Advancement in Casting Technology

Prepared by Amit Kansagara for GSFCU

 Index
1. Introduction
2. Classification
3. Expendable mold casting & Permanent mold casting
4. Casting terminology & Types of patterns
5. Advanced casting techniques in expendable &
Permanent mold casting
6. Defects in casting
7. Comparison of various methods & Summary of
process capability

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 Introduction
• Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity
• The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it
into a mold, and let it cool and solidify; yet there are many
factors and variables that must be considered in order to
accomplish a successful casting operation.
• Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of
shapes. The term ingot is usually associated with the primary
metals industries; it describes a large casting that is simple in
shape and intended for subsequent reshaping by processes such
as rolling or forging.

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 Classification
Sand casting

Shell Molding
Permanent
pattern casting
Vacuum Molding

Plaster mold and

Expendable mold
ceramic mold
casting
casting

Expanded
Polystyrene
Process
Temporary
pattern casting
Casting
Investment
casting
Die Casting

Squeeze casting &

Permanent mold
Semi solid metal
casting
casting

Centrifugal 4
casting
 Cont…

Casting processes divide into two broad categories, according to type of mold
used: expendable-mold casting and permanent-mold casting. An expendable
mold means that the mold in which the molten metal solidifies must be
destroyed in order to remove the casting. These molds are made out of sand,
plaster, or similar materials, whose form is maintained by using binders of
various kinds. Sand casting is the most prominent example of the
expendable-mold processes

A permanent mold is one that can be used over and over to produce many
castings. It is made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material) that can withstand the high temperatures of the casting operation.
In permanent-mold casting, the mold consists of two (or more) sections that
can be opened to permit removal of the finished part. Die casting is the most
familiar process in this group.

More intricate casting geometries are generally possible with the

expendable-mold processes. Part shapes in the permanent-mold processes
are limited by the need to open the mold. On the other hand, some of the
permanent mold processes have certain economic advantages in high
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production operations.
 Cont…

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the
desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more
complex and requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.

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Expendable mold casting process
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment casting
• Plaster mold and ceramic mold casting

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 Permanent Mold casting
• Die casting- Hot chamber & Cold chamber
• Squeeze casting & Semi solid metal casting
• Centrifugal casting

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 Cont…

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Types of Pattern

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Geometry of Pattern

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Other Expandable mold casting processes

• As versatile as sand casting is, there are other casting processes

that have been developed to meet special needs. The
differences between these methods are in the composition of
the mold material, or the manner in which the mold is made, or
in the way the pattern is made.

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 Shell Molding
• Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is
a thin shell (typically 9mmor 3/8 in) made of sand
held together by a thermosetting resin binder.
Developed in Germany during the early 1940s, the
process is described and illustrated in Figure 11.5.

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 Cont…

Process of creating shell mold

• The process of creating a shell mold consists of six steps:
1. Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosetting phenolic
resin and liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern.
The pattern is usually made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to
315 °C (450 to 600 °F). The sand is allowed to sit on the pattern for a
few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.
2. The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of
the pattern, leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and
temperature of the pattern the thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm
(0.4 to 0.8 in).
3. The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the
sand. The shell now has a tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to
3.1 MPa).
4. The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
5. Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a
thermoset adhesive, to form a mold. This finished mold can then be
used immediately or stored almost indefinitely.
6. For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded
with shot, sand, or gravel to reinforce the shell.
7. The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding
machine. It heats the pattern, applies the sand mixture, and bakes the
shell. 15
 Cont…

A thermosetting resin is a petrochemical material that irreversibly cures. The cure may be
brought on by heat, generally above 392°F (200°C), chemical reaction or suitable
irradiation. It is used as adhesives as well as in semiconductors and integrated circuits.
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 Cont…

Advantages & Disadvantages

• Advantages:
• The surface of the shell mold cavity is smoother than a conventional
green-sand mold, and this smoothness permits easier flow of molten
metal during pouring and better surface finish on the final casting.
• Finishes of 2.5 um(100 u-in) can be obtained. Good dimensional
accuracy is also achieved, with tolerances of 0.25 mm (0.010 in)
possible on small-to-medium-sized parts.

• Disadvantages:
• Disadvantages of shell molding include a more expensive metal pattern
than the corresponding pattern for green-sand molding. This makes
shell molding difficult to justify for small quantities of parts.

• Shell molding can be mechanized for mass production and is very

economical for large quantities. It seems particularly suited to steel
castings of less than 20 lb. Examples of parts made using shell molding
include gears, valve bodies, bushings, and camshafts.

