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Ir

CollegeStudents'AttitudesToward Music

DimitrijeBuzarovski,Universityof Kiril andMetodij,Macedonia


andVisitingScholar,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe(l992-93)
JereT. Humphreys,Arizona StateUniversity,Tempe
BarrieWells,Arizona StateUniversity,Tempe

The purpaes ol this sludy were to examine relaliotships between three listener
clnracteristics (college major, sex,school music perforntance experience) and college students'
(1r = 300) attitudes toward nine types and styles of music. SigriJicant dilferences @ < .05) were
loutrd inlavor of music mojors @ = 100) towmd classical and contenpora4t clasical mwic,
ard infovor of non-mrcic majors (r = 200) tan'ard ruk nnaic. Females expressedsigttificantly
more favorable attitudes lhan nnles tovyard cotuttry and spirinal nutsic. Rap received
sigtrtfcanlly higher ralirp lrom male music najors than fron lenrale nusic majors. and music
major atd nor-music nnjor males gave signifcantly higher ratings to rek than did their lemale
counlerparls. Subjects with high levels of schml nntsic ensemble expeilence exhibiled
significantly morc posilive altitudes tavord ja:z than those with less experience. In odditiott,
females with high levels of schnl nwic perlornance experience expressed sigruficantly less
lnorable atlittdes loward rap lhan less experienced fennles, and fenale non-nntsic majors
expressed sigrificantly n orc positive atritudes than nale ,ron-nrusic nnjors lantard classical,
spiritual, and country music.

Introduction

In the late nineteenthand early twentiethcenturies,the emergingfields of


psychologyand sociologyaddednew dimensionsto theoreticalexaminations of
attitudestowardmusic. A psychological studyof children'ssongpreferenceswas
published just beforethe turn of the century(Gates,I 898),and musicalpreference
becamea frequenttopic of investigation in the 1930s(Price& Yarbrough,1987).
Broadcasting companiescommissioned someof the early studiesin an attemptto
determine the musicalpreferences and behaviorpattemsof theirlisteningaudiences $.
(Deihl,Schneider, & Petress,1983). One of the bestknownof the earlystudies \
wasFamsworth's (1950)examination of musicaltaste. Sincethen,musiceducation
researchon attitudeshas burgeoned,with some27%oof studiesreportedin two
leadingjournalsin the 1980semployingattitudetowardsomeaspectof musicor
musicparticipation/listeningasa dependent variable(Flowers& Jellisor\1990).

In recent years, researchershave drawn distinctionsbetweenattitude,


opinion,andpreference (Price,1986). Attitude,the broadestconceptof the three,
cannotbe measured directly;rather,'attitudesareinfenedfrom opinions,behavioral
andpreferences"
intentions, (Kuhn,Sims,& Shehan,| 98l). The presentstudywas
desigredunderthe assumption that opinionsexpressed by subjectsrepresent
their
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attitudestoward music. Becauseattitude,opinion, and preferenceare closely
related,research
literatureon all threeconceptsis reviewedbelow.

In his reviewof literature,Wapnick( 1976)identifiedthreetypesof variables


in preference research:subject(listener),music,and situation.Similarly,LeBlanc
(1980, 1982)holds that all musicalpreferencevariationcan be accountedfor by
characteristics of the listener,the musical stimulus,and the listener'scultural
environment.Despitethe similarityof their moqlefcthe two authorsdefinethe
listenerand culturalenvironmentcategoriessontcv',irat differently. For exampte,
Wapnickplacedmusicaltrainingin the situation(culturalenvironment) category,
while LeBlanclabeledit a listenercharacteristic.Wherethe two differ,the present
authorsfollowedLeBlanc'smodel.

Attitude-preference of listenersshowthatAmerican
studieson characteristics
collegenon-musicmajorsand youngerstudentsprefercunent popularcomposers
(Geringer,1982:Geringer& McManus,1979:Jellison& Flowers,l99l; May,
f 985: Pantfe197711978).Similarly,high schoolstudentsin Macedoniaclaim to
preferrock overothertypesof music(Buzarovski,1989).

