(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 1

Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Intelligent Online Course evaluation system Using

NLP Approach
Behrang Parhizkar, Kerfalla Kourouma, Siti Fazilah, Yap Sing Nian, Sujata Navartnam, Edmund Ng Giap
Wen
Faculty of Ict, Limkokwing University of Creative Technology,
Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia
haniukm@yahoo.com
kk@limkokwing.edu.my
sitifazilah@limkokwing.edu.my
yapsn@limkokwing.edu.my
sujata@leadership.edu.my
nggiapweng@yahoo.co

Abstract: Every semester students are asked to complete course
evaluations at Limkokwing University. The main goal of the
course evaluation is to collect feedback from student in order to
improve the quality of the education. However, a traditional
method of using paper and pencil is the current approach in
Limkokwing University. In this paper we proposed an intelligent
online course evaluation system that aims to automate this
routine in order to facilitate data gathering, analysis and
storage. The document is an essential element as it provides a
summary of the literature about online course evaluation in the
first part of the paper and describes our findings on the
approaches use for text mining in the second part. And finally
we discussed about the proposed system and the implementation
of Natural Language Processing.
KeyWords: Online Course evaluation, data mining, Natural
Language Processing.
1. Introduction
The evolution of technology and computer reveals the
Internet as the fastest medium of communication where the
information is at your fingertips. This evolution has brought
a new era where real time information are being accessed
from everywhere. As part of that evolution the education has
come to the level where universities, lecturers and students
communication through internet. We are living the era of
virtual world where everything seems to be transformed
from physical to digital form. Thus, new concepts such as
virtual classrooms and digital libraries have been introduced
to break the barriers of education and meet challenges of the
new millennium.
The Idea of online course evaluation system is to abandon
the paper evaluation system that has been used for years.
The evolution from paper to online student evaluation
system is an innovative idea of the new millennium where
everything is been automated and accessed from home., If
students can study online and register online why not
evaluate their lecturer online? Despite the growth of World
Wide Web, the online course evaluation remains a new topic
to many institutions of higher education. Most of them are
stuck on the traditional approach and have problem to move
on by introducing the web-based approach. However some
universities have conducted research and implemented the
online course evaluation and have found it effective. Online
evaluation system promises a lower costs compared to
paper-based evaluation. In addition it saves time for the
faculty, anonymity for students, better safeguards against
tampering, and more flexibility in questionnaire and report
design [2]. Just like any normal system, the online
evaluation system also has some drawbacks which include
easy sensitive data access by unauthorized users, lower
response rates and ratings may be less favourable to
lecturers.
In this paper we discuss about the argument over the online
and offline course evaluation method. We also discuss about
the evolution of online course evaluation system, and we
presented an intelligent online course evaluation proposed to
replace the current paper method use in Limkokwing
University.
2. Previous Works
2.1. Evolution of Course evaluation
According to Haskell the student evaluation of faculty
members was first used at the Univeristy of Wisconsin in the
early 1920s to collect students’ feedbacks. Many other
universities introduce it in the 1960s as a decision-support
tool regarding salary, promotion, and tenure. Since then it
has been the dominant method for evaluating teaching
across North America, and continue to be the same today
but used for formative purpose to help faculty improve
teaching instead of summative decisions regarding salary,
promotion, tenure and merit.
With the emergence of internet we were introduced to online
evaluation system in the 1990s. In 1997, Columbia
University implemented their Web course Evaluation system
[30]. This system allowed faculty to customize their surveys
and was linked directly to the registrar’s office for security.
The result of evaluation was published on a public web
where anyone could view.
In Australia, Deakin University recognized the potential
2 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

savings in time and expense they would gain by shifting In 2002 and 2004, Teaching Questionnaire ratings were
from traditional evaluation to an online evaluation system collected online in several University departments in Pilot
[31]. Before the implementation of their online system in tests. A low performance of web-based Teaching
1998, off-campus students used to mail their evaluation Questionnaire compared to the standard was observed in the
form and the compilation of these forms into electronic form tests with a lower response rate and less favourable
could take up to 3 months to complete. The implementation responses [2]. Several studies demonstrated the low
of an HTML and CGI-based online system raised the response rate provided by the web-based questionnaires
response rate to 50% in 1997. Then later after the which are illustrated in Table 1.
implementation the complete online evaluation system,
online and offline student could log in with their unique ID Table 1: comparison between web Based and Paper approach
and complete the evaluation. Researchers Yea Web Mail/
In the late 1990s two (2) other universities in china r Based/ pape
(HKUST, HKU and HKPU) collaborated to create 2 online E-mail r
evaluation systems [32]. COSSET (Centralised Online Medlin et al 1999 28% 47%
System for Student Evaluation of Teaching) and OSTEI Guterbock et al 2000 37% 48%
(Online System for Teaching Evaluation of Instructors). Kwak and Radler 2000 27% 42%
Comparatively, COSSET provided more features than Crawford et al 2001 35%
Ranchlod & Zhou 2001 20% 6%
OSTEI and relied on registration information for student
logins while OSTEI used a combination of instructor ID and
questionnaire ID for logins which was less secure. But A research since 1986 [11] noticed a drop of email-survey
OSTEI was flexible and allowed instructor to register and response rates from 46% in 1995/1996 to 31% in
create their own questionnaire and also provided a bank of 1998/1999. Other research also noticed a drop of response
800 questions to allow custom questionnaire. rates in a survey completed in 1995 and 1998 [12].
Another system was implemented by Drexel University [30]. Layne also was conducted a comparative study between
This system was based on HTML, SQL and the Perl electronic and paper course evaluation [13]. In this survey a
scripting language. Instructors would submit their questions number of 2,453 were evaluated using the same question in
on a template email which would be uploaded as evaluation the electronically and paper-based evaluation. The response
forms into the system. The students name and birth date rate was 60.6% for the class evaluation against 47.8% for
were used to log in and complete the evaluation. to the online evaluation. Another research that conducted in
encourage more participation, E-mail was used as main 2000 had a very less participation of student in the online-
means of communication between students and the faculty based evaluation, and the reason was that students were
to remind student about completing the evaluations. satisfied with their lecturers’ performances which give them
According to Hmieleski in a report on higher education in an excuse not to fill the evaluation form [14]. Students
2000, only 2 institutions ranked as the most wired were found the online evaluation easy to use and liked it because
using the online evaluation among the 200 wired- of the anonymity. The online method gave them the ability
institutions in Australia. However In 2002, the online to provide more thoughtful comment than the traditional
evaluation system was still considered limited in higher method.
education. However some researchers found a positive result in email
Electronic Evaluation Method Vs Traditional paper response rates. Unlike table 1, Tables 2 provides the
Method: findings that demonstrates high response rate for online
Many Universities hesitate to convert to web-based evaluation over the traditional approach.
evaluation due to fears regarding cost, return rates, and
Tables 2: Comparison between E-mail and Mail Evaluation
response quality [1] but in one of the previous studies on
this topic, [4] compared traditional course evaluation with
Authors Year Email Mail
online evaluations at Rutgers College of Pharmacy. they
compared the evaluation rates of both methods and found
Parker 1992 60% 38%
that the paper had a evaluation rate of 97% with a response
rate of 45% to the open-ended questions whereas online Kiesler & 1986 67% -
method had an evaluation rate of 88% and a response rate of Sproull
33% for the open-ended questions. Dommeyer also
conducted a survey to determine preferred method of student Walsh et al 1992 76%
appraisal where the tagged was a group of business
professors [3]. Out of 159 faculty members, 33% responded Jaclyn M, 1998-2002 64%
and there was a preference for the paper evaluation because Grahan H
they believed it has a higher response rate and accurate
response. It was concluded that the online approach could Some others researchers in their research stated that the
be more appealing to faculty members if techniques could be advantage of E-mail or web based survey over traditional
used to increase students’ response rates. method is that Paper resource use savings decrease costs by
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 3
80 to 95% [11] [19] [20]. Compared to a normal mail survey
it is cheaper and the cost decreases as survey size increases
[21]. In addition, students provide more answers to the open
ended question online [21] [12], according to another
research on 1998 email surveys are cheaper and faster than
paper surveys, encourage respondents to reply and can
provide a friendly environment [22].
According to [3], St. Louis College of pharmacy compared
the traditional paper with online evaluation. Out of 169
students in the survey, 50 were randomly chosen to complete
the same form online, and the other 119 students to
complete the traditional paper. This study showed that
despite the small number of students completing the online
evaluation, they provided more comment than the big
amount of student that completed traditionally; and the
number of words typed online was 7 times the number of
words typed offline. The time spent by students to complete
was approximately 10 minutes online VS 25 minutes offline.
The staff took 30 hours to compile scores and comment from
the paper VS an hour to just download scores and comments
from the online survey.
2.2. Web based survey methodology
Based on our research we found that either paper or web
based survey; the methodology matters as it affects the
response rates. A research shows that there is a way to
maximise response rates by keeping the questionnaire short
and the following up notice is an important aspect that
affects the response rate. A reminder after two days had a
completion rate of 30.3% while a reminder after five days
had a completion rate of 24.3 %(p<0.050) . In general, two
days reminder notice is suggested [6]. But others
researchers [23] have found improved response rates with
fourth contacts.
In a Crawford et al study, the authors mentioned that the
more complicated is the access to the questionnaire; fewer
users are motivated to respond. Researchers have
demonstrated that the ease of access to the survey page is
important. Dommeryer and Moriarty showed that an
embedded survey with an en easy access had a better
response rate compared to an attached questionnaire that
requires downloading, completing and uploading the
questionnaire [24]. To minimize the download time of
questionnaire pages other researchers recommended the use
of simple designs for the system [25]. The question should
be straight forward and simple, in addition each point
should ask only one question [26].
A lack of anonymity in the use of email surveys has been
underline as one of the reason of the low response rates [16]
[25]. Administrators can track passwords and easily access
user answers. Especially with Emails, an author is easily
traceable via return email on which the respondent email
may be included. And if the survey is designed online and
no password, there is no way to follow up on non
respondents and there won’t be any control over the number
of survey complication per person rates [6].
Some research teams provided recommendation for the
methodology to be used. There was a recommendation for
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
the University to implement an online rating system,
including communication and training as essential
components of the system. They also recommend comments
not to be stored in the database or electronics files after
using them as they could be easily accessed by an
unauthorized user which reduce the Freedom of Information
Act (FOIA). And they also stated that authors of comments
and ratings should not be identified during collection of
data. And the list of respondents should be deleted from the
system and should never be available to the faculty and
teachers.
In addition they gave recommendation to overcome one of
the common concerns of online evaluation system which is
low response rates. They forbid Universities to use
incentives and sanctions to improve the response but
instead, use targeted announcements and frequent follow-up
reminders for students during period when the evaluation is
being collected.
Completion time indicated in the invitation, timing of the
reminder notice, access to the survey. Perceived anonymity
and confidentiality of responses including reward are factors
may affect the email survey response rates [6]. An
investigation of another research on 2001 shows that more
the time given to complete the survey increases more the
response rate decreases because the user will not focus
knowing that he has a lot of time to complete it [10].
Online respondent are more distracted with others opened
windows and may have less attention. A risk of being
attacked by virus is considerable and the download time or
number of pages accessed may affect the online survey.
Unlike the web-based, these are generally not issues with the
paper or mail survey [6]. Due to the big amount of email
received by users, it is likely that they may ignore email
form unknown senders [10].
3. Text Mining
As the human speak or write English, he uses a lot of word
combination to express something or to explain something.
Out of 50 words spoken or written, the useful information
needed by others might only be 10 to 20 words, the rest are
the way to make the English language beautiful. when we
read a text, our brain try to get the useful information out of
it and try to match it with something store on our mind in
order to understand and interpret it for decision support . So
does the computer through test mining.
Text mining also called text data mining, processes
unstructured textual information to extract high quality
information through patterns and trends such as statistical
pattern learning. Data mining involve the process of
structuring text that would be stored in a database and
restore later for interpretation. Text mining tasks include
text categorization, text clustering, and concept/entity
extraction, production of granular taxonomies, sentiment
analysis, document summarization, and entity relation
modelling.
Text mining also called knowledge discovery for text was
mentioned for the first time by. Un Yong N. and Raymond
4 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
J. M defined it as “the process of finding useful or
interesting patterns, models, directions, trends, rules from
unstructured text”. It refers generally to the process of
extracting interesting information and knowledge from
unstructured text [32]. It has been describe as truly
interdisciplinary method drawing on information retrieval,
machine learning, statistics, computational linguistics and
especially data mining [32]. That implies that text mining
uses techniques for information extraction and natural
language processing (NLP) to extract data to which
algorithms and methods of KDD can be applied. This
technique is widely used by many authors [2] [32]. Text
mining was also described as the extraction of not yet
discovered information in large collections of texts [35]. It is
considered as process oriented approach on texts. For a
good comprehension of the topic, there are few terms that
you need to be familiar with.
3.1Text Mining Approaches
Text mining has several approaches or techniques. Some
proposed techniques are knowledge Discovery and Data
mining, Information Retrieval, Information Extraction,
Knowledge Discovery and Data mining:
Knowledge discovery or knowledge discovery in databases
(KDD) is defined by [35] as the non-trivial process of
identifying valid, novel, potentially useful, and ultimately
understandable patterns in data. It considers the application
of statistical and machine-learning methods to discover
novel relationships in large relational databases [34]. KDD
has for goal finding hidden patterns or facts in a database or
text file and includes several processing steps that have to be
applied to the data in order to achieve this goal. The main
steps defined by Cross Industry Standard process for Data
mining (Crisp DM) is shown in Figure 1 namely: phases of
Crip DM [10]. Business understanding and Data
understanding are the first steps that consist of analysis and
understanding of the initial problem. The next step which is
Data preparation consist of pre-processing to convert data
from textual to a format that can be suitable for the data
mining algorithm which is applied at the Modelling phase.
The process is completed by an evaluation and deployment
of the obtained model.
Figure 1: Phases of Crip DM (Andreas H, Andreas N,
Gerhard P 2005)
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
KDD and data mining are two terms that are sometimes
confusing and used as synonyms. Reasons given were that
Data mining includes all the aspect of knowledge discovery
process [33] and that data mining was a part of the KDD-
processes or modelling phase of KDD process. However data
mining represent the same concept as KDD and has for goal
to retrieve useful information in data. It was defined by [33]
as the search for valuable information in large quantities of
data. For data mining to achieve its goals, few research
areas need to be included which are database, machine
learning and statistics.
• Database is not only used to store found information
only but it is necessary to support the data mining
algorithms for the identification of useful information.
• Machine learning (ML) is a field of artificial
intelligence which consists of developing techniques to
allow computers to learn by analysis of data.
• Statistics deals with science for the analysis of
empirical data. Today many methods of statistics are
used in the field of KDD [33].
Information Retrieval (IR):
Information retrieval is the finding of documents which
contain answers to questions and not the finding of answers
itself [35]. IR refers to the research of information using
methods, automatic processing of text data and comparison
of question and answer. IR is a research area that has been
widely used with the growth of World Wide Web. It was
first used for automatic indexing. IR also refers to the
extraction of information based of keywords such as search
engines [33].
3.2Natural Language Processing (NLP)
Natural Language Processing refers to text processing for an
understanding of human language by a computer. Its goal is
to interpret human language through the use of computers
[36]. Natural Language Processing is a linguistic analyse
technique for a fast text processing.
The concept of Natural Language Processing is all about
understanding an input in a form of natural language and
producing an interpretation of it in sentence in a form of
natural language as well through the use of computer. The
process of understanding a sentence by the computer in
Natural Language Processing is illustrated in Figure 2.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 5
Figure 2. Modules of Natural language understanding
(Josef Leung & Ching-Long Yeh)
The pre-processing block reforms the words in the input
sentence in various forms of single words. Then the pre-
processed is received as input in the parsing block that
constructs syntactic structure by referring to a syntax rule
database. The syntax rules would specify the type of words
(i.e Noun, Verb). Figure 3 demonstrates how a sentence is
segmented to form a syntactic structure.
Figure 3. A Sample Syntactic structure (Josef Leung &
Ching-Long Yeh)
The semantics component represents the meaning of the
sentences in a semantic representation. Semantic
interpretation maps the syntactic structure of a sentence to
the logic based representation which as result is the
interpretation of the context-independent meaning of
sentence. The process of mapping the semantic
representation to the knowledge representation, contextual
interpretation, is performed to obtain the way the sentence is
used in particular context.
Figure 4 illustrates the process of Natural language
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Generation that is done based on the user goal. The process
accepts any goal input from the user and the text planning
consults the planning operators to get an appropriate
operator that suit the goal. Then the linguistic realisation
linearlises the message content from the hierarchical
structure to generate cohesive unit of text then finally maps
it into the surface sentences.
Figure 4. A general architecture of natural language
generation (Josef Leung & Ching-Long Yeh)
3.3Information Extraction (IE)
Un Yong N. and Raymond J. M consider it as a key
component for text mining with the goal to find specific
data in natural-language text [34]. That information is
stored in database like patterns and data to be extracted is
given by a template containing the information needed and
blank field to be filled with information retrieved from the
text. Example: my name is kerfalla kourouma, i was born in
1986 in the US. I am married with two children and live in
paris.
Let’s say that from this short text our goal was to know the
personal details of the author of the text. The information
that would be looking for would be the name, birth date,
marital status, address and phone number. Therefore our
template would by default contain these titles with blank slot
that would be filled with information extracted in the text or
document.
Name: kerfalla Kourouma
Birth date: 1986
Marital status: married
Location: Paris
The above information is now in a structure form and can be
stored in a database and retrieve later for a further use. From
the above example we would describe information extraction
as retrival and transformation of unstructured information
into structure information stored in a database. Califf
suggested using machine learning techniques for extracting
information from text documents in order to create easily
searchable databases from the information, thus making the
information more easily accessible.
Text Encoding:
In text mining, it’s very important to encode a plain text
into a data structure for a more appropriate processing. Most
text mining approaches are based on the idea that a text
document can be represented by a set of words [33].those
words are contained in a bag-of-words representation. The
6 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
words are defined using vector representation whereby
numerical value is stored for each word. The currently
predominant approaches are the vector space model [39],
the probabilistic model [25] and the logical model.
The Vector Space Model:
The vector space model was introduced first for indexing
and information retrieval [25] but now it is also used for text
mining and in most currently available document retrieval
systems [33]. It enables efficient analysis of huge text
documents by representing them as vectors in m-
dimensional space. Each document d is described by a
numerical feature vector w(d) =( x(d, t1), . . . , x(d, tm))
thus, the documents can be compared by use of simple
vector operations and even queries can be performed by
encoding the query terms similar to the document in a query
vector. The query vector can then be compared to each
document and a result list can be obtained by ordering the
documents according to the computed similarity [25].
3.4Applications for text Mining
Text mining is an area currently used in various domains.
Security applications:
Text mining is usually used to analyze plain text source in
internet. Text can be filtered by removing some
inappropriate terms such as bad word in a chat room. It is
used as well to automate the classification of texts. i.e it can
be applied to filter undesirable junk email based on certain
terms or words that are not likely to appear in normal
messages. Those messages can be automatically discarded or
routed to the most appropriate department.
Analyzing open-ended survey responses:
It is used in survey research in which various open-ended
questions about the topic are included. The idea is to allow
respondents to express their opinions with no limitation or
without constraining them to a particular response format.
Text mining is now used in marketing applications to
analyze customer relationship management apply it to
improve predictive analytics models for customer attrition.
This method is often used by marketing to discover a certain
set to words used to describe the pro’s and con’s of a
product or service.
The proposed system falls into this area of application. It
will be using the same concept to interpret the student
comment in the open-ended question of the student
appraisal.
Analyzing warranty or insurance clains, diagnostic
interviews, etc:
In some business domains, most data are collected in open-
ended textual form. For example warranty claims or medical
interviews are usually written in text form by a customer to
explain the problems and the needs. These information are
type electronically and available for input text mining
algorithms. And as output, can generate useful structured
information that identifies common clusters of problems.
Others applications:
• Various biomedical applications use text mining such as
PubGene, GoPubMed.org and GoAnnatator.
• Online Media applications uses by media companies such
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
as Tribune Company use text mining to monetize the
content.
• Sentiment analysis may involve analysis of movie reviews
to estimating how favourable a review is for a movie.
• Academic applications: text mining is an important tool
for publishers who hold database of information and
require indexing for retrieval.
Example of Applications using text Mining:
• AeroText: is a package of text mining applications for
content analysis.
• Attensity: can be hosted, integrated or stand-alone text
mining software that uses natural language processing
technology to address collective intelligence in social
media and forums.
• Endeca Technologies: provides software to analyze and
cluster unstructured text.
• Autonomy: suite of text mining, clustering and
categorization solutions for a variety of industries.
• Expert System- suit of semantic technologies and
products for developers and knowledge managers.
4. Proposed System
In our research we noticed that most online course
evaluation have common requirements that many programs
meet such as user authentication to prevent from
unauthorized use of the system and prevent double
evaluation, student anonymity that protects them from being
trace by their lecturers, user validation and report. However
we found that only very few existing system use chart to
represent data in the report and none of them allow the
system to provide suggestion to the manager based on the
students comment. That is the reason we propose an
intelligent course evaluation system that will generate a
report that includes suggestion and chart. It would be a
system that uses algorithms to understand and retrieve from
students open-ended responses useful data and interpret it
into information for the report.
4.1. Proposed System Features and user Roles
The intelligent online evaluation system would have 3 user
roles: The faculty members that would own the admin role,
the student and the lecturer role. These roles have different
level of access to data and are provided with different
features.
Students: are the potential stakeholders of this system.
Upon log in they are provided questionnaire link for each
module that they can evaluate only once. They can see the
status of each evaluation questionnaire to know which
modules they have not evaluated yet. Their input will be
processed and used to generate the report.
Lecturers: have a passive or viewer role. They are only able
to view students comments related to the course they teach
without having a possibility to trace the authors. This would
help them to know what student think about the course and
would know how to improve their way of teaching.
Faculty members: the faculty members are those who can
view every single thing except the student name of a
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 7
particular response. They give account to lecturer and
student, allocate module to student and lecturer, create, edit
and delete questionnaire and view report. The report
includes the student’s feedback, statistical result with chart
for every lecturer and suggestion that would help the faculty
to take strategic and academic decision. The faculty
members would be able to view as well the response
percentage of each module and can set starting date and
finishing date of the questionnaire.
The challenges presented here brought us into other area of
research that would allow us to achieve this innovative and
very useful change. We conducted research in the area of
Artificial Intelligence and to be more specific in text
processing method. The idea is to understand the student
answers to the open ended question (in Natural language),
process it and provide reports and suggestion (in Natural
language).
In our research we studied various text mining approaches
and found the Natural Language processing (NLP) as the
suitable approach to meet the system requirement. As the
students would be writing their comment in sentence using
their ordinary way to speak and write, the system would
need a robust natural language analysis to process the
students input (sentences) and interpret it to generate a
report in sentences.
To generate the report in sentences, some element would be
needed as input in the report generator at the first place.
First, input first as data mining results in a form of rules.
Then input the background information such as variables
names and categories. The next step is to set the text goal
for the report generator to produce sentences accordingly
[29].
4.2. Proposed System Technology
The system will be built using ASP.NET MVC which is a
part of the ASP.Net framework newly adopted by Microsoft
to improve the productivity when creating web application
and improve maintainability of the application as it allows
the user to have nimbleness and flexibility in building and
maintaining the application. Using this framework to
develop our system will ensure the authenticity of the
technology as ASP.NET MVC 2.0 was released last month
along with Visual Studio 2010.
SQL Server 2008 Expression will be used to store and
manage the database. SQL Server 2008 is a robust Database
management system and easy to connect to visual studio.
SyncFusion is third party software that provides content for
.Net application. SyncFusion will be used to generate excel
report and create chart.
5. Conclusion
The literature presented in this paper outline the previous
research and evidence about online evaluation system and
shows how important and effective would be to implement
the intelligent online course evaluation system to replace the
paper and pencil approach in Limkokwing University. The
implementation of this system would save time, resource
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
and reduce work as it would provide chart and suggestion
using Artificial Intelligence (Natural Language Processing).
With a proper project plan the proposed system would be a
platform that would be benefiting the University.
Future Enhancement
As the time past, new challenges are presented to man-kind.
One of the most common challenges of the new millennium
is the rapid access of information and very recently the
mobility of the information. The technology is moving to
mobile computing, and all the businesses are introducing it
to have a huge amount of customer. As future enhancement
of the intelligent online course evaluation we are planning
to provide a platform that would allow student the
evaluation of their lecturer through mobile phone and PDA.
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to ARASH
HABIBI LASHKARI (PHD candidate of UTM) for his
supervision and guidance. Also, we would like to express
our appreciation to our parents and all the teachers and
lecturers who help us to understand the importance of
knowledge and show us the best way to gain it.
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 9
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

The Effect of Public String on Extracted String in A

Fuzzy Extractor
Yang Bo 1, Li Ximing 2 and Zhang Wenzheng 3
1
College of Informatics, South China Agricultural University,
Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
byang@scau.edu.cn
2
College of Informatics, South China Agricultural University,
Guangzhou, 510642, P.R. China
liximing@scau.edu.cn
3
National Laboratory for Modern Communications,
Chengdu, 610041, P.R. China
wzzhang@163.com

Abstract: A fuzzy extractor is designed to extract a uniformly the alphabet of a random variable is denoted by the
distributed string from a noisy input in an error-tolerant corresponding script letter, the cardinality of a set is
manner. It has two outputs for a noisy input, a uniformly denoted by . The expected value of a real-valued random
distributed string and a public string. This paper gives the effect
variable is denoted by . The uniform distribution
of public string on the entropy loss in a fuzzy extractor, and
obtains the relationship between the entropy loss and public over is denoted by .
string, and the relationship between the size of extracted string A useful bound for any real-valued variable , any
and public string. , and any ( is the set of real numbers) is
.
Keywords: Cryptography, Secure sketch, Fuzzy extractor,
Min-entropy, Entropy loss Take , we have
(1)
1. Introduction The Rényi entropy of order of a random variable with
distribution and alphabet is defined as
To securely derive cryptographic keys from a noisy input
,
such as biometric data, a fuzzy extractor is designed to
extract a uniformly distributed string from this noisy input for and .
in an error-tolerant manner [1, 2, 5, 6, 7]. A fuzzy extractor The min-entropy of is
has two outputs for a noisy input, a uniformly distributed .
string which is used as cryptographic key, and a public The conditional min-entropy of given is
string which is used to encode the information needed for .
extraction of the uniformly distributed string. The difference We have .
between the min-entropy of the input and the conditional The statistical distance between two probability
min-entropy of the input given extracted string is defined as distributions with the same alphabet is defined
the entropy loss of a fuzzy extractor. as
This paper gives the effect of public string on the entropy .
loss in a fuzzy extractor, and obtains the relationship Lemma 1 [1]: Let be two random variables, if
between the entropy loss and public string, and the has possible values, then for any random variable ,
relationship between the size of extracted string and public
string.
A metric space is a set with a distance function
A similar problem in unconditionally-secure secret-key
, satisfying if
agreement protocol was considered in [3, 4, 8], which dealt
and only if , and symmetry
with the effect of side-information, obtained by the opponent
and the triangle inequality
through an initial reconciliation step, on the size of the
.
secret-key that can be distilled safely by subsequent privacy
Definition 1. An -secure sketch is a pair of
amplification.
randomized procedures, “sketch” ( ) and “recover” ( ),
2. Preliminaries with the following properties:
(i) The sketching procedure on input returns
We repeat some fundamental definitions and conclusions in a bit string . The recovery procedure takes
this section. Random variables are denoted by capital letter,
an element and a bit string .
10 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
(ii) Correctness: Because is an arbitrary constant, we take it big
If , then . enough such that is approximately 1, take limit
(iii) Security: For any distribution over , with , and obtain
if , then . ,
Definition 2. An -fuzzy extractor is a pair with probability approximately 1.
of randomized procedures, “generate” ( ) and Let , if is distributed uniformly, then
“reproduce” ( ), with the following properties: , ,
(i) The generation procedure on input .
outputs an extracted string and a helper string Therefore, the lemma1 is a special case of Theorem1.
.The reproduction procedure takes an Lemma2. Let be a constant, then
element and a bit string as inputs.
(ii) Correctness: If and with probability at least .
, then . Proof. From
(iii) Security: For any distribution over , if ,
and , then we have , ,
. .
From (1), it follows
3. The Effect of Public String on Extracted
String and the Size of Extracted String So
In the following two theorems, we give the relationship ,
between the entropy loss and the public string in a fuzzy with probability at least .
extractor. Because the inequality holds for each , we have
Theorem 1. In an -fuzzy extractor, let
be a random variable with alphabet , be a deterministic ,
function of , and with alphabet . Then with with probability at least .
probability approximately 1, we have Theorem2. Let be the same as theorem1,
.
be an arbitrary constant. Then for
Proof. We first consider the entropy loss of the Rényi
entropy of order . Since is a deterministic
function of , and , it follows that
with probability at least .
Proof. From

and Lemma2, we have

Interpreting as a function of , the
equation above is equivalent to with probability at least .
The variance of is

or
.
Let be an arbitrary constant,

.
From (1), we have
By chebychef inequality, we have
,
or and

with probability at least .

Divide by and obtain ,
with probability at least
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 11
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
.
Combined with theorom1, it follows that
Acknowledgement
with probability at least . This work is supported by the National Natural Science
In the following theorem, we obtain the relationship Foundation of China under Grants 60973134, 60773175, the
between the size of extracted string and the public string Foundation of National Laboratory for Modern
Communications under Grant 9140c1108010606, and the
in a fuzzy extractor.
Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province under
Theorem 3. In a fuzzy extractor
Grants 10351806001000000 and 9151064201000058.
constructed from secure sketch and pair-
independent hashing based strong extractor , References
the length of extracted string satisfies
[1] X. Boyen, “Reusable cryptographic fuzzy extractors,”
In Eleventh ACM Conference on Computer and
with probability approximately 1. Communication Security. ACM, October 25-29 2004.
Further, let be two constants, satisfy , 82-91.
, then the length of extracted string [2] X. Boyen, Y. Dodis, J. Katz, Ostrovsky R. and A.
Smith, “Secure remote authentication using biometric
satisfies data,” In Advances in Cryptology-EUROCRYPT 2005,
Ronald Cramer, editor, Lecture Notes in Computer
Science 3494, Springer-Verlag, 2005, 147-163.
Proof. From [1], we have [3] C. Cachin, U. M. Maurer, “Linking information
. reconciliation and privacy amplification,”
EUROCRYPT’94, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
From theorem1, it follows Vol. 950, Springer-Verlag, 1995, 266-274.
[4] C. Cachin,“Smooth entropy and Rényi entropy,” In
EUROCRYPT’97, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
Springer Verlag, 1997, 193-208.
[5] R. Cramer, Y. Dodis, S. Fehr, C. Padró and D. Wichs,
Let , we have “Detection of Algebraic Manipulation with
Applications to Robust Secret Sharing and Fuzzy
with probability approximately 1. Extractors,” Adv. in Cryptology- EUROCRYPT 2008,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4965, Springer
If be two constants, satisfy , and
Berlin,2008, 471-488.
, then from [6] Y. Dodis, L. Reyzin and A. Smith, “Fuzzy Extractors:
How to Generate Strong Keys from Biometrics and
Other Noisy Data,” Adv. in Cryptology- Eurocrypt
and theorem2, we have 2004, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3027,
Springer-Verlag, 2004, 523-540.
[7] Y. Dodis, J. Katz, L. Reyzin and A. Smith, “Robust
. Fuzzy Extractors and Authenticated Key Agreement
from Close Secrets,” In Advances in Cryptology-
Let , we have CRYPTO’06, volume 4117 of Lecture Notes in
Computer Science. Springer, 2006, 232-250.
[8] Bo Yang, Tong Zhang, Changxing Pei, “The effect of
side information on smooth entropy,” Journal of
with probability at least . Discrete Applied Mathematics, 136(2004), 151-157.
From theorem3, we have
Yang Bo received the B. S. degree from Peking University,
Beijing, China, in 1986, and the M. S. and Ph. D. degrees from
Therefore, for a fuzzy extractor to extract a uniformly Xidian University, China, in 1993 and 1999, respectively. From
July1986 to July 2005, he had been at Xidian University, from
distributed string with some length from a noisy input, it is
2002, he had been a professor of National Key Lab. of ISN in
necessary that the entropy of public string must be smaller Xidian University, supervisor of Ph.D. He has served as a Program
than some value, and the smaller the entropy of public Chair for the fourth China Conference on Information and
string, the longer the uniformly distributed string extracted Communications Security (CCICS'2005) in May 2005, vice-chair
by a fuzzy extractor. for ChinaCrypt'2009 in Nov. 2009, and general chair for the Fifth
Joint Workshop on Information Security (JWIS 2010), in Aug.
2010. He is currently dean, professor and supervisor of Ph.D. at
College of Informatics and College of Software, South China
12 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Agricultural University. His research interests include information
theory and cryptography.

Li Ximing received the B.A. degree from the Shandong University

of Technology, Jinan, Shandong, China, in 1996 and M. E. degree
from Jinan University, Guangzhou, China, in 2005. He is currently
a candidate of Ph.D. degree in College of Informatics, South China
Agricultural University, His research interests include information
theory and cryptography.