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 Application Cont…

• A sizable amount of the casting in the steel industry are made by shell
molding process, that ensures better profitability. Carbon steel, alloy
steel, stainless steel, low alloys, aluminum alloys, copper, are all cast
using shell molding process. Casting that require thin section and
excellent dimensional accuracy are cast using this process. Body panes,
truck hoods, small size boats, bath tubs, shells of drums, connecting
rods, gear housings, lever arms, etc. are cast using croning process.

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 Vacuum Molding (V Process)
• Vacuum molding, also called the V-process, was developed
in Japan around 1970. It uses a sand mold held together by
vacuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder.
Accordingly, the term vacuum in this process refers to the
making of the mold rather than the casting operation itself.
The steps of the process are explained in Figure 11.6.
• Because no binders are used, the sand is readily recovered
in vacuum molding. Also, the sand does not require
extensive mechanical reconditioning normally done when
binders are used in the molding sand. Since no water is
mixed with the sand, moisture related defects are absent
from the product. Disadvantages of the V-process are that
it is relatively slow and not readily adaptable to
mechanization.

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 Application
• Vacuum molding process can be used
to cast industrial components from
both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

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 Expanded Polystyrene Process
AKA lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process

• The expanded polystyrene casting process uses a mold of sand

packed around a polystyrene foam pattern that vaporizes when
the molten metal is poured into the mold. The process and
variations of it are known by other names, including lost-foam
process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam process, and
full-mold process (the last being a trade name). The foam
pattern includes the sprue, risers, and gating system, and it may
also contain internal cores (if needed), thus eliminating the
need for a separate core in the mold. Also, since the foam
pattern itself becomes the cavity in the mold, considerations of
draft and parting lines can be ignored. The mold does not have
to be opened into cope and drag sections. The sequence in this
casting process is illustrated and described in Figure 11.7.

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Various methods for making the pattern can be used, depending on the
quantities of castings to be produced. For one-of-a-kind castings, the
foam is manually cut from large strips and assembled to form the
pattern. For large production runs, an automated molding operation
can be set up to mold the patterns prior to making the molds for
casting. The pattern is normally coated with a refractory compound to
provide a smoother surface on the pattern and to improve its high
temperature resistance. Molding sands usually include bonding agents.
However, dry sand is used in certain processes in this group, which aids
recovery and reuse. The video clip on casting features a segment titled
Evaporative-Foam Casting. 23
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• A significant advantage for this process is that the pattern
need not be removed from the mold. This simplifies and
expedites mold making. In a conventional green-sand mold,
two halves are required with proper parting lines, draft
allowances must be provided in the mold design, cores must
be inserted, and the gating and riser system must be added.
With the expanded polystyrene process, these steps are
built into the pattern itself.
• A new pattern is needed for every casting, so the economics
of the expanded polystyrene casting process depend largely
on the cost of producing the patterns. The process has been
applied to mass produce castings for automobiles engines.
Automated production systems are installed to mold the
polystyrene foam patterns for these applications.

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 Application
• Lost foam casting/ EPF/ LFC is used mostly for automotive
applications. Cast iron, aluminum alloys, steels, nickel and in
some cases stainless steel and copper alloys are cast in this
process. The flexibility of LFC is useful in making complicated
casting assemblies for automotive parts like cylinder heads,
weld ments, etc. This simple and inexpensive method is used in
hobby foundry work.

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 Plaster Mold Casting
• Plaster-mold casting is similar to sand casting except that the mold is
made of plaster of Paris (gypsum, CaSO4–2H2O) instead of sand. Additives
such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control
contraction and setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength. To
make the mold, the plaster mixture combined with water is poured over a
plastic or metal pattern in a flask and allowed to set. Wood patterns are
generally unsatisfactory due to the extended contact with water in the
plaster. The fluid consistency permits the plaster mixture to readily flow
around the pattern, capturing its details and surface finish. Thus, the cast
product in plaster molding is noted for these attributes.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Disadvantage:
– Curing of the plaster mold is one of the disadvantages of this process, at
least in high production. The mold must set for about 20 minutes before
the pattern is stripped. The mold is then baked for several hours to remove
moisture. Even with the baking, not all of the moisture content is removed
from the plaster. The dilemma faced by foundry men is that mold strength
is lost when the plaster becomes too dehydrated, and yet moisture content
can cause casting defects in the product. A balance must be achieved
between these undesirable alternatives. Another disadvantage with the
plaster mold is that it is not permeable, thus limiting escape of gases from
the mold cavity.
– This problem can be solved in a number of ways: (1) evacuating air from
the mold cavity before pouring; (2) aerating the plaster slurry prior to mold
making so that the resulting hard plaster contains finely dispersed voids;
and (3) using a special mold composition and treatment known as the
Antioch process. This process involves using about 50% sand mixed with
the plaster, heating the mold in an autoclave (an oven that uses
superheated steam under pressure), and then drying. The resulting mold ha
considerably greater permeability than a conventional plaster mold.