Researchers in Europe(Schulten,1987)and North America(e.g.,LeBlanc,


Colman,McCrary,Shenill,& Malin, 1988)havefounddifferences in attitudesand
preferences attributableto the age of the sub.iects.Most researchers report a
decreasein favorableattitudesor preferencefor classicalmusicas studentsage,
with attendantincreasesin attitudeor preference for popularmusic,at leastfor
thosewith limitedor no musicaltraining(Greer,Dorow, & Hanser,1973;Greer,
Dorow, & Randall,1974). tlowever,someresearchers reportthe oppositeresults
(Baumann,1960;Geringer& McManus,1979),andone studyshowedno influence
of age on musicalpreference(Keston& Pinto, 1955). Preference for classical
musicseemsto increaseamongcollege-age subjects(LeBlanc,Colman,McCrary,
Shenill,& Malin,1988).

BothWapnick( 1976)andLeBlanc( 1980,1982)believethatthelistener'ssex


may influencemusical preference,althoughAbeles's(1980) literaturereview
suggestsotherwise,and LeBlanc, Sims, Malin, and Shenill (1992) found no
significantdifferences.rSeveralattitudinalresearchstudiessupportthe Wapnick
and LeBlanc position, however. In each of these studies,femalesexpressed
significantlymore positive attitudesthan malestoward music (Baumann,1960;
Brittin, l99l: National Assessmentof EducationalProgress,1974: Schuessler,
1948:Valentine,l9l3; Wheeler,1985). A studyby LeBlanc,Sims,Malin, and

2l
Shenill (1992) suggeststhat females,especiailythoseof collegeage, pay much
moreattentionto lyricsthando males.2
\
Music attitudesand preferences havealso beenfoundto be relatedto prior
instructionand experiences (Brittin, l99l; Danow, Haack,& Kuribayashi,l9g7;
Price & Yarbrough,t987; Rubin-Rabson,1940), includinghigh school music
experiences (Birch, 1962;Emeston,l96l/1962; Frakes,l9g4/19g5;Humphreys,
May, & Nelson,1992;Little, t979l1980,Long t97t; Noble, 1977). Hor""u!r,
thereappearsto be no signrficantdifferencebetweenmusicmajors'and non-music
majors'attitudestoward popular music (palmquist,1990). Finalty, a unique
comparativestudy of Japaneseand American studentsshowed preference
differencesseeminglyattributableto nationality(Darrow, Haach & Kuribayashi,
1987), although another researcherreported preferencedifferencesbetween
Japarese studentsliving in Japanand thoseliving in the UnitedStates(Nakazawa,
l e88).

In studies that focus on musicar stimuti, researchershave examined


relationshipsbetween various aspectsof music and attitudesor preferences.
LeBlanc(1981) found that some variancein styte preferenceof chitdrenwas
attributable
to musicalstyle(23%o),
style and tempo(26%),and style,tempo,and
performance medium(2s%). In anotherstudy,youngsubjectsidentifiedmelody,
mood, rhythm, and lyrics as the most importantmusicalcomponents(Boyle,
Hosterman, & Ramsey,198| ).

Tempois the aspectof musicmoststudiedby researchers to date. Several


researchers have reportedthat subjectspreferfast tempi (Baker, l9g0; Geringer,
1976:Geringer& Madsen,1987;Huebner,1976,LeBlanc,lggl: LeBlanc&
cote,
1983:LeBlanc& Mccrary, r983; LeBlanc.colman,Mccrary,She..ill,& Malin,
1988;Sims,1987;wapnich r9s0),arthoughone researcher foundno significant
differencein tempo preference(Flowers,rggg), and anotherfound thatiubjects
prefenedunalteredto fastertemposin popularmusic(Geringer& Madsen.
tlrz;
In his review of American,British, German,and scandinavian research,Finnas
(1989) reportedthat tempo, rhythm, complexity,emotionalcontent,
and other
musicalcharacteristics
seemto relateto preference.

