterus to the
outside of the body.
 It is adapted for receiving the male’s penis and for serving as the
birth canal during the expulsion of the fetus from the uterus.
 Where the vagina and the uterus meet, the uterus projects down into
the vagina to form the cervix.
cervix.
The Vulva (external genitalia)
 The vulva refers to the external genitalia and includes two folds of
skin covered with hair, the labia majora; a smaller pair of folds within
the labia majora, the labia minora; and a fleshy elevation above the
labia majora, the mons veneris.
 The opening into the vagina is the vestibule that is normally closed
in the virgin state by a membrane, the hymen.