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 – Plaster molds cannot withstand the same high temperatures as sand molds.
They are therefore limited to the casting of lower-melting-point alloys, such
as aluminum, magnesium, and some copper-base alloys. Applications
include metal molds for plastic and rubber molding, pump and turbine
impellers, and other parts of relatively intricate geometry. Casting sizes
range from about 20 g (less than 1 oz) to more than 100 kg (more than 220
lb). Parts weighing less than about 10 kg (22 lb) are most common.
• Advantages:
– good surface finish & dimensional accuracy and
– the capability to make thin cross-sections in the casting.

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 Application
• Parts that are typically made by plaster mold casting are lock
components, gears, valves, fittings, tooling, and ornaments.
Lock components, gears, valves, fittings, tooling, and
ornaments. Also useful for prototypes and short run production
of aluminum and zinc parts.

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 Ceramic Mold Casting
• Ceramic-mold casting is similar to plaster-mold casting, except
that the mold is made of refractory ceramic materials that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster. Thus, ceramic
molding can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high
temperature alloys. Its applications (relatively intricate parts)
are similar to those of plaster-mold casting except for the
metals cast. Its advantages (good accuracy and finish) are also
similar.

• Note: Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay,

earthen elements, powders, and water and shaping them into
desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a
high temperature oven known as a kiln

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 Application
• Using stainless steel and bronze, ceramic mold
casting is best suited for casting a wide variety of
products ranging from house hold goods to
industrial tools. Some of casted products are
kitchen wares like kettles, industrial products like
impellers, complex cutting tools, plastic mold
tooling etc.

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 Squeeze Casting
• Squeeze casting is a combination of casting and forging
(Section19.3) in which a molten metal is poured in to a
preheated lower die, and the upper die is closed to create the
mold cavity after solidification begins. This differs from the
usual permanent-mold casting process in which the die halves
are Closed prior to pouring or injection. Owing to the hybrid
nature of the process, it is also known as liquid–metal forging.
The pressure applied by the upper die in squeeze casting causes
the metal to completely fill the cavity, resulting in good surface
finish and low shrinkage. The required pressures are
significantly less than in forging of a solid metal billet and much
finer Surface detail can be imparted by the die than in forging.
Squeeze casting can be used for both ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys, but aluminum and magnesium alloys are the most
common due to their lower melting temperatures. Automotive
parts are a common application.

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 Advantages/Disadvantages of
permanent mold casting
Advantages:
• good surface finish and close dimensional control, as
previously indicated.
• More rapid solidification caused by the metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are
produced.
Disadvantages:
• The process is generally limited to metals of lower
melting points.
• Other limitations include simple part geometries
compared to sand casting (because of the need to open
the mold), and the expense of the mold. Because mold
cost is substantial, the process is best suited to high-
volume production and can be automated accordingly.

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 Types of defects
• There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a
casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the cast product.
In this section, we compile a list of the common defects that occur
in casting, and we indicate the inspection procedures to detect
them.
1. Misruns: which are castings that solidify before completely filling
the mold cavity. Typical causes include (1) fluidity of the molten
metal is insufficient, (2) pouring temperature is too low, (3)
pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross-section of the mold
cavity is too thin.
2. Cold Shuts: which occur when two portions of the metal flow
together but there is a lack of fusion between them due to
premature freezing. Its causes are similar to those of a mis run.
3. Cold shots: which result from splattering during pouring, causing
the formation of solid globules of metal that become entrapped
in the casting. Pouring procedures and gating system designs that
avoid splattering can prevent this defect. 36
4. Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the
casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of
molten metal available in the last region to freeze. It often occurs near the
top of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a ‘‘pipe.’’ See Figure.
The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.
5. Microporosity consists of a network of small voids distributed throughout
the casting caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten
metal in the dendritic structure. The defect is usually associated with
alloys, because of the protracted manner in which freezing occurs in these
metals.
6. Hot tearing, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is restrained
from contraction by an unyielding mold during the final stages of
solidification or early stages of cooling after solidification. The defect is
manifested as a separation of the metal (hence, the terms tearing and
cracking) at a point of high tensile stress caused by the metal’s inability to
shrink naturally. In sand casting and other expendable-mold processes, it
is prevented by compounding the mold to be collapsible. In permanent-
mold processes, hot tearing is reduced by removing the part from the
mold immediately after solidification. 37
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Comparison of various Methods

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Summary of Process Capability

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Surface Roughness

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•Questions?…

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