Zhang Wenzheng received the B. S. degree and the M. S. degree

from University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, in
1988 and 1991, respectively. He is currently general engineer at
National Laboratory for Modern Communications.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 13
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Analysis of Statistical Path Loss Models for Mobile

Communications
Y. Ramakrishna1, Dr. P. V. Subbaiah2 and V. Ratnakumari 3
1
PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Vijayawada, India
ramakrishna@pvpsiddhartha.ac.in
2
Amrita Sai Institute of Science & Technology, Vijayawada, India
pvs_ece2000@yahoo.co.in
3
PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Vijayawada, India
vemuri_ratna@yahoo.com

strength and other parameters such as antenna heights,

Abstract: The ability to accurately predict radio propagation
behavior for mobile communications is becoming crucial to
system design. Unlike deterministic models which require more
computations, statistical models are easier to implement, require
less computational effort and are less sensitive to the
environmental geometry. In mobile radio systems, most of the
models regarding fading apply stochastic process to describe the
distribution of the received signal. It is useful to use these
models to simulate propagation channels and to estimate the
performance of the system in a homogeneous environment.
Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary Transmitter-Receiver (T-R) separation distance are
called large-scale propagation models, since they characterize
signal strength over large T-R separation distance. In this paper,
the large-scale propagation performance of COST-231 Walfisch
Ikegami and Hata models has been compared varying Mobile
Station (MS) antenna height, T-R separation distance and Base
Station (BS) antenna height, considering the system to operate
at 850 MHz. Through MATLAB simulation it is observed that
the COST-231 model shows better performance than Hata
Model.
Keywords: Path Loss, COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami Model, Hata
Model.
terrain profiles, etc through the use of extensive
measurement and statistical analysis.
Radio transmission in a mobile communication system
often takes place over irregular terrain. The terrain profile of
a particular area needs to be taken into account for
estimating the path loss. The terrain profile may vary from a
simple curved earth profile to a highly curved mountainous
profile. A number of propagation models are available to
predict path loss over irregular terrain. While all these
models aim to predict signal strength at a particular
receiving point or in a specific location called sector, the
methods vary widely in their approach, complexity and
accuracy. Most of these models are based on a systematic
interpretation of measurement data obtained in the service
area.
In this paper, the wideband propagation performance of
COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami and Hata models has been
compared varying MS antenna height, propagation distance,
and BS antenna height considering the system to operate at
850 MHz. Through the MATLAB simulation it turned out
that the COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami model outperforms
the other large scale propagation models.

1. Introduction 2. Models for Predicting Propagation Path

Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting
the received signal strength at a given distance from the
transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength
in a close spatial proximity to a particular location.
Propagation models that predict the signal strength for an
arbitrary T-R separation distance are useful in estimating
the radio coverage area of a transmitter. Conversely,
propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations
of the received signal strength over very short travel
distances are called small-scale or fading models [1].
Propagation models are useful for predicting signal
attenuation or path loss. This path loss information may be
used as a controlling factor for system performance or
coverage so as to achieve perfect reception. The common
approaches to propagation modeling include physical
models and empirical models. In this paper, only empirical
models are considered. Empirical models use measurement
data to model a path loss equation. To conceive these
models, a correlation was found between the received signal
Loss
A good model for predicting mobile radio propagation loss
should be able to distinguish among open areas, sub urban
areas and urban areas. All urban areas, hilly or flat areas are
unique in terrain, buildings and street configurations. The
models described in this paper are considered to design a
prediction model for urban area. A good prediction model
follows the same guidelines, so that every user gets the same
answer for given conditions.
Path loss may occur due to many effects, such as free-
space loss, refraction, diffraction, reflection, aperture-
medium coupling loss and absorption [2]. Path loss is also
influenced by terrain contours, environment (urban or rural,
vegetation and foliage), propagation medium (dry or moist
air), the distance between the transmitter and the receiver,
and the height of antennas.
Path loss normally includes propagation losses caused
by
14 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• The natural expansion of the radio wave front in free optimum network design. Among the radio propagation
space. models, city models are to be analyzed in this paper to find
• Absorption losses (sometimes called penetration losses) the best fitting city model. The well known propagation
• When the signal passes through media not transparent models for urban areas are:
to electromagnetic waves and diffraction losses. i) COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami Model
The signal radiated by a transmitter may also travel ii) Hata Model
along many and different paths to a receiver simultaneously;
this effect is called multipath propagation. Multipath
propagation can either increase or decrease received signal 3.1 COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami Model
strength, depending on whether the individual multipath
wave fronts interfere constructively or destructively. This model is being considered for use by International
In wireless communications, path loss can be Telecommunication Union-Radio Communication Sector
represented by the path loss exponent, whose value is (ITU-R) in the international Mobile Telecommunications-
normally in the range of 2 to 5 (where 2 is for propagation 2000 (IMT-2000) standards activities [1]. This model is
in free space, 5 is for relatively lossy environments) [1]. In applicable for frequencies in the range of 150 to 1800 MHz.
some environments, such as buildings, stadiums and other This utilizes the theoretical Walfisch-Bertoni model, and is
indoor environments, the path loss exponent can reach composed of three terms:
values in the range of 4 to 6. On the other hand, a tunnel
may act as a waveguide, resulting in a path loss exponent L0 + Lrts + Lmsd forLrts + Lmsd > 0
L0 (d ) = (4)
less than 2. L0 Lrts + Lmsd ≤ 0
The free-space path loss is denoted by L p (d) , which is
L p ( d ) = −20 log 10  
c / fc
4Π d  (dB )
(1) where L0 represents the free space path loss, Lrts is the
 rooftop-street diffraction and scatterer loss, and Lmsd is the
where c = velocity of light, fc = carrier frequency and d = multi screen diffraction loss. The free space loss is given by
distance between transmitter and receiver.
L0 = 32.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f (5)
For long-distance path loss with shadowing, the path loss
is denoted by L p (d), which is Where d is the radio-path length (in km), f is the radio
n
frequency (in MHz), and
L p ( d ) ∝  d  ,d ≥ d
 (2)
 d0 
0

Lrts = −16.9 − 10 log w + 10log f + 20log ∆hMobile + Lori (6)

or equivalently,

( d )(
Lp (d ) = Lp (d0 ) + 10n log10 d
0 dB)
, d ≥ d0 (3)
Here w is the street width (in m) and

where n = path loss component, d0 = the close-in reference ∆hMobile = hRoof − hMobile (7)
distance (typically 1 km for macro cells, 100m for micro
cells), d = distance between transmitter and receiver. is the difference between the height of the building on which
the base station antenna is located, hRoof, and the height of
3. Point-to-Point Prediction Models the mobile antenna, hMobile. Lori is the loss that arises due to
the orientation of the street. It depends on the angle of
Calculation of the path loss is usually called prediction. incidence ( φ ) of the wave relative to the direction of the
Exact prediction is possible only for simpler cases, such as
street.
the above-mentioned free space propagation or the flat-earth
Lori is given by
model. For practical cases the path loss is calculated using a
variety of approximations.
− 10 + 0 . 354 φ 0 0 ≤ φ < 35 0
The area-to-area model provides path loss with long (8)
L ori = 2 . 5 + 0 . 075 (φ − 35 ) for 35 0 ≤ φ < 55 0
range of uncertainty. Point-to-Point prediction reduces the
4 . 0 − 0 . 114 (φ − 55 ) 55 0 ≤ φ < 90 0
uncertainty range by applying the detailed terrain contour
information to the path-loss predictions. Point-to-point Lmsd is given by
prediction is very useful in mobile cellular system design,
where the radius of each cell is 16 kilometers or less. It can Lmsd = Lbsh + ka + kd log d + k f log f − 9 log b (9)
provide information to insure uniform coverage and
avoidance of co-channel interference. Where b is the distance between the buildings along the
Statistical methods (also called stochastic or empirical) signal path and Lbsh and ka represent the increase of path
are based on fitting curves with analytical expressions that loss due to a reduced base station antenna height. Using the
recreate a set of measured data. abbreviation
In the cities the density of people is high. So the more ∆hBase = hBase − hRoof (10)
accurate loss prediction model will be a good help for the
Base Station Transceiver System (BTS) mapping for Where hbase is the base station antenna height, we observe
that Lbsh and ka are given through
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 15
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
as part of the path loss [7] – [9]. In small cells, the loss is
− 18 log( 1 + ∆ hBase ) hBase > h Roof calculated based on the dimensions of the building blocks.
L bsh = (11)
0 hBase ≤ hRoof Since the ground incident angles of the waves are small due
to the low antenna heights used in small cells, the exact
54 hBase> hRoof height of buildings in the middle of the propagation paths is
ka = 54− 0.8∆hBase d ≥ 0.5km hBase≤ hRoof (12) not important. Although the strong received signal at the
54−1.6∆hBased d ≥ 0.5km hBase≤ hRoof mobile unit is come from the multipath reflected waves not
from the waves penetrating through buildings, there is a
The terms kd and kf control the dependence of the correlation between the attenuation of the signal and the
multiscreen diffraction loss versus distance and the radio total building blocks, along the radio path.
frequency of operation, respectively. They are
18 hBase> hRoof 4. Performance Analysis
kd = ∆h (13)
18−15 Base hBase≤ hRoof
hRoof In this paper, the propagation path loss has been assessed
by considering the parameters BTS Antenna height, MS
And
Antenna height and T-R separation for the COST-231
 f 
k f = −4 + 0.7 − 1 (14) Walfisch Ikegami and Hata models by MATLAB
 925  simulation.
for medium-sized cities and suburban centers with moderate
tree densities and for metropolitan centers.
 f 
k f = −4 + 1.5 − 1 (15) 190

 925  Ikegami
Hata
185
3.2 Hata model
It is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data 180
provided by Okumara’s model. The formula for the median
P ath loss (dB)

path loss in urban areas is given by

175

L50 (urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log f c − 13.82 log hte

−a (hre ) + (44.9 − 6.55 log hte ) log d (16) 170

where fc is the frequency and varies from 150 to 1500

165
MHz, hte and hre are the effective height of the base station
and the mobile antennas (in meters) respectively, d is the
160
distance from the base station to the mobile antenna, and 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Base Station Antenna Height (Mt.)
a(hre) is the correction factor for the effective antenna height
of the mobile which is a function of the size of the area of Figure 1. Propagation path loss due to the change in the
coverage [2]. For small to medium-sized cities, the mobile BTS antenna height.
antenna correction factor is given by

a(hre) = (1.1log fc − 0.7)hre − (1.56log fc − 0.8) dB (17)

190
For a large city, it is given by Hata
185 Ikegami

8.29(log1.54hre )2 − 1.1 dB for fc ≤ 300MHz

a (hre ) = (18) 180
3.2(log11.75hre )2 − 4.97 dB for fc ≥ 300MHz
175
Path loss (dB)

When the size of the cell is small, less than 1 km, the 170
street orientation and individual blocks of buildings make a
difference in signal reception [3]. Those street orientations 165

and individual blocks of buildings do not make any 160

noticeable difference in reception when this signal is well
attenuated at a distance over 1 km. Over a large distance the 155

relatively great mobile radio propagation loss of 40 dB/dec 150

is due to the situation that two waves, direct and reflected,
are more or less equal in strength [4] – [6]. The local 145
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
scatterers (buildings surroundings the mobile unit) reflect Mobile Antenna Height (Mt.)

this signal causing only the multipath fading not the path
loss at the mobile unit. When the cells are small, the signal Figure 2. Propagation path loss due to the change in the MS
arriving at the mobile unit is blocked by the individual antenna height.
buildings; this weakens the signal strength and is considered
16
Figure 1 depicts the variation of path loss with base
station antenna height keeping the parameters MS antenna
height and T-R separation constant. It is noted that path loss
is decreasing due to increase in BTS antenna height for both
models. However path loss continues to be low in COST-
231 model.
Figure 2 evaluates the path loss by varying MS Antenna
height and fixing the other two parameters. As MS antenna
height is increased, the path loss is decreased in this case.
Figure 3 illustrates the change in path loss upon change
in T-R antenna separation distance. It is observed that the
path loss is less up to 4 km radial distance for COST-231
model while the path loss is more beyond 4 km separation
distance.
In cases 1 and 2 the path loss is low for both the models
and in case 3 the trend is different beyond 4 kilometers
separation between transmitter and receiver. Hence COST-
231 model may be preferred to design cellular network
where the cell radius is less than 4 km. Hence this model is
preferred for densely populated urban areas where call
traffic is high.
240
Hata
Ikegami
220
200
Path loss (dB)
180
160
140
120
100
0 2 4 6
Distance Between Base-station and Mobile-station (km.)
Figure 3. Path loss due to the change in T-R separation.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, two widely known large scale propagation
models are studied and analyzed. The analysis and
simulation was done to find out the path loss by varying the
BTS antenna height, MS antenna height, and the T-R
separation. Cost-231 Walfisch Ikegami model was seen to
represent low power loss levels in the curves. The result of
this analysis will help the network designers to choose the
proper model in the field applications. Further up-gradation
in this result can be possible for the higher range of carrier
frequency.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
References
[1] Tapan K. Sarkar, M.C.Wicks, M.S.Palma and R.J.
Bonnea, Smart Antennas, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Publication, NJ, 2003.
[2] M. A. Alim, M. M. Rahman, M. M. Hossain, A. Al-
Nahid, “Analysis of Large-Scale Propagation Models
for Mobile Communications in Urban Area”,
International Journal of Computer Science and
Information Security, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2010, pp. 135–139.
[3] W.C.Y.Lee, Mobile Communications Design
Fundamentals, Sec. Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1992.
[4] W.C.Y.Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications, Sec.
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.,
India, 2006.
[5] Robert J. Piechocki, Joe P. McGeehan, and George V.
Tsoulos, “A New Stochastic Spatio-Temporal Propa-
gation Model (SSTPM) for Mobile Communications
with Antenna Arrays”, IEEE Transactions on
Communi--cations, Vol. 49, No. 5, May 2001, pp. 855–
862.
[6] Frank B. Gross, Smart Antennas for Mobile
Communications, The Mc-Graw Hill Companies, 2005.
[7] C. Jansen, R. Piesiewicz , D. Mittleman and Martin
Koch, “The Impact of Reflections From Stratified
Building Materials on the Wave Propagation in Future
Indoor Terahertz Communication Systems”, IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and propagation, Vol. 56,
No. 5, May 2008, pp. 1413–1419.
[8] J. C. Rodrigues, Simone G. C. Fraiha, Alexandre R.O.
de freitas, “Channel Propagation Model for Mobile
Network Project in Densely Arboreous
Environments”, Journal of Microwaves and
Optoelectronics, Vol. 6, No. 1, June 2007, pp. 236–
248.
[9] A.R. Sandeep, Y. Shreyas, Shivam Seth, Rajat
Agarwal, and G. Sadashivappa, “Wireless Network
8 10 12 14
Visualization and Indoor Empirical Propagation
Model for a Campus WI-FI Network”, World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology,
42, 2008, pp. 730–734.
[10] J. B. Anderson, T.S. Rappaport and Susumu Yoshida,
“Propagation Measurements and Models for Wireless
Communication Channels”, IEEE Communication
Magazine, January 1995, pp. 42-49.
Authors’ Profile
Y.Ramakrishna is currently a research
student under Dr. P. V. Subbaiah. He
received M.Tech. degree in Microwave
Engineering from Acharya Nagarjuna
University, India in 2005. He received
B.E. degree in Electronics and
Communication Engineering from the
University of Madras, India in 2002. He
is presently working as Senior Assistant Professor in the
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology,
Vijayawada, India. His research interests are: Mobile
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 17
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Communications, Smart Antennas, Satellite
Communications.
Dr. P. V. Subbaiah received his
Ph.D. in Microwave Antennas from
JNT University, India 1995, His
Master‘s degree in Control Systems
from Andhra University, India 1982.
He received B.E. degree in Electronics
and Commu-nication Engineering
from Bangalore University in 1980. He
is currently working as Principal in Amrita Sai Institute of
Science and Technology, Vijayawada, India since 2007. His
research interest includes Microwave Antennas, Optical
Communications and Mobile Communications.

V. Ratnakumari received M.Tech.

degree in Microwave Engineering
from Acharya Nagarjuna University,
India in 2008. She received B.Tech.
degree in Electronics and
Communication Engineering from
JNT University, India in 2005. She is
presently working as Assistant
Professor in the Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, PVP
Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Vijayawada, India. Her
research interests are: Mobile communications and Signal
Processing.
18 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Development of Smart Antennas for Wireless

Communication System
T. B. Lavate1, Prof. V. K. Kokate2 and Prof. Dr. M.S. Sutaone3
1
Department of E & T/C ,College of Engineering Pune-5,
Pune University Road, Shivajinagar Pune-5, India
lavate.tb@rediffmail.com
2
Department of E & T/C ,College of Engineering Pune-5,
Pune University Road, Shivajinagar Pune-5, India
vkkokateetc@gmail.com
31
Department of E & T/C ,College of Engineering Pune-5,
Pune University Road, Shivajinagar Pune-5, India
mssutaone.extc@coep.ac.in

Abstract: In 3G wireless system the dedicated pilot is presented
in the structure of uplink CDMA frame of IMT-2000 physical
channels and this dedicated pilot supports the use of smart
antennas. Switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) creates a
group of overlapping beams that together results in omni
directional coverage. To reduce the side lobe level and improve
the SINR of SBSA non adaptive windowed beam forming
functions can be used. In this paper performance of eight
element linear SBSA with Kaiser-Bessel window function has
been investigated using MATLAB and it is observed that the use
of such SBSA at the base station of 3G cellular system improves
the capacity by 26% compared to 120o sectorized antennas.
However these SBSAs provide limited interference suppression.
The problem of SBSA can be overcome using adaptive array
smart antenna. In this paper eight element adaptive array smart
antenna is investigated where adaptive array smart antenna
estimates the angle of arrival of the desired signal using MUSIC
DOA estimation algorithm and received signal of each antenna
element is weighted and combined to maximize SINR using RLS
beam forming algorithm. When such adaptive array smart
antenna employed at the base station of 3G cellular system, it
provides 34% system capacity improvement.
Keywords: Adaptive array smart antenna, Beam forming
algorithms, DOA, Switched beam smart antenna, System capacity.
1. Introduction
The capacity of 3G wireless system using CDMA is
measured in channels/km2 and is given as [3]
C = [W / R] ÷[[Eb / No ]× Ac ] (1)
where, W is Bandwidth of the system, R is data rate of user,
Ac is coverage area of the cellular system and Eb/No is the
signal to interference plus noise ratio.
From equation (1) it is evident that 3G CDMA system is
still interference limited and the capacity of such wireless
system can be improved by interference reduction technique
such as smart antenna. The smart antenna types, their
performance analysis in 3G cellular mobile system is
investigated here.
2. Development of Smart Antennas
To reduce the multiple access interference (MAI) of 3G
wireless communication system it is essential to make the
antenna more directional or intelligent. All this leads us to
the development of smart antenna. Depending upon the
various aspects of smart antenna technology they are
categorized as switched beam smart antenna and adaptive
array smart antenna. In cellular system for macro cells
angular spread (AS) at the base station is generally below
15o and the upper bound on number of elements in the array
is about 8 for AS of 12o. Hence eight element smart antenna
arrays are suggested for 3G cellular wireless system.
3. Development of Eight Element Linear Array
Switched Beam Smart Antenna
3.1 Switched Beam Smart Antenna (SBSA)
The switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) has multiple
fixed beams in different directions and this can be
accomplished using feed network referred to as beam former
and most commonly used beam former is Butler matrix. The
receiver selects the beam that provides greatest signal
enhancement and interference reduction as shown in Fig.1.
Beam-1
Be
Beam-2 a
m Signal
fo Beam output
r Select
Beam-3 m
er
Beam-4
Desired signal Direction
Figure 1.. Switched Beam Smart Antenna
However SBSA solutions work best in minimal to moderate
MAI scenario. But they are often much less complex and are
easier to retrofit to existing wireless technologies.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 19
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Kaiser-Bessel weight function provides minimum increase

in beam width of main lobe and hence investigated in detail.
3.2 Array Pattern of SBSA
The Kaiser Bessel weights are determined by
In practice SBSA creates several simultaneous fixed beams
through the use of Butler matrix. With Butler matrix for
I o [πα 1 − (( n /( N / 2 ) ) 2 ]
SBSA of N elements the array factor can be given as [4] wn = (4)
I o [πα ]
sin[( Nπ d / λ ) ∗ (sin θ − sin θ l )]
AF (θ ) = (2)
( Nπ d / λ ) ∗ (sin θ − sin θ l ) where, n = 0,….., N/2, α > 1, N is the number of elements
in the array. The Kaiser Bessel normalized weights for N =
where sinөℓ = ℓλ/Nd; ℓ= ±1/2, ±3/2, ------- ± (N-1)/2. 8 are found using the Kaiser (N α ) command in MATLAB.
If element spacing is d =0.5λ the beams of SBSA are evenly With these weights the equation (3) is simulated using
distributed over the span of 1200 and they are orthogonal to MATLAB and results are presented in Fig.4.
each other. Using MATLAB, equation (2) for N = 8 is
0
simulated and simulation results are shown in Fig.2. It is Kaiser-Bessel

obvious that 8 element SBSA forms 8 spatial channels Boxcar window

-10
which are orthogonal to each other. Each of these spatial
channels has the interference reduction capability depending -20
on side lobe level (γ). It is apparent from Fig.2 that the array
factor

|AF |dB
-30

0
-40
-5

-10
-50
Normalized power gain(dB)

-15

-20 -60
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
θ
-25

-30
Figure 4 Array factor with Kaiser-Bessel weights and N=8
-35

-40 Fig.4 shows that Kaiser Bessel function provides side lobe
-45
suppression γ = -33 dB but with minimum increase in main
lobe beam width ∆ = 1.2
-50
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
AOA
4. Development of Eight Element Adaptive
Figure 2. SBSA Array pattern for number of antenna
Array Smart Antenna
elements N = 8.
4.1 Adaptive array smart antenna
of SBSA has side lobe levels γ=-16 dB. These harmful side
Adaptive array smart antennas are the array antennas whose
lobes of SBSA can be suppressed by windowing the array
radiation pattern is shaped according to some adaptive
elements as shown Fig. 3. [4],
algorithms. Smart essentially means computer control of the
antenna performance. Actually adaptive array smart antenna
is an array of multiple antenna elements which estimates the
y
angle of arrival of the desired signal using DOA estimation
algorithms [8] such as MUSIC (Multiple signal
Ѳ
classification) or ESPRIT (Estimation of signal Parameters
wN/2 w2 w1 w1 w2 wN/2 via Rotational invariant Techniques). The estimated DOA is
x
d
used for beam forming in which the received signal of each
antenna element is weighted and combined to maximize the
Figure 3 . N Element linear antenna array with weights desired signal to interference plus noise power ratio which
The array factor of such N linear element windowed array is essentially puts a main beam of an antenna in the direction
given by of desired signal and nulls in the direction of interference.
The weights of each element of an array may be changed
N/2 adaptively [5] and used to provide optimal beam forming in
AFn (θ ) = ∑w
n =1
n cos(((2n − 1) / 2) kd sin θ ) (3)
the sense that it reduces MSE (Mean Square Error) between
To determine the weights wn the various window functions desired signal and actual signal output of an array. Typical
such as Hamming, Gaussian and Kaiser-Bessel weight algorithms used for this beam forming are LMS (Least
functions can be used in eight element SBSA. Out of these, Mean Square) or RLS (Recursive Least Square) algorithms.
20 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

As this smart antenna generates narrower beams it creates the MUSIC Pseudospectrum is given as
less interference to neighboring users than switched beam
approach. Adaptive smart antennas provide interference PMUSIC (θ ) = 1 / abs (a (θ ) H VNVNH a (θ )) (7)
N signal ports
Ѳ1 However when signal sources are coherent or noise
variances vary the resolution of MUSIC diminishes. To
X1(k) W1 Beamformer
overcome this we must collect several time samples of
relieved signal plus noise, assume ergodicity and estimate
Ѳ2 the correlation matrix via time averaging.
X2(k) W2 ∑ Mobile location
data
4.3 Simulation results of MUSIC algorithm
Source For simulation of MUSIC algorithm MATLAB is used and
ѲD Estimation
Processor
the array used is eight element linear array with,
* Spacing between array elements d =0.5λ
XN(k) WN DOA Estimation
Algorithms * DOAs of desired signals : -50, 100 and 250
eg; Music, ESPRIT

10
Figure 5. N element Adaptive antenna array with D
K=10
arriving signals 5 K=100

0
rejection and spatial filtering capability which has effect of
-5
improving the capacity of wireless communication system.
MUSIC DOA estimation algorithm is highly stable, accurate -10
|P (θ )|db

and provides high angular resolution compared to all other -15

DOA estimation algorithms. Similarly RLS [6] beam
-20
forming algorithm is faster in convergence and hence
MUSIC and RLS algorithms are suitable for mobile -25 K=10
communication and they are investigated much in detail. -30
K=100
-35
4.2 MUSIC Algorithm -40
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
MUSIC is an acronym which stands for multiple signal AOA Degrees
classification and it is based on exploiting the eigen
structure of input covariance matrix. Figure 6. MUSIC Spectrum for N = 8 and DOA = -50, 100and 250.
As shown in Fig.5, if the number of signals impinging on N
element array is D the number of signal eigen values and
Fig.6 shows the MUSIC spectrum of eight element adaptive
eigenvectors is D and number of noise eigen values and
array smart antenna obtained for snapshots equal to 10 and
eigenvectors is N-D. The array correlation matrix with
100 and direction of arrivals of desired signals are -50, 100
uncorrelated noise is given by [4],
and 250. Increased snap shots leads to sharper MUSIC
spectrum peaks indicating more accurate detection of
Rxx = A∗ Rss ∗ AH + σ n2 I (5) desired signals and better resolution.
where,
A = [a(θ1) a(θ2) a(θ3) --- a(θD)]is NxD array steering
4.4 RLS Beam forming algorithm
matrix
Rss=[s1(k) s2(k) s3(k) ---- sD(k)]T is D x D source Since signal sources can change with time, we want to de-
emphasis the earliest data samples & emphasis the most
correlation matrix. Rxx has D eigenvectors associated with recent ones & this can be accomplished by modifying the co-
signals and N – D eigenvectors associated with the noise. relation matrix & co-relation vector equations such that we
We can then construct the N x (N-D) subspace spanned by forget the earliest time samples.
the noise eigenvectors such that Thus
k
R(k ) = ∑ α k −i X (i) X H (i )
VN = [v1 , v2 , v3 − − − − vN − D ] (6) i =1

and
The noise subspace eigenvectors are orthogonal to array
steering vectors at the angles of arrivals θ1, θ2, θ3, --- θD and
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 21
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
k accepts the signal at 25o and rejects the signals at + 45o and
r (k ) = ∑ α k −i
d * (i ) X (i )H
thus improves the SINR of the wireless system. Fig.7 also
i =1
shows that as the number of elements in the array are
where α is the forgetting factor & it is positive constant such increased from
that four to eight DOA detection and beam forming in the
0≤α≤1 desired direction becomes more accurate and highly stable.

Following the recursion formula for above equation the gain

vector, 5. Performance Analysis of Kaiser-Bessel
Windowed SBSA and adaptive Array Smart
−1 Antenna with MUSIC and RLS Algorithm
α R −1 ( k − 1) X ( k )
g (k) = −1
(8)
1+α X H ( k ) R −1 ( k − 1) X ( k ) We consider the DS-CDMA system in which the data is
modulated using BPSK format. We assume that the PN code
After kth iteration the weight update equation for RLS length M = 128 and the power of each mobile station is
algorithm, perfectly controlled by the same base station BS. The bit
error rate (BER) for DS-CDMA, 1200 sectorized systems is
W(k)=W(k-1)+g(k)[d*(k)-XH(k)W(k-1)] (9) given by [1],[2],

In RLS there is no need to invert large co-relation matrix.  −1 

  K E 
(k )
/N M 1 
P e = Q   ∑ b (1 ) o +
(10)
The recursive equations allow for easy updates of inverse of  
the co-relation matrix. The RLS algorithm also converges   k = 2 3 E b No 2 E b(1 ) N o  
much more quickly than the LMS algorithm hence it is
recommended to use RLS algorithm for adaptive array beam where Eb(1)/N0 is SINR for user of interest #1, Eb(k)/N0 is the
forming. same for interfering users.
We extended equation (10) to switched beam smart antenna
as[9]
4.5 Simulation results of RLS algorithm
 K1 (k) −1 
  Eb γ / No k2 Eb / NO k3 Eb γ / NOM 1   (11)
(k) (k)
Pe = Q ∑ (1) + ∑ (1) + ∑ (1) + (1)  
For simulation of RLS algorithm eight element linear array  k=2 3Eb No k=2 3Eb / No k=2 3Eb / No 2Eb No  
is used with,  
* Spacing between array elements d = 0.5λ
* DOA of desired signal = 250 where k1 is the number of interfering users with same PN
* DOA of Interfering Signals = - 450 and +450 code like user #1, affected side lobe, k2 is the number of
interfering users affected main lobe & k3 is like k2 but
affected side lobes.
For Boxcar (non windowed) SBSA the side lobe level
N=4
1
N=8 (as shown in fig.2) γ= -16 db. While as Kaiser-Bessel
weights can be selected for SBSA so that its side lobe level
0.8
(as shown in fig.4) can be reduced to γ=-33db.
We extended the equation (11) to eight element adaptive
array smart antenna with MUSIC and RLS algorithm as
0.6 N=4
|AF n |

  K2 
−1 
 
(k)
E /N M 1 (12)
0.4 P e = Q   ∑ b (1 ) o +  
  k = 2 3 E b No 2 E b(1 ) N o  
 
0.2 N=8

where Eb(1)/No is SINR for user of interest #1, Eb(k) /No is

the same for interfering users. K2 is the number of user
0
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 affected main lobe.
AOA (deg)
In adaptive array smart antenna with MUSIC and RLS
algorithm the side lobe level γ is reduced to insignificant
Figure 7 .Adaptive beam forming using RLS algorithm. magnitude. Now using MATLAB the equations (10) and
(11 ) and (12) are simulated and simulation results are
presented in Fig.8 where Pe is a function of Eb/No and
Fig.7 shows the eight element adaptive array smart antenna
number of active users is 100 in service area . As follows
with MUSIC and RLS algorithm which puts the main beam
in the DOA of 25o of desired signal and nulls in the from Fig.8 for fixing level of Pe for 3G cellular mobile
direction of interfering signals at - 45o and 45o i.e. this array communication system acceptable Pe=10-4, the required
Eb/No by the application of SBSA, Kaiser Bessel windowed
22 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

SBSA and adaptive array with MUSIC and RLS are Multibeam Adaptive Base Station Antennas for Cellular
determined and capacity improvements of 3G cellular Land Mobile Radio Systems”, IEEE Transactions on
system using (1) are found and as follows from the Fig.8 the Vehicular Technology, vol.3, No.1 pp 56-67, February
use of adaptive array 1990
[6] Ch. Shanti , Dr. Subbaiah, Dr. K. Reddy, “ Smart
Antenna Algorithms for W-CDMA Mobile
smart antenna in 3G cellular system provides maximum Communication systems”, IJCNS , International
capacity improvement. Journal of Computer Science and Network Society vol.8
No.7 July 2008.
0
10
[7] A. Kundu, S. Ghosh, B. Sarkar A. Chakrabarty, “
120 deg. sect. Antenna Smart Antenna Based DS-DMA System Design for 3rd
Boxcar SBSA generation Mobile Communication”, Progress in
-2 Kaiser-Bessel SBSA Electromagnetic Research M, Vol.4, 67-80, 2008
10
Adaptive array
[8] Lal C. Godara, “Application of Antenna Arrays to
Mobile Communications, Part-II: Beam forming and
-4
10
Directional of Arrival”, Proceedings of the IEEE vol.85
No.88 pp. 1195-1245 August 1997.
[9] David Cabrera, Joel Rodriguez, “Switched Beam Smart
Pe

-6 Antenna BER Performance Analysis for 3G CDMA

10
Cellular communication”, May 2008
[10] N. Odeh, S. Katun and A. Ismail, “ Dynamic Code
-8 Assignment Algorithm for CDMA with Smart Antenna
10
System”, Proceedings IEEE, International Conference
on communication, 14-17, May 2007, Penang Malaysia
-10
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
SINR dB Author’s Profile
Figure 8. BER Performance of SBSA and Adaptive array T. B. Lavate received M.E.(Microwaves) degree in E & T/C in
smart antenna 2002 from pune university. He is pursuing his Ph.D in college of
engineering Pune-5. In his credit, he has about eleven papers
published in international/national repute conferences and
6. Conclusion journals. He is member of IETE/ISTE.
The array pattern of eight element SBSA has side lobe level
V. K. Kokate received M.E.(Microwave) from pune university.
-16 dB and when used in 3G CDMA system improves the
Having over 35 years experience in teaching and administrative,
capacity by 16.8% compared to sectorized antennas. But the his fields of interest are Radar, Microwaves, and Antennas. In his
Kaiser-Bessel weight function with SBSA provides side lobe credit, he has about forty papers published in national /
suppression to -33dB with minimum increase in main lobe international repute conferences and journals. He is member of
beam width (∆=1.2) and when it is used in 3G CDMA ISTE / IEEE.
cellular mobile wireless system, it improves the system
capacity by 26 %. Further the adaptive array smart antennas Dr. M. S. Sutaone received his B.E. in electronics from
Vshveswarayya National Institute of Technology (VNIT)
with MUSIC DOA estimation algorithm & RLS beam
Nagpur in 1985. He did his M.E. in E & T/C from college of
forming algorithm rejects the interfering signal completely.
engineering Pune-5 in 1995and Ph.D. in 2006 from Pune
When such adaptive array smart antenna is employed in 3G University. He is currently professor and HOD in E & T/C
CDMA wireless cellular mobile system it improves the department of college of engineering Pune-5. His areas of
system capacity by 34 %. interest are signal processing , Advanced communication
systems and communication networks. In his credit, he has
References about twenty five papers published in international/ national
repute conferences and journals. He is member of ISTE
[1] T. S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications: Principles /IETE.
and Practice”, 2005 ,Prentice Hall .
[2] J. C. Liberti, T. S. Rappaport, “Smart Antennas for
Wireless Communications: IS-95 and 3G CDMA
Applications”, 1999,Prentice Hall
[3] Ahmed EI Zooghby, “Smart Antenna Engineering”,
Artech House, 2005
[4] Frank Gross, “Smart Antennas for Wireless
Communication with MATLAB”, McGraw-Hill, NY,
2005
[5] Simon C. Swales, David J. Edwards and Joseph
P.McGeehan, “ The performance Enhancement of
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 23
Accumulation Point Model: Towards Robust and
Reliable Deployment
Yong Lin, Zhengyi Le and Fillia Makedon
416 Yates Street, P.O. Box 19015, Arlington, TX 76019, USA
ylin, zyle, makedon@uta.edu
Abstract: The reliability and fault tolerance problems are very
important for long strip barrier coverage sensor networks. The
Random Point Model and the Independent Belt Model are
prevalent deployment models for barrier coverage. In this paper,
we propose an economical, robust and reliable deployment
model, called Accumulation Point Model (APM). Given the
same length of barrier and the same nodes activation rate, the
number of sensors required by APM is only 1/[t(1 -θ)] times
that of random point model. Our analysis indicates that the
network failure probability of the APM is lower than the other
two models. In our network simulation, the network lifetime of
APM is much higher than random point model. Compared with
independent belt model, APM exhibits good failure tolerance.
This paper also presents a light weight accumulation point
protocol for building the network and scheduling the sleep cycle.
This is a localized algorithm for k-barrier coverage.
Keywords: sensor networks, barrier coverage, fault tolerance,
sensor deployment.
1. Introduction
Barrier coverage sensor networks are deployed in a belt
region to detect traversing targets. When barrier areas are
very long, the deployment problem becomes more
prominent. Sensor networks are usually composed of
thousands of relatively economical, energy constraint and
hence failure-prone sensors [9][10]. How to guarantee the
reliability and robustness is an important issue of sensor
network quality of service (QoS). Most of the applications
require the sensor network to be reliable and robust. For
example, for a barrier sensor network deployed in a military
field or a country border, it is highly expected that the belt
be strong enough and resist to failure.
Current solutions for the reliability and fault tolerance
ability of sensor networks focus on increasing the node
density [10]. This idea is originated from area coverage. In a
large plane, it is hard to deploy sensors precisely in a
regular geometric shape due to the deployment cost. So the
stochastic deployment is often used instead of deterministic
deployment. Random point model is a kind of stochastic
deployment. It works on the following assumptions: (1)
when the node density reaches a threshold, the coverage and
connection can be guaranteed, and (2) if we increase the
node density further, the sensor network can be robust and
failure proof. Since barrier coverage considers a narrow
strip region, it is different from area coverage.
Node failure is a major concern in barrier coverage. In
area coverage, if a node fails, there might be a blind spot,
but the entire system can still work. However, in barrier
coverage, the field of interest (FoI) is a long strip area, if a
sensor node fails, it is possible to disconnect the
communication link and break the monitoring belt. This
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
will be a serious malfunction.
In this paper, we address the reliability and fault tolerance
problems of barrier coverage by proposing an asymptotic
regular deployment model, called Accumulation Point
Model (APM). Barrier coverage considers a long strip
region, not a plane like area coverage. This makes the
deterministic deployment possible. Summarized from
previous literature, there are two models to deploy sensors in
barrier coverage: Random Point Model (RPM) and
Independent Belt Model (IBM). RPM is to deploy sensors
randomly in FoI. While IBM is a regular deployment model,
it separates the belts into two sets, the working belts set and
the backup belts set. With the same length of barrier and the
same node activation rate, our APM requires 1/[t(1-θ)]
times the number of sensors compared with RPM, where θ is
the overlap factor denoting the overlap degree, t is used by
activation rate k/t for k-barrier coverage. Our theoretical
analysis proves the failure probabilities of RPM and IBM
are higher than APM. The simulation results indicate that
the network lifetime of APM is the best of the three
deployment models. If we use poor quality sensors, the
network lifetime decreases a little in APM. RPM is also
robust for poor quality sensors, but its absolute network
lifetime is only 1/4 times that of APM. IBM works well for
good quality sensors, but it gets extremely bad when we use
sensors that have a high failure rate. APM has a high
performance to price ratio compared with other models.
The concepts of barrier belt and barrier graph are
introduced to make a precise description of barrier coverage.
In a barrier graph, the sensor nodes are divided into a
barrier brother set and a barrier neighbor set. The barrier
graph of APM is a result of three types of eliminations of the
redundant nodes. This can be seen as an application of the
relative neighborhood graph (RNG(G)) [4] on barrier
coverage. APM is made up of multiple accumulation points,
k
denoted as At . Every accumulation point contains t
sensors, k of them active. By this structure, we build strong
k-barrier coverage [11].
2. Related Work
The concept of barrier coverage first appeared in [7]. Kumar
et al. formalized the concept of k-barrier coverage as a
barrier of sensors, such that it can guarantee that any
penetration be detected by at least k distinct sensors [11].
Wang et al. consider the relationship of coverage and
connection [14], if RC >2RS, where RC is the communication
radius and RS is the sensing radius, k-coverage means k-
connection. In APM, we demonstrate that in k
At
accumulation belt, the connection degree is at least 3k-1.
A series of research has been taken to schedule sleep and
24
maximize the lifetime of sensor network. Most of them were
for area coverage, such as [6] and [8]. Only two algorithms
are proposed for barrier coverage [13]. It uses IBM and
RPM to address the sleep-wakeup problem for homogeneous
lifetime and heterogeneous lifetime.
Another important metric of sensor network in barrier
coverage is the fault tolerance. Many papers propose the use
high sensor density to provide redundancy [1][5][10][15]. It
is generally believed that sensors are relatively economical
and unreliable devices, therefore high density is required to
provide a reasonable level of fault tolerance. This high
density assumption belongs to RPM for both area coverage
and barrier coverage.
For barrier coverage, the centralized algorithms are
introduced in [11][13]. An L-zone localized algorithm is
provided in [2] for k-barrier coverage. Our APM uses a
localized algorithm based on accumulation points, a subset
of sensor nodes that locate closely together.
Weak barrier coverage and strong barrier coverage were
introduced in [11]. Weak barrier coverage assumes only
when the intruder does not know the traverse path will it be
detected with high probability. The QoS improvements are
discussed in [3][12]. In this paper, we assume the quality is
important and all of the assumptions are based on strong
barrier coverage.
3. Preliminary and Network Model
3.3 Barrier Belt and Barrier Graph
Assume the coverage of sensor is a unit disk with sensing
radius R. A Coverage Graph G = (V,E) indicates that for
the active sensor set V , for ∀u, v V , if the distance duv
<2R, then there is an edge euv E. There are two virtual
nodes s, t V, corresponding to the left and right
boundaries. Barrier Space is the field of interest for barrier
coverage. It is a long strip physical region with arbitrary
shape and deployed by the barrier sensors.
From above introduction, we can summarize the
properties of the barrier belt as
1) There is no loop in a barrier belt;
2) It is possible that there are crossing edges of two
distinct barrier belts in a barrier graph;
3) Except for the virtual terminal nodes {s, t}, there is no
shared node for two distinct barrier belts in a barrier graph.
Theorem 1. A sensor network barrier space is k-barrier
coverage iff ∃k barrier belts in the barrier graph.
Proof: If each crossing path is covered by k distinct sensors,
then it must be that these k distinct sensors belong to k not
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
intersected barrier belts.
3.4 Redundancy Elimination and Minimum Barrier
Belts
A barrier graph contains a set of sensors that are active for
barrier coverage. But what is more meaningful is a
minimum set of sensors to meet the QoS. The redundant
sensors need to be eliminated or scheduled to sleep.
To change a coverage graph to a barrier graph, first we have
to eliminate the round trip edges. We call this kind of
elimination to be Type I Elimination. There is a very special
kind of redundant node - the single edge node. If a node (not
including the virtual terminal nodes) has only one edge in a
coverage graph, then it has to be eliminated in a barrier
graph. This is called Type II Elimination. The result of type
I, II eliminations is a barrier belt. However, this barrier belt
is not the minimum barrier belt. So we need Type III
Elimination, by which we eliminate the redundant nodes, so
that we can use the minimum number of nodes to meet QoS
requirement. We get two reasons for type III elimination:
first, we can schedule the redundant nodes to sleep, so that if
an active node depletes, a redundant node can take its place;
second, the redundant nodes are also possible to be utilized
by other barrier belts.
Figure 1. Redundancy Elimination and Minimum Barrier
Graph
Let us take Fig. 1 as an example, to show more details about
three types of elimination. First we get a coverage graph
from the coverage relationship of sensors. The edge set {eaf,
efb, ecd} ⊂ V . But as for a barrier graph, every node can
only has two edges to support the barrier. So in this barrier
graph, edges {eaf , efb, ecd} are eliminated. However, this is
only one barrier graph. There are several other barrier
graphs for this example; this leaves as an exercise for
readers. For this barrier graph Gb = (Vb,Eb). Since {eab, ecd}
are edges of the coverage graph, e and f are redundant
nodes. After the elimination of e, f, we get the final
minimum barrier graph. If a node is eliminated from the
minimum barrier graph, and it is not utilized by other
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 25
barrier belts, then it is a Backup Node in the belt. A backup
node keeps sleeping until one of the working nodes depletes
its energy or fails. A backup node is also called a sponsor
node. A Backup Belt is a redundant barrier belt in the
barrier region. It keeps sleep until one of the working belts
depletes or fails. If the minimum number of active sensors
that is required by a certain QoS is denoted as nk, the total
number of sensors deployed in the field of interest denoted
as nt, then the Activation Rate ρa = nk/nt. If a k-barrier
coverage degrades the QoS: leaving a barrier hole, or
breaking the communication link, such that the whole
system is no more k-barrier monitored. Suppose we cannot
find a backup node to take the place of a failed node, nor
can we find a backup belt to work instead of the failed
barrier belt, then we consider the k-Barrier Coverage Fails.
3.3.1 Overlap Factor and Minimum Pass-through
Distance
For ∀ edge ebc ∈ Vb in Gb, the overlap factor θ reflects a
overlap degree of the sensing area for node b and c. If we
link b, c by line bc (see Fig. 2). The intersection points for
bc with the circle of the sensing disk of b, c are A,B. Then
the overlap factor θ is
The θ cannot be 1, or else it conforms to type III
elimination. In barrier coverage, an important metric for
detection quality for an unauthorized traverse is the
Minimum Pass-through Path, and its distance is the
Minimum Pass-through Distance. In the minimum pass-
through path, a moving target has the least possibility to be
detected by sensors. So, the minimum pass-through distance
is an important QoS metric for a whole barrier.
Lemma 1. The minimum pass-through path for barrier
coverage is the intersection line of the sensing disks of
neighbor nodes.
Proof: From Fig. 2, we know the intersection line of the
sensing disks for b, c is CD. Suppose E is a point outside
both intersection regions of the sensing disks, and EN is
vertical
The area of CAF is A CAF = (2Rsin α)(2Rcos α)/2 =R2 sin
(π − 2α). The same, A EAF = R2 sin (π − 2β). Since α > β,
we get A CAF < A EAF . Also, A CAF =R ・ dCM, and A CAF
= R ・ dEN, so we have dEN > dCM. Then it is easy to know
that dCD = 2dCM is the minimum path to pass-through the
circle.
Theorem 2. For a barrier coverage system with an overlap
factor θ for any neighbor sensors, the minimum pass-
through
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 2. Overlap Factor and Minimum Pass-through
Distance
4. Categories of Barrier Deployment
Deterministic deployment is hard for area coverage due to a
large plane area. So, stochastic deployment is often used in
area coverage. While the barrier coverage concerns a long
strip region, we need to reconsider the deterministic and
stochastic deployment in barrier space. In this chapter, we
summarize two existing deployment models of barrier
coverage, and we propose a new model - the accumulation
point model. Let us discuss these models in more detail.
4.1 Random Point Model
Random Point Model (RPM) for barrier coverage is a sensor
network whose nodes distributed along a belt region
randomly, according to uniform distribution or Poisson
distribution, such that the sensors can be deployed equally at
any location of the belt region. In RPM, nodes are often
denoted by the node density λ. The model is based on the
assumption that the deployment of sensors in deterministic
geometric shape in a large area is not practical due to the
large amount of deployment cost. So we can deploy sensors
in FoI randomly. Given enough amount of sensors, and if
we do not care how many times we deploy the sensors, then
λ is expected to be the same in each point of FoI. When λ
reaches a certain threshold value, both coverage and
connection can be guaranteed. In RPM, we need to find out
the minimum set of sensors to support the whole system,
and put the other sensors sleep. When the coverage and
connection cannot meet, some of the sleeping sensors will
wake up to join the minimum serving set.
Theorem 3. For a k-barrier coverage system built in
random point model with an activation rate ρa = k/t, denote
as Rtk . There are nr sensors deployed in the barrier space
with width 2R, where R is the sensing radius of a sensor.
Then total barrier length lr ≤ 2Rnr/t2.
Proof: In RPM, if the density is high enough, then
sensors are deployed in the barrier space according to
uniform distribution. Each sensor will be deployed in a
square domain with edge
In the barrier space, to support the k-barrier coverage with
activation rate ρa = k/t, we need to have
So we get lr ≤ 2Rnr/t2.
If the length lr = l is given, then we know that the number
of sensors required to support k-barrier coverage under RPM
is
26
Figure 3. Barrier Coverage Sensor Network Deployment
Models
Figure 4. Barrier Graph and Coverage Graph
If a k-barrier coverage system is build under random
point model, there are nr sensors deployed in the barrier
space with width 2R, where R is the sensing radius of a
sensor. Denote the activation rate as ρa = k/t, then the
overlap factor θr for the neighbor nodes is
From Equ. (3), we get θr ≥ 1 − 1/t. When t > 2, θr > 1/2, we
know it will result in a type III elimination to schedule a
neighbor node to sleep.
4.2 Independent Belt Model
Independent Belt Model (IBM) for barrier coverage is a
sensor network whose nodes distributed along a belt region
according to several independent barrier belts: some are
active belts, in which all of the nodes are working, and
others are backup belts, in which all of the nodes are
sleeping. The assumption for IBM is that for the barrier
coverage system, we can deploy sensors belt by belt, and
make these belts work independently. Here we assume the
system has already been optimized by three types of
elimination. Each active belt uses the minimum number of
sensors.
4.3 Accumulation Point Model
4.3.1 Description of Model
Definition 3. Accumulation Point An accumulation point is
a subgraph Ga = (Va, Ea) of a sensor network barrier graph
Gb = (Vb,Eb), such that for ∀u Va, ∃v ∈ Vb such that
the distance duv < R iff v Va and the edge e uv ∉ E a .
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Definition 4. Neighbor Point If Ga1, Ga2 are two
accumulation points of a sensor network barrier graph Gb =
(Vb,Eb), for ∀u Ga1, ∃v Ga2 such that euv Gb, then
we say Ga2 is a neighbor point of Ga1.
For a pair of neighbor points Ga1, Ga2, for ∀ node a
Ga1, node b Ga2, a is the Neighbor Node of b and vice
versa. For ∀a, c Ga1, c is the Brother Node of a and vice
versa. For each node, the barrier neighbors are separated
into barrier left neighbors and barrier right neighbors
according to local address information.
Accumulation Point Model (APM) for barrier coverage is
a sensor network whose nodes distributed along a belt
region according to a set of accumulation points {Ga1, Ga2,
..., Gan}. For any node b not in {s, t}, b Gai, i [1, n]. For
a long strip region, actually it is easier to deploy sensors in a
series of accumulation points rather than to deploy them
randomly.
Lemma 2. For any accumulation point Ga = (Va,Ea) in a
barrier graph Gb = (Vb, Eb), if node A, B Ga, A and B
cannot be within a same barrier belt.
Proof: Use type III elimination if A, B are in the same
belt.
Lemma 3. For a long strip barrier coverage system that has
an arbitrary shape, if it is based on accumulation point
model, for any accumulation point Ga, it has and only has
two neighbors.
Proof: Use type I, II elimination for more neighbors.
Theorem 4. If a barrier coverage system is based on accu-
A barrier belt has two virtual terminal nodes, so the number
of vertices equals to the number of accumulation points plus
2, the number of edges equals to the number of
accumulation points plus 1.
4.3.2 Accumulation Degree and Accumulation
Deduction
Definition 5. Accumulation Degree An accumulation
degree is a metric that indicates how well the nodes are
accumulated. We denote it as Akt , 0 ≤ k ≤ t. Here t is the
total number of nodes in an accumulation point, and k is the
number of active nodes required to meet the quality of
service.
Specifically, A00 =ø, i.e. there is no sensor at all. A0t
indicates that this accumulation point is a backup point. If
we use A0t to describe a barrier belt, then it will be a backup
belt.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 27
Observation 1. For a barrier coverage system in a barrier
space, if it is constructed by n Akt accumulation points, then
the activation rate ρa = k/t.
Definition 6. Accumulation Deduction An accumulation
deduction is a decomposition and combination of an
accumulation degree, to make a conversion of a high
accumulation degree to lower accumulation degrees and
vice versa, denoted as
Let us look at an example: A35 = A23 + A12 = 3 A11 + 2 A10 .
Here we know for a 3-barrier coverage system, we can use
3 Observation 2. For barrier coverage in k A11 + ( t − k ) A10
A5 APM in one barrier space. If we put them into two
barrier spaces, we can use A23 and A12 APM. We can also
use the IBM 3 A11 + 2 A10 . Here we have 3 A11 working belts,
and 2 A10 backup belts.
4.3.3 Analysis of Barrier Length
The barrier length of IBM and APM follows the same
schema.
Theorem 5. For a barrier coverage deployed in Akt
accumulation point model, the total number of nodes na =
t・n, the overlap factor θ, then the barrier coverage length
la = 2R(1−θ)n.
If the length is given, la = l, then the number of nodes na
required is
From Equ. (3), it is easy to know that under the same
activation rate ρa = k/t, the same barrier length, the cost of
the RPM compared with the APM is
4.3.4 Permitted Deployment Area
Figure 5. Permitted Deploy Region for Accumulation Point
Model
Theorem 6. For a barrier coverage deployed in Akt
Accumulation point model with overlap factor θ, a
permitted deploy region is a cycle with radius r,
Proof: First, it is easy to know if θ ≥ 1/2, then from type
III elimination there will be a node be eliminated, so it must
be θ < 1/2. From Fig. 5, AB = 2Rθ. We know the minimal
distance between each pair of points in the neighboring
dotted
circles is dCD, from geometry dCD = 2R(1 − θ) − 2r ≥ R. And
the maximal distance is dEF = 2R(1 − θ) + 2r ≤ 2R. So, we
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
have r = min(Rθ, R(1 − 2θ)/2). Let Rθ ≥ R(1 − 2θ)/2,we
know the permitted deploy region is a circle with radius r,
then we can get Equ. (6).
5. Comparison of the Barrier models
5.1 Connection Degree
The connection degree for a sensor node A is the number of
active nodes within the communication distance of A. Here,
the node we are referring is a normal node, not including
the virtual terminal nodes. We assume the communication
distance Rc ≥2R.
independent belt model, the connection degree is at least 2.
Observation 3. For barrier coverage in Akt accumulation
point model, the connection degree is at least 3k − 1.
As for each internal node A, it has two sets of neighbors,
each set has k active nodes. Also A has k – 1 brothers.
Observation 4. For barrier coverage in Rtk random point
model, the connection degree is at least πk2/2.
Each node lies in a square (Equ. (2)). There are at least t
nodes in each cross path, k of them active. The nodes with
least connection degree are the border nodes. We have
(2R)2/2 (2R)2 = n/k2. So, we get n = πk2/2.
5.2 Network Lifetime
If we do not concern the different roles of sensors, we can
assume all sensors’ lifetime is independent and follow the
same distribution. Considering a sensor’s lifetime is mainly
determined by battery, we can use the normal distribution to
interpret the lifetime of a sensor node, with random variable
X to indicate a sensor node’s lifetime, the mean lifetime as
μ and variance σ, X ∼ N(μ, σ2).
The cumulative distribution function (cdf) is as follows:
We assume there is no node waste. The sleep state of a
node also need to consume a little energy, so when a
working node depletes, a backup node can only work for a
time interval of (1− )μ. So the lifetime of Akt follows a
normal distribution of
This can be rewritten as
Denote random variable Y as an accumulation point’s
lifetime, then
Next let’s compute the lifetime of a whole belt of Akt .
28
Assume there are n accumulation points in the belt. Denote
random variable Z as the lifetime of the belt. Then Fap,z(z)
={ the probability that Z ≤ z} = P(Z ≤ z). Denote py as the
probability of an accumulation point’s lifetime. Then
Theorem 7. The lifetime for a barrier in accumulation point
model is t (μ − Zασ)/k, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. Zα is the z-value in
standard normal cumulative probability table.
Proof: Let us analyze the lower bound and upper bound
for the lifetime. Let P(Z ≥ z) = 1 − Fzp(z) = 1 − .
5.3 Network Failure
5.3.1 Independent Belt Model
There are t belts, k of them are active belts, and t −k of them
are backup belts, denoted as k A11 + ( t − k ) A10 . To ease the
analysis, in this evaluation method, we assume backup belts
are the same with working belts, i.e. they are active,
although they do not really work; if one of them fails, we put
it into the statistic. The output of this evaluation is a failure
probability and network living time. We do not use the
network living time as a real network lifetime, but the
failure probability we calculated here is a good
approximation of the real failure probability. Denote a
random variable Y as living time of a belt in IBM, and Fib(y)
= {the probability that Y ≤y} = P(Y ≤y). Denote px to be the
probability of living time for a node. Then
As for the whole barrier system of IBM, there are k active
belt, and t−k backup belt. We denote random variable Z as
the living time of the whole barrier system. Denote Fib,z(z) =
{the failure probability for Z ≤ z} = P(Z ≤ z). and py to be
the probability of living time for a belt, defined in Equ. (11).
Then
5.3.2 Accumulation Point Model
To compute the failure probability, we need to know the
living time of an accumulation point Akt . We use a random
variable Y to denote the living time of Akt . Then Fap,y(y) =
{the probability that Y ≤y}=P(Y ≤y). We denote px to be the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
probability of a node’s lifetime defined in Equ. (7). Then
Assume there are n accumulation points in a belt, and
denote a random variable Z as living time for a belt. Then
Fap,z(z) = { the probability that Z ≤ z} = P(Z ≤ z). Denote py
to be the probability of an accumulation point’s living time
defined in Equ. (13). Then
5.3.3 Random Point Model
A belt with an active rate ρa =k/t is denoted as Rtk .
Compared with APM, which has n nodes in a belt, from
Equ. (5), RPM has nr = t(1−θ)n nodes in a belt. So we can
use the living time of 2 Akt // 22 APM barrier belts as an
approximation for the living time of RPM. We use a random
variable Z to denote the living time of 2 Akt // 22 . Then Frp,z(z)
= {the probability that Z ≤ z} = P(Z ≤ z). Denote pz as the
probability of Akt // 22 belt’s living time. There are t(1 − θ)n
nodes in a barrier belt. Then
6. Building the Accumulation Point k-Barrier
Coverage
If a barrier space is deployed with sensors in APM, we can
implement the building and scheduling algorithms locally
using an accumulation point protocol.
6.1 Building Process
Figure 6. After message “respond barrier edge”, the nodes
B,C become new heads
Assume the localization of each node is known, using GPS
or other localization algorithms. After the sensors are
deployed in the barrier space, each sensor denoted as A,
initializes a neighbor finding process. A broadcasts an “I am
here” message, including its location, sensor id, current
status (ready, work or sleep). From the definition of
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 29
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

accumulation point, we know that the neighbors and
brothers of A can receive the broadcasting message. After a
node B received A’s “I am here” message, B can compute
the distance dAB,
if dAB < R then
A is B’s brother;
else {dAB < 2R}
A is B’s neighbor;
else
discard this message;
end if
After this process, each sensor will construct a list of
brothers. Therefore, a sensor can learn the value of t in Akt
by itself. After the node find out the value of t, it will
broadcast a message “my accumulation point”, including the
list of its brothers. Usually, a neighbor node can receive the
“my accumulation point” message 2t times from its
neighbors. It simply separates the neighbors to be the left
neighbors and right neighbors. This finishes our neighbor
finding process.
When the system begins the building process, a node can
be chosen randomly to be the Seed. The seed is informed the
value of k in Akt . The seed selects k −1 brothers from its
brother list to be the Heads of the barrier belts. After a node
A is appointed to be the head, it backoffs a random time,
then broadcasts a “request barrier edge” message, if it can
get the responses from left and right neighbors in a waiting
time, we get to the next step, or else A will backoff another
time.
For the first free left neighbor B that is waiting for
command, if it heard A’s “request barrier edge” message,
and the first free right neighbor to be C. The B,C will send
A a “respond barrier edge” message. A finds out that B,C
are the first left and right neighbors to respond, it will reply
an “accept” message to B,C respectively. Then B,C become
A’s barrier neighbors. After this process, B,C become the
new barrier heads (see Fig. 6), and each of them will repeat
the above steps. But this time, B,C only need to receive one
“respond barrier edge” message before it hands off the role
of barrier head. After a node finds that there are k brothers
become the barrier heads, and it is still free, then it will be
scheduled to sleep.
6.2 Sleep Schedule
There is no need for an accumulation belt to use belt
switch. Even if multiple barrier spaces are considered, e.g.
( A23 , A24 , A12 ). First, for this system, we can use A59 to
else {after a period pw, A cannot receive k messages
back}
A invokes the barrier building process;
end if
In the above algorithm, we use a wake-up query scheme
instead of an activate scheme. The activate scheme is
unpractical considering the current technique [8]; if a sensor
went to sleep, we cannot wake it up unless the sensor wake
up itself by a short period. In the wake up scheme, it is
possible that during the sleep period of a node, there is a
brother node depleted. And so it is possible to exist an
interval that the belt degrades to (k − 1)-barrier coverage.
Let’s denote the period from a node begin to report
depleting to the time it totally depletes as pd. If we set the
fixed sleep period ps = 2pd, and the random sleep delay dr
[0, 2pd], then even in the worst case, that is, t degrades to
k+1, only one brother node left as a backup node, the
maximum possible degraded monitoring interval max(ps +
dr − 2pd) = 2pd.
If we decrease ps, the maximum possible degraded
monitoring interval max(ps + dr − 2pd) can be decreased. For
k > 1, the wake-up time is not a problem for APM, since
node switch in each accumulation point is done locally, even
if one belt degrades a little time due to node switch, the
other belts are still working. While in IBM, unless we
assume nodes can be activated, or we use the wake-up
scheme and set dr to be very small, which will lose the
benefit of saving energy when sleeping, the barrier domino
phenomenon will be explicit during belt switch. RPM does
not need belt switch either, so its wake up scheme is the
same as that of APM.
Figure 7. Network Lifetime for Barrier Coverage
Deployment Models

implement it. If we have to use ( A23 , A24 , A12 ), since in each

accumulation point, we have already set up backup nodes,
we still do not need belt switch. Instead, we need node
switch to change the role of nodes in an accumulation point.
The following is a sleep scheduling algorithm:
A redundant node A sleeps for ps plus a random delay dr;
A wakes up and broadcasts a ”query status” message;
Any working brothers of A response a ”status
information”; if one message indicates that the node is
depleting then A
Figure 8. Network Energy Residue Rate for Barrier
invokes the node switch process;
Coverage Deployment Models
30
7. Simulation Results
To evaluate our analysis, we build a simulation platform
based on C++. We set the sensing radius R = 10m,
communication radius Rc = 30m. Sensors are deployed in a
belt region of 3000m, and for RPM and APM, the width of
the belt is 20m. As for IBM, the width is not fixed in order
to make sure different belt independent. The k is fixed to 3,
and t is a variable. The overlap factor θ = 0.1. The sensors’
mean lifetime μ = 400, the variance of lifetime σ = 20. We
deploy different number of sensors, so that the node
densities are different. Here the network energy residue rate
ρr is a metric to measure how much energy remained when
the barrier fails,
Fig. 7 indicates RPM needs more sensors to maintain a
certain network lifetime. When the number of sensors is
lower than 1800, the network lifetime of RPM is zero. This
is because RPM needs a high node density to work. After the
density reaches a threshold, RPM’s lifetime increase fast,
but it is still lower than IBM, while IBM’s network lifetime
is lower than APM. In this experiment, we optimize the
backup nodes and backup belts to sleep in order to save
energy and maximize the network lifetime. That is why the
network lifetime can be 3000 days for APM, nearly 9 years.
Figure 9. The Effect of Sensor Quality on Network Lifetime
The network energy residue rate in Fig. 8 is an indicator
for the performance to price ratio. Low network residue rate
indicates a High Performance to Price Ratio. APM’s residue
ratio is the least, which means its waste is the least of all
models. RPM has a higher residue rate than 50%. This
means when the network cannot meet the quality
requirement, only less than half of the whole energy
consumed. The graph also indicates that when more sensors
are deployed, the residue rate decreases as a tendency.
In the next experiment, we need to find out the network
failure resistance ability of different deployment models. We
fix the number of sensors to be 3000, and change the sensor
lifetime variance σ from 15 to 130 days, in order to indicate
we use sensors with poor quality. All the other parameters
are the same as the first experiment. We find out that IBM’s
lifetime deteriorates fast from 1800 to 0, even though the
number of sensors remains the same (Fig. 9). As for RPM,
although its lifetime is not long, only 390 at the beginning,
it does not decrease so sharply as that of IBM. APM’
lifetime is the longest. It only decreases a little when using
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
the low quality sensors. This indicates APM is a very robust
and reliable structure. Even if the quality of the sensors are
not good and vulnerable to all kinds of failures, we can still
maintain a good network service if we deploy sensors
according to APM.
8. Conclusions
Compared with existing models of barrier coverage -
Random Point Model and Independent Belt Model, the
Accumulation Point Model is an economical, robust and
reliable structure: its cost is the least, and the failure
resistance is the best. The Accumulation Point Model is a
long lived deployment model for sensor networks. Although
originated from barrier coverage, it is possible to use
Accumulation Point Model for area coverage. If we deploy
the accumulation points instead of single sensors, the fault
tolerance and network lifetime will definitely increase. This
will be more helpful than simply increase the node density.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported in part by the National Science
Foundation under award number CT-ISG 0716261.
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[11] M. E. Posner S. Kumar, T. H. Lai and P. Sinha.
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pages 28–39, NY, USA, 2003.
[13] Jerry Zhao and Ramesh Govindan. Understanding
packet delivery performance in dense wireless sensor
networks. In Proceedings of SenSys, pages 1–13, NY,
USA, 2003.

Author’s Profile

Yong (Yates) Lin is a Ph.D.

candidate in University of Texas at
Arlington. He received his M.S.
degree in Computer Science at
University of Science and Technology
of China in 2003. His research
interests include sensor network,
pervasive computing, robotics,
artificial intelligence, machine
learning.

Zhengyi Le received my Ph.D.

majored in Computer Science at
Dartmouth College. She received my
B.S. degree in Computer Science at
Nanjing University, China. Her
research interests include computer
security & privacy, recommendation
systems, collaboration systems, P2P
and sensor networks.

Fillia Makedon received a doctorate

in computer science from
Northwestern University in 1982.
She joined the faculty of the
University of Texas at Arlington in
2006. Between 1991 and 2006 she
has been a professor of Computer
Science and Chair of the Master
Program at Dartmouth College, in
the Department of Computer Science.
32 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Object Handling Using Artificial Tactile Affordance

System
Naoto Hoshikawa1, Masahiro Ohka1 and Hanafiah Bin Yussof2
1
Nagoya University, School of Information Science,
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
ohka@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, 40450, Malaysia

changed due to the deformation and the transformation

Abstract: If the theory of affordance is applied to robots,
performing the entire process of recognition and planning is not caused by the robot behavior, and the result is sent as tactile
always required in its computer. Since a robot’s tactile sensing information to the ATAS inlet by a feedback loop.
is important to perform any task, we focus on it and introduce a In ATAS, a key point is producing a set of rules in
new concept called the artificial tactile affordance system which the sensor input patterns and behavior output patterns
(ATAS). Its basic idea is the implementation of a recurrent are if-clauses and then-clauses, respectively. This ATAS
mechanism in which the information obtained from the object
concept resembles an expert system in artificial intelligence
and the behavior performed by the robot induce subsequent
behavior. A set of rules is expressed as a table composed of
[4] in which the matching degree between the fact selected
sensor input columns and behavior output columns, and table by a fact database and the if-clause is evaluated; if the fact
rows correspond to rules; since each rule is transformed to a matches the if-clause, then the then-clause is displayed as a
string of 0 and 1, we treat a long string composed of rule strings temporal conclusion, and the then-clause is simultaneously
as a gene to obtain an optimum gene that adapts to its added to the fact database. The biggest difference between
environment using a genetic algorithm (GA). We propose the ATAS and an expert system is that in the latter, the fact
Evolutionary Behavior Table System (EBTS) that uses a GA to
database is possessed inside a computer, but in ATAS the
acquire the autonomous cooperation behavior of multi-finger
robotic hands. In validation experiments, we assume that a whole environment is treated as the fact database.
robot grasps and transfers an object with one or two hands, each
of which is equipped with two articulated fingers. In
computational experiments, the robot grasped the object and
transferred it to a goal. This task was performed more efficiently
in the one-hand case than in the two-hand case. Although
redundant grasping induces stability, it decreases the efficiency
of grasping and transferring.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, Affordance, Genetic
Algorithm, Tactile sensing.

1. Introduction
Tactile sensation possesses a salient characteristic
among the five senses because it does not occur without
interaction between sensory organs and objects. Touching an
object induces both deformation of it and the sensory organ.
Since the tactile sensing of robots is crucial to perform any
task [1], we previously focused on tactile sensing and
introduced a new concept called the artificial tactile
affordance system (ATAS) [2], whose basic idea is an
extension of the theory of affordance [3].
ATAS is based on a recurrent mechanism in which the
information obtained from the object and the behavior
performed by the robot itself induce subsequent behavior. To
explain ATAS, we introduce its schematic block diagram
(Fig. 1). When the tactile information obtained from the
environment is input into ATAS, a command for robot
behavior is output, and the robot actuators are controlled
based on that command. After that, the environment is
Figure 1. Artificial tactile affordance system (ATAS)
Since ATAS is categorized as a behavior-based control
system, it more closely resembles subsumption architecture
(SSA) [5][6]. Although in SSA each connection between
sensors and actuators has priority, in ATAS no modules
have priority, and they are arranged in parallel form. In
each module, we can include a relative complex procedure if
needed. Therefore ATAS is suited to such rather complex
tasks as assembly and walking on uneven loads.
In a previous paper [2], we implemented ATAS based on
the following two methodologies. In methodology 1, ATAS
is composed of several program modules, and a module is
selected from the set of modules based on sensor
information to perform a specified behavior intended by a
designer. In methodology 2, a set of rules is expressed as a
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 33
table composed of sensor input columns and behavior output
columns, and each rule is transformed to a string of 0 and 1
treated as a gene to obtain an optimum gene that adapts to
the environment using a genetic algorithm (GA) [7]. While
methodology 1 was very effective for such fine control as
handling tasks of humanoid robots, methodology 2 was very
useful to obtain general robotic behavior that was suitable
for its environment. However, the possibility of method 2 for
object handling must be further pursued because the robot
can automatically obtain the relationship between sensor
input and behavior output patterns after it has committed to
the environment.
In this paper, we apply the Evolutionary Behavior Table
System (EBTS) of methodology 2 to the object handling of a
two-arm hand because we are examining the possibility of
methodology 2 for fine control. After explaining the
behavior acquisition method using EBTS, we derive a
simulation procedure for a two-hand-arm robot that was
developed in another project. In computational experiments,
the robot grasps an object and transfers it to a goal. We
examine the difference of grasping efficiency between one-
and two-hand tasks.
Table 1: Behavior tables
2. Behavior Acquisition Method
2.1 Behavior Table
We must define the relationship between environmental
information and the behavior rules in a single-layered
reflexion behavior system to control the behavior of a two-
hand-arm robot. In this paper we treat the fingertip as an
agent. Stimulus and response are defined by sensor-truth
and finger-movement-state tables, respectively (Table 1).
These tables are prepared for the robot agent equipped with
three sensing elements, as introduced in the next section.
S01, S02, S11, S12, S21, and S22 show the status of the three
sensing elements mounted on an agent. Since each sensing
element can measure four grades of contact force, a 2-bit
signal is used for each sensing element. A0, A1, A2, and A3
show the status of the actuators. While A0 shows that the
agent movement is stopping or active, A1, A2, and A3 show
the agent’s movement direction. Because the sensor status is
described by Boolean values (1 or 0), the number of total
patterns of the sensor status is 26 = 64 . An agent refers to
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
the current values of A0, A1, A2, and A3 of Table 1 in every
set period to decide its behavior.
2.2 Behavior Acquisition Method
The behavior table is composed of the truth and motor status
tables of the sensors. These tables can be expressed with a
one-dimensional array like genes because all of the truth-
values are Boolean data. Therefore, the behavior table can
be designed as a model of a simple genetic algorithm (SGA)
comprised of Boolean data [7]. Since the behavior table is
evolvable, we call it the Evolutionary Behavior Table
System (EBTS). The design procedure of the behavior table
using SGA is shown in the following.
First, we design a genotype array that has information
about the behavior table. The length of the genotype array is
shown with the next formula:
G = 4S × M (1),
where the number of sensors and the bit number of the
output gradation are S and M , respectively. Sensor
patterns are calculated as 4 S because each sensor has 2-bit
graduation.
The genotype model used for the numerical experiments
described in the subsequent section is shown in Fig. 2. The
agent possesses three sensing elements, the output of 4-bit
gradation, and a length of 64 × 4 = 256 bits as gene data
information.
The agent’s fitness value is calculated in a simulator that
is equipped with internal functions that evaluate the
efficiency and the task accuracy degrees of the agent. Then
the simulator generates a behavior table from the genotype
array of a one-dimensional vector composed of G elements
(Fig. 2). The agent is evaluated on the basis of the task
achievement degree in the simulator field during a specified
period. The evaluation value obtained by this simulation is
sent to the calculating system for genetic algorithms as
fitness.
Figure 2. Genotype model
3. Simulation Procedure
3.5 Two-hand-arm System
Since communication between robots is performed through
tactile data in ATAS, we adopted a two-hand-arm robot as
an example. Fig. 3 shows a two-hand-arm robot, which is an
34
advancement over the previously presented one-hand-arm
robot [8]. The arm system’s DOF is 5, and each finger’s
DOF is 3. To compensate for the lack of arm DOF, this
robot uses its finger’s root joint as its wrist’s DOF.
Figure 3. Two-hand-arm robot equipped with optical three-
axis tactile sensors
Figure 4. Three-axis tactile sensor system
On each fingertip, it has a novel, optical three-axis
tactile sensor that can obtain not only normal force
distribution but also tangential force distribution. See
previous articles [8]-[10] for explanatory details. Although
ordinary tactile sensors can only detect either normal or
tangential force, since this tactile sensor can detect both, the
robot can use the sensor information as an effective key to
induce a specified behavior.
The tactile sensor is composed of a CCD camera, an
acrylic dome, a light source, and a computer (Fig. 4). The
light emitted from the light source is directed into the
acrylic dome. Contact phenomena are observed as image
data, which are acquired by the CCD camera and
transmitted to the computer to calculate the three-axis force
distribution. The sensing element presented in this paper is
comprised of a columnar feeler and eight conical feelers.
The sensing elements, which are made of silicone rubber,
are designed to maintain contact with the conical feelers and
the acrylic dome and to make the columnar feelers touch an
object.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3.6 Simulator Design for Robotic Hands
As an object handling task, we adopted an object
transportation problem for easy comparison to previous
research. In the task, a hemispherical fingertip equipped
with three tactile sensing elements is modeled (Fig. 5). The
motion of the modeled robotic hand is restricted within two
dimensions. Since the wrist is assumed to be fixed, it only
manipulates an object with its fingers. We presume that the
robotic fingertip transports the object to the goal.
Figure 5. Model of hand and tactile sensor
Figure 6. Evolutionary Behavior Table System (EBTS)
A simulator is composed of a map field (work area) and
the objects on it. They are categorized into two types: an
autonomous mobile agent defined as a fingertip and a non-
autonomous object defined as the transportation object. The
autonomous mobile agent can be equipped with multiple
sensor inputs and behavior outputs as its module, which is
formed to function as a suitable module based on the
assumptions of numerical experiments.
In this object transportation problem, the autonomous
mobile agent is equipped with three tactile elements. An
overall view of the evolutionary behavior table is shown in
Fig. 6. The optimization procedure of the genetic algorithms
is summarized as follows:
• The population of the random gene data is produced
as an initial value.
• The evolutionary computation engine sends gene
data to the simulator to evaluate the gene fitness.
• Elite genes are selected based on their fitness.
• A set of individuals is chosen based on the roulette
wheel selection.
• A pair of individuals is selected and used for
uniform crossover.
• The newborn children from the pair mutate under a
certain probability.
• The children’s gene data are sent to the simulator to
evaluate their fitness.
• The fitness of the elite group is compared with that
of its children group. The group of the next
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 35
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

generation population is selected from the high procedure.

score group in descending order. An individual mobile agent tries object transportation
• If it is not a final generation, it returns to the above eight times in each simulation. Evolution calculation, which
procedure 3). continues for 1,000 generations, is repeated ten times for
• Evolutionary computation is finished. each numerical experimental condition. The number of
3.7 Fitness Evaluation by Simulator individuals, maintaining the elite number, and the mutation
rate per 1-bit of gene are 10, 2, and 10%.
After the agents performed object transportation, the task’s
achievement degree was evaluated as a fitness value of the
gene. Evaluation functions for task achievement were 4. Numerical Experimental Result
composed of transportation accuracy value E1 , which was
4.1 Grasping Behavior
evaluated from the geometrical relationship between the
Figure 8 shows the task process using two hands with the
agents and the transportation object, and transportation
four fingers shown in Fig. 7(b). The robot hands
efficiency value E 2 , which was decided by reaching the successfully transported the object to the center circle, which
goal. Evaluation function E1 is defined as follows: is its goal. After examining other computational
K1 experiments with several initial conditions, we verified that
E1 = (2), this task does not depend on the initial position of object.
cA − cB
where c A and c B are the position vectors of the object
and the goal, respectively. Coefficient K1 is assumed to be
1,000.
On the other hand, evaluation function E 2 is defined by
K2
E2 = (3)
t
using spent time t to transfer the object to the goal area. In
this study, we assumed K 2 = 160 .
The fitness value of the genetic algorithm is calculated
as the summation of E1 and E 2 . In the fitness calculation,
the agent often accidentally pushed the transportation object
into the goal. To avoid such accidents, we divided the
simulation time into task execution and task evaluation and
compared the positioning between the agent and the
transportation object at the termination of the execution time
with the termination of the evaluation time.

Figure 8. Four fingertips acquired cooperative behavior as

collective task to convey object

4.2 Comparison Between One- and Two-hand

Figure 7 One- and two-hand cases
3.8 Simulator Conditions in Numerical Experiments
In numerical experiments, we assume one- and two-hand
cases (Fig. 7). The map field of each case is assumed to be a
Gaussian plane of 800 × 800 [pixel2] with an origin at
coordinates (0, 0) in a series of numerical experiments. The
transportation object and the agents are specified positions.
In Fig. 7(b), four agents are placed near each corner of the
rectangular field. The eight initial positions of the objects
are assumed to relax during adaptation in the task
Grasping
Figure 9 shows the result for the one-hand grasping test,
which depicts a variation in the fitness value of the first
elite, the second elite, and the top score of one population
under different generations. The variation in the fitness
value of the first elite almost coincided with that of the
second elite. Even at 1,000 generations, they don’t seem
saturated yet and exceed 600. Besides the first and second
elites, the top score of one population increased with
additional generations. Therefore, the efficiency of object
transportation with one-hand grasping is enhanced with
more generations.
The two-hand result is shown in Fig. 10. Although the
fitness value of the first and second elites increased with an
increase of generation, similar to the one-hand case, it
almost becomes saturated at 1,000 generations. The
36 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

difference between the fitness values of the first and second Figure 10. Relationship between maximum fitness and
elites is greater than that of one-hand case. The variation in generation for two-hand case
the top score of one population becomes steady after around
100 generations. Moreover, the fitness value of the first elite
at 1,000 generations is around 560 and is smaller than that
5. Conclusion
of one-hand case. Therefore, the efficiency of object
transportation with two-hand grasping saturated very We implemented an artificial tactile affordance system
rapidly. (ATAS) based on the following methodology. A set of rules
Since object grasping and transportation can be is expressed as a table composed of sensor input columns
performed by one hand, the two-hand case is obviously and behavior output columns, and a row of the table
redundant. Although redundant grasping induces stability, it corresponds to a rule. Since each rule is transformed to a
string of 0 and 1, we treat a long string composed of rule
decreases the efficiency of grasping and transferring.
strings as a gene to obtain an optimum gene that adapts to
Finally, we discuss the efficiency of acquiring autonomy
the environment using a genetic algorithm (GA). We
cooperation behavior of a multi-finger in this EBTS using
propose the Evolutionary Behavior Table System (EBTS)
GA. In this numerical experiment, the number of simulation using a GA to acquire the autonomous cooperation behavior
trials was 100,000, as a result of optimizing the gene data of multiple mobile robots.
until 1,000 generations. This final truth table obtained by In validation experiments, we assume that a robot
the gene data doesn’t always assure an optimum solution, grasps and transfers an object with one or two hands; each
but the calculation cost is reduced from 1.2 × 1077 to hand is equipped with two articulated fingers. In
1.0 × 10 5 because the combination numbers of the input and computational experiments, the robot grasped the object and
transferred it to the goal. This task is performed more
output patterns are calculated as 2 256 ≅ 1.2 ×10 77 , according efficiently in the one-hand case than in the two-hand case.
to Eq. (1). If we used top-down methodology, Although redundant grasping induces stability, it decreases
1.2 × 1077 trials are needed to specify the optimum pattern. the efficiency of grasping and transferring. Although the
Therefore, we accomplished the automatic design of present method requires many computational resources, it is
cooperative behavior of multi-agents for collective tasks. attractive because it is very useful for obtaining general
robotic behavior that is suitable for its environment.

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38 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Combined Tactile Display Mounted on a Mouse

Yiru Zhou1, Cheng-Xue Yin1, Masahiro Ohka1 and Tetsu Miyaoka2
1
Nagoya University, School of Information Science,
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
ohka@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Faculty of Comprehensive Informatics
2200-2, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, 437-8555, Japan

One of this paper’s authors, Miyaoka, obtained human

Abstract: In previous haptic presentation devices, the
combination effects of distributed pressure and slippage force
sensations have not been investigated despite their possibilities
for virtual reality systems. In this study, we developed a mouse
capable of presenting combined stimulation to discuss
combination effects on virtual reality. The mouse was equipped
with a bimorph-piezoelectric-actuator-array and a two-
dimensional electro-magnetic-linear motor to present pressure
and slippage force, respectively. To evaluate the mouse’s
presentation accuracy, we performed a series of tracing
experiments of virtual figure contours. Since the deviation
errors of the combination presentation were only smaller than
those of the pressure presentations, the combination
presentation was effective for virtual reality because of the edge
tracing ease induced by the slippage force used on the edges.
Keywords: Human interface, Virtual reality, Tactile mouse,
Combination presentation, Slippage force.
1. Introduction
In the research fields of virtual reality technology and
tele-existence [1], several display mechanisms have been
tentatively presented for tactile displays, and visual and
auditory displays have already been established, including
head-mounted displays and five-channel surround-sound
systems. So far, for display mechanisms, researchers have
adopted different mechanisms such as vibrating pin arrays
[2], surface acoustic waves [3], pin arrays driven by
pneumatic actuators [4], stepping-motor arrays [5][6], DC-
servo-motor arrays [7], piezoelectric actuators [8][9], haptic
devices [10][11], and mechanochemical actuators made of
ionic conducting polymer gel film (ICPF) [12].
On the other hand, the mechanoreceptive units of human
tactile organs are known as the Fast Adapting type I unit
(FA I), the Fast Adapting type II unit (FA II), the Slowly
Adapting type I unit (SA I), and the Slowly Adapting type II
unit (SA II). FA II can perceive a mechanical vibration of
0.2 μm in amplitude. FA I or II can perceive a surface
unevenness of 3 μm in amplitude. SA I can perceive a
pattern formed with Braille dots. According to one of this
paper’s author’s previous studies, SA II is a
mechanoreceptive unit that contributes to sense tangential
stimulus such as finger slippage [13], [14]. As mentioned
above, the four mechanoreceptive units accept different
stimuli corresponding to each unit’s characteristics, while
the above tactile displays only present a single kind of
stimulus.
psychophysical thresholds for normal and tangential
vibrations on the hand by measuring the vibrotactile
thresholds on the distal pad of the left index finger by
transmitting tangential-sinusoidal vibrations onto the skin
surface with a small contactor [13], [14]. The tangential and
normal vibration stimuli were transmitted with a 2.5-mm
diameter contactor. Miyaoka attached the contactor to a
vibrator that was assembled to produce tangential vibrations,
which were transmitted to the distal pad of the subject’s left
index finger. The stimuli amplitudes were changed based on
the Parameter Estimation Sequential Testing (PEST)
procedure [15]. The average tangential-threshold curve
decreased linearly from 4 to 50 Hz, increased gently until
100 Hz, and decreased again above 100 Hz. A U-shaped
curve was observed between 100 and 350 Hz. The shape of
the tangential-threshold curve indicates that at least two
types of mechanoreceptors determine the shape of the curve.
The normal- and the tangential-threshold curves did not
overlap between 4 and 50 Hz and were U-shaped, but they
did overlap between 100 and 350 Hz. From the above
experimental results, Miyaoka suggested that FA II is the
mechanoreceptor above 100 Hz and that the slowly adapting
type II unit (SA II) contributed to determining the shapes of
tangential-threshold curves under 50 Hz.
In the present paper, we developed a new tactile display
mounted on a mouse capable of presenting not only
distributed pressure but also tangential force because in
Miyaoka’s above experiment, human tactile sensation
showed different characteristics between normal and
tangential stimuli. The mouse is equipped with a bimorph-
piezoelectric-actuator array and a two-dimensional electro-
magnetic-linear motor to present pressure and slippage
forces, respectively. To evaluate the mouse’s presentation
accuracy, we performed a series of experiments that traced
the virtual figure contours. The distributed pressure display
stimulates FA I, FA II, and SA I, while the x-y linear motor
stimulates SA II. We evaluated the deviation from the
desired trajectory for each virtual figure to confirm the effect
on the present combined stimulus.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 39
2. Tactile Display
2.3 Overview
Based on Miyaoka’s experimental results, the tactile
display should generate not only normal force but also
tangential force, since FA I and SA II accept different
directional stimuli that correspond to each other’s
characteristics. In this paper, we are developing a new
tactile display mounted on a mouse capable of presenting
both distributed pressure and tangential forces.
A block diagram for controlling the present tactile
mouse is shown in Fig. 1. The x and y-directional position
data of the mouse cursor are sent to a computer through a
USB interface to calculate the output stimuli of the
distributed pressure and the tangential forces on the basis of
the positioning relationship between the mouse cursor and
the virtual texture. The stimulus pins of the display pad are
driven by the driver boards for the piezoelectric actuator
installed on the Braille dot cell controlled by the DIO board
to generate the specified pin protruding pattern. The signals
for the tangential force are transmitted to a motor control
board installed in the mouse through a USB interface to
generate slippage force.
Figure 1. Schematic block diagram of present system
Figure 2. Braille dot cell for pin protruding pattern
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2.4 Distributed Pressure Display
In this paper, we use the Braille dot cell (SC2, KGS, Co.)
[16] as the distributed pressure display. Since the
piezoelectric ceramic actuator in the SC2 is a bimorph type,
its motion is controlled by the voltage applied to the core
electrode. When source voltage 200 V is applied between
the upper and bottom electrodes, the end of the actuator
bends downward if 200 V is applied to the core electrode. If
0 V is applied, the end of the actuator bends upward. The
stroke of the upward and downward motion is about 1 mm.
The strength of the generated force is around 0.1 N. The
stimulus pin is moved up-and-down based on the upward
and downward bending of the piezoelectric ceramic
actuator. Since we used three Braille dot cells, a 6× 4 dot
pattern is formed on the display pad.
Figure 3. Principle of x-y linear motor
Figure 4. Combined tactile display mounted on a mouse
2.5 Slippage Force Display and Combined Stimulation
Type of Tactile Mouse
We used Fuji Xerox’s tactile mouse [17] as a slippage force
display and a mouse to transmit the tangential force on the
fingertip. The mouse is equipped with an x-y linear motor
on an optical mouse to generate static shearing force and its
vibration.
Figure 3 shows the principle of the linear motor. It is
equipped with x- and y-directional sliders. The x-directional
slider resembles a square frame, and the y-directional slider
40 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

is a bar that moves linearly within the square frame. Each

slider has an 8-shaped coil (Fig. 3). If the current flows as
shown by arrows, the magnetization directions generated in
the top- and bottom-half x-directional coils are upward and
downward, respectively. As the result, the slider moves to
the right. The y-directional slider moves in the downward
direction, since the magnetization direction of right- and
left-half coils are downward and upward, respectively. Force
signals are transmitted to a motor control board installed in
the mouse through the USB interface. The x-y linear motor
generates x-y directional forces within about 7 N.
The left figure in Fig. 4 shows the appearance of Fuji
Xerox’s tactile mouse installed in the x-y linear motor.
Users put their index fingers on the circular concave portion
of the mouse. Since the circular concave portion is vibrated
Figure 6. Slippage stimulation generated on virtual edge
tangentially using the x-y linear motor, they can experience
a virtual texture feeling.
We developed a combined stimulation type tactile mouse
–200
by combining the distributed pressure display and the Fuji
Xerox’s tactile mouse, as shown on the right in Fig. 4. In
this mouse, the distributed pressure display is mounted on
pixel
the x-y linear motor after the circular concave portion and
the top cover of the tactile mouse are removed. If user
fingers are placed on the tactile mouse’s display pad and
move the mouse on the virtual texture, users can feel a –300
y–coordinate

convex or concave surface based on the virtual texture.

3. Experimental Procedure
To evaluate the present tactile mouse, we performed edge
tracing tests for virtual circles, triangles, and squares (Fig.
8). According to a previous feasibility study, we found that –400
300 400 500
operators did not judge whether their fingers were on the
x–coordinate pixel
virtual figure or not. If the positions of all the stimulus pins
are on a virtual figure and their fingers remain on it, all (a) Only distributed pressure
stimulus pins keep protruding and operators cannot judge if
the mouse cursor is on it because their sense of feeling is
adapted for the continuing protrusion of the pins. To prevent –200
this problem, the shearing force was generated in proportion
to the cursor’s speed when the cursor is on a virtual figure.
In addition, when the cursor entered a virtual figure to
pixel

emphasize the edge line, the reaction force was generated in

the direction of the edge of the virtual figure (Fig. 5). Four
male subjects performed the edge tracing tests. Their
–300
y–coordinate

average age was about 26.

–400
300 400 500
Figure 5. Virtual objects
x–coordinate pixel

(b) Distributed pressure and slippage force

Figure 7. Trajectory obtained by virtual circle tracing
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 41
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

4. Experimental Results and Discussion

–200
We exemplify subject A’s edge tracing trajectories for
the circles in Fig. 7. Ordinate and abscissa show the x- and
y-coordinates of the cursor on the computer screen. The

pixel
desired trajectory is depicted by the solid line in Fig. 6. As
shown in Fig. 7, the tracing precision of the pressure and
tangential force presentation is higher than that of only the
pressure distribution presentation. –300

y–coordinate
Additionally, only the number of points registered by
pressure stimulation is larger than that registered by the
pressure and tangential force presentation. In the pressure
presentation, 986 points were recorded, but 468 points were
recorded in the combined stimulation. Since sampling time
is a constant, the time consumptions required for the
pressure stimulation only and the combined stimulation –400
were about 30 and 15 seconds, respectively. This result 300 400 500
indicates that operator recognition for the virtual figure is x–coordinate pixel
enhanced with pressure and tangential force stimulation.
Figure 8 shows the edge tracing trajectories for a square.
Compared to Fig. 7, the enhancement of the tracing Table 1: Deviation errors (Unit: pixel)
precision induced using combined stimulation is not clear.
Table 1 summarizes the mean deviation apart from the Pressure stimulus Pressure plus
desired trajectory among the four subjects. Since the only shearing stimuli
deviation of the pressure and tangential force is smaller than Circles 15.9 6.2
that of the only pressure presentation for every shape, the Triangles 14.8 12.2
presentation capability is enhanced by the combined
Squares 15.9 15.2
stimulation, even if the effect is not considerable in the
triangles and squares. Since the stimulus pins are aligned as
squares, the horizontal and vertical lines, including those in (b) Distributed pressure and slippage force
the triangles and squares, are easily recognizable without
tangential stimulus. Therefore, using a combined stimulus is Figure 8. Trajectory obtained by virtual square tracing
especially effective for such difficult shapes as circles that
do not include straight lines.
5. Conclusion
–200 To enhance the presentation capability of a tactile
mouse, we developed a tactile mouse capable of distributed
pressure and tangential force. The distributed pressure
pixel

stimulation was generated using a distributed pressure

display based on a two-point differential threshold. It
possesses a 6-by-4 array of stimulation points. The distance
between the two adjacent stimulus pins is 2.0 mm. We
–300
y–coordinate

adopted Fuji Xerox’s tactile mouse as a slippage force

display and a mouse to transmit tangential force on the
fingertip. We equipped the tactile mouse with an x-y linear
motor on the optical mouse to generate static shearing force
and its vibration. We also developed the combined
stimulation type of tactile mouse by combining the
distributed pressure display and Fuji Xerox’s tactile mouse.
–400
To evaluate our tactile mouse, we performed edge tracing
300 400 500
tests for virtual circles, triangles, and squares with four male
x–coordinate pixel subjects. The experimental results showed that presentation
(a) Only distributed pressure capability was enhanced with the combined stimulation
because the edge tracing precision obtained using combined
stimulation exceeded that using only pressure stimulation.
Subsequently, we are continuing to verify the present tactile
mouse with a new psychophysical experiment.
42 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Acknowledgments [14] T. Miyaoka: “Mechanoreceptive Mechanisms to

Determine the Shape of the Detection-threshold Curve
The authors express their appreciation to Fuji Xerox for Presenting Tangential Vibrations on Human Glabrous
their donation of a tactile mouse. Skin,” Proceedings of the 21st Annual Meeting of The
International Society for Psychophysics, 21, 211-216,
References 2005.
[15] M. M. Taylor and C. D. Creelman: “PEST: Efficient
[1] S. Tachi and K. Yasuda, “Experimental Evaluation of
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Japanese)
[9] M. Ohka, H. Koga, Y. Mouri, T. Sugiura, T. Miyaoka,
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460, 2007.
[10] J. K. Salisbury and M. A. Srinivasan: “Phantom-Based
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[13] T. Miyaoka: “Measurements of Detection Thresholds
Presenting Normal and Tangential Vibrations on
Human Glabrous Skin,” Proceedings of the Twentieth
Annual Meeting of the International Society for
Psychophysics, 20, 465-470, 2004.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 43
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Active Constellation Extension combined with

Particle Swarm Optimization for PAPR Reduction
in OFDM Signals
A. Ouqour1, Y. Jabrane2, B. Ait Es Said3, A. Ait Ouahman4
1,3
Cadi Ayyad University, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Department of physics, Avenue
Prince My Abdellah, P.O. Box 2390, 40001, Marrakech, Morocco
a.ouqour@ucam.ac.ma , aitessaid@ucam.ac.ma

2,4
Cadi Ayyad University, National School of Applied Sciences, Avenue Abdelkarim
Khattabi, P.O. Box 575, 40001, Marrakech, Morocco
y.jabrane@ensa.ac.ma , ouahman@ucam.ac.ma

Abstract: Active Constellation Extension - Approximate 2. System Model

Gradient Project (ACE-AGP) algorithm is an interesting method In a multi-carrier system, the time-domain complex base-
for reducing the envelope fluctuations in multi-carrier signals,
band transmitted signal for the ℓ-th symbol can be
but it occurs a very high computational complexity and thus a
written as:
large convergence time. In this paper, Particle Swarm
optimization (PSO) is introduced to fight this complexity, by
searching and reducing the Peak to Average Power Ratio
(PAPR) with respect to ACE-AGP. Simulation results show that
the proposed method solves the PAPR problem with a very low where N is the number of sub-carriers and is the
complexity and better performance. frequency-domain complex base-band symbol modulated on
the k-th sub-carrier at OFDM symbol . The classical metric
Keywords: OFDM, PAPR, PSO, ACE-AGP. to evaluate the peak power is the PAPR, defined as:

1. Introduction
When Multi-carrier modulations such as Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has been where denotes the expectation, and and
advocated for Long Term Evolution (LTE) of wireless represent the -norm and the 2-norm of , respectively.
personal communications [1]. However, it undergoes large
envelope fluctuations, causing a loss in energy efficiency 3. ACE method
due to the need of power back-off at the High Power
Amplifiers (HPA). Several proposals in the literature try to The ACE method modifies and expands the constellation
reduce their envelope fluctuations to fight this problem points within an allowable region which does not affect the
which is the most important drawbacks in multi-carrier demodulation slicer, and thus, it does not need side
modulations [2] - [8]. information to be sent. By using this new degree of freedom,
Active Constellation Extension (ACE) [9] is an interesting multi-carrier signals with arbitrarily low envelope
technique since it is able to achieve large reductions, it does fluctuations can be obtained. In [9], different algorithms to
not need side information and it only needs a small increase achieve PAPR reduction are provided. In this paper, the
in transmits power. However, ACE requires much iteration Approximate Gradient-Project (AGP) algorithm will be
for convergence and this, unfortunately, constitutes its main used.
weakness [10]. In this paper, ACE will be used combined Let's be the frequency-domain version from , i.e,
with PSO, with the aim of drastically reducing its its FFT, and Q the clipping amplitude value. The algorithm
implementation complexity. proceeds as follows:
To that end, we will use Particle Swarm Optimization
• Initialization: i accounts for the
(PSO), a well-known tool (heuristic) to solve the complexity
iteration index.
problems [11] - [14]. The balance of this paper is organized
as follows. Section 2 introduces the system model. Section 3 • Clip any , Q and form
describes the ACE method. In Section 4, the proposed PSO-
ACE-AGP architecture to reduce the envelope fluctuations
is described and analyzed. Then, the obtained results are
presented and discussed in Section 5. Finally, conclusions where .
are drawn in Section 6. • Compute the clipped signal:
44 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

In this work, during the PSO process, each potential

• Calculate the FFT of to obtain .
solution is represented as a particle with a position vector
• Maintain the values of when they are valid , referred to as clipped-off portion and a moving
point extensions on the constellation and set to 0 velocity represented as and , respectively.
when not. Apply an IFFT to obtain c.

Original
Modifed ACE-AGP
• Determine the step size according to some
criterion and compute new version of the time- Modifed ACE-AGP
domain signal .
Modifed ACE-AGP
• Calculate the for the new signal. If

OFDM
acceptable, stop the algorithm and return as
output, otherwise, increase i and go to step 2.Iterate
until target is accomplished or a maximum number
of iterations is reached.

signals
Modifed ACE-AGP
4. Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population based
stochastic optimization technique, system is initialized with PSO
a population of random solutions and searches for optima by
updating generations. However, PSO has no evolution
operators such as crossover and mutation. In PSO, the
OFDM signals with reduced PAPR
potential solutions, called particles, fly through the problem
space by following the current optimum particles with
PSO ACE-AGP implementation
respect to a specific algorithm. In a previous work [15] a
suboptimal partial transmit sequence (PTS) based on Thus for a K-dimensional optimization, the position and
particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm has been velocity of the ith particle can be represented as:
presented for the low computation complexity and the
reduction of the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) of an (4)
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) respectively. Each particle has its own best position:
system. The procedure of standard PSO can be summarized
as follows:
corresponding to the individual best objective value obtained
Generate initial population so far at time t, referred to as pbest. The global best (gbest)
random particle is denoted by:

which represents the best particle found so far at time t in

Evaluate fitness for each particle and store the entire swarm. The new velocity (t+1) for particle i is
Start and
the global define solution
person bestspace
positions updated by:

where is the old velocity of the particle i at time t.

Check stop Apparent from this equation, the new velocity is related to
Decision taken criteria the old velocity weighted by weight w and also associated to
the position of the particle itself and that of the global best
one by acceleration factors c1 and c2. The c1 and c2 are
End therefore referred to as the cognitive and social rates,
respectively, because they represent the weighting of the
acceleration terms that pull the individual particle toward
Update the personal and global best
position according to the fitness value the personal best and global best positions. The inertia
weight w in eq (7) is employed to manipulate the impact of
the previous history of velocities on the current velocity.
Update each particle Generally, in population-based optimization methods, it is
velocity and position desirable to encourage the individuals to wander through the
entire search space, without clustering around the local
optima, during the early stage of the optimization.
Adjust inertial weight
monotonically decreasing function
A suitable value for w(t) provides the desired balance
between the global and local exploration ability of the
swarm and, consequently, improves the effectiveness of the
G =G +1 algorithm. Experimental results suggest that it's preferable
to initialize the inertia weight to a large value, giving
PSO algorithm
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 45
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

priority to global exploration of the search space, linear

decreasing w(t) so as to obtain refined solutions [13], [14].
For the purpose of intending to simulate the slight
unpredictable component of natural swarm behaviour, two
random functions r1 and r2 are applied to independently
provide uniform distributed numbers in the range [0, 1] to
stochastically vary the relative pull of the personal and
global best particles. Based on the updated velocities, new
position for particle i is computed according the following
equation:

The populations of particles are then moved according to the

new velocities and locations calculated by (11) and (12), and
tend to cluster together from different directions. Thus, the
evaluation of each associate fitness of the new population of
particles begins again. The algorithm runs through these
processes iteratively until it stops. In this paper, the current
position can be modified by [16]: (a) N=256

where is the initial weight, is the final weight,

is maximum number of iterations, and is the
current iteration number.

5. Results
Monte Carlo simulations have been carried out with 10000
randomly generated QPSK-modulated OFDM symbols for
N=256, N=512 and N=1024. In figure 1, we can observe
that the proposed method outperform the one based on
ACE-AGP since the PAPR reduction of PSO-ACE-AGP
when Gn = 40 is about respectively 7dB, 5.9dB and 4.9dB
for N=256, 512 and N=1024, comparing to 7.3dB, 6.8dB
and 5.9dB for N=256, N=512 and N=1024 when using
ACE-AGP (the convergence of ACE-AGP is slower).
It is worth noting that these results are achieved with very
low complexity and with only one iteration ( ) by
choosing different number of generations (Gn = 10; 20; 30; (b) N=512
40) (2000 iterations for ACE-AGP).
The complexity of the algorithm, in terms of complex
multiplications and additions per OFDM symbol, is
and ,
respectively, where is the number of iterations, which
is usually high.
Besides, on each iteration, the needs to be evaluated
to determine if the target goal has been reached. These
operations are also required in many other methods.
Besides,
a DFT/IDFT are needed per iteration. A complexity
summary and comparison has been detailed in table 1.

(c) N=1024
Figure 1. Comparison of PAPR reduction between
ACE-AGP and PSO-ACE-AGP using QPSK
46 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Table 1: Computation complexity [23] M. Ohta, Y. Ueda, and K. Tamashita, “PAPR

reduction of OFDM signal by neural networks
Method Computation complexity per symbol without side information and its FPGA
implementation,” Transactions of the Institute of
Electrical Engineers of Japan, pp. 1296-1303, 2006.
[24] Y. Jabrane, V. P. G. Jimnez, A. G. Armada, B. A. E.
Optimal
Said and A. A. Ouahman, “Reduction of Power
ACE-AGP Envelope Fluctuations in OFDM Signals by using
Neural Networks, ” IEEE Communications Letters,
PSO XIV (7), pp. 599-601, 2010.
ACE-AGP
Gn= 40
[25] I. Sohn, “RBF neural network based SLM peak-to-
average power ratio reduction in OFDM systems,”
ETRI Journal, XXIX (3), pp. 402-404, 2007.
[26] S. H. Han and J. H. Lee, “An overview of peak-to-
average power ratio reduction techniques for
Optimal
multicarrier transmission,” IEEE Wireless
ACE-AGP Communications, XII (2), pp. 56-65, 2005.
[27] B. S. Krongold and D. L. Jones, “PAR reduction in
PSO OFDM via Active Constellation Extention,” IEEE
ACE-AGP
Gn= 40 transactions on Broadcasting, XLIX (3), pp. 258-268,
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[28] Y. Jabrane, V. P. G. Jimnez, A. G. Armada, B. E.
Said, and A. A. Ouahman, “Evaluation of the effects
Optimal of Pilots on the envelope fluctuations reduction based
on Neural Fuzzy Systems,” In Proceedings of IEEE
ACE-AGP
International Workshop on Signal Processing
Advances for Wireless Communications (SPAWC),
PSO 2010.
ACE-AGP
Gn= 40 [29] S. Xu, Q. Zhang and W. Lin, “PSO-Based OFDM
Adaptive Power and Bit Allocation for Multiuser
Cognitive Radio System,” In Proceedings of Wireless
Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing
6. Conclusion (WICOM), pp. 1-4, 2009.
[30] A. Ratnaweera, S. K. Halgamuge, and H. C. Watson,
In this paper a proposed algorithm for reducing the envelope “Selforganizing hierarchical particle swarm optimizer
fluctuations in OFDM signals has been described. with timevarying acceleration coeffcients,” IEEE
Simulation results show that, this algorithm is able to obtain Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, VIII (3),
signals with low envelope fluctuations at a very low pp.240-255, 2004.
complexity and is valid for any number of sub-carriers, [31] M. Clerc and J. Kennedy, “The particle swarm-
moreover it achieves a better performance than previous explosion, stability, and convergence in a
work. It is worth noting that, the obtained improvement of multidimensional complex space,” IEEE Transactions
the envelope behavior is better for large number of sub- on Evolutionary Computation, VI (1), pp. 58-73,
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 47
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Author’s Profile

Ahmed Ouqour received engineering

degrees of state in telecommunications in
1998 from the Air Force Academy of
Marrakesh, Morocco. He also obtained
engineering degrees of state in computer
and networks in 2005 from the National
School of Mineral Industry Rabat,
Morocco. He is now with the Team of
Telecommunications and Computer
Networks of the University Cadi Ayyad of
Marrakech, Morocco preparing his PhD.

Younes Jabrane received his PhD in

telecommunications and informatics from
Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakech,
Morocco. He is now Assistant Professor in
National School of Applied Sciences of
Marrakech. He did several stay researches in
Department of signal theory and
communications of Carlos III of Madrid,
Spain, his researches are on CDMA and
OFDM.
Brahim Ait Es Said is a Professor in
Faculty of Sciences Semlalia of Marrakech,
he is a supervisor of several students PhD,
also he did many stay researches in
University of Valenciennes, France. His
researches are on Channel equalization,
image processing and OFDM.

Abdellah Ait Ouahman is a Professor

Director of National School of Applied
Sciences of Marrakech. He supervises
several students’ PhD, he is the coordinator
of several projects and he is also the local
chair of IEEE conferences organized in
Marrakech for many times. His researches
are on logistic, telecommunications and
informatics networks.
48 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Some Results of T-Fuzzy Subsemiautomata over

Finite Groups
M. Basheer Ahamed1 and J.Michael Anna Spinneli2
Department of Mathematics, Karunya University, Coimbatore-641114, Tamilnadu, INDIA.
1
basheer.ahamed@rediffmail.com; 2micheal.maths@gmail.com

Abstract: In 1965, Zadeh introduced the concept of fuzzy sets. t- norm on [0,1] unless otherwise specified. By an abuse of
Wee introduced the concept of fuzzy automata in 1967. Malik et notation we will denote
al. introduced the concept of fuzzy state machines and fuzzy
transformation semi groups based on Wee’s concept of fuzzy
T (a1,T (a 2,T (.......,T (a n−1 , a n )....)))
automata in 1994. A group semiautomaton has been extensively byT (a1 ,.......a n ) where a1 , a 2 ,.....a n ∈ [0,1] . The
studied by Fong and Clay. Das fuzzified this concept to
introduce fuzzy semiautomaton over a finite group. Sung-jin legitimacy of this abuse is ensured by the associativity of T
cho, jae- Gyeom Kim, Seok-Tae Kim introduced the notion of T- (Definition 2.1(4)).
fuzzy semiautomaton, T-fuzzy kernel and T-fuzzy Note: For further discussions we are considering ( G , + ) as
subsemiautomaton over a finite group. In this paper, we further
give some properties of T-fuzzy subsemiautomaton over finite a finite group.
groups. 2.2 Definition [1]
A fuzzy subset λ of G is called a T – fuzzy subgroup of G if
Keywords: T-fuzzy normal subgroup, T-fuzzy kernel, T-fuzzy (i) λ ( x + y) ≥ T (λ ( x), λ ( y)),
subsemiautomata. (ii) λ ( x) = λ (− x) for all x, y ∈ G .
1. Introduction 2.3 Definition [1]

Fuzzy automata concept was introduced by Wee in 1967 A T – fuzzy subgroup λ of G is called a T- fuzzy normal
[8].Using this concept Malik et al. [5] introduced the subgroup of G if
concept of fuzzy state machines and fuzzy transformation λ ( x + y) = λ ( y + x) for all x, y ∈ G .
semigroups. A Group semiautomata has been extensively
studied by Fong et al [3].This concept was fuzzified by Das 2.4 Definition [1]
[2], and he introduced fuzzy semiautomaton over finite
groups. The notion of T fuzzy semiautomaton over finite A triple M = (Q, X ,τ ) where (Q, + ) is a finite group, X
group was introduced by Kim and Cho [1]. In this paper we is a finite non empty set and τ is a fuzzy subset of
have got some more results of T fuzzy subsemiautomaton Q × X × Q , that is τ is a function from Q × X × Q to
and T fuzzy kernel. [0,1],is called a fuzzy semiautomaton
2. Preliminaries if ∑τ ( p, a , q) ≤ 1 for all
q∈Q
p ∈ Q and a ∈ X. If
In this section we summarize the preliminary definitions,
and results that are required for developing main results. ∑τ ( p, a , q) = 1 for all p ∈ Q and a ∈ X , then M
q∈Q
is

2.1 Definition [1] said to be complete.

[ ]
A binary operation T on 0,1 is called a t- norm if
2.5 Definition [1]
(1) T ( a ,1) = a
(2) T ( a , b) ≤ T ( a , c ) whenever b ≤ c Let M = (Q, X ,τ ) be a fuzzy semiautomaton.
(3) T ( a , b) = T (b, a ) Define τ : Q × X × Q → [0,1] by
* *

p=q
(4) T ( a , T ( b, c )) = T (T ( a , b ), c ) for all a , b , c ∈ [0,1] .
The maximum and minimum will be written as ∨ and ∧ ,
τ * ( p , Λ , q ) = { 10 iiff p≠q
respectively. Define T0 on [0,1] by T(τ ( p, a1 , q1 ), 
T0 (a ,1) = a = T0 (1, a ) and  
and τ * ( p, a1.....an , q) = ∨ τ (q1 , a2 , q2 )....., 
T0 (a , b) = 0 if a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1 for all a , b ∈ [0,1] Here τ q , a , q ) / q ∈Q
T always will mean a t- norm on [0,1] . A t-norm T on  ( n−1 n ) i 
[0,1] is said to be ∨ distributive if where p, q ∈ Q a1 ,.....a n ∈ X. When T is applied on M as
T ( a , b ∨ c) = T (a , b ) ∨ T (a , c ) for all a , b, c ∈ [0,1]. Throu above, M is called a T-fuzzy semiautomaton.
ghout this paper, T shall mean a ∨ - distributive
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 49
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Note: Hereafter, a fuzzy semiautomaton always will be Proof:

written as a T-fuzzy semiautomaton because a fuzzy
Suppose that the given condition is satisfied.
semiautomaton always induces a T-fuzzy semiautomaton as
in Definition 2.5. For all p, q, r ∈ Q and x ∈ X . We have
2.6 Definition [1]
µ ( p) = µ ( p − r + r )
A fuzzy subset µ of Q is called a T- fuzzy kernel of a T-
≥ T ( µ ( p − r ), µ (r ))
fuzzy semiautomaton M = (Q , X , τ )
(i) µ is a T- fuzzy normal subgroup of Q . ≥ T (T (τ (e + q, x, p),τ (e, x, r ), µ (q)), µ (r ))
(ii) µ ( p − r ) ≥ T (τ ( q + k, x, p),τ ( q, x, r ), µ ( k)) By definition 2.6
for all p, q, r , k ∈ Q, x ∈ X .
≥ T (τ (e + q, x, p),τ (e, x, r ), µ (q), µ (e))
2.7 Definition [1]
By given condition
A fuzzy subset µ of Q is called a T- fuzzy subsemiautomaton
of a T-fuzzy semi automaton M = (Q , X , τ ) if ≥ T (τ (e + q, x, p ), µ (q )) Since µ ( e ) ≥ µ ( p ) ,
(i) µ is a T – fuzzy subgroup Q , µ ( e, x, r ) ≥ µ ( e + q, x, p )
(ii) µ ( p ) ≥ T (τ ( q , x, p ), µ ( q )) for all p, q ∈ Q , x ∈ X .
= T (τ (q, x, p), µ (q ))
2.8 Definition [7]
Then, µ is a T- fuzzy sub semiautomaton of
Let λ and µ be T- fuzzy subsets of G, then the sum of
M = (Q , X , τ ) and the converse is immediate.
λ and µ is defined by 3.2 Example
T (λ ( y), µ ( x)) / y, z ∈ G 
(λ + µ )( x) = ∨   Consider a finite T fuzzy semiautomaton
 such that x = y + z  M = (Q , X , τ ) where Q = { p, q, r , k} and
for all x ∈ G .
X = {a , b}
2.9 Remark
Let λ be a fuzzy subset of G. Then λ will be a fuzzy b/0.4
subgroup of G depending on the membership values that we
are choosing. Let us see the following examples. a/0.3
p q
2.10 Example [4]

Let G = {e, a , b, c} be the Klein four groups. Define the

b/0.1

fuzzy subset A of G by
A( e ) = 1, A( a ) = 1, A( b ) = 3 / 4, A( c ) = 3 / 4 .Clearly a/0.2
A is a fuzzy subgroup of G.
b/0.2
k r

2.11 Example [6]

Let G = {e, a , b, c} be the Klein four groups. Define the

fuzzy set λ of G defined by a,b/0.2 a/0.4
λ ( e ) = 0.6, λ ( a ) = 0.7, λ ( b ) = 0.4, λ ( c ) = 0.4 .Clear Figure 1. Finite T-fuzzy semiautomaton
ly λ is not a fuzzy group of G.
Clearly, τ is a T-fuzzy kernel. Let µ be a fuzzy subset of
3. Main results Q defined by µ ( p ) = 0.4 ,
This section consists of some more results of T fuzzy µ ( q ) = 0.2 , µ ( r ) = 0.1, µ ( k ) = 0.1 .T-norm is defined
subsemiautomaton and T fuzzy kernel.
3.1 Proposition by T ( a , b ) = ∨ {a + b − 1, 0}

Let µ be a T- fuzzy kernel of a T fuzzy semiautomaton ( Q, + ) is a group defined by

M = (Q , X , τ ) over a finite group Q .Then µ is a T- fuzzy p + p = p, p + q = q, p + r = r , p + k = k
subsemiautomaton M if and only if q + p = q, q + q = p, q + r = k, q + k = r
µ ( p ) ≥ T (τ (e, x, p), µ (e)) for all p ∈ Q, x ∈ X .
50 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

r + p = r , r + q = k, r + r = q, r + k = p Let µ be a fuzzy subset of Q defined

k + p = k, k + q = r , k + r = p, k + k = q by µ ( p ) = 0.4 , µ ( q ) = 0.1 , µ ( r ) = 0.25 , µ ( k ) = 0.25
p is the identity element. Clearly, µ is a T-fuzzy kernel.et ν be a fuzzy subset of Q
q −1 = q, r −1 = k, k −1 = r defined byν ( p ) = 0.6 ,
Then, µ is a T-fuzzy subsemiautomaton.
3.3 Proposition ν ( q ) = 0.2 ,ν ( r ) = 0.1 , and ν ( k ) = 0.1 .
Clearly ν is T-fuzzy subsemiautomaton.T-norm is defined
Let µ be a T- fuzzy kernel, and ν be a T- fuzzy by T ( a , b ) = ab , ( Q, + ) is a group defined by
subsemiautomaton of M = (Q , X , τ ) . Then µ + ν is a T-
p + p = p, p + q = q, p + r = r , p + k = k
fuzzy subsemiautomaton of M .
q + p = q, q + q = p, q + r = k, q + k = r
Proof:
r + p = r , r + q = k, r + r = q, r + k = p
( µ +ν )( p ) = ( µ +ν )( p + r − r ) k + p = k, k + q = r , k + r = p, k + k = q
≥ T ( µ ( p − r ) ,ν (r ) ) p is the identity element. We have
≥ T (τ ( a + b, x, p ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) , µ ( b ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( a ) ) q −1 = q, r −1 = k, k −1 = r .
By definition 2.6 Then ( µ + ν ) is a T-fuzzy subsemiautomaton
≥ T (τ ( a + b, x, p ) , µ ( b ) ,ν ( a ) ) of M = (Q , X , τ ) .
Since τ ( a + b, x, p ) ≤ τ ( a , x, r ) 3.5 Theorem
Then for all p, q ∈ Q, x ∈ X
Let µ and ν are T-fuzzy kernels of M = (Q, X ,τ ) . Then
T (τ ( a + b, x, p ) , µ ( b ) ,ν ( a ) ) :
( µ + ν )( p ) ≥ ∨  
µ + ν is a T-fuzzy kernel of M = (Q , X , τ ) .
a + b = q, a , b ∈ Q 
Proof:
Since µ and ν are T-fuzzy normal subgroups of Q ,
( { }
≥ T τ ( a + b, x, p) ,∨ T( µ( b) ,ν ( a ) ) : a +b = q, a,b∈Q ) ( µ +ν ) is also a T-fuzzy normal subgroup.
= T (τ ( a + b, x, p ) , ( µ + ν )( q ) ) ( µ +ν )( p − r ) = ( µ +ν )( p − q + q − r )
≥ T ( µ ( p − q ) ,ν ( q − r ) )
By definition 2.8
= T (τ ( q, x, p ) , ( µ + ν )( q ) )
 T (τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) ,τ ( a + b, x, q ) , µ ( c ) ) , 
Hence ( µ + ν ) is a T- fuzzy subsemiautomaton. ≥T 
 T (τ ( a + b, x, q ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( b ) ) 
3.4 Example  
Consider a finite T fuzzy semiautomaton M = (Q , X , τ ) By definition2.6

where Q = { p, q, r , k}
τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) ,τ ( a + b, x, q ) , 
=T 
 µ ( c ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( b )
and X = {a }  
a/0.4
= T (τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) , µ ( c ) ,τ ( a , x, r ) ,ν ( b ) )
q Since τ ( a + b + c, x, p ) ≤ τ ( a + b, x, q ) .
p
Then for all p, q, r , k ∈ Q and x ∈ X
( µ +ν )( p − r )
a/0.1 T (τ ( q + b + c, x, p ) ,τ ( q, x, r ) µ ( c ) ,ν ( b )) :
≥ ∨ 
b, c ∈ Q, b + c = k 
a/0.3
r
= T
{ }
τ ( q + b + c, x, p) ,τ ( q, x, r ) , ∨ T ( µ ( c) ,ν ( b) ) :

k  b, c ∈Q,b + c = k 
 
= T (τ ( q + k, x, p ) ,τ ( q, x, r ) , ( µ + ν )( k ) ) Hence
a/0.2
( µ +ν ) is a T-fuzzy kernel of M = (Q, X ,τ ) .
Figure 2. Finite T-fuzzy semiautomaton 3.6 Example
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 51
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Consider a finite T-fuzzy semiautomaton M = (Q , X , τ ) , ν ( p ) = 0.1,ν ( q ) = 0.2,ν ( r ) = 0.2,ν ( s ) = 0.2,

where Q = { p, q, r , s, t , u} ,
Clearly,
ν ( t ) = 0.2,ν ( u ) = 0.1
X = {a } ν is a T-fuzzy kernel
Then, ( µ + ν ) is a T-fuzzy kernel of

q M = (Q , X , τ ) .
a/0.1 a/0.1
References
[1] S. J. Cho, J. G. Kim, S. Tae Kim, T-fuzzy
p semiautomata over finite groups, Fuzzy sets and
u systems 108 (1999) 341-351.
[2] P.Das, On some properties of fuzzy semiauto-
maton over a finite group, Information Sciences
101 (1997) 71-84.
a/0.2 [3] Y. Fong, J.R. Clay, Computer programs for
a/0.1
investigation syntactic near rings of finite group
semiautomata, Academia Sinica 16 (4) (1988) 295-
304.
t r [4] D. S. Malik, J. N. Mordeson, and P.S. Nair,
Fuzzy normal subgroups in fuzzy subgroups,
J. Korean Math. Soc. 29 (1992), No. 1, 1–8.

a/0.1 [5] D. S. Malik, J. N. Mordeson, and M. K. Sen,

a/0.3
s [6] Sandeep Kumar Bhakat, ( ∈ , ∈ ,Vq) - fuzzy
Figure 3. Finite T-fuzzy semiautomaton
Here ( Q, + ) is a group defined by
p + p = p , p + q = q , p + r = r , p + s = s,
p + t = t, p + u = u
q + p = q , q + q = s, q + r = u , q + s = p ,
q + t = r, q + u = t
r + p = r , r + q = u , r + r = q, r + s = t ,
r + t = p, r + u = s
s + p = s, s + q = p , s + r = t , s + s = q ,
s + t = u, s + u = r
t + p = t , t + q = r , t + r = p, t + s = u,
t + t = s, t + u = q
u + p = u , u + q = t , u + r = s, u + s = r ,
u + t = q, u + u = p
p is the identity element. We have
p −1 = p, q −1 = s, r −1 = t , s −1 = q, t −1 = r , u −1 = u T-
norm is defined by T ( a , b ) = ab
Let µ be a fuzzy subset of Q defined by
µ ( p ) = 0.1 , µ ( q ) = 0.2 , µ ( r ) = 0.1, µ ( s ) = 0.2 ,
µ ( t ) = 0.1 , µ ( u ) = 0.3
Clearly, µ is a T-fuzzy kernel.
Let ν be a fuzzy subset of Q defined by
On subsystems of a fuzzy finite state machines,
Fuzzy sets and systems 68 (1994) 83-92.
normal, quasinormal and maximal subgroups, Fuzzy
Sets and Systems 112 (2000) 299-312
[7] Sessa, On fuzzy subgroups and fuzzy ideals under
triangular norms, Fuzzy Sets and Systems
13(1984) 95-100.
[8] W.G. Wee, On generalizations of adaptive
algorithm and application of the fuzzy sets
concept to pattern classification, Ph.D., Thesis,
Purdue University, 1967.
[9] L.A. Zadeh, Fuzzy sets, Info. and Control 8
(1965) 338–353.
Author’s Profile
Basheer Ahamed M received the Ph,D.,
degree in Mathematics from Bharathidasan
University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu in
2005. He is working as Associate Professor of
Mathematics in Karunya University,
Coimbatore, India. His research areas are
Fuzzy Mathematics and Discrete Mathematics.
J. Michael Anna Spinneli received her M.Sc
and M.Phil degrees in mathematics from
Manonmanium Sundaranar.University.
Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu. Now she is working
as an Assistant Professor of mathematics in
Karunya University, Coimbatore, India. She is
doing research on Fuzzy Automata.
52 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Semi-deflection Routing: A Non-minimal

Fully-adaptive Routing for Virtual Cut-through
Switching Network
Yuri Nishikawa1, Michihiro Koibuchi2, Hiroki Matsutani3 and Hideharu Amano1
1
Keio University,
3-14-1 Hiyoshi Kouhoku-ku Yokohama, Kanagawa 223-8522, Japan
{nisikawa,hunga}@am.ics.keio.ac.jp
2
National Institute of Informatics,
2-1-2, Hitotsubashi Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 101-8430, Japan
3
The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8656, Japan

it does not guarantee in-order packet delivery, which is

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a routing methodology
called “Semi-deflection” routing, a non-minimal fully adaptive
deadlock-free routing mechanism for System area networks
(SANs), which usually employ virtual cut-through switching. We
present that by adding a simple turn-model-based restriction to
classical deflection (or hot-potato) routing, which is to allow
non-blocking transfer between specific pairs of routers, Semi-
deflection routing mechanism guarantees deadlock and livelock-
free packet transfer without use of virtual channels in a two-
dimensional Mesh topology. As the result of throughput
evaluation using batch and permutation traffic patterns, Semi-
deflection routing improved throughput by maximum of 2.38
times compared with that of North-last turn model, which is a
typical adaptive routing. The routing also reduces average hop
count compared to deflection routing.
Keywords: SAN, virtual cut-through, non-minimal fully
adaptive routing, deflection routing, turn-model
1. Introduction
Network-based parallel processing using system area
networks (SANs) has been researched as potential cost-
effective parallel-computing environments [1][2][3], as well
as traditional massively parallel computers. SANs, which
consist of switches connected with point-to-point links,
usually provide low-latency high-bandwidth
communications. Modern SANs and interconnection
networks of massively parallel computers usually use virtual
cut-through [4] as their switching technique, and they
achieve reliable communications at the hardware level with
deadlock-free routing.
The following two strategies can be taken when a
deadlock free routing algorithm is designed. Deterministic
routing takes a single path between hosts, and it guarantees
in-order packet delivery between the same pair of hosts [5].
On the other hand, adaptive routing [6][7][8][9]
dynamically selects the route of a packet in order to make
the best use of bandwidth in interconnection networks. In
adaptive routing, when a packet encounters a faulty or
congested path, another bypassing path can be selected.
Since this allows for a better balance of network traffic,
adaptive routing improves throughput and latency.
In spite of the adaptive routing’s advantages, most
current SANs do not always employ it[1][2]. This is because
required for some message-passing libraries, and the logic to
dynamically select a single channel from among a set of
alternatives might substantially increase the switch’s
complexity. However, simple sorting mechanisms for out-of-
order packets in network interfaces have been researched
[10][11], and real parallel machines, such as the Cray T3E
[12], the Reliable Router [13], or BlueGene/L[14] have
shown the feasibility of adaptive routing. A simple method
to support adaptivity in InfiniBand switches has also been
proposed [15]. We thus consider that these switches and
routers will employ adaptive routing not only in
interconnection networks of massively parallel computers
but also in SANs.
There are two basic approaches to avoid deadlocks in
adaptive routing. The simpler strategy removes cyclic
channel dependencies in the channel dependency graph
(CDG) [6][7][8]. The more complex ones deal with cyclic
channel dependencies by introducing escape paths [9]. It is
difficult to apply the latter strategy to interconnection
networks with no virtual channels.
In general, the most flexible routing algorithm is non-
minimal fully-adaptive routing, because it allows each
router to maximize the number of alternative paths. Non-
minimal fully-adaptive routing supports dynamic selection
of various paths among multiple routers. The challenge of
such algorithm is to guarantee deadlock-free. Fully-adaptive
routing algorithms usually introduce virtual channels to
guarantee deadlock freedom of packet transfers. For
example, a minimal fully-adaptive routing called Duato’s
protocol uses two virtual channels for Mesh topologies, and
three for Torus topologies. However, virtual channels
require addition of channel buffers for each router ports, and
they are sometimes used for providing different quality of
services (QoS) classes. In addition, they are not always
supported in SANs.
In this paper, we propose a non-minimal fully-adaptive
routing called Semi-deflection routing which does not
require virtual channels in virtual cut-through networks.
Semi-deflection routing allows non-blocking transfer among
certain routers in order to guarantee deadlock and livelock
freedom. Since non-blocking transfer means that a packet
that arrived in a router must secure an output port in
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 53
minimum transfer time, it cannot necessarily choose the
shortest path to the destination. This is a similar approach
with deflection (hot-potato) routing[16][17][18] and chaos
Figure 1. Prohibited turn of North-last turn model
Figure 2. Example of non-minimal routing
router[19] where all incoming packets are moved to output
ports at every cycle as non-blocking which may introduce
non-minimal paths in order to avoid packet blocking. These
studies already found that their proposed routing is
deadlock-free and livelock-free. Unlike these existing works,
some packets wait for the appropriate ports to their
destinations in Semi-deflection routing when other packets
occupy them.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section
2 we propose Semi-deflection routing. Section 3 gives
evaluation results, and Section 4 gives related works. Finally
Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. Semi-deflection Routing
This section proposes the mechanism of Semi-deflection
routing. This routing avoids deadlocks using the approach
of Turn-model, and it requires to update output selection
functions and arbitration mechanism of routers as described
below.
3.9 Turn model
Turn model is a family of adaptive routing which supports
deadlock-free by removing all cyclic channel dependencies
in a network topology [6]. North-last model and West-first
model are representative examples.
Figure 1 shows North-last turn model in a two-
dimensional Mesh topology. A router has four input/output
ports in each direction (north, south, east and west), and
there are eight possible turns. A turn model prohibits a set
of certain turns (which are called “prohibited turns” in this
paper) in order to remove cyclic channel dependency, and
they are southwest turn and southeast turn in case of North-
last model. In other words, packets must arrive at a
destination node by finally taking 0-hops or more of
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
northward movement. Turn model allows non-minimal path
to destination nodes, but certain path cannot be taken due to
prohibited turns.
3.10 Deadlock removal
This section describes the mechanism of Semi-deflection
routing. This allows prohibited turns of turn model under
certain conditions, while it guarantees deadlock-free. We
focus on the fact that deadlocks do not occur as long as
packets are moved by non-blocking on every prohibited turn
in virtual cut-through switching, because each packet can
independently detour blocked packets. First, we define “non-
blocking packet transfer” as follows.
Definition 1: (Non-blocking packet transfer) A packet
transfer is called “non-blocking” when a packet at a certain
input port is allocated to an output port via router’s crossbar
switch, given priority by the arbiter, and transferred to the
selected output port without being blocked by other packets.
Even when a prohibited turn is taken, deadlock does not
occur as long as it is guaranteed to transfer packets to
adjacent routers in a non-blocking manner. Thus, fully
deadlock-free routing is satisfied by always transferring
packets that intend to take prohibited turns in a non-
blocking manner.
Figure 2 shows pairs of input and output ports where non-
blocking transfer needs to be guaranteed in case of North-
last turn model. The non-blocking between these ports can
be attained because each packets can independently detour
themselves when virtual cut-through routing is applied. In
precise, we give a limitation when packets cannot take
prohibited turns as follows. Assume that an incoming packet
is expected to take a path along a prohibited turn, but its
output channel is locked by another packet. In this case, the
packet cannot wait only for that output port to become
vacant. In other words, the packet must be transferred to
another output channel if it is vacant even when that
direction is not towards to the destination. This is a similar
idea to deflection routing [20], which requires all packets to
be moving around the network constantly at a router at
every cycle.
For example, let’s say that the gray-colored node in
Figure 2 receives a packet from the south input port, and
applied turn model is North-last model. Since selection of
west, east or south output port makes prohibited turn, the
packet must choose north output port if the rest of the ports
are locked (occupied) by others. Only in case when North
output port is locked, a packet that came from a South input
port packet waits for certain output port to become vacant.
This is because not prohibited output ports behave as escape
paths that prevents cyclic channel dependency. Idea of
escape path was originally suggested in adaptive routing
algorithms such as Duato’s protocol [9] where they are
implemented by using virtual channels.
Black-colored input ports in Figure 2 indicate that any
available output port selection becomes a packet transfer
along the prohibited turns. Thus, packets from these input
ports must be transferred somewhere in a non-blocking
manner.
Next, we define a term “Non-waiting port” as follows.
54
Definition 2: (Non-waiting port) An input port and its
pair connected with a link in the neighboring node is
defined as “non-waiting port” when either of following is
satisfied: (a) when any available output port selection
becomes a packet transfer along the prohibited turns, or (b)
a port is paired with port defined in (a).
Theorem 1: There is one non-waiting port per router at
most when network topology is two-dimensional Mesh (N ×
N) and applied turn model is either North-last or West-first
model.
Proof: Packets that enter a router from a South input port
can only take a prohibited turn for North-last model.
Consequently, South input ports have only possibilities to be
non-waiting ports according to Definition 2 (a). On the
other hand, for Definition 2 (b), since there is only one input
port that can be paired with (a), Theorem 1 is obviously
satisfied. For West-first routing, packets that go through
routers at coordinate x = N− 1 can only take prohibited turn.
Here, there is an output port which does not make prohibited
turn either in x or y direction in case of y ≠ 0, y ≠ N − 1.
Condition of Definition 2 (a) is satisfied either when x = N
− 1, y = 0 or x = N − 1, y = N − 1 are satisfied. In the
former case, condition is satisfied for North input port, and
South input port for the latter case. On the other hand, for
Definition 2 (b), since there is only one input port that can
be paired with (a), satisfaction of Theorem 1 is obvious.
■ 1) Packets that were injected from non-waiting input port
Definition 3: (Loopback transfer) When a packet transfers
directly from a router’s port to adjacent router’s port which
the packet was transferred from, it is called “loopback
transfer”.
Theorem 2: When there is only one non-waiting port, a
packet does not stay at non-waiting port after a certain
period of time when following conditions are satisfied: (a)
loopback transfer is permitted, and (b) highest arbitration
priority is given to the non-waiting port.
Proof: When buffer of forwarding input port is vacant, a
packet at a non-waiting port is transferred to one of vacant
ports. According to Definition 2, a non-waiting port always
exists on a router that a packet is transferred back to in a
loopback manner. If any input port of forwarding router is
unavailable, a packet is transferred in a loopback manner.
Even when a packet exists in forwarding non-waiting input
port, packets are simply exchanged between pairing non-
waiting ports when highest arbitration priority is given to
these ports. Since these packet transfer and exchange are
done within a certain period, Theorem 2 is satisfied.
■ Based on above studies, routing which adopts the following
Non-waiting ports in Figure 2 is marked with black color
or diagonal lines. Livelock removal of non-waiting ports is
described in the following section.
3.11 Router structure
This section describes the modification of router’s output
selection function and arbiters, which are necessary to
support Semi-deflection routing mechanism.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3.3.2 Output selection function
Adaptive routing is characterized by determining adaptive
routing algorithm and output selection function (OSF).
Adaptive algorithm decides a set of available output ports,
and OSF prioritizes output ports for assigning to packets.
Definition 4: (Output Selection Function (OSF) of Semi-
deflection routing) OSF of Semi-deflection routing
prioritizes each port based on the following order:
1) Output towards the destination
2) Output that goes away from the destination, but does not
loop back
3) Output that loops back
It is possible to prevent livelock between non-waiting ports
by giving loop-back selection the lowest priority.
2.3.2 Arbitration
An arbiter is in charge of allotting input packets to output
ports. Priority of arbitration is described as follows. If none
of the rules match, the order is based on the timestamp
when packets entered the router.
Definition 5: (Arbitration order of Semi-deflection
routing)
2) Packets whose highest prioritized output port by the OSF
makes prohibited turn
3) Other packets
It is possible to prevent livelock by arbitrating (1) with the
highest priority. Also, non-blocking loop-back transfer is
realized when other output ports are busy. By arbitrating (2)
with high priority, non-blocking transfer to the prohibited
direction is satisfied when the output port is available. If it is
blocked, other vacant ports are allotted in prior to other
input packets.
Finally, the arbiter selects other packets that are not
injected from non-waiting port, or packets that does not
wish to take prohibited turn. If only available output port
would keep packets away from destination nodes, packets
can wait at the router input buffer until other ports to
become vacant. This suppresses unprofitable increase of hop
counts.
2.1 Router structure
rules is defined as Semi-deflection routing mechanism.
Definition 6: (Semi-deflection routing mechanism)
l Prohibited turns and non-waiting ports are determined
based on a turn model in the given network.
l Each router transfers packets based on priorities given by
OSFs and arbiters in the previous subsections.
Because turn model can be applied to arbitrary topology
[21], application of Semi-deflection routing is not limited to
a two-dimensional Mesh topology.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 55
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Theorem 3: Semi-deflection routing is deadlock-free.
Proof: (i) If a packet does not take a prohibited turn, it
does not deadlock because no cyclic-dependency occurs. (ii)
In case of taking prohibited turn, a packet can be transferred
if buffers among forwarding input ports are vacant. (iii)
Even when packets exist in all buffer of forwarding input
ports, no deadlock occurs unless a packet transfer takes
prohibited turn. Thus, buffers of forwarding input port will
be vacant according to (i), and packet transfer will be
possible. According to the above, only possible condition for
causing a deadlock is when all packet transfer to forwarding
input ports to take prohibited turns, and packets

Figure 3. Uniform (1-flit) Figure 4. Matrix transpose (1-flit) Figure 5. Bit reversal (1-flit)

Figure 6. Uniform (4-flit) Figure 7. Matrix transpose (4-flit) Figure 8. Bit reversal (4-flit)

Figure 9. Uniform (8-flit) Figure 10. Matrix transpose (8-flit) Figure 11. Bit reversal (8-flit)

also exist in their buffers. However, such input ports

fulfilling the above conditions are non-waiting ports 3. Evaluations
according to Definition 2, and a packet does not stay after a
certain period of time according to Theorem 1 and This section shows throughput evaluation results of Semi-
Definition 5. Consequently, Semi-deflection routing is deflection routing for 8x8 Mesh topology with various
deadlock-free. ■ packet lengths.
3.1 Simulation conditions
Theorem 4: Semi-deflection routing is livelock-free.
The throughput was evaluated with 64 nodes in a two-
Proof: According to Definition 4 and Definition 5, an
dimensional Mesh topology using irr sim[22], a C++ flit-
output port toward the destination is given higher priority.
level network simulator. Here, latency is number of cycles
Also, Semi-deflection routing is a fully-adaptive non-
between source core injects a packet in the network and
minimal routing which assumes virtual cut-through routing.
destination core receives it. Accepted traffic is the average
The above two conditions satisfy conditions for a livelock-
number of flits each core receives at a cycle in average.
freedom of a chaos-router [19]. Consequently, Semi-
Maximum throughput is defined as maximum value of
deflection routing is livelock-free. ■
accepted traffic when latency is 1000 cycles or lower. For
evaluation, we used following batch and permutation
routing problems [23].
56 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

advantage of Semi-deflection routing using uniform traffic

l Batch routing: all processors generate a single packet pattern was moderate. Maximum throughput was lower than
simultaneously. North-last routing when packet length was four, was equal
Ø Uniform traffic when packet length was eight, and slightly better for single-
All processors generate a single packet to identically flit packet.
distributed random destinations. Traffic loads of each Comparing with classical Hot-potato routing, maximum
node are equally balanced. throughput of Semi-deflection routing was equal or
l Permutation routing: each node is the destination of a outperformed according to Figures 3, 4, and 5. This is a
single packet striking result because Hot-potato routing intuitively
Ø Matrix transpose provides higher flexibility compared to Semi-deflection
When array size is k, node (x, y) transmits data to routing. In addition, throughput of Hot-potato routing
node (k - y - 1, k - x -1). Nodes on the diagonal axis decreased when network load surpassed certain amount,
(x + y = k - 1) transmit data to node (k - x -1, k - y - indicating that it requires stricter injection limitation
1). technique which presumably would reduce maximum
Ø Bit reversal traffic throughput of Hot-potato routing.
When index values of source nodes are given as (a 0, a 1, ...,
a n− 1), each sends data to nodes (a n-1, ..., a 1, a 0 ). 3.3 Average hop count
Table 1. Average hop count (8x8 Mesh) Table 1 shows average hop count of each traffic pattern by
applying North-last, Semi-deflection, and Hot-potato routing
Traffic pattern Workload level to 8×8 two-dimensional Mesh topology. Again, here we
Routing assume a single-flit packet. Traffic load was set to the
low moderate very high
Uniform 5.34 5.36 5.29 following.
North Mtx. 6.25 5.60 5.06 l Low traffic: when packets are injected per 50 cycles to
-last transpose all routers.
Bit reversal 6.25 5.67 5.78 l Moderate traffic: when R is round-off value of average
Uniform 5.37 5.51 5.81 hop count in case of low traffic, packets are injected
Semi per R cycles to all routers. In concrete, R = 5 was
Mtx. 6.39 6.61 7.22
-Deflec applied for uniform traffic, and R = 6 for other traffic
transpose
-tion patterns.
Bit reversal 6.34 6.37 7.31
l Very high traffic: when packets were injected per one
Uniform 5.63 6.46 5.72
Deflec cycle to all routers.
Mtx. tranpose 6.25 7.84 5.14
-tion As Table 1 indicates, Semi-deflection routing effectively
Bit reversal 6.84 8.07 6.70
suppresses the increase of hop counts. Semi-deflection and
the other routing algorithms show contrasting
3.2 Throughput characteristics as traffic load increases. The case of Semi-
Throughput of Semi-deflection routing is shown in Figure 3 deflection routing is intuitive; when packets have lower
to Figure 11. The throughput was compared with North-last chances to take minimal path, they take detour route and
adaptive routing, and exclusively for 1-flit packets, we also average hop count increases.
made comparison with the most classical Hot-potato routing Contrary, hop count decreases for North-last routing and
algorithm, where input packets are deflected from the router Hot-potato routing. This is due to difference in packet
at the next cycle, and cannot wait for output ports to take delivery capacity of both routing mechanisms. When traffic
shortest path. Other parameters are specified as follows. becomes closer to the maximum capacity, packet movement
l Topology: 8×8 two-dimensional Mesh slows down and eventually terminates. Thus, hop count
l Buffer size: 16 flits indicates the average value when traffic was below
l Packet size: 1, 4, and 8 flits saturation. Since Semi- deflection routing provides escape
l Throttle threshold value: 3 ports paths, packet movement does not slow down, and this leads
To maintain performance of Semi-deflection routing and to the higher throughput as shown in previous section.
Hot-potato routing, we applied a very simple throttle
mechanism to each router; when more than three input ports
of a router are busy, its local host core does not inject a 4. Related Works
packet. Throughput evaluation with different packet length
Deterministic routing is a routing that always selects a
and traffic patterns revealed following features of Semi-
single path between each pair of source and destination
deflection routing. First of all, comparing the routing with
nodes. A most typical example is dimension-order routing,
North-last methodology, it performed quite well on
which routes packets first in the x-dimension, and then in
permutation routing patterns even with long packet length.
the y-dimension to reach the destination node. Although this
With any packet length, Semi-deflection routing provided
routing is advantageous in terms of average hop count
nearly twice or even higher throughput, as Figures 4, 5, 7, 8,
because it only allows minimal path, it may cause imbalance
10 and 11 indicate. According to Figure 7, approximately
for some traffic patterns. However, because of its simplicity
2.38 times higher throughput was obtained when packet
and feasibility to avoid deadlocks, dimension-order routing
length was one flit and traffic pattern was Matrix transpose.
was applied to many supercomputers such as Cray T3D[24].
On the other hand, according to Figures 3, 6, and 9,
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 57
On the other hand, an adaptive routing can select
multiple possible paths, and make much of path diversity of
the topology. The main challenge of adaptive routing is to
provide a large number of alternative paths so as to maintain
average network load constant, balance the load among
multiple routers, and keep average hop count low as much
as possible. Another challenge is to guarantee deadlock- and
livelock-freedom. A turn model described in Section 2
defines prohibited turns to eliminate all cyclic channel
dependency of the topology. Duato’s protocol is an adaptive
routing which makes the best use of path diversity, and is a
fully-adaptive routing. It allows all possible paths by adding
one virtual channel for each path.
In contrast, Semi-deflection differs from the above in
terms of the following features.
l Router design becomes lightweight because it does not
require virtual channels.
l It is a non-minimal fully-adaptive routing that has
largest path diversity.
Another approach to cope with deadlocks is deadlock-
recovery-based routing, which usually employs minimal
fully adaptive routing. It is useful only when deadlocks are
infrequent, and recently, the techniques that are applicable
for efficient deadlock recovery-based routing have been
proposed. When deadlock is found, one of the packets is
removed from the deadlocked paths. In overall, there are
two types in deadlock removal strategies: a progressive
method that prepares escape path, and regressive method
which discards and retransmits packets. The former requires
virtual channels, and the latter requires control mechanics
for packet disposal and retransmission. Semi-deflection
routing is a deadlock-free mechanism, so it does not require
such control mechanisms.
Also, some methods handle deadlocks more proactively.
For example, Deflection routing guarantees deadlock-free by
making a router sending out larger number of flits than it
has received per cycle. Of course, each router cannot
necessarily selects proper output port of each packet to the
destinations, however deadlock does not occur because
packets do not make collisions. Also, studies of Chaos router
have proved its livelock-freedom. Drawback of Deflection
routing is that it cannot be applied to wormhole routing,
increasing number of average hop count, and increasing
hardware amount due to addition of dedicated buffer for
holding one packet per router[25]. Semi-deflection routing
differs from Deflection routing in terms of the following.
l Semi-deflection routing only requires non-blocking
transfer for selected ports of partial routers. Other
packets can wait for output ports to take appropriate
paths. Thus, average hop count is smaller than
Deflection routing, as shown in Section 3.
l No dedicated buffer is required for implementation.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, we proposed Semi-deflection routing, which is
a non-minimal fully-adaptive routing and makes the best use
of virtual cut-through switching. Semi-deflection routing
does not require the use of virtual channels by allowing non-
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
blocking transfer among certain routers in interconnection
networks of massively parallel computers and SANs.
Evaluation results show that throughput improvement
was 2.38 times in maximum in case of 8×8 two-dimensional
Mesh topology.
As the future work, we are planning to test our proposed
routing with other topologies such as torus topology, and
study other tuning techniques.
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[13] W.J.Dally and et al., “Architecture and implementation Author’s Profile

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Lanzetta, L. S. Mok, R. Rand, R. Swetz, T. Takken, P. candidate at Keio University. Her research
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 59
Protecting Consumers from the Menace of Phishing
Vivian Ogochukwu Nwaocha
National Open University of Nigeria, School of Science and Technology,
Victoria Island, Lagos
webdevee@yahoo.com
Abstract: The number and sophistication of phishing scams
sent out to consumers is continuing to swell drastically. Banks,
Vendors, and a number of organizations who provide their
services online have had several incidents where their clients
have been swindled by phishers. The internet industry is starting
to take the threat very seriously seeing the exploding trend of
attacks and the tendency for the phish hits to afflict the big
industries. Today, both the spam and phishing enterprises are
blooming. These fraudsters send spam or pop-up messages to
lure personal and financial information from unsuspecting
victims. The hostile party then uses this information for
criminal purposes, such as identity theft and fraud. In spite of
the measures being taken by researchers, internet service
providers and software vendors to curb this scam, phishing
scams have been on the rise as phishers continue to devise new
schemes to deceive consumers. In this paper, we present the
different forms of phishing; highlighting specific phishing
features that would help consumers identify an imminent
phishing scam in order to avoid being phished. It is hoped that
promoting valuable consumer education would help protect
Internet users worldwide from becoming victims of phishing
scams. By providing their consumers with the tools, resources,
and guidance they need to protect themselves from these threats,
industries and organizations would equally help reduce the
threat of phishing attacks.
Keywords: consumers, emails, phishing, vishing, websites.
1. Introduction
Phishing attacks are rapidly increasing in frequency.
According to the Anti-Phishing Working Group (APWG),
[1] reports of phishing attacks increased by 180% in April
2004 alone, and by 4,000% in the six months prior to April.
A recent study done by the antispam firm MailFrontier Inc.
found that phishing emails fooled users 28% of the time.[2]
Estimates of losses resulting from phishing approached $37
million in 2002.[3]
The term phishing refers to the act of sending an e-mail to a
user falsely claiming to be an established legitimate
enterprise in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering
private information that will be used for identity theft. The
e-mail directs the user to visit a Web site where they are
asked to update personal information, such as passwords
and credit card, social security, and bank account numbers,
that the legitimate organization already has. [4]
A phishing attack is said to be successful when a user is
tricked into forming an inaccurate mental model of an
online interaction and thus takes actions that have effects
contrary to the user's intentions. The attacker can then use
this information for criminal purposes, such as identity theft
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
or fraud. Users are tricked into disclosing their information
either by providing it through a web form or by
downloading and installing hostile software. Once this is
done, the attackers have the information they want, which
puts the ball squarely in their court. This has been a very
successful avenue for attackers in the past. They have been
able to harvest various users’ personal information with
ease. As a whole, the Internet is unsecure because many of
the constituent networks are unsecure. [5]
The first major phishing attempt was made in 1995 against
AOL users (ASTALAVISTA, 2010). Back then, AOL just
recently finished adapting measures that prevented using
fake credit card numbers to open new AOL accounts.
Because of this Crackers resorted to the phishing to get real
credit card numbers from authentic users to create their
accounts. Phishers usually posed as AOL employees. These
fake AOL employees contacted their victims using instant
messaging in an attempt to get them to reveal their credit
card details. [6]
Due to the fact that many phishers were successful in
obtaining credit card details from AOL customers, they
realized that it might be profitable to attack online payment
institutions. Phishing has become a critical problem for
every major financial institution in the world. Nowadays,
phishers usually target people who deal with online payment
services and banks. Phishers now have the ability to target
specific customers of different financial institution. By
narrowing down the which bank service you are using,
phishers can then send targeted emails by posing as
employees from a specific financial institution. This makes
their data gathering attempts much more efficient and
difficult to stop. This process is referred to as ‘spear
phishing’. Some phishers have targeted VIPs and high-
ranking executives in a practice that has been labeled as
‘whaling’.
With the advent of social networking sites such as Facebook
and MySpace, phishers have now moved to new hunting
grounds. The details obtained from phishing on social
networking sites are known to be used in identity theft.
Phishers prefer targeting social networking sites because the
success rate is often high. In fact, experts have estimated
that 70% of all phishing attacks in social networking sites
are successful. This is because phishers use a fake login
page to track social networkers to punch in their login
details. File sharing sites like Rapidshare and Megaupload
have also been targeted by phishing schemes. Phishers
60
attempt to obtain login details to various premium accounts
to gain access to unlimited upload and download service
that are provided by the site.
There is yet another form of phishing where the scammers
exploit the phone channel to ask for sensitive information,
rather than sending e-mails and cloning trustworthy
websites. In some sense, the traditional phone scams are
streamlined by attackers using techniques that are typical of
modern, e-mail-based phishing.
2. Related Work
A number preventive and detective solutions for phishing
threats have been provided by MarkMonitor, Panda
Security, VeriSign, Internet Identity, Cyveillance, RSA,
WebSense, etc. [7], most of them are based on detecting
fraudulent emails and embedded URL, identifying and
closing down the scam site, bombing phishing sites with
dummy information (but apparently real) in order to confuse
the attacker making it difficult to distinguish real data from
dummy data. The use of digital certificates is also a solution
proposed as a countermeasure for phishing attacks.
However, investigations reveal that the use of digital
certificates for server authentication is not enough to
mitigate phishing threats. This is for many reasons, for
example many users do not pay enough attention to the
digital certificate details or many others do not have the
knowledge to perform a correct validation of the digital
certificate [8, 9]. In addition the attacker could decide not to
use encrypted traffic (HTTP instead of HTTPS).
These solutions are not sufficient to provide a secure
environment because most of them are reactive solutions
and others do not comply with security policies (e.g. deny as
default, allow only permitted, etc.). In particular for
blocking an attacker site, detecting fraudulent emails is like
making a black list, and this is the opposite of allowing only
permitted. Other solutions such as the use of two factor
authentication are not enough. If we authenticate the user,
we also have to authenticate the server because both entities
must be considered mutually untrusted. For this reason, in
order to work in a secure way in presence of innumerable
phishing attempts a multi-factor solution is required.
3. Common Phishing Procedure
The most common phishing scams involves sending a
fraudulent email that claims to be from a well-known
company. Below is an illustration of a typical phishing
procedure:
1. Mass 2. Phishing 3. Fraudulent
Email Email Website
The Modus Operandi of Phishing
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• A fraudster initiates phishing by sending thousands,
even millions, of emails to different mail accounts
disguised as messages from a well-known
company. The typical phishing email will contain a
concocted story designed to lure you into taking an
action such as clicking a link or button in the email
or calling a phone number. [10]
• In the email, there will be links or buttons that take
ignorant consumers to a fraudulent website.
• The fraudulent website will also mimic the
appearance of a popular website or company. The
scam site will ask for personal information, such as
credit card number, Social Security number, or
account password.
• As soon as the user is tricked to take actions contrary
to his intention, phishing is said to be successful.
Thus, the user thinks he’s giving information to a
trusted company when, in fact, he’s supplying it to
a criminal.
4. Types of Phishing
3.1 Email and Bogus Website Phishing
The most common form of phishing is by email. In this
mode of phishing, phishers pretending to be from a genuine
financial institution, or a legitimate retailer or government
agency, ask their targeted victim to “confirm” their personal
information for some made-up reason. Typically, the email
contains a link to a phony Web site that looks just like the
real thing – with sophisticated graphics and images. In fact,
the fake Web sites are near-replicas of the real one, making
it difficult even for experts to distinguish between the real
and fake Web sites. As a result, the victim enters his
personal information onto the Web site – and into the hands
of identity thieves.
3.2 Vishing
The main text for your paragraphs should be 10pt font. All
body paragraphs (except the beginning of a section/sub- As
computer users have become more educated about the
dangers of phishing emails, perpetrators have begun
incorporating the telephone into their schemes. This
variation on the phishing ploy has been termed vishing,
indicating that it is a combination of voice (phone) and
phishing. In a typical vishing attempt, you would receive a
legitimate-looking email directing you to call a number.
This would connect you to an automatic voice system, which
would ask for your credit card information. In some cases
email wouldn't be involved at all. Instead, you would receive
an automated phone call requesting your account
information. Often the perpetrators would already have your
credit card number and would be requesting only the
security code from the back of the card.
Internet Voice, also known as Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) or Internet telephony, is a relatively new technology
that allows you to make phone calls over the Internet.
Depending on the provider, VoIP can have several
advantages over conventional phone service, such as a flat
rate for long distance calls and no extra charge for popular
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 61
features such as caller ID and voice mail. Internet voice
(VoIP) vulnerabilities are facilitating this form of fraud.
Users can telephone anonymously. In addition, caller ID
devices can be fooled into displaying a false source for a
call.
. type the website address of your online transaction and log
3.3.1 Samples of Phishing
Sample 1:
"Is this Mr. Shola? I'm calling from PSP Bank. Do you have
a Visa® card? I need to verify your account number because
it seems that someone may be fraudulently
charging purchases to your account. Can you read me the
account number and expiration date on the front of your
Visa® card? OK, now the last four digits on the back..."
Sample 2:
"Hello, Mr. Peter Johnson? I represent the ICC Company
and our records show that you have an overdue bill of $500
plus interest and penalties. You don't know anything about
this bill? Well, there could be a mix-up. Is your address 34
Hall Street? What is your Social Security number...?"
Sample 3:
"This is Inspector Danladi calling from the Economic and
Financial Crimes Commission. Are you Mr. Samuel? We
have received several reports of telemarketing
fraud involving attempted withdrawals from bank accounts
in your area. In order to safeguard your account, we need to
confirm your account number, could you please call out your
account number...”
3.3.2 Common Phishing Features
While phishing scams can be sophisticated, one needs to be
vigilant in order to recognize a potential scam. The
following features are often pointers that something is wide
of the mark:
… Someone contacts you unexpectedly and asks for your
personal information such as your financial institution
account number, an account password or PIN, credit card
number or Social Security number. Legitimate companies
and agencies don’t operate that way.
… The sender, who is a supposed representative of a
company you do business with, asks you to confirm that you
have a relationship with the company. This information is
on record with the real company.
… You are warned that your account will be shut down
unless you “reconfirm” your financial information.
… Links in an email you receive ask you to provide personal
information. To check whether an email or call is really
from the company or agency, call it directly or go to the
company’s Web site (use a search engine to find it).
… You’re a job seeker who is contacted by someone
claiming to be a prospective employer who wants your
personal information.
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
5. Tips for Spotting Phishing Scams
Essentially, fraudulent email and websites are designed to
deceive you and can be difficult to distinguish from the real
thing. Whenever you get an email about your account, the
safest and easiest course of action is to open a new browser,
in to your account directly. Do not click on any link in an
email that requests personal information.
5.1 Identifying Fraudulent Emails
There are many telltale signs of a fraudulent email.[11]
a. Sender's Email Address. To give you a false sense
of security, the “From” line may include an official-
looking email address that may actually be copied
from a genuine one. The email address can easily
be altered – it’s not an indication of the validity of
any email communication.
b. Generic Email Greeting. A typical phishing email
will have a generic greeting, such as “Dear User.”
Note: All PayPal emails will greet you by your first
and last name.
c. False Sense of Urgency. Most phishing emails try
to deceive you with the threat that your account will
be in jeopardy if it’s not updated right away. An
email that urgently requests you to supply sensitive
personal information is typically fraudulent.
d. Fake Links. Many phishing emails have a link that
looks valid, but sends you to a fraudulent site that
may or may not have an URL different from the
link. Always check where a link is going before you
click. Move your mouse over the URL in the email
and look at the URL in the browser. As always, if it
looks suspicious, don't click it. Open a new browser
window, and type https://www.paypal.com.
e. Attachments. Similar to fake links, attachments can
be used in phishing emails and are dangerous.
Never click on an attachment. It could cause you to
download spyware or a virus. PayPal will never
email you an attachment or a software update to
install on your computer.
Model of a fraudulent email
5.2 Identifying a Fraudulent Website
A phishing email will usually try to direct you to a
fraudulent website that mimics the appearance of a popular
website or company. The fraudulent website commonly
referred to as a ‘spoof ‘website will request your personal
information, such as credit card number, Social Security
number, or account password.
62
You think you are giving information to a trusted company
when, in fact, you are supplying it to an online criminal.
a. Deceptive URLs.
Be cautious. Some fraudsters will insert a fake browser
address bar over the real one, making it appear that you’re
on a legitimate website. Follow these precautions: Even if an
URL contains the word "PayPal," it may not be a PayPal
site.
Examples of fake PayPal addresses:
http://signin.paypal.com@10.19.32.4/
http://83.16.123.18/pp/update.htm?=https://
www.paypal.com/=cmd_login_access
www.secure-paypal.com
Always log in to PayPal by opening a new browser and
typing in the following: https://www.paypal.com.
The term "https" should precede any web address (or
URL) where you enter personal information. The "s"
stands for secure. If you don't see "https," you're not in a
secure web session, and you should not enter data.
b. Out-of-place lock icon.
Make sure there is a secure lock icon in the status bar at the
bottom of the browser window. Many fake sites will put this
icon inside the window to deceive you.
Model of a Bogus Website
6. Phishing Protection: Multi-factor Approach
The primary responsibility for protecting yourself from
phishers lies with YOU. Here are some steps you can take:
• Be on guard
Be wary of any email with an urgent request for personal,
account or financial information. Unless the email is
digitally signed (a method of authenticating digital
information), you can't be sure it is authentic.
• Don't fill out a form on a Web site unless you
know it is secure.
You should communicate information such as credit card
numbers or account information only through a secure Web
site or over the telephone. To ensure that you're on a secure
Web server, check its address in your browser's address bar.
It should begin with "https" rather than just "http." In
addition, there should be a symbol such as a padlock or key,
usually at the bottom of your browser window (not in the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Web page window). Double click on the symbol to see the
security certificate for the site and make sure that it matches
the site you think you're visiting. But beware - a scammer
may also use a secure Web site.
• Regularly check your bank, credit and debit
card statements (paper and online).
Verify each account at least once a month. Ensure that all
transactions are legitimate. If anything is suspicious, contact
your bank and all card issuers.
• Ensure that your browser is up to date.
Make sure that you have applied the latest security patches
and updates. If you use the Microsoft Internet Explorer
browser, go to http://www.microsoft.com/security/ and
download a special patch relating to certain phishing
schemes.
• Install and maintain antivirus and anti-spyware
Software.
Some phishing email may contain software that can track
your activities, disrupt your computer or simply slow it
down. Detect, manage and delete these threats by installing
effective antivirus software and antispyware and keeping it
updated, either automatically or by downloading updates
manually from the manufacturer's Web site.
• Consider installing a phish-blocking toolbar on
your Web browser.
EarthLink ScamBlocker is part of a free browser toolbar that
alerts you before you visit a page that's on EarthLink’s list
of known fraudulent phisher Web sites. It's free to all
Internet users and can be downloaded at EarthLink Toolbar.
Handle a vishing attempt as you would a phishing situation:
• Don't respond to it.
• Don't call a number given in an email.
• Don't give out your account information in
response to a phone call you didn't initiate.
Contact your credit card company directly and only by your
usual means.
7. Conclusion
It is thus important that consumers are watchful in
handing out critical user-specific information. Creating
passwords that use a combination of upper and lower
case and special characters will also contribute to a hard
data encryption. For businesses, educating employees on
how to recognise a phishing attempt makes it competitive
in computer security. It is also wise to install advanced
browsers that alert users when fraudulent or suspicious
websites are visited. Moreover, exchanging details should
be done in secured manner and channel where strong
cryptography is used for server authentication. In the
struggle against phishers and Internet scam perpetuators,
being a smart Internet user makes a difference. Internet
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 63
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

fraud can be eliminated or reduced to a great extent when Author Profile

common sense and safety precautions are applied.
Vivian Ogochukwu Nwaocha is currently
involved in coordinating Computer Science and
Information Technology programs at the
National Open University of Nigeria. Her main
References research interests are computer security,
artificial intelligence, mobile learning and
[1] Anti-Phishing Working Group, Phishing Attack Trends
assistive technologies. A good number of papers authored by
Vivian have been published in various local and international
Report, April 2004. [Online]. Available: journals. Vivian has equally written a number of books which are
http://antiphishing.org/APWG_Phishing_Attack_Repor accessible online. She has participated in several community and
t-Apr2004.pdf. service development projects in Nigeria and beyond. Vivian is a
[2] Bob Sullivan, "Consumers Still Falling for Phish," member of Computer Professionals Registration Council of
Nigeria, Nigeria Computer Society, Prolearn Academy, elearning
MSNBC, July 28, 2004. [Online]. Available: Europe, IAENG society of Computer Science, IAENG society of
Artificial Intelligence, IAENG society of Bioinformatics and
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5519990/
several online social networking communities.
[3] Neil Chou, Robert Ledesma, Yuka Teraguchi, and John
C. Mitchell, "Client-Side Defense Against Web-Based
Identity Theft," 11th Annual Network and Distributed
System Security Symposium, 2004. [Online]. Available:
http://theory.stanford.edu/people/jcm/papers/spoof
guard-ndss.pdf.
[4] WEBOPEDIA, Everything you need to know is right
here, 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/phishing.html
[5] C. Douglas, “The INTERNET Book, Everything You
Need to Know About Computer Networking and How the
Internet Works,” Fourth Edition, pp. 311-312, 2006.
[6] ASTALAVISTA,"The Hacking and Security
Community, Introduction to Phishing”. July, 2010.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.astalavista.com/blog/5/entry-90-
introduction-to-phishing/
[7] Anti-Phishing Working Group, Vendor solutions, 2010.
[Online]. Available:
(http://www.antiphishing.org/solutions.html)
[8] R. S. Katti and R. G. Kavasseri, “Nonce Generation For
The Digital Signature Standard,” International Journal
of Network Security, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 23-32, July
2010.
[9] C. Yang, “Secure Internet Applications Based on Mobile
Agents,” International Journal of Network Security, vol.
2, no. 3, pp. 228-237, May 2006.
[10] PayPal, Phishing Guide Part I, [Online]. Available:
https://www.paypal.com/cgi-
bin/webscr?cmd=xpt/Marketing/securitycenter/general/
UnderstandPhishing-outside
[11] PayPal, Phishing Guide Part II, “Recognizing
Phishing," [Online]. Available: https://www.paypal.com
/cgibin/webscr?cmd=xpt/Marketing/securitycenter/gene
ral/RecognizePhishing-outside
64 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

An Intelligent Bidirectional Authentication Method

Nabil EL KADHI 1 and Hazem EL GENDY 2
1
Computer Engineering Department Chairman
Ahlia University Bahrain
nelkadhi@ahliauniversity.edu.bh
2
Faculty of Computer Sc &IT Ahram Canadian University Egypt
H_elgendy@masrawy.com

Abstract: A new Bluetooth authentication model using some
game theory concepts is presented in this paper. Bluetooth is a
wireless communication protocol designed for WPAN (Wireless
Personal Area Network) use. Game theory is a branch of
mathematics and logic which deals with the analysis of games.
An authentication between two Bluetooth devices is an
unidirectional challenge-response procedure and consequently,
has many vulnerabilities. We propose a bidirectional
authentication scheme in which the authentication is considered
as a non-cooperative non-zero-sum bi-matrix game. Three
strategies are developed for each player, and the best-response
strategies (also called Nash equilibrium) for this game are
computed. Using Simplex algorithm, we find only one Nash
equilibrium corresponding to the case where both Bluetooth
devices are authentic and trying to securely communicate
together. In a Nash equilibrium, no player has an incentive to
deviate from such situation. Then, we generalize our
authentication method to other protocols.
Keywords: Computer/Communications Protocols, ISO
(International Standards Organization), Bluetooth security,
Bluetooth authentication, game theory, Nash equilibrium,
Transport Layer Protocol.
1. Introduction
The growth of Information Technology role in various
aspects of our lives in various areas has been increasing
rapidly. This in turn increased the importance of having
digital information bases and have electronic connectivity
between various sites of the same organization and between
various organizations. These may be spread over multiple
networks in different countries in different contents [16, 17].
This in turn, significantly and substantially increased
the importance of having security guarantees for these
information data bases and electronic connectivity.
Unfortunately, the security risks have also increased. This
triggered the Research on & Development of security
methods and systems to provide security guarantees to the
communicating users and users of the information data
bases. This includes the work on developing authentication
methods to authenticate the identity of the communicating
parties [1].
The explosive growth of electronic connectivity and
wireless technologies revolutionized our society. Bluetooth
is one of these technologies. It is a recently proposed
standard [8] that allows for local wireless communication
and facilitates the physical connection of different devices
[2]. Unfortunately, this wireless environment attracted many
malicious individuals. Wireless networks are exposed to
many risks and hacker attacks, ranging from data manip-
ulation and eavesdropping to viruses and warms attacks. On
one hand, security needs are increasingly vital. On the other
hand, many security problems have been addressed by game
theory. In fact, game theory is the formal study of interactive
decision processes [11] offering enhanced understanding of
conflict and cooperation through mathematical models and
abstractions.
Bluetooth networks are proliferating in our society.
Unfortunately, the Bluetooth security has many weaknesses.
Del Vecchio and El Kadhi [8] explain many attacks based
on the Bluetooth protocol and Bluetooth software
implementations.
The application of game theory to networks security has
been gaining increasing interest within the past few years.
For example, Syverson [14] talks about “good” nodes
fighting “evil” nodes in networks and suggests using game
theory for reasoning. In [3], Browne describes how game
theory can be used to analyze attacks involving complicated
and heterogeneous military networks. Buike [4] studies the
use of games to model attackers and defenders in
information warfare.
In this paper, we focus on the vulnerability of the
Bluetooth authentication. Since such process is unilateral, a
malicious Verifier can considerably damage its
correspondent menacing the operability of that device on the
one hand and, the confidentiality and the integrity of the
data exchanged on the other hand. To counter this
weakness, a game-theoretic framework is used to model a
bidirectional authentication between two Bluetooth devices.
Using the Nash equilibrium concept, a secure authentication
process is defined in which the authentication is successful
if and only if both devices are trusted. This paper is
structured as following: First, Bluetooth protocol is reviewed
with a focus on its security procedures and vulnerabilities in
section 2. Then, section 3 is dedicated to a background on
game theory. Next, in section 4 we introduce our game-
theoretic model, then some results are presented in section
5. The new bidirectional Bluetooth authentication protocol
is described in section 6. In Section 7, we generalize our
intelligent authentication method to other protocols. Section
8, presents concluding remarks.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 65
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

2. An overview of the Bluetooth security exchanged [15]. The authentication process is shown in
figure 1:

2.1 Bluetooth technology

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless cable replacement
technology. It was researched and developed by an
international group called the Bluetooth Special Interest
Group (SIG). It has been chosen to serve as the baseline of
the IEEE (Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers)
802.15.1 standard for Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPANs) [6]. Bluetooth communication adopts a master-
slave architecture to form restricted types of an ad-hoc net-
work (a collection of nodes that do not need to rely on a
predefined infrastructure to keep the network connected)
called piconets. A Bluetooth piconet can consist of eight
devices, of which one is the master and the others are slaves.
Each device may take part in three piconets at most, but a
device may be master in one piconet only. Several connected
piconets form a so called scatternet. One of the main
practical applications of Bluetooth technology includes the 2.2.4 Encryption
ability to transfer files, audio data and other objects, such as The encryption procedure follows on from the au-
electronic business cards, between physically separate thentication procedure. After the link key has been
devices such as cell phones and PDAs (Personal Digital As- determined, and authentication is successful, the encryption
sistant) or laptops. In addition, the piconets formed by key is generated by the Bluetooth E3 algorithm [9][12]. The
Bluetooth can be useful for example in a meeting, where all stream cipher algorithm, E0, is used for Bluetooth packet
participants have their own Bluetooth-compatible laptops, encryption and consists of three elements: the keystream
and want to share files with each other. generator, the pay-load key generator and the
2.2 Bluetooth link-level security encryption/decryption component [7].
The Bluetooth specifications include security features at the
3. Game theory
link level. These features are based on a secret link key that
is shared by a pair of devices. Bluetooth link-level security Game theory is a systematic and formal representation of the
supports key management, authentication and encryption interaction among a group of rational agents (people,
[10]. corporations, animals...). It attempts to determine
2.2.1 Security entities mathematically and logically the actions that players should
In every Bluetooth device there are four entities used for take in order to optimize their outcomes. We distinguish two
managing and maintaining security at the link level, namely main types of game-theoretic models: the strategic (or static)
[7]: games and the extensive games. The strategic form (also
• The Bluetooth device address (BD.ADDR). called normal form) is a basic model studied in non
cooperative game theory. A game in strategic form is given
• The private link key. by a set of strategies for each player, and specifies the payoff
• The private encryption key. for each player resulting from each strategy profile (a
combination of strategies, one for each player). Each player
• A random number (RAND). There is also a Bluetooth
chooses his plan of action once and for all and all players
Personal Identification Number (PIN) used for
make their decisions simultaneously at the beginning of the
authentication and to generate the initialization key
game. When there are only two players, the strategic form
before exchanging link keys [13].
game can be represented by a matrix commonly called bi-
2.2.2 Key management
matrix. The strategic game solution is, in fact, a Nash
A key management scheme is used to generate, store, and
equilibrium. Every strategic game with finite number of
distribute keys for the purpose of encryption, authentication
players, each with a finite set of actions has an equilibrium
and authorization [13][5]. Bluetooth specifies five different
point. This Nash equilibrium is a point from which no
types of keys: four link keys (initialization key, a unit key, a
single player wants to deviate unilaterally. By contrast, the
combination key and a master key) [7][13] and one
model of an extensive game specifies the possible orders of
encryption key [5].
the events. The players can make decisions during the game
2.2.3 Authentication
and they can react to other players’ decisions. Extensive
Bluetooth authentication uses a challenge-response scheme,
games can be finite or infinite. An extensive game is a
which checks whether the other party knows the link key
detailed description of the sequential structure
[9]. Thus one device adopts the role of the Verifier and the
corresponding to decision problems encountered by the
other the role of the Claimant [7]. Authentication is
players within strategic situations.
unilateral, i.e. one device (the Claimant) authorizes itself to
another device (the Verifier). If mutual authentication is re-
quired, the authentication process is repeated with the roles
66
4. Proposed model: a game-theoretic protocol
4.1 Assumptions and notations
The bidirectional Bluetooth authentication between two
devices is described by a non cooperative and non-zero-sum
game for two players in a normal form representation also
known as a bimatrix game. Our game is a non cooperative
one because the authentication procedure is considered
under the worst-case assumption. In other words, the
Verifier device and the Claimant are assumed to be in con-
flict because each of them has to consider that the other one
may be malicious. Both devices are trying to reach the same
optimal situation: communicate together without any risk.
Thus, what one device gains is not necessarily what the
other loses. This yields to a non-zero-sum game.
We define three strategies for each player i:
i = {v, c}
Where v refers to the Verifier and c refers to the Claimant:
• Tf Tell the truth and communicate with the player j.
• If Tell the truth and don’t communicate with the player
j.
• If Lie and try to damage the player j.
where j = {v,c} andi= j.
To allow only secure devices to communicate together, we
affect some reward and cost values defining an utility
function vd for each player i. In practice, each strategy
choice is assigned by some value of players’ utility
functions. The set of values assigned to different strategies is
determined according to statistical computations, empirical
studies, or by user specified values. In this work, such values
are defined according to a set of secure bidirectional
Bluetooth authentication rules. Note that we suggest
specifying these rules according to the authentication game
context and logic. Thus:
Rule 1 A bidirectionnal authentication between two
Bluetooth devices is secure if and only if both devices are
trusted.
Rule 2 A Bluetooth device is a winner when it is trusted and
is a loser otherwise.
Rule 3 A bidirectionnal Bluetooth authentication between
two Bluetooth devices is successful if and only if it is secure
and both devices cooperate together.
In addition, the following assumptions illustrate our
authentication game:
Assumption 1 Each player knows that his correspondent
may be a trusted device or a malicious one (note that this
assumption will justify the use of cryptographic parameters
in our model).
Assumption 2 Each player knows that if it cooperates, in others
words if it tells the truth and communicates with its
correspondent, it will win some value LU in the best case (when its
correspondent is trusted) and it will lose some value £ in the
worst-case (when its correspondent is malicious).
Assumption 3 Each player knows that if it tries to damage its
correspondent, in others words if it lies, it will lose some value n
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
when its correspondent is trusted and it will win some value i
when its correspondent is malicious.
Assumption 4 Each player knows that it had better be trusted in
any case: LU > i, £ < K and
(w + £) > (> + «).
Assumption 5 Each player knows that if it does not cooperate, in
other words if it tells the truth and does not communicate with its
correspondent, it will neither win nor lose.
4.2 Costs and rewards
Next, the meanings of win and lose are defined for the Bluetooth
devices. Consider each player payoff as a function of an energy
class constant G and a trust level constant Q. In fact, the Bluetooth
devices need to save operating power. The device’s level of trust
defines the interoperability authorization. Then, the utility
function is described as: Ui = CHG - (3iQ. For each player, the term
cnG defines the reward value whereas the term &Q defines the
cost value. en value depends only on the trustworthiness of the
player i. Whereas $ depends on the trustworthiness of both players
i and j. For example, if a player i is a trusted one and faces an
untrusted correspondent j, i will be rewarded for its authenticity
but it should pay for the non authenticity of j. Thus, we define the
following values for the coefficients αi and βi
4.3 The Nash equilibrium of our game
To achieve a secure bidirectional Bluetooth authentication
preserving the confidentiality and the integrity of the data in
transit, we use the Nash equilibrium theorem:
Theorem 1 A Nash equilibrium of a strategic-form game is a
mixed-strategy profile a* G Σ such that “ every player is playing
their best response to the strategy choices of his opponents” .
More formally, a* is a Nash equilibrium if:
where P = {1,... ,n}= the player set,
Si= Player i ’s pure-strategy space,
∑i= Player i’s mixed-strategy space (the set of probability
distributions over Si),
-i= The set P\i,
σi= Player i’s mixed-strategy profile, and
Ui(a)= Player i expected utility from a mixed-strategy
profile.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 67
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
To compute our game’s Nash equilibrium, we first formulate the Then, the Simplex algorithm is used to solve equations (3)
Verifier’s and the Claimant’s mixed-strategy best-responses’ and (4). This resolution leads to the following values:
correspondences (respectively, MBRv(r, s) and MBRc(p, q)): and t = 0.

4. Results
After optimal results are computed by the Simplex
resolution, the algorithm matchs Verifier and Claimant
probabilities with the mutual best-response
correspondence(MBi?y (r, s) and MBRc(p,q)). The Claimant
probability r = 173 corresponds to the case where Tv is the
best-strategy for the Verifier. In fact, r is greater than 38s
and also greater than 1s. Analogously, the Verifier
probability p = 173 yields the case where Tc is the Claimant’s
best-strategy. In fact, p is greater than 389 and also greater
than 15q. Thus, the mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium of our
game corresponds to the situation where telling the truth
and cooperating is the best-strategy for both players.
Consequently, the best strategy for the Verifier is Tv and the
best strategy for the Claimant is Tc and both players have no
incentive to deviate from this situation. This means that
according to our bidirectional authentication, the two
Bluetooth devices in communication are better off trusting
each other.

where p, q, r and s ∈ [0, 1]. The probabilities

5. Our bidirectional Bluetooth authentication
p, q, r and s corresponding to the players’
mixed-strategies, are computed using the lin- protocol
ear programs described in equations (3) and
(4):
Our method includes two main phases: the authentication
security parameters phase and the authentication game
establishment phase. The first phase is used to define the
devices’ trustworthiness and consequently the players’
strategies. The second phase corresponds to our game-
theoretic model where the bidirectional authentication is
considered a bimatrix game.
6.1 The security parameters check phase
According to the classic Bluetooth authentication (see figure
1), the Verifier and the Claimant devices use their input
parameters to produce the SRES and AGO outputs. For both
devices, there is only one secure parameter, the BDDR.C
relative to the Claimant, and only the Verifier checks if the
two SRES correspond. The Verifier can establish the
trustworthiness or the untrustworthiness of its
correspondent. Consequently, it can accept or refuse the
communication without any risk. But, if the Verifier is a
malicious device, the Claimant is incapable of to
discovering this, and the Verifier can easily damage its
correspondent. Consequently, in our bidirectionnal model,
we consider additional input parameters for both existing
players :RAND(C) and BDDR_V. Thus, the security
parameters check phase include two main steps. First, the
Verifier checks the Claimant identity. Next, the Claimant
takes the role of the Verifier and checks its correspondent
identity. Note that this identity check is done during two
different sessions and is not bidirectional. In each step,
each device computes an output and then, the two devices
check for correspondence. The Verifier and the Claimant
compute, respectively, SR1 and SR2 in the first step, and
SR3 and SR4 in the second step.
68
6.2 The authentication game phase
The authentication game phase consists of modeling the
bidirectional Bluetooth authentication as a game between
the Verifier and the Claimant. Results achieved in the
previous step of our algorithm are used to define the players
strategy. In fact, device-retained strategies are derived from
output matching. On one hand, SR1 = SR2 means that the
Claimant is trusted and ready to communicate. Otherwise,
the Claimant is considered a malicious device. On the other
hand, if the Claimant does not return a result, it is
indifferent to the communication. The same reasoning is
used for the Verifier where, this time, the SR3 and SR4
results are used. After deriving the players’ strategies, the
utility function parameters are defined. These parameters
represent the cost and reward function coefficients affected
to each player, depending on its strategy and the one that of
its correspondent. Next, the Nash equilibrium is computed
as detailed in section 5.3 (or best-responses
correspondence). Consequently, our Nash equilibrium
represents a pair of strategies (one by device) where each
player tells the truth and wants to securely communicate
which its correspondent. Recall that in a Nash equilibrium,
no player has an incentive to deviate from its strategy. In
terms of Bluetooth security, our bidirectional authentication
is successful if and only if both devices are trusted and there
isn’t any risk of damage or impersonation.
6.3 BiAuth algorithm
We summarize our bidirectionnal authentication procedure
on an algorithm called BiAuth which is described as
follows:
Algorithm BiAuth 1. Security parameters check:
(a) Define the authentication security parameters.
(b) Compute the security parameters correspondences.
2. Authentication game:
(a) Define the game basic elements:
• Define the set of players (a Verifier device and a
Claimant device).
• Define the players’ pure strategies (depending on
the verification of security parameters).
• Define the players’ mixed strategies.
• Define the players’ utility functions.
(b) Find mixed Nash equilibrium:
• Compute Verifier and Claimant pure-strategy
best-response correspondences.
• Compute Verifier and Claimant mixed-strategy
best-response correspondences.
(c) Formulate Verifier and Claimant problems as linear
programs.
(d) Compute mixed strategies’ probabilities: Simplex
resolution.
(e) Compute mixed Nash equilibrium.
Figure 2 illustrates our bidirectional Bluetooth
authentication protocol, where:
• RV and RC are Verifier and Claimant random-generated
numbers.
• BV and BC are the Verifier and the Claimant Bluetooth
addresses (BDDR).
• LK is the link key.
• ACO is the Authenticated Ciphering Offset generated by the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
authentication process.
• FV and FC are the Verifier and the Claimant functions used
to check their identities.
• E1 is the cryptographic function used during the
unidirectional Bluetooth authentication.
• SSV and SSC are the set of all possible strategies for the
Verifier and the Claimant.
• PRV and PRC are Verifier and Claimant strategy
probabilities.
• UV and UC are the Verifier and the Claimant utility
functions.
• CNEV and CNEC are the functions used to compute The
Verifier and the Claimant best-response correspondences.
• NEV and NEC are the Verifier and the Claimant Nash
strategies.
6.4 Attacks scenarios
As previously cited, an important risk incurred in the
classical Bluetooth authentication is linked to a malicious
Verifier. Such a device can attack a trusted Claimant by a
set of messages and damage it. According to our
authentication model, such a scenario will not occur. In fact,
when considering our game, the strategies pairs- lying to
trying to damage the Claimant and telling the truth to com-
municate with the Verifier- do not represent a Nash
equilibrium. Another possible attack is the Man-in-the-
Middle attack where an attacker device inserts itself “in
between” two Bluetooth devices. The attacker connects to
both devices and plays a masquerade role. Our bidirectional
authentication can prevent such an attack. Indeed, the
attacker could not impersonate any device in
communication. The attacker must authenticate itself as a
trusted device for each Bluetooth device. Otherwise, the
authentication fails.
7. Generalization of the Security Method to
Other Protocols
In this Section, we generalize our authentication
scheme to protocols other than the Bluetooth protocol.
We extend the authentication scheme to end-to-end
protocols of the wired ISO networks (Given in Figure
3) that utilizes the ISO OSI Transport Layer Protocol.
To do this, we extend the ISO Transport Layer
protocol
Figure 2: Our bidirectional Bluetooth authentication
protocol.
To include an authentication phase. We also require
that the successful authentication of the other party
planning to communicate with (the party responding
to a request to communicate with from the initiating
party or the party requesting communication with the
current party) be a necessary condition for the transfer
of user data (the normal Data Transfer state of the
ISO Transport Layer protocol). Figure 4 represents the
extended ISO Transport Layer protocol while Figure 3
represents the ISO Transport Layer protocol before
extension.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 69
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Connection Process
establishment phase AuthenticatedTPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt
,tdatr,ndreq] :no exit
idle
:= ( ?tcreq; !tdind;
connected TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq]
[] ?tcreq; !cr; ( ( ?dr; !tdind;
Disconnection phase TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,ndreq] )
[] (?cc; !tccon; exit)))
Data transfer phase >> ((Authentication_Data_phase[tdatr,dt]) [>
Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind] )
Figure 3. Block Diagram representing normal ISO endproc
Transport Layer protocol where
Referring to the ISO Transport Layer protocol given in Process Authentication_Data_phase[RV,RC,SR2,tdatr,dt]
Lotos in [16, 17], we have the following: ::exit = ( !RV; ?RC; SR2; (i; ?tdatr; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt])
Consider the Lotos specification for Class 0 transport [] (i; Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind])
protocol to the case where the protocol entity is the initiator. [] (!RV; ?RC; SR2; (i; ?dt; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt])
Process [] (i; Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind]))
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] endproc
:no exit := ( ?tcreq; !tdind; Process Disconnection[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind[
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] ::no exit :=
[] ?tcreq; !cr; ( ( ?dr; !tdind; ?tdreq; !ndreq;
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,ndreq] ) TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq]
[] (?cc; !tccon; exit))) [] ?ndind; !tdind;
>> (Data_phase[tdatr,dt] [> TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dr,tdatr,ndreq]
Disconnection_phase[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind] ) Endproc
endproc
where 8. Conclusions
Process Data_phase[tdatr,dt] ::exit = ?tdatr; i; In this work, we present a solution to strengthen the
Data_phase[tdatr,dt] Bluetooth security as well as other protocols including those
[] ?dt; i; Data_phase[tdatr,dt] for the wired networks. A classical Bluetooth authentication
endproc is unidirectional and consequently is vulnerable to malicious
Process Disconnection[tdreq,ndreq,ndind,tdind[ ::no exit := device attacks. The idea is to propose a bidirectional
?tdreq; !ndreq; authentication scheme. Game theory is useful for such
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dt,tdatr,ndreq] modelisation since it is a global framework with formal
[] ?ndind; !tdind; opportunities for real-life problem representations. Thus, the
TPC0[tcreq,tdind,cr,cc,tccon,dr,ndind,tdreq,dr,tdatr,ndreq] authentication between two Bluetooth devices is viewed as a
endproc game. The new bidirectional authentication is modeled as a
Applying our authentication scheme and our extension, we simultaneous two-players game (bi-matrix). The possible
get the following specifications: strategies for each player are defined (based on some
security parameters check) and formulated with the utility
Connection function. Such function affects some costs and rewards
Idle
establishment Ua-
phase
values for each player depending on its strategy and its
connected
correspondent’s. Then, each players’ best-strategy are com-
puted (defining the Nash equilibrium). The algorithm uses
the Simplex technique to calculate players’ total gains.
Recall that in such conditions only one Nash equilibrium
Au- Authentication phase
connected
can be derived. This equilibrium corresponds to the case
where both players are telling the truth. In Bluetooth
security terms, two devices have to be trusted during
bidirectional authentication. In other words, the
bidirectional authentication is successful if and only if both
devices are authentic. To implement this protocol, two
issues are possible: outside the Bluetooth core protocol (in
Data transfer phase Disconnection phase the application layer) or within the Bluetooth core protocol
(in the LMP layer). In the first case, the classical Bluetooth
authentication will be replaced by our bidirectional
authentication. When considering the second view, some
changes in the cryptographic function used during a
Idle classical Bluetooth authentication are necessary in order to
Figure 4: Block Diagram of the Extended ISO Transport incorporate the described model. We are finalizing some
Layered protocol with Authenticaion benchmarks to compare the efficiency between our
70 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

algorithm and the standard Bluetooth authentication model. [14] Syverson, P. F. (1997). A different look at secure
Our work can be extended in different ways. For example, distributed computation. In Proc. 10th IEEE Computer
we can model our bidirectional authentication as an N- Security Foundations Workshop.
player game. According to such model, an authentication [15](2003) Bluetooth: threats and security measures.
process can be performed between many devices at the same Bundesant fr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik,
time. This will be useful when piconets or scatternets are Local Wireless Communication Project Team, Ger-
formed. In addition, we can exploit extensive form in order many.
to describe dynamic behavior. A player will take into ac- [16] Hazem El-Gendy, “Formal Method for Automated
count the effect of its current behavior on the other players’ Transformation of Lotos Specifications to Estelle
future behavior. This principle can forewarn trusted Specifications”, International Journal of Software
Bluetooth devices of possible threats and malicious devices. Engineering & Knowledge Engineering, USA,
Also our model can be applied to any authentication process Vol. 15, No. 5, October 2005, pp. 1-19. 2005.
just by adapting the utility function parameters. [17] Hazem El-Gendy and Nabil El Kadhi, “Testing Data
Flow Aspects of Communications Protocols, Software,
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 71
Optimization of DTN routing protocols by using
forwarding strategy (TSMF) and queuing drop
policy (DLA)
Sulma Rashid1, Qaisar Ayub1, M. Soperi Mohd Zahid 1 , A.Hanan. Abdullah1
1
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),
Faculty of Computer Science & Information System,
Department of Computer System & Communication Skudai - Johor, 81310, Malaysia
sulmaqaiser@gmail.com , sheikhqaisar@gmail.com , soperi@utm.my , hanan@utm.my
Abstract: Delay tolerant Networks (DTN) are wireless networks
where disentanglement may occur repeatedly. In order to attain
the delivery probability in DTN, researchers have proposed the
use of store-carry-forward paradigm where a node may
accumulate messages in its buffer and carry it’s for long period
of time, until a forwarding opportunity arises. In this context,
multiple copies scheme gets popularity which floods multiple
messages to increase the delivery probability. This combination
leads protocol to store message for long time at node buffer and
less time duration of contact limited the message forwarding
and increase overhead of bandwidth. Thus a effective scheduling
for forwarding and drop polices are extremely important to
make decision in which order message is forwarded from queue
when limited time of transmission is available and decide which
drop policy will be use to overcome the full node buffer when a
new message received. In this paper, we propose a combination
of drop policy DLA and forwarding scheduling policy TSMF
called as DLTs that optimizes the DTN routing protocols in term
of overhead and boost the delivery probability and buffer time
average. We evaluate their efficiency and tradeoffs, through
simulation and prove that DLTs is performing better than
FIFO.
Keywords: Store and carry networks. Routing protocols, drop
policies, forwarding policies.
1. Introduction
In conventional routing schemes it is necessary to launch
end-to-end path from source to destination previous to the
transmission of data. Hence most of wireless applications
such as sensor networks for ecological monitoring [16],
ocean sensor networks [18],[17] biological sensor networks
[11] and vehicular networks [19], [20] due to highly
unstable path which may change or break while being
discovered.
Disruption tolerant networks (DTNs) enable the
transmission of data by using intermittently connected
mobile nodes. DTN as [9],[6] refers as work by using store-
carry-forward paradigm, where each node in the network
store the message in buffer, carries the message while
moving and forward when it encounter with another node.
Due to long delays, frequent disruptions between
intemitteltly nodes and limited resources, routing in DTN
[10] has become the prime issue.
Based on the idea of message forwarding, routing
schemes for DTN can be divided in to two major categories,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
single copy and multi copy [12]. In single copy schemes
only one copy of message exists in the network, which is
forwarded along single path [5] for example first contact
[5], direct delivery [5]. While in multi copy schemes more
then one copy of same message are forwarded to multiple
paths for example Epidemic router[8], spray&wait[14]
,prophet[1], MaxProp [20] ,probabilistic forwarding[3].
As proved by [13] that multi copy policy has high impact
on message delivery and robustness at the cost of more
bandwidth, energy and memory usage. However an
important issue which was not investigated in the previous
work is the use of an efficient buffer management strategies
and message forwarding polices. A recent work [1], [21],[7]
has proposed few forwarding and buffer management
strategies.
In this paper we combine the buffer management strategy
DLA with forwarding queue mode TSMF to optimize the
performance of DTN routing protocols in term of delivery
probability, overhead ratio and buffer time averages. This
technique is called as DLTs.
The remaining paper is prepared as follows .Section 2
elaborates the existing buffer and forwarding polices.
Section 3 is about routing protocols for optimization and
Section 4 is performance metrics, Section 5 is approach and
simulation results simulates in section 6 by a conclusion at
section 7.
2. Existing drop and forwarding policies
When nodes under DTN resource constrained (buffer)
network communicates the congestion arise frequently.
Hence the issue is which message from congested buffer will
be dropped to continue transmission.
2.1 Queuing drop policies
Following are queuing drop polices for messages discarded
order when a new message received at the full buffer node.
2.1.1 Drop Random (DR)
The selection of message to be dropped is in random order
2.1.2 Drop–Least-Recently-Received (DLR)
The message with the long stay time in buffer will be
dropped. The idea is that the packet with in buffer for long
time has less probability to be passed to other nodes.
72 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

2.2.4 GRTRSort
2.1.3 Drop -Oldest (DOA) “GRTRSort looks at difference P (B-D) – P(A-D) values for each
The message with the shorted remaining life time (TTL) in message between the nodes and forward the message only if
network is dropped. The idea of dropping such packet is that P(B-D)>P(A-D).” [1]
if packet TTL is small, it is in the network for long time and
thus has high probability to be already delivered.
2.2.5 GRTRMax
2.1.4 DL-Drop last (DL) “Select messages in descending order of P (B-D) forward the
It drops the newly received message. message only if P (B-D)> P (A-D).” [1]
2.2.6 TSMF
2.1.5 Drop front (DF)
The message that enters first in the queue is dropped first. In TSMF [7] the forwarding queue the message with small
size is placed on top of queue.
2.1.6 N-Drop
In N-Dropt [2], the message that does N number of 3. Routing protocol for optimization
forwarding will be selected to drop.
2.1. Epidemic
2.1.7 MOFO In epidemic routing[8] application messages are swamped to
The message that has been forwarded to maximum number the relay nodes called carriers , where carrier nodes though
of times will be dropped first. [1] moving comes in contact with another related proton of
network , it forward the message to further island of nodes.
2.1.8 MOPR This redundancy of forwarding formulates sure about the
Each message in node is associated with a forwarding delivery of message to its destination.
predictability FP, initially assigned to 0. When the message
is forwarded the FP value is updated and the message with 2.2. Spray&wait (binary)
highest FP value will be dropped first. [1]
Spray&wait (binary) start with N number of copies. While
2.1.9 SHLI moving when it encounter with a node such that N=0, it
The message having smallest TTL will be selected to drop. spread the (N/2) message copies to new node while keep
[1] (N/2) for itself. When it left with one copy (N=1) it perform
direct transmission. Spray&wait combines the speed of
2.1.10 LEPR epidemic router with the simplicity of direct transmission.
“Since the node is least likely to deliver a message for which
it has a low P-value, Drop the message for which the node 2.3. Direct delivery
has the lowest P value.” [1] The source node transmits the message to other node only
when other node is its destination. Direct delivery[5] can be
2.1.11 Drop Largest (DLA) considered a hybrid technique as one can include it in
In Drop Largest (DLA) [21] large size message will be flooding where Direct Delivery always select the direct path
selected in order to drop. between source and destination.
2.2 Forwarding policies
2.4. First Contact
2.2.1 First In First Out (FIFO) In first contact [5] a message is forwarded along a single
path by selecting the node randomly from available
In FIFO queue mode all messages are arranged according to connections. If connections do not exist the nodes waits and
arrival time and the message which has oldest arrival time transmit the message to first available contact.
will be transmitted first.

2.2.2 Random queue mode (RND) 2.5. Prophet router

The message is randomly selected for the transmission.
2.2.3 GRTR
“Assume A, B are nodes that meet while the destination is
D, P(X, Y) denote the delivery predictability that a node X has
for Destination Y. GRTR forward the message to node only
if P (B-D) >P (A-D)” [1].
The routing protocols perform variants of flooding.
Epidemic [8] replicates messages to all encountered peers,
while Prophet [3] tries to estimate which node has the
highest “likelihood” of being able to deliver a message to
the final destination based on node encounter history.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 73
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

4. Performance oriented metrics

4.1 Delivery probability

It is ratio of the message delivered to the destination to those
generated by the sources. High probability means that more
messages are delivered to the destination.
Number of Nodes 126
Movement model 1 Random Waypoint Figure 3. DLTs (Drop Largest-Transmit smallest)
Movement model 2 Map rout movement
Number of groups 06
Figure 2 depicts the DLTS mechanism. As buffer at Node
A is congested, DLTS will drop the large size message
Buffer size 5MB
which is M190. When B starts transmission it will first sort
Transmission range 10M
out the forwarding queue to pop up small sizes messages.
Transmission speed 250 K
We can see that with available transmission time M101,
Message creation 25-35 (seconds) M920, M126, M137, M115 will be transmitted which
interval
increases the delivery probability.
Table1: Simulation setup
6. Simulation and results
4.2 Overhead ratio
It is the negation of number of messages transmitted to relay
to the number of message delivered. Low value of overhead
In the following section we have examined routing protocols
means less processing required delivering the relayed
(Section 5), with exiting (FIFO-FIFO) and proposed
messages.
(DLTs).
All the experiments were carrying out using ONE
4.3 Buffer time average Simulator. The ONE Simulator is a discrete event simulator
It is Sum of time spend by all message(s) in buffer divided written in Java. The main aim of simulator is to apply DTN
by message delivered. (store-carry-forward) of message for lengthy time, where the
likelihood of disconnections and failures increased
5. Approach DLTs
Consider a scenario of two nodes A and B with buffer size
1000kb,Mid is message identification and must be unique
for each message, SM is size of message, AT represent the
arrival time while TT is transmission time for message.
ATT is available transmission
time.

Figure 4. Delivery probability FIFO-FIFO and DLTs

The above figure 3 depicts the comparison of DLTs and

Figure 2. FIFO-FIFO queue mode
Assume B wants to transmit the message to Node A,
according to forwarding queuing policy (FIFO) M810 will
be selected. We can see that the buffer at node A is
congested, according to Drop policy (FIFO) messages
(M110, M563, M120, M111, M150.) at node A will be
dropped until the space becomes available for M810.With
available ATT only M810 with TT of 5s will be transmitted.
FIFO queue and forwarded mode with respect to delivery
probability. We can observe that epidemic, spray&wait and
prophet router have high delivery probability because
frequency of node encounter is high resulting more
congestion where transmitting smallest message raise the
delivery of messages. FC and DD are single copy cases and
chance of congestion is less as in multi copy schemes result
less delivery as compared to other routers but still DLTs
increases the delivery than existing queue policy. Moreover,
DD router passes the messages to that node that are
destination. However in all the configuration of routers,
message delivery probability of DLTs is improved then
FIFO.
74
Figure 5. Buffer time average FIFO-FIFO and DLTS
Figure 4 observes buffer time averages with DLTs and
FIFO. It can be clearly seen that DLTs has high value of
buffer time average with all router. Buffer time occupancy is
very scared resource in the DTN where store and carry
paradigms are used. As expected, in this architecture buffer
should retain the message as along as it can, so that delivery
of message should increase and eliminate the drop ratio of
messages. DLTs improved the buffer time occupancy for all
router in multi and single copy routers and increase the
delivery ratio as in figure 3.
Figure 6. Overhead ratio FIFO-FIFO and DLTs
Figure 5 represents the impact of DLTs and FIFO with
respect to overhead ratio. We are able to see clearly that
overhead ratio with DLTS is decreases in all routers
irrespective of multi copy or single copy approaches of
routers., DD due to direct transmission overhead is zero so
we excluded that case for both algorithms, while Epidemic,
spray&wait, Prophet, FC overhead is reduced to
considerable level.
7. Conclusion and future work
In this paper, we propose a combination of drop policy DLA
and forwarding scheduling policy TSMF called as DLTs
that optimizes the DTN routing protocols in term of
overhead and boost the delivery probability and buffer time
average. We evaluate their efficiency and tradeoffs, through
simulation and prove that DLTs is performing better than
FIFO.
The results presented in this paper can be used as a
starting point for further studies in this research field, and
give helpful guidelines for future DTN protocol design.
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76 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

An Empirical Study to Investigate the Effectiveness

of Masquerade Detection
Jung Y. Kim1, Charlie Y. Shim2 and Daniel McDonald3
1
Utica College, Computer Science Department,
1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, NY, 13492
jkim@utica.edu
2
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, Computer Science Department,
PO Box 730, Kutztown, PA, 19530
shim@kutztown.edu
3
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, Computer Science Department,
PO Box 730, Kutztown, PA, 19530
dmcdo373@live.kutztown.edu

type of employed classifier and the ideal length of instances

Abstract: Masquerade detection is an important research area
in computer security. A masquerade attack can be identified
when audited user’s patterns significantly deviate from his or
her normal profile. One of the popular approaches in
masquerade detection is to use Support Vector Machines
(SVMs). The main goal is to maximize detection rates while
minimizing the number of false alarms. In this paper, we
explore various aspects in masquerade detection using SVMs to
determine how the overall effectiveness of the system can be
enhanced. Setting a proper threshold level has a greater
influence on the false alarm rate than the detection rate. In
addition, we have found that the classifier that takes the order of
the instances into account outperformed the other type when the
instance length is not overly long.
Keywords: SVM (Supportive Vector Machine), masquerade
detection, detection rate, false alarm rate.
1. Introduction
The main purpose of the masquerade detection framework
is to identify masquerade attempts before serious loss or
damage occurs. Masquerade attacks are difficult to detect
since masqueraders enter the system as valid users and thus
won’t be affected by existing access control schemes [1].
Masquerade detection can be designed as a class of anomaly
detection in that the test instance is declared as anomalous if
it does not fall within the boundary of normal behavior [2].
Note that the behavior of masqueraders is unusual and thus
deviates from that of legitimate users. The goal of anomaly
detection is to maximize detection rates while minimizing
false alarm rates. Various approaches have been tried to
implement masquerade detection and one of the most recent
attempts is to use the Support Vector Machine (SVM). It is
because the SVM has achieved excellent classification
performance in a wide range of applications such as texts,
images, and computer security field [3], [4], [5]. However,
focuses have usually been placed on demonstrating the
superiority of the proposed method over other approaches.
The important topic that has been overlooked is how we
can maximize the effectiveness of the masquerade detection
using the SVM. Factors such as the relationship between the
can further be examined. Unfortunately, a few studies on
SVM-based masquerade detection have discussed these
issues. Changes in these parameters will directly affect the
overall effectiveness of the masquerade detection and this is
what we studied in this research. The rest of the paper is
organized as follows. Section two surveys the previous work
related to the topic that has been investigated. In section
three, we present our empirical study and illustrate the effect
of adjusting different parameters in detail. Section four
summarizes our work and concludes with our findings.
2. Related Work
Masquerade detection is an important field of study and
various approaches such as Naïve Bayes classifiers [6], [7]
and Support Vector Machines [8], [9], [10] have been
attempted. Applying a Naïve Bayes classifier is simple and
effective. A drawback of using this classifier, however, is
that new “unseen” characteristics are more likely to be
considered as a legitimate user’s patterns, which allows a
masquerader to elude detection [11].
Wang and Stolfo found employing the SVM in
masquerade detection performed better than a Naïve Bayes
classifier in that it showed higher detection rates [6]. As an
attempt to increase the efficiency of the system, they used
“truncated” UNIX commands and a large command set.
They used the one-class training algorithm to detect
masquerade attacks and asserted that increasing the
detection threshold might allow for a higher detection rate
[6]. However, even though higher detection accuracy could
be achieved, their system left the problem of false alarm
rates being escalated simultaneously. Therefore, the idea of
combining the output of the system with other sensors was
suggested to reduce the number of false alarms.
Maxion applied "enriched" UNIX commands –
commands with their corresponding arguments – to a Naive
Bayes classifier [11]. Higher detection rates were achieved
with minimally increased false alarm rates. Moreover,
irregularly used arguments of enriched commands could be
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 77
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

identified [11]. However, the problem of proper threshold implementation for support vector classification [12] and
setting was still left behind. Another study showed that the this was selected for unordered classification. The
composition of two kernel methods was shown to improve SVMHMM (Support Vector Machines Hidden Markov
the detection accuracy while minimizing the false alarm rate Model) is an implementation of SVMs for sequence tagging
slightly [8]. [13] and it was selected for ordered classification.
The overall results of the tests that we have conducted are
3. Empirical Study and Experimental Results presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1 shows
detection rates when different threshold (TH) values, 35%,
As we surveyed in the previous section, the SVM has
50%, and 70%, were applied to each SVM and Figure 2
been popularly employed in masquerade detection.
shows their corresponding false alarm rates. Note that both
Nevertheless, these studies mainly focused on demonstrating
detection rates and false alarm rates are increased when the
the superiority of the proposed model when compared to
instance length gets longer. Detailed analysis of our findings
other approaches. The main purpose of our research is to
are described in sections 3.2 ~ 3.4.
provide a guideline for modeling an ideal set of features in
utilizing the SVM so that the effectiveness of masquerade
detection can be maximized. Our study analyzes the
performance of masquerade detection with respect to three
parameters: threshold levels, the type of classifiers, and the
length of instances. Section 3.1 describes our experimental
design and overall test results.
3.3 Dataset and Experimental Design
We used the most popular dataset provided by Schonlau
et al. for our experiments. This dataset is called the SEA
data and it includes 15,000 UNIX commands for each of 50
users [7]. We believed that the sequence of UNIX
commands were a good identifier to determine the identity
of each user. This approach was widely used by many
researchers [8], [9], [11]. The sequence of commands was
parsed and partitioned to generate meaningful subgroups Figure 1. Comparison of detection rates
which were fed to the SVM. That is, each user's command
history in the dataset was divided into multiple files which
were broken down into two distinct categories: training data
and test data. Commands were first taken from the dataset to
compile a 500 line file for training on the appropriate SVM
which generated a profile for each user. Next, multiple files
were generated for each sequence length, 4 to 13, for the
purpose of identifying the effectiveness in terms of sequence
length. Each user's profile was then trained on the
appropriate SVM, and the profile was used to classify each
test file for each user. For each user, 500 tests were
conducted.
We analyzed detection rates by classifying a user's profile
against other user's test files. Comparing a user’s test data
against his (or her) own normal profile generated false
alarms. Data was then collected to determine the average Figure 2. Comparison of false alarm rates
detection rate and false alarm rate for each user in terms of
different instance lengths. This data was further extended 3.4 Threshold values
into three threshold values: 35%, 50%, and 70%. This in The threshold value represents the selected minimum
turn was averaged to determine the average detection rate matching percentage so that the audited behavior can be
and false alarm rate for each sequence length. That way, we classified as a masquerade attack or not. Determining an
could determine the relationship between the threshold level appropriate threshold level directly affects the performance
and the performance of masquerade detection. of the system. That is, in general, the raise in the threshold
value causes the increase in both detection rates and false
Different types of classifiers were used for SVMs and we
alarms. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the average detection
classified the types of classifiers into two distinctive groups:
rates and false alarm rates when three threshold values,
ordered and unordered. The order of the command sequence 35%, 50%, and 70%, were applied to each SVM.
is considered in ordered classifiers whereas it is not taken Our testing showed that threshold values had a profound
into account in unordered classifiers. The LIBSVM (a effect on detection and false alarm rates. Increasing the
Library for Support Vector Machines) is an integrated
78
threshold value increased both detections and false alarms.
Although the lowest threshold, 35%, had the lowest
detection rates, this threshold produced minimal false
alarms in testing (see Figure 3 and Figure 4). Much higher
detection rates were seen at a threshold of 50% than at a
threshold of 35%. While detection rates as high as 93.3%
(SVMHMM) and 96.3% (LIBSVM) were achieved at a
threshold level of 70%, this was at a cost of a high false
alarm rate, 83.5% (SVMHMM) and 89.1% (LIBSVM)
respectively. Thus, a threshold of 70% or higher is seen as
impractical for use due to the excessively high false alarm
rates.
Figure 3. Analysis of thresholds (SVMHMM)
Figure 4. Analysis of thresholds (LIBSVM)
One important fact that we have found is that the number
of false alarms was seen to increase at a lot faster rate than
detections as the threshold value was increased; note that an
average of 67% increase in the false alarm rate was found,
whereas there was only a 23.2% increase in the detection
rate when the threshold value was escalated to a 70%. Thus,
an appropriate threshold level needs to be selected in such a
way that reasonable detection rates and tolerable false alarm
rates can be achieved.
3.5 The type of classifiers
The SVMHMM (ordered classifier) outperformed the
LIBSVM (unordered classifier) in minimizing false alarms
when the instance lengths are not overly long. There was a
significant difference in the false alarm rates between both
SVMs when the smallest instance length was used. The
greatest difference between the two classifiers was seen at a
50% threshold with the smallest two sequence lengths (see
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 2). False alarm rates differed by 26 points at
sequence lengths four and 18 points at length five.
Note that the SVMHMM outperformed the LIBSVM in
most cases with respect to detection rates when the instance
lengths were less than 10 (see Figure 1). However, as the
instance length was increased, the performance of both
SVMs converged at length 10. The performance degradation
in the SVMHMM seems to be caused by the increasing
particularity as the instance lengths become too long. This is
because it is less likely that users always enter a long series
of commands in the exactly same pattern.
The performance of the LIBSVM, however, turned out to
be less relevant to the instance lengths and this behavior is
shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The reason behind this
phenomenon is that the specific order of commands entered
by users is not considered in the LIBSVM. Therefore, there
is no significant change in the performance as the instance
length varies.
3.6 Instance lengths
In order to determine the effect of applying different
instance lengths, we classified the employed instance
lengths into three groups: Short (lengths of 4 ~ 6), Medium
(lengths of 7 ~ 9), and Long (lengths of 10 ~ 13). Testing
results are averaged and redrawn using these groups and
they are represented in Figure 5, 6, 7, and 8.
Figure 5. Analysis of detection rates (SVMHMM)
Figure 6. Analysis of false alarm rates (SVMHMM)
When the SVMHMM was used, increasing the instance
length was shown to increase both detections and false
alarms (see Figure 5 and Figure 6). Thus, detection rates
can be maximized by using larger instance lengths whereas
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 79
a smaller instance length is desirable in order to maintain
lower false alarm rates.
As we previously mentioned in section 3.3, the
performance of the LIBSVM is less affected by the instance
length (see Figure 7 and Figure 8). Note that there was a
slight benefit in the detection rate as the instance lengths
increased under the 35% threshold setting.
Figure 7. Analysis of detection rates (LIBSVM)
Figure 8. Analysis of false alarm rates (LIBSVM)
However, as the instance length increased, results using
different classifiers (SVMHMM and LIBSVM) began to
converge (see Figure 5~8). Results showed that both
classifiers converge to the same detection and false alarm
rates when a long instance group was used.
Figure 9. Analysis of Instance Length Change
Therefore, we can assert that there is no significant
benefit in employing a longer instance; however, it is still
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
attractive to use a medium length instance; note that there
was a 21.86% increase in the detection rate (see Figure 9)
when the instance was lengthened from short to medium.
4. Conclusion
There have been many approaches in tackling
masquerade attacks. However, these studies primarily
focused on demonstrating the advantage of the proposed
model when compared to other approaches. The main goal
of our research is to investigate the effectiveness of
masquerade detection using SVMs. We analyzed the
performance of masquerade detection with respect to three
parameters: threshold levels, the type of classifiers, and the
length of instances.
In conclusion, no parameters that were selected and tested
were able to improve detection rates while decreasing false
alarms. In all tests, increased detection rates correlate to
increased false alarm rates. However, masquerade detection
using sequence classification was more successful when
limiting false alarms with the use of smaller instance
lengths. Increasing threshold values to a 70% showed little
benefit since false alarm rates increased significantly with
only slight increase in detection rates. This study shows that
there is an advantage of using smaller instance lengths
applied to a classifier which considers the order as an effort
to minimize false alarm rates. If maximizing detection
capability is the main goal, the type of a classifier is less
relevant. Instead, it is desirable to use a longer instance at
the sufficient level of threshold where reasonable limits of
false alarms can be retained.
Finally, a new dataset, if any, could be used in order to
support and reinforce the validity of our findings. This
research will help to provide a principle for modeling an
ideal set of rules so that the effectiveness of masquerade
detection can be maximized.
References
[1] B. Szymanski, and Y. Zhang “Recursive Data Mining
for Masquerade Detection and Author Identification,”
Proceedings of the Fifth Annual IEEE SMC, pp
424~431, 2004
[2] V. Chandola, A. Banerjee, and V. Kumar, “Anomaly
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(CSUR), Volume 41, Issue 3, pp. 15:1-15:58, 2009.
[3] Z. Liu, J. Liu, and Z. Chen, “A generalized Gilbert's
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Neurocomputing, Volume 73 , Issue 1-3, pp. 219-224,
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[4] J. Wu, Z. Lin, and M. Lu, “Asymmetric semi-
supervised boosting for SVM active learning in CBIR,”
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[5] T. Joachims, “Text categorization with support vector
machines: Learning with many relevant features,”
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[6] K. Wang, and S. Stolfo, “One-Class Training for
Masquerade Detection,” Proceedings of the ICDM
Workshop on Data Mining for Computer Security
(DMSEC), Melbourne, pp. 2-7, 2003.
[7] M. Schonlau, W. DuMouchel, W. Ju, A. Karr, M.
Theus, and Y. Vardi, “Computer Intrusion: Detecting
Masquerades,” Statistical Science Vol.16, No.1, pp.
58–74, 2001.
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[8] J. Seo, and S. Cha, “Masquerade detection based on
SVM and sequence-based user commands profile,”
Proceedings of the 2nd ACM symposium on
Information, computer and communications security
(ASIACCS '07), 2007.
[9] H. Kim, and S. Cha, “Empirical evaluation of SVM-
based masquerade detection using UNIX commands,”
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[10] S. Mukkamala, and A. Sung, “Feature Ranking and
Selection for Intrusion Detection Systems Using
Support Vector Machines,” Proceedings of the Second
Digital Forensic Research Workshop (DFRWS),
Syracuse, 2002.
[11] R. Maxion, “Masquerade Detection Using Enriched
Command Lines,” Proceedings of the International
Conference on Dependable Systems & Networks” , pp.
22-25, 2003.
[12] C. Chang, and C. Lin, “LIBSVM -- A Library for
Support Vector Machines,” [Online]. Available:
http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm. [Accessed:
Jun. 14, 2010].
[13] T. Joachims, “SVMHMM - Sequence Tagging with
Structural Support Vector Machines,” August 14, 2008,
[Online]. Available:
http://www.cs.cornell.edu/People/tj/svm_light/svm_hm
m.html. [Accessed: Jul. 26, 2010].
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 81
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

An Efficient Intrusion Detection System for Mobile

Ad Hoc Networks
B.V. Ram Naresh Yadav1, B.Satyanarayana2, O.B.V.Ramanaiah3
1
Dept. of CSE, JNTUHCEJ, Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh, India.
bvramnaresh@gmail.com

2
Dept. of CST, S.K.University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
bachalasatya@yahoo.com

3
Dept. of CSE, JNTUH College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.
obvramanaiah@gmail.com

Abstract: A Mobile ad hoc network is a collection of nodes that
is connected through a wireless medium forming rapidly
changing topologies. Mobile ad hoc network are vulnerable due
to its fundamental characteristics such as open medium,
dynamic topology, distributed co-operation and constrained
capability. Real time Intrusion detection architecture for ad hoc
networks has been proposed for detecting black hole and packet
dropping attacks. The main problem with this approach is that
the detection process relies on a state based misuse detection
system. In this case every node needs to run in the IDS agent.
This approach does not make use of a distributed architecture to
detect attacks that require more than one hop information. In
this paper we propose an Efficient IDS, a novel architecture that
uses a specification based intrusion detection techniques to
detect active attacks such as packet dropping, black hole attacks
against AODV protocol. Our architecture involves the use of
FSM for specifying AODV routing behavior and distributed
network monitors for detecting the attacks. Our methods can
detect most of the bad nodes with low false positive rate and
packet delivery ratio can also be increased with high detection
rate. Efficient Intrusion detection system architecture for ad hoc
networks does not introduce any changes to the underlying
routing protocol since it operates as an intermediate component
between the network traffic and the utilized protocol with
minimum processing overhead. We have developed a prototype
that was evaluated in AODV enabled networks using the network
simulator (ns-2).
Keywords: MANET’S, Types of attacks, AODV, IDS.
all the participants to correctly forward routing and data
traffic. The routing protocol sets the upper limit to security
in any packet network.
If routing can be misdirected or modified the entire
network can be paralyzed [2]. Several efforts have been
made to the design of a secure routing protocol for ad hoc
networks. The main problems with this approach are that it
requires changes to the underlying protocol and that manual
configuration of the initial security associations cannot be
completely avoided.
The Efficient Intrusion Detection Systems for mobile ad
hoc network system is based on previous research proposed
to detect active attacks against AODV, a routing protocol
that is widely used in wireless networks [1]. We have
adopted the successful approach of employing distributed
network monitors for detecting attacks in real time and have
applied to the domain of ad hoc routing. Efficient Intrusion
detection Systems for mobile ad hoc networks can be
characterized as an architecture model for Intrusion
detection in ad hoc networks, while its implementation
targets specifically AODV [9].
We clarify our system as an architecture model since it
does not perform any changes to the underlying routing
protocol but it merely intercepts traffic and acts upon
recognized patterns.

1. Introduction In the remainder of this paper we start by briefly

Mobile Ad hoc networks are one of the recent active
fields and have received spectacular consideration because
of their self configuration and self maintenance. Early
research assumed a friendly and co-operative environment
of wireless network. In order to maintain the connectivity in
a mobile ad hoc network all participating nodes have to
perform routing of network traffic. Therefore, a network
layer protocol designed for such self organized networks
must enforce connectivity and the security requirements in
order to guarantee the undisrupted operations of higher
layer protocols, unfortunately all the widely used ad hoc
routing protocols have no security considerations and trust
presenting the related work on this area in section 2. In
section 3 we describe the AODV routing protocol and the
threat model associated with it. In section 4 we describe in
detail our proposed architecture and the design of Effective
ID for mobile ad hoc network for AODV based networks. In
the section 5 we evaluate our prototype that has been
implemented using ns-2 simulator, section 6 concludes by
describing the strengths and short coming of our proposal
identifying the directions for future work.
82
2. Related Work
Specification based intrusion detection system is used to
detect attacks on AODV. This approach involves the Finite
state machine for specifying correct AODV routing behavior
and distributed network monitors for detecting runtime
violation of the specifications [3]. Specification based
system are particularly attractive as they successfully detect
both local and distributed attacks against the AODV routing
protocol with a low number of false positives. A real time
intrusion detection system for ad hoc networks model for
detecting real time attacks has been developed specifically
for AODV [2]. The model is composed of four main layers,
a traffic interception module, an event generation module,
an attack analysis module, and counter measure module.
The traffic interception module captures the incoming traffic
from the network and selects which of these packets should
be further processed. The event generation module is
responsible for abstracting the essential information
required for the attack analysis module to determine if there
is malicious activity in the network. The event generation
and attack analysis modules are implemented using
TFSM’S. The final component of the architecture is the
counter measure module that is responsible for taking
appropriate actions to keep the network performance within
acceptable limits. The result of this research clearly
demonstrates that this approach is used to detect active
attacks in real time. In effective intrusion detection system
for mobile ad hoc networks, we use this work as a basis and
apply the developed concepts in the field of ad hoc
networking environment and more specifically to the AODV
routing protocol.
The watchdog and path rater scheme has suggested two
extensions to the DSR ad hoc routing protocol that attempt
to detect and mitigate the effects of nodes that do not
forward packets although they have agreed to do so [7].The
watchdog extension is responsible for monitoring that the
next node in the path forwards data packets by listening in
promiscuous mode. The path rater assumes the results of the
watchdog and select most reliable path for packet delivery.
As the authors of the scheme have identified, the main
problem with this approach is its vulnerability to black mail
attacks.
The intrusion detection and response model proposes
a solution to attacks that are caused from a node internal to
the ad hoc networks where the underlying protocol is
AODV [8]. The intrusion detection model claims to capture
the attacks such as distributed false route requests, Denial of
Service, destination is compromised, impersonation, and
routing information disclosure. The intrusion response
model is a counter that is incremented wherever a malicious
activity is encountered. When the value reaches a predefined
threshold, the malicious node is isolated. The authors have
provided statistics for the accuracy of the model.
A cooperative distributed intrusion detection system
(IDS) has been proposed in [10] by Zhang and Lee. This
method employs co-operative statistical anomaly detection
techniques. Each intrusion detection agent runs
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
independently and detects intrusions from local traces. Only
one hop information is maintained at each node for each
route. If local evidence is in conclusive, the neighboring IDS
agents co-operate to perform global intrusion detection. The
author utilizes misuse detection techniques to reduce the
number of false positives.
A context aware detection of selfish nodes utilizes hash
chains in the route discovery phase of DSR and destination
keyed hash chains and promiscuous made of link layer to
observe malicious acts of neighboring nodes [11].This
approach introduces a fear based awareness in the malicious
node that their actions being watched and rated, which helps
in reducing mischief in the system. A potential problem of
this system could be mobility of the nodes. Since the
malicious node can go out of range and again come in the
network with a different IP address. It can still take
advantage of the network. Since this method uses
cryptographic mechanisms to detect malicious attacks, it
cannot be classified as pure intrusion detection system.
A specification based intrusion detection system for
AODV [3]. It involves the use of Finite State Machines for
specifying correct AODV routing behavior and distributed
network monitors for detecting runtime violation of the
specifications. An additional field in the protocol message is
proposed to enable the monitoring.
3. AODV Security Problems
In this section we present an overview of AODV ad hoc
routing protocol and the threat model associated with it.
3.1 AODV overview
AODV can be thought as a combination of both DSR
and DSDV [9].It borrows the basic on demand mechanism
of Route discovery and Route maintenance from DSR and
the use of hop by hop routing ,Sequence numbers from
DSDV.AODV is an on demand routing protocol ,which
initiates a route discovery process only when desired by
Source node. When a Source node S wants to send data
packets to a destination node D but can not find a route in
its routing table, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ)
message to its neighbors, including the last known sequence
number for that destination .The neighbors of the node then
rebroad cast the RREQ message to their neighbors if they do
not have a fresh route to the destination node .This process
continues until the RREQ Message reaches the destination
node or an intermediate node that has a fresh enough route.
AODV uses Sequence numbers to guarantee that all
routes are loop free and contain most recent routing
information [9]. An Intermediate node that receives a RREQ
replies to it using a route reply (RREP) message only if it
has a route to the destination, whose corresponding
destination Sequence numbers is greater or equal to the one
contained in RREQ. Otherwise, the intermediate node
broadcasts the RREQ packet to its neighbors until it reaches
to the destination. The destination unicasts a RREP Back to
the node that initiated route discovery by transmitting it to
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 83
the neighbor from which it received the RREQ. As RREP,
back to the node that initiated the route discovery by
transmitting it to the neighbor from which it received the
RREQ. As RREP is propagated back to the source, all
intermediate nodes set up forward route entries in their
tables. The Route maintenance process utilizes link layer
notifications, which are intercepted by neighbors are the one
that caused the error. These nodes generate and forward
route error (RERR) messages to their neighbors that have
been using routes that include the broken link. In general a
node may update the sequence numbers in its routing tables
when ever it receives RREQ, RREP, RERR and RREP-Ack
messages from its neighbors.
3.2 AODV Threat model
In this Section the most important attacks are presented
that are easily performed by an internal node against AODV
[2, 12].
3.2.1 Sequence number (black hole) Attack
It is a type of Routing attack where a malicious node
advertise it self as having the shortest path to all the nodes
in the environment by sending a fake route reply. By doing
this, the malicious node can deprive the traffic from the
source node. It can be used as DOS attack, where it can drop
the packets later. The set up for black hole attack is similar
to routing loop attack in which attacker sends out forged
routing packets. It can set up a route to some destination via
it self and when the actual data packets get there they are
simply dropped forming a black hole where data enters but
not leaves.
3.2.2 Packet dropping Attack
It is essential in ad hoc network that all nodes
participate in the routing process. How ever a node may act
selfishly and process only routing information that are
related to it self in order to conserve energy. This behavior
or attack can create network instability or even segment the
network.
3.2.3 Resource Consumption Attack
In this attack, the malicious node attempt to consume
both the network and node resources by generating and
sending frequent un necessary routing traffic. The goal of
this attack is to flood the network with false routing packets
to consume all available network bandwidth with irrelevant
traffic and to consume energy and processing power from
the participating nodes.
There are several other similar attacks presented in the
literature [4, 5, 6]. They exploit more or less the same
routing protocol vulnerabilities to achieve their goals.
Sequence number attack is specific to AODV, while the
other two can be applied to any routing protocol.
4. Efficient Intrusion detection system Architecture
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The EIDS Architecture utilizes the use of Finite state
machines for Specifying AODV routing behavior and
distributed Network monitors enable the system to detect
attacks in real time rather than using statistical analysis of
captured traffic. EIDS detects attacks against the AODV
routing protocol in wireless Mobile ad hoc networks. The
Architecture of EIDS is as shown in below figure.
Intruder
S
Active
Monitor IDS
Network I
Traffic
D
Attacks
Figure 1. Architecture of an Efficient Intrusion detection
Systems
The EIDS is used to successfully detect both local and
distributed attacks against the AODV routing protocol, with
a low number of false positives. It uses Network monitors to
trace RREQ and RREP messages in a request reply flow for
distributed network. A Network monitor employs a FSM for
detecting incorrect RREQ and RREP messages. The below
fig shows the architecture of a Network monitor.
Figure 2. Architecture of a Network Monitor
Networks monitors are used to detect incorrect RREQ
and RREP messages by listening passively to the AODV
routing messages. A request reply flow can be uniquely
identified by the RREQ ID, the source and destination IP
addresses. Messages are grouped based on the request-reply
flow to which they belong
A network monitor employs a finite state machine
(FSM) for detecting incorrect RREQ and RREP messages. It
maintains a Finite state machine for each branch of a
request-reply flow. A request flow starts at the Source state.
It transmits to the RREQ Forwarding state when a source
node broadcasts the first RREQ message (with a new REQ
ID). When a forwarded broadcasting RREQ is detected, it
84 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

stays in RREQ Forwarding state unless a corresponding

RREP is detected. Then if a unicasting RREP is detected, it Table 1: Simulation Parameters
goes to RREP Forwarding state and stays there until it
reaches the source node and the route is set up. If any Parameter Value
suspicious fact or anomaly is detected, it goes to the
suspicious or alarm states. Simulation(Grid) area 1000*1000m

Simulation duration 900 seconds

Number of mobile hosts 30
Type of Packet Traffic CBR
Maximum Speed 20 m/sec
Node Mobility Random way point
Transmission range 250m
Routing Protocol AODV
MAC Layer 802.11,Peer to Peer
Dropped Packet time out 10 seconds
Dropped Packet Threshold 10 packets
Clear delay 100 seconds
Host Pause time 15 seconds
Modification Threshold 5 events
Figure 3. Finite State Machine Diagram Neighbor hello period 30 seconds

The following are the metrics that we chosen to evaluate

the impact of implemented attacks. (1) False Positives (2)
detection Rate (3) Packet delivery ratio (4) Routing packet
dropped ratio. These metrics were used to measure the
severity of each attack and the improvement that Effective
IDS manages to achieve during active attacks. Every point
in the produced graphs is an average value of data collected
from repeating the same experiment ten times in order to
achieve more realistic measurements.

5.1 Sequence number (black hole) Attack

Figure 4. Suspicious and Alarm State Machine Diagram
Detection

When a Network Monitor compares a new packet The four metrics that were used in the evaluation of
with the old corresponding packet, the primary goal of the Sequence number attack detection and counter mechanisms
constraints is to make sure that the AODV header of the are the delivery ratio, the number of false routing attacks
forwarded control packet is not modified in an undesired sent by the attacker, false positive and detection rate.
manner. If an intermediate node responds to the request, the
Network monitor will verify this response from its
forwarding table as well as with the constraints in order to
make sure that the intermediate node is not lying. In
addition, the constraints are used to detect Packet drop and
spoofing.

5. Evaluation

The experiments for the evaluation of effective

Intrusion detection systems for mobile ad hoc networks were
carried out using the network simulator (ns-2).we have
evaluated AODV with out any modifications, AODV with
one malicious node present and AODV with the Effective
IDS component enabled having in the network a malicious
node. The Scenarios developed to carry these tests use as
parameters the mobility of the nodes and the number of
active connections in the network. The choices of the
Figure 5. Packet Delivery ratio against Number Of
simulator parameter that are presented in Table 1 consider
connections
both the accuracy and the efficiency of the simulation.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 85
Figure 6. Packet Delivery ratio against Speed of Nodes
Figure 7. Percentage of False Positives Against Percentage
of bad nodes
Figure 8. Percentage of Detected bad Nodes against
Percentage of bad nodes
In figures 5 and 6 delivery ratio is plotted as the node
mobility or density increases. The normalized overhead of
AODV is 2-4 times more when the network is loaded. In the
graphs, the overhead of AODV is considered with a fully
loaded network. as it can be seen from the graph, with
EIDAODV running, delivery ratio is increased by as much
as 72%.
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The second metric that was used in the evaluation of
this attack was the number of false packets sent by the
attacking node versus the number of active connections and
the node mobility. This metric was used to examine the
overhead of the sequence number attack and we considered
only the extra cost on communication imposed by the attack.
We observed that the average number of RREP sent by the
malicious node in all the experiments was 1856 and the
number of nodes that inserted the false route into their
routing table was 20 out of 30. In figure 7, false positives are
nodes incorrectly labeled as malicious. As expected, the
performance of Active response protocol improved with
respect to false positives as the density of the malicious
nodes increased.
Figure 8 shows the detection rate. In the best case, 93%
of the attacks can be detected, Where as, the worst case
detection rate is 80%. There are several reasons why a bad
node may go undetected. First, the bad node may not be in
any path in the routing cache each time when the monitors
begin to check. Since the paths are based solely on the paths
maintained by the routing cache, if a node is not contained
in any path, its forwarding function will not be monitored.
Second, there may be two consecutive bad nodes in a path
bad behavior of one node is hidden by the other bad node.
5.2 Packet Drop Attack Detection
To evaluate this attack, the metrics chosen were delivery
ratio and routing overhead ratio. The following graphs show
the Performance.
Figure 9. Packet Delivery ratio against Number of
Connections
Figure 10. Packet Delivery ratio against Speed of Nodes
86 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Figure 11. Percentage of False Positives against
Percentage of bad nodes
Figure 9 shows that EIDAODV system improves the
delivery ratio by 51% compared to plain AODV. Figure 10
shows that the routing overhead introduced by the attack
reduces by 52%. EIDAODV reduces the routing overhead
ratio to approximately the levels that normal AODV
demonstrates. In Figure 11 we see that the performance of
active response protocol improves with respect to false
positives as the density of malicious nodes increases. Figure
12 shows that in the best case, 93% of the bad nodes can be
detected. The worst-case detection rate is 77%.
Figure 12. Percentage of Detected bad nodes against
Percentage of bad nodes
6. Conclusions
An Effective Intrusion Detection System aiming at
securing the AODV protocol has been developed using
specification-based technique. It is based on a previous work
done by Stamouli. The EIDS performance in detecting
misuse of the AODV protocol has been discussed. In all the
cases, the attack was detected as a violation to one of the
AODV protocol specifications. From the results obtained, it
can be concluded that our EIDS can effectively detect
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Sequence Number Attack, Packet Dropping Attack with
Incremental Deployment. The method has been shown to
have low overheads and high detection rate.
Our Intrusion Detection and Response Protocol for
MANET’s have been demonstrated to perform better than
the ones proposed by Stamouli in terms of false positives
and percentage of packets delivered. Simulation results
validate the ability of our protocol to successfully detect both
local and distributed attacks against the AODV routing
protocol, with a low number of false positives.
References
[1] Stamouli, P.G.Argyroudis, H.Tiwari, “Real time
Intrusion detection for ad hoc networks”, Proceedings
of sixth IEEE Symposium on a world of wireless mobile
and multimedia networks, (WOWMOM), 2003.
[2] W.Wang, Y.Lu and B.K.Bhargava “on vulnerability
and protection of ad hoc on demand distance vector
protocol”, Proceedings of international conference on
telecommunications, 2003.
[3] TSENG, CHIN-YANG, et al “A specification based
Intrusion detection system” for AODV in proceedings
of 1st ACM workshop on security of ad hoc and sensor
networks. (SAS.N ’03), Fair fax, V.A 2003.
[4] HUY.C, Pevirgn.A, and Johnson, D.B.Ariadane., “A
secure on demand routing protocol for ad hoc
networks”. In eight ACM international conference on
mobile computing and networking (Mobicom2002),
September 2002.
[5] Stajanos.F and Anderson.R. “The Resurrecting
Duckling: security issues for ad hoc wireless networks,
7th international workshop Proceedings, 1999.
[6] C.Sivarama murthy, B.S Manoj, “Ad hoc wireless
networks: Architectures and protocols”, Princeton hall,
May 2004, New Jersey, USA.
[7] Seri go Marti, Thomas J.Givli, Kerenlai, Mary Baker,
“Mitigating routing Mis behavior in mobile ad hoc
networks”., Proceedings of MOBICOM, 2000.
[8] S.Bhargava, D.P.Agarwal, “security enhancement in
AODV protocol for wireless ad hoc networks” in IEEE
semi annual proceedings of vehicular technology
conference (VCT’01), 2000.
[9] Charles E.perkins, “ad hoc on demand distance vector
on (AODV) routing”, Internet draft, draft-ilet-manet-
aodv-01.txt August 1998.
[10] Y .Zhang, W.Lee, Y.Huang. “Intrusion detection for
wireless Ad hoc networks”. In Mobile Networks and
applications, ACM 2002.
[11] P.Papadimitratos, Z.J.Han, “Security routing for Mobile
Ad hoc networks”, in the proceedings of the SCS
communication Networks and Distributed systems,
Modeling and Simulating conference (CNDS’02),
January 2002.
[12] V.Madhu, A.A .Chari, “An approach for detecting
attacks in mobile ad hoc networks”, Proceedings of
journal of computer science 2008.
[13] Perkins, C.E. Rayer, E.M. Das. S, “Ad hoc on demand
distance vector routing”, RFC 3651 (2003).
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 87
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Author’s Profile

B.V.RamNaresh Yadav is working as a

Research Scholar in CSE Department of JNT
University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.
His Area of interests includes Network
security, Compliers, Computer Networks.

Dr B. Satya Narayana is working as a Professor

in Department of CST of S.K.University,
Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India. His Area of
interests include Network security, Data ware
Housing and Data Mining, Computer Networks
and Artificial Intelligence.

Dr.O.B.V.Ramanaiah is working as a Professor

in CSE Department of JNT University,
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. His Area of
interests includes Mobile Computing,
Computer Networks and Operating Systems.
88 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Veracity Finding From Information Provided on the

Web
D.Vijayakumar1, B.srinivasarao2, M.Ananda Ranjit Kumar 3

JNTU UNIVERSITY, P.V.P.S.I.T, C.S.E Dep., Vijayawada, A.P., India,

1 2
dvk_mathematics@yahoo.com , buragasrinivasarao@gmail.com

3
Asst.Professor in C.S.E Dep., L.B.R.College of engineering, Vijayawada, A.P., India,
anandranjit@gmail.com

some website and such a fact can be either true or false. In

Abstract: The quality of information on the web has always
been a major concern for internet users. On machine learning
approach, the quality of web page is defined by human
preference. The two Approaches Page Rank and Authority-Hub
analysