18/09/2018 doc:IEEE 802.

11-18/0001r1

Avalanche photodiodes (APD)

An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device that
exploits the photoelectric effect to convert light to electricity. It is specially designed to work in
reverse breakdown region. Ge/Si avalanche photodiodes with record high gain-bandwidth and
sensitivity for communication wavelength and high data rate, 10Gbps and 40Gbps, is
demonstrated. These devices can be monolithically integrated with other silicon photonics
components using CMOS technology.
It’s development in intel is result of efforts of Yimin Kang, Zhihong Huang, Yuval Saado, Joe
Campbell, Alex Pauchard, John Bowers, and Mario Paniccia.

 Working:
An Si/Ge SACM avalanche photodiodes (APD) having low breakdown voltage
characteristics includes an absorption region and a multiplication region having various layers
of particular thicknesses and doping concentrations. An optical waveguide can guide infrared
and/or optical signals or energy into the absorption region. The resulting photo-generated
carriers are swept into the i-Si layer and/or multiplication region for avalanche multiplication.
The APD has a breakdown bias voltage of well less than 12 V and an operating bandwidth of
greater than 10 GHz, and is therefore suitable for use in consumer electronic devices, high
speed communication networks, and the like.The main function of the normal diode is to allow
electrical current in only one direction i.e., forward direction. Whereas, avalanche diode
allows the current in both the directions.

 Electrical Chracterestics:

1
Submission:Mam Sidra Farid Maaz Afzaal
18/09/2018 doc:IEEE 802.11-18/0001r1

 Response:
Whenever the forward bias voltage is applied to this diode, then it starts working like
a regular p-n junction diode by permitting an electric current through it. If the reverse bias
voltage is applied to this, further the diode is increased, the minority charge carriers will get a
large amount of energy and go faster to better velocities.
The short‐circuit photocurrent from an avalanche photodiode is calculated using an
exact solution of the differential transport equations for the multiplication region. The dc
electric field and the hole and electron velocities are assumed constant in the avalanche region
into which photoelectrons are injected. It is shown that the electron‐ and hole‐ionization
coefficients α and β remain constant over a practical range of multiplied photocurrents.
Computer studies of the solution show that avalanche multiplication does not reduce the device
bandwidth as long as the dc multiplication M 0 is less than the ratio of α and β, i.e., as long as
M 0 ≪α/β. The previously obtained frequency dependence of the multiplication, M(ω) = M 0
[1 + ω²M 0 ²τ 1 ²]^-1/2, which indicates
a constant‐multiplication bandwidth product, is now shown to be valid only if M 0 ≫α/β. The
previously unspecified ``effective'' transit time, τ 1 , in this equation is approximately τ 1 =
N(β/α)τ, where N is a number varying slowly from ⅓ to 2 as β/α varies from 1 to 10^-
3, and τ is the multiplication‐region transit time. The complete solution of this problem
thus shows that the widely different results previously obtained for β/α = 0 and β/α = 1 are
continuously joined, and provides a simple criterion for judging the ranges of validity of the
two limiting cases. The results emphasize the practical importance of obtaining the required
multiplication at fields such that M 0 ≪α/β where the multiplication does not affect the
bandwidth. This also leads to minimum excess avalanche‐region noise, and hence to the closest
pos- sible solid‐state analog to the vacuum‐tube photomultiplier.

 Applications:
Avalanche Photodiodes (APD) are mainly used in applications where high sensitivity
is desired. Such applications include long haul fiber-optic telecommunication, laser
rangefinder, and single photon level detection and imaging, among other applications. SiGe
APD offers promising applications targeted at near-infrared optical signals. In a Si/Ge separate
absorption, charge and multiplication (SACM) APD, Germanium (Ge) offers high responsivity
at near-infrared wavelengths, while Silicon (Si) is used to amplify the generated photocarriers
with low noise. The applicability of CMOS technology to the fabrication of SiGe based APDs
promises reduced prices compared to its III-V APD counterparts.

2
Submission:Mam Sidra Farid Maaz Afzaal