Severalenvironmentalfactorshavebeenfoundto conelatewith, andpossibly


influence,music attitudesand preferences.college music appreciationcourses
(Jumpeter,1985;Price,1988;price& swanson,1990)andmiddieschoolkeyboard
experiences(wig & Boyle, 1982)seemto haveproducedimmediatechangls. In
additior\certainteaching-leaming
strategies
and teachercharacteristics
havebeen
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found to correlatewith attitudesand preferences,including
positive teacher
reinforcement of subjects'responsesto music (Dorow, 1977:"Greer,Dorow,
&
Hanser,1973;Greer,Dorow, wachhaus,& white, 1973;Steere,
1967),serected
teachercharacteristics(Finniis,r9g9),subjectsbeingaskej to respondpositivery
to
music that they disliked initially (Zimmerman,lgTg/1979),music
information,
repeatedlistening and participatoryexperiences and discussion(Bartlett,1973;
Bradfey,1971, 1972..Finniis, 1989: Getz, 1966: Hargreaves.l9i4;
Moskovitz,
f 992;Mulf, 1957:shehan,1985:Trammeil,t977ll97g:wapnick,t976),
theuseof
analyticand figurativelanguage(O'Brien.1992),and teachingstrategies
thatdirect
attentionto specificaspectsof the music(Finnes,1989). positivecorrelations
have
alsobeenobservedbetweenattitudeor preference andfamiliaritywith thecomposer
(or perhaps composer eminence) (Famsworth, 1969: i.itt"l*ry.r,
l97l),
expectation (Duerksen, lg72), famitiarity with the music (Hargreaves,
Messerschmidt, & Rubert,1980; peery & peery, 19g6;Radocy,l9g2; Russell,
1986),andsocialinfluencesby peers,the media,teachers, andothers(Alpert,l9g2;
Boyle' Hosterman,& Ramsey,rggr: Buzarovski,r9g9; Dorow, r9i7;
Finnas,
1989:Furman& Duke, 1988;lnglefield,1972;Killian & Kostka,1992;
Tanner,
1976;Webster & Hamilron, t98t/t982).

Conversely'someresearchershavefoundno preference effectsfrom teacher


approvalsof studentchoices(sims, l9g6) or teacherapprovalof specificpieces
(Pantfe'197711978)- Severalstudiesand reviewsshowno significanirelationships
betweenattitudesor preferencesand immediateinstruction(B-rown.l97g: Meekir,
f 97l; Prince,1974.Shehan,1984:Smith,l9g2: yarbrough& price,l9g7),prior
musicaltraining(Buzarovski,1989;Fulbright,1964;l{umphreys,May, &
Netson,
1992;Stewart,l96l/1962), or musicarknowredge(Brown, r97g; May,
r9g5;
Pantfe,1977/1978;Yarbrough & price,t987).

Finally,researchers havefoundthat listeners'preferencesmay be influenced


itl by the performancemedium (i.e., synthesizedversus acoustici (wapnick
&
,$j Rosenquist, l99l), amountof vibrato(LeBlanc& Shenill,tggo),andraceandsex
of the performers (Appleton,l9Z0l1971:Jaynes,McCullers,MacNeit,& Vafaie,
1985; Killian, 1990; LeBlanc& Sherrill, l9g6: May, t985: McCrary, 1993;
Meadows,1970/1971; Morrison,1993:Schuessler,l9g0). LeBlanc(19g0)called
these"mediavariables,"which he placed". . . between
[the] stimulusand cultural
inputvariables"(p. 3 l ).

Oneconclusiondrawn in manyof the reviewedstudiesis thatfutureresearch


should lead toward more completeexplanationsof the phenomenaof musical
attitudeand preference. The purposeof this study was to investigatecollege

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students'attitudestoward severaltypes and styles of music, and to examine
relationshipsbetweenthoseattitudesand tlueelistenercharacteristics
(sex,college
major,schoolensembleexperience).

Method

A self'reportmeasureof attitudeswas usedin this studybecausethe easeof


administrationpermiftedlargesamples.In addition,self-reportand behavioral
(and
behavioralintentions)measureshave generallybeen found to be moderately
to
highly conelated (charbonea', 1980/198l, Geringer, 1977, l9g2; cratfrus,
f 988/f989; Kuhr\ Sims,& Shehan,l98l; pantle, 1977il978:price & yarbrough,
l987; Shehan, 198| ; Wapnic( t976; yarbrough& price,l9g7).1

As in most previousstudies(Kuhn, l9g0), a ratingscalewas usedas the


stimulusmeasure in this study. one statement
(,'l enjoylisteningto:,')foilowedby a
five-pointscalewas employedfor each of nine types of ,*i", defineduy itre
followingdescriptors:"rock," "rap," ncountry,""folk music(authentic, ex., lndian,
chinese,Lithuanian,elc.),""ja4" "classical,""contemporary classical,""spiritual
(ex., church,gospel),"and "world music(ex., Latino-American, ltalian ,canzona,'
etc.)."4The scalewas anchoredby "strongryagree"and ,,strongly disagree.,,pilot
testingdemonstrated that the musicartermsand response modJwereunambiguous
to the subjects.The validity of the instrumentis supportedby the straightforward
-di.tu,
natureof the items and responsemode, cutietta's(1992) thal verbally
expressed attitudestendto be valid representations of "individuals'beliefs"(p. Ze9i,
and the assumptionthat the descrip-tors adequatetyrepresented the respective
musicalstyles in themindsof subjects.s

Two listener characteristics, sex and musical training, were examined.


Musicaltrainingwas operationalizedas two variables:academlcmajor(i.e.,music
majors, non-musicmajors) and schoor music performance.*p.ri"n.".o' The
performance experiencevariablewas formed by totalingthe reiponsesto three
surveyitems: numberof yearsspentin schoolbands,choirs,and orchestras.The
experiencescalewas divided into three levels: low (0-5 years),medium(6-15
years),andhigh(rnorethan | 5 years).

Following pilot testing the survey instrumentwas administeredto 300


studentsat Arizona State University,Tempe. The subjectswere music majors
enrolled in music educationmethodsclassesand ensembles(n = 100), and
non-music majorsenrolledin engineeringhistory,language,
andmusicappreciation

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'l

classes(n = 200). Both groups consisted.


of both grrdurt.
--'- ''and undergraduate
students,
with undergraduates
predominatingin eachoi;.

Results
.
Reliabilitycoefficients(coefficientalphas)
were .57 for the nine-itemmusic
attitudesubscare, .43.fortheschoormusicperformance
experience subscare,
and .53
for the overa[ questionnaire.Reriabirity
coefficients
'-- "r
"' ir,lr'r"gitude
""u "ru5' i are typical
for measuresof demographic andattitudinaldata.

of theninetypesof music,crassicalmusic
receivedthe highestoverailmean
rating,fotlowedin descending order uy ..i-i.o;;;;;il;
country,spiriruar.forh andrap (Tabrei;. ctassical,wortd,
Not surprisingry, rrrrJ'n"io* expressed
significantlymorepositiveattitudestoward
musicoveraiiih"n non-rrsic majors,
can be seenfrom the means(Tabre r) as
and the multivarirt. "i"lyri, of variance
(MANovA)resutrs
shown
in iabtez (wttrt L.;bd; = .il51:
However'univariateanaryses 4.04,ps 0s).
revealedih.t ,ignifi."nt aine.en"esby
non-music)occunedfor onry threeof major(music,
the niie rvp"r "ir"ri.io
majorshad significantryhighermeansfor = .orl . Music
crassicar andcontemporary crassicar,
non-music
majorshadsignificantlyhighermeansfor and
rock.
MANovA results(Table2) indicatesignificant
overaltattitudedifferences
betweenthe two sexes(wirk's Lambda=
.93g,F = 2.06, p s .05), with femares
having the higher mean (Tabre r).
Univariatean"rys.si.u""lra significant
differences
in favorof femares(Tabrer) for country
andspirituaronry(Tabre2).
In additionto significantMANovA
main effectsfor ma.jorand sex, there
wasa significantinteractionbetweenthe
two variabres (wirk,s I_"rua" = .930;F =
2'35;p < '05)(Table2). Thissignificant
interactionis aitributableio,*o significant
univariateinteractions:majorx sex for rock
music(F = g.65,;i= f , p .05)and
majorx sexfor r"p (f = = l, p S.05).'Contrast'an"lysis S
showedthatmaresrikedrock ?3?,df of the cells
significanti'morethanfemares in uoir,-*,.music(F =
4'12,df= l, p < .02)andnon-irusic (F = 423,df= r, p s .04)groups.
male musicmajorsfavored.rap sigrrificantry Simirarry,
more thanfemareriusic majors(F =
7'41,df = l, p < .007).,Th.erl.*ir. non.ig'ificant
difference betweenmareand
femalenon-musicmajors'attitudestowara
raj.

Therewas no overall differencein attitude


as a functionof schoormusic
performanceexperience
(wirk's Lambda=.909, F = r.52,p:
05) Despitethe
nonsignificant
MANovA, univariateanarysesreveared
a sigrrificantdifferencein
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attitudetowardjazz(Table 2). Posthoc tests(Scheffd)showedthat the significant
differences(p S .05) occurredbetweenthe high andmedium,and high and low
experience groupsin favorof subjectswith highlevelsof schoolmusicperformance
experience('Iable 3). The meanssuggesta positivelinearrelationshipbetween
schoolmusicperformanceexperienceand attitudetowardfive of the othertypesof
music(classical,contemporaryclassical,follq spiritual,world), a negativelinear
relationshipfor two types(rap,rock),anda curvlinearrelationship
for theremaining
type (country) $able | ). However, none of the respectiveunivariatetestswas
sigrrificant.
Table I
MeansandStandardDeviationsby Major,Sex,and
SchoolMusic Performance (N=300)
Experience

Mljor Ser Eroerience


M U N M M F H M L
N - r00 200 t43 t57 95 .t5 t 50

Classical 4.69 310 3.80 4.24 4.58 4.04 3.70 4.03


( . 5 8 ) { t . t 7 ' ' ( r . l{ ) ( t . 0 5 ) ( . 6 6 ) ( r . 0 7 () t . 2 1 () r . tt )
Rock 3.52 4.22 { . r 5 3 . 8 3 3 5 E 3.e3 {.rE 3.9E
0 . 1 5 ) ( t . 0 8 ) ( 1 . r 2 )( 1 . 1 6( )t . 2 1 ) 0 . 0 7 i)l , r 0 ) 0 . r 5 )
Jau 3.79 3.27 3.33 3.54 3.88 3 . 4 4 3 . r 8 3 . 4 4
( 1 . 2 t )( l . r e ) ( r . r 7 ) ( t . 2 6 )( t . t 2 ) it.20)(t.?tl (t.221
Contemp. 4.07 3.06 3.20 3.57 3.E7 3 . 4 4 3 . 1 0 3 . 4 0
( . e l ) ( r . r { )( l . r { ) ( 1 . 1 7 () 1 . 0 7 )( 1 . t 2( )1 . r 5( )1 . 1 7 )
World 3 . t 5 2 . 6 3 2.57 3.03 3.08 2.87 2.63 2.81
( r . r 6 ) ( t . z e l( r . 2 t ) ( t . 2 6 1( t . t 7 ) ( r . 2 0 xt . 3 3 )( t . 2 7 )
Country 2.63 2.83 2.55 2.96 2.65 3.00 2.76 2.76
( r . 3 3 ) U . 3 7 1 i l . 2 8 ) 0 . 4 t ) u . 3 0 ) u.37tu.3e) 0,36)
Spiritual 3 . 1 5 2 . 4 5 2.36 2.9E 3.05 2.752.44 2.68
u.231(1.33)il.20) il.,{0) (1.29) ( t . l e x l . 3 60). 3 4 )
Folk 2.E7 2.42 2.48 2.65 2.E0 2.532.44 2.t7
0 . r 3 ) ( 1 . 2 5 ) u . 2 2 11 . 2 3 t ( 1 . 2 0 ) 0 . 1 6 xt . z q ( t . 2 2 1
Rap 1.60 2.25 2 . t 6 t . 8 9 1 . 6 4 2.042.23 2.02
( . e 0 ) ( t . 2 7 1 0 . 2 5 )( 1 . 1 2 ) ( . e 0 ) ( r . 2 6 ) ( r .02. 8 r e) )
Total 3.2E 2.9E 2 . e 6 3 . t e 3 . 2 5 3 . t 2 2 . 9 63 . 0 E
( . 4 5 ) ( . 5 t ) ( .58)( .55) ( .441 ( . i l ) ( . 6 { ) ( , t 8 )

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Table 2
MultivariateANOVA Resultsfor MusicAttitudeby Major,Se4
andSchoolMusic PerformanceExperience (N=369;

Source Wilk'sLambda SS df MS

Maior .E85 4.04 .000t


Classieal t6.44 I 16.44 t 6.68 .000t
Rock t6.94 I t6.94 t4.t3 .0002
Contenporary t 8.E7 I I E.87 r6.65.000t
Ser .93E 2.06 .0336
Country t2.96 12.96 7.26 .0075
Spiritual E.83 8.83 5.62.0t8{
School
MusicErperience
.909 1.52 ,0772
Jaz,' t7.40 8.70 6.28.002t
MajorrSer .930. 2.3r:0t.t5
Note: All mainMANOVAeffects,signilicantunivariateeffects,and
significantinteractions(p <.05)only;all other univariateeffectsand
interactions vere nol significant.
-t
Table3 I
MeansandPosthoc Results(Scheff6)for JazzPreference
by Levelof SchoolMusicPerformance Experience

Hish Medium Low


3.88 ?.44 z.t8

Note: Underline indicatesnonsignificance(p >.05).

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Of the 36 possibleinteractions (four eachfor the ninedependent variables),
only threeweresignificant,possiblythe resultof Type I error. Two of these,major
x sex for rock and rap, contributedto the significantMANOVA interactionfor
major x sex"as describedabove.i The third, sex x schoolmusicperformance
experiencefor rap music (F = 4.48, df = 2, p < .05), occurreddespitethe
conesponding nonsignificant MANOVA interaction.Contrastanalysisshowedthat
femaleswith high levels of school music performanceexperienceexpressed
significantlylessliking for rap musicthanfemaleswith mediumand low levelsof
experience(F =1.29, df = l, p < .007). However,maleswith highlevelsof school
musicperformanceexperiencedid not exhibit significantlydifferent liking for rap
musicthan maleswith mediumor low levelsof experience.Neithermalesnor
femalesweresigrrificantly differentwhen the experience variablewas dividedinto
low versusmediumfrighlevels.

Finally, becausenonsignificantinteractionssometimesmask significant


differencesbetweencells,selectedadditionalcontrastswere computed,only three
of whichweresignificant.Theserevealedthatfemalenon-musicmajorsexpressed
greaterliking thanmalenon-musicmajorsfor classical(F = 4.25,df =
sigrrificantly
I, p 5 .04),spiritual(F = 9.17,df = I, p 5 .003),andcountrymusic(F = 5.91,df =
I, p S .02).

Discussion

The positive attitudesof subjectsin this study toward classicalmusic,


followedin decreasing orderby rock jazz, contemporary classical,world,country,
spiritual,folk and rap, differ sharplyfrom LeBlanc's(1981)findingswith young I
children,who preferredrock/pop,followedby country,band,new ja4 old jezz,
and art music. one-third of subjectsin the presentstudyweremusicmajors,but
non-musicmajorsrated classicalmusic secondhighest. Therefore,theseresults
appearto contradictthe notionthat attitude-preference
towardclassical(art) music
decreases with age, and confirm findingsthat attitudestoward classicalmusic
increaseamongcollegestudents(LeBlanc,colman, Mccrary, shenill, & Malin,
1988).However,samplesof collegestudentsmay represent a smallerpopulation,
and perhaps'onewith more elite tastes,than samplesof elementarystudents.
Moreover,in recentyearsclassicalmusichasbeenfeaturedby popularmediasuch
as the televisionand motionpictureindustries.Longitudinalstudiescouldprovide
more insights into these questions. That music majors like ctassicaland
contemporaryclassicalmusic more than non-majorsis probablya functionof
training exposLue, and knowledge. Non-majorsratedrock musichighest,which
replicatesearlierresearch(Geringer,1982;Geringer& McManus,l9?9), but the
28

i"-..
f"is;
1'f
significantdifferencebetweenmusic
majors,andnon_majors,
attitudestowardrock
appears to differfrom findingsof previousresearch
(palmquist,| 990).
The findingthat femaresexpressmorefavorabre
attitudesthanmarestoward
musicis simirarto that of Brittin (r99r),
who used, ,;r;;;;; differentmusical
classification
scheme. The overai sex'differenc.,
typesof music,but music major and non-major y;'r,;ii."nt ro, onry two
malestikei .oJL u"tt* thandid
femalesdividedrespectivery by major,
-The"na ,.p was favoredby musicmajormares
morethanby musicmajorfemales.
morepositiveattitudeson thepartof
andfemalestowardcertaintypesof music males
may reratemoreto tr,.-tyri", thanto
musicitself,especiailyamongcoilegestudents the
(LeBranc,sr,nr-rur"rin,andSheniil,
1992). The possibre.l[ecis of iyrics
on artitude-p*f.;;;;'*rrrants furrher
investigation(Bowers,| 9g9).

The finding of no overailsignificantdifference


in attitudeas a functionof
schoolmusicperformarceexperien., r"y
not contradictBrittin,s(r99r) resurts,
becauseshe emptoyeda difi'erentmusiJat
experience";il." However,the
positiverelationshipbetweenschoor
musicperformance and ,itiiro. towardjazz
mavrelarero Britrin's(r99r) findingof poiitive."rutionrtip;;i;"""
a performing
musicalexperienceand preferen..-fo,
lnli attitroe toward)iazz. Many schoor
bandsandchoirsperform- j.azz.,butr"nyio not perform
,or. orthe othertypesof
music investigatedin this and Brittin's
study. This reratioiship shourdbe
investigatedfurther. Arso,the findingthatfemareswith
performance high reversof schoormusic
experienceexpressed significantlylessfavoribl"-.,,irud., toward
thanfemateswith ress.experience, rap
toi.tr,"r *iir, th" o;";uil
negativerelationships i;Ju'g; nnnrig'ificant)
betweensuchJxperienceand attitudestowfrd
bearfurtherinvestigation. rock andrap,

Conclusions
l
N
l The resurtsof this strdy "onnr,,, portions
{rl of LeBranc,s moder. Specifically,
listenersex doesseemto pray a part in
,l
1
attitudinardifferencesio*"ra music,but
probably only for certain types
of music. The findings that schoor
performance experiencereratis-positiveryto attitudesto*^rT music
{ and
t majorsand non-musicmajorsdiiTerin their 1^r:), that music
;p attitudestowardsometypesof music,
also confirm LeBlanc'sspeculationthat
,x listenercharacteristicsinfluenceattitudes
towardmusic' The findingsalso confirmprevious
researchon the minimaleflects
{.&r of schoolmusicparticipation on attitudestowardmosttypesof music.
,S
\

f, 29
,tr
"l
Musicaland descriptivestimulihavebeenusedin variousstudies,and both
typeshavebeenfound to correlatewith behavioralmeasures.However,the two
typesof stimuli appearnot to havebeen correlatedwith eachother in the same
study. Futurestudiesshould comparethe two types of stimuli, in additionto
"compositeof indices" should probablybe
behavioralmeasures. In fact, a
employedas dependent variables(Kuhn, Sims,& Shehan,l98l). Futurestudies
shouldalso compareattitudesand preferences for non-Westemmusic,and more
comparative studiesshouldbe conductedon listenersof differentnationalities
and
culturalbackgrounds(Fung, I 993).

Decisionsaboutnon-majorcourseofferingsby collegeand universitymusic


departments could be informedby theseresearchfindings. The fact that female
non-music majorsexpressed greaterliking thanmalenon-music
sigrrificantly majors
for classical,spiritual,and countrymusicsuggests that suchnon-majorcoursesmay
attractmorefemalethanmalestudents.If that is the case,it wouldnot be the first
timein historythatcollege"appreciation" courseshaveattractedmorefemalesthan
males (Koza, 1993). This study also suggests that researchers shouldstudythe
effectsof lyricson attitudes,opinions, and preferences, and that non-majorcourses
shouldperhapsemphasize this aspectof the music.

Futurestudiesshouldalso investigateattitudesand preferences


for different
typesof musicby academicmajor. Resultscould be comparedto thoseby Fathi
"high
and Heath(1974),who reportedthat Englishand philosophymajorsfavored
majorsfavored "mass culture"
culture"music,and that businessand engineering
I
music. This type of researchcould have additionalimplicationsfor collegiate
courseofferingsand"marketingstrategies"
for thesame.

Notes

I "gender" are often used interchangeably


Ahhough "sex" and in the music education
"Sex" refersto "biologicallydetermined"
researchliterature,the two terrnsare not synonymous.
"gender"refers to "our
such as whether r person is r man or a woman, while
characteristics,
culturallydefined,or'conslructed'. . . notionsof malenessand femaleness" (Cook, 1989,p. 93).
"gender" to describe "a person's sex" is deemed colloquial by llebster's New
Indeed the use of
|lorld Dictionory (Neufeldt, 1990,p. 247).

2
See Bo*ers (19S9) for a brief discussiooof musicologicalresearchon differencesin
men'sand women's lyrics, especiallyin blues, country and western, gospel, and selectedtlpes of
popularmusic.

30
I
See Kuhn (1980) for a discussionofapproaches employedby researchersto study
attitudes toward music, includirrg physiological (e.g., blood pr".ruri levels), verbal (i.e-
self-report,typically with Likert-type scales),behavioral(e.g., concert attendance,sheetmusic
sales, ownership of recordings), content analysis (e.g., of concert programs and radio
programming).and miscellaneousmeasures(e.g.. facial expressions). Beltavioralmeasures
becamepopularin the late 1960s(ttice & Yarbrough, 1987). CorrelationsbetweenselFreport
and behavioralmeasuresare higher for adults than for young children(Alpert, l9g2; Flowers,
l9El; Geringer,1982). Both Kuhn (1980) and Cutietta(1992) considerselpreportmeasures
rdequatefor this type ofresearch.

4
M.ny r"..rr.hers have limitedtheir investigations
to classicalmusic,althoughsomehave
examinedattitudesand preferencesfor other types of music (e.g.. Brittin, l99l; Kuhn, Sims.&
S h e h a nl .9 8 l : L e B l a n c l,9 8 l ) .

5
In selFreportsudies of music attirudeand preference,two types of simuli have been
usedlo representdi{Ierent musical syles: recordingsofmusical excerpts,and written descriprors
of the sryles,usually in the form of namesof the srylesfollowed by examples. At leastone music
educationresearcher(Cutietta, 1992)believesthat only musicalsrimulishouldbe employed,bur
Brittin (1991) noted that little research has been conducted on the effects of;srylisric
categorization"on listener preference,and that "most preferenceresearchimposesa sylisic
taxonomicalstructureon the subjectthat may or may not function as intended.',(p. 144) kuhn
(19E0)made a similar point e few yearsearlier. hice and Swanson(1990) distinguishberweea
attitude and ophion, with "attitude being a predispositionin the absenceof music. whereas
opinion is measuredin the presenceof the music being assessed." lndeed.vatidity miglrt be
questionedfor either tlpe of stimulus. Different subjectsundoubtedlyconstrue descriptors
(names)ofsyles to meandifferentthings. Orr the other hand.a few recordedexcerptscanhardly
representan entire style (Brittin, l99l: Hargreaves.1984:Kuhn, 1980).especiallyin the rapidly
changing world of popular music. In any event. the researchliterature on attitudes and
preferencesfor music, music activities, and instrumentsgenerally shows moderate to high
correlationsbetweenbehavioralmeasures(or behaviornlintentions)and attitudes,opinions"and
preferences expressed verbally through free response or following descriptor-tlpe simuli
(Charboneau, 1980/1981:Geringer,1977.1982:Pantle,197?/1978:ttice & yarbrough,1987;
Shehan,l98l). Flowers (1981) found low to moderatecorrelationsfor young children,but
highercorrelationsfor collegestudents.

t
Lirt"n., sex was includedbecauseboth Wapnick(1976) and LeBlanc(1980, 1982)
believeit may affect musicalpreference. lf they are correct.it could influenceattitudesalso.at
leas indirectly. As noted earlier. the two authorsdiffer over how to classis musicrl training.
Nevertheless. the work of both authors suggeststhat musicaltraining should be includedin a
model desigrredto account for musical preferences. Consequently.this sudy included an
examinationof attitude differencesbetween music majors and non-music majors, and the
relationshipbetween attitude and school music performanceexperience. As noted earlier,
comparativeattitude-preferenceresearchhas been conducted on college music majors and
non-majors,and Brittin (1991) has suggestedthe desirabilityof a more thorough invesigationof
performancebackgroundvariables.

3t
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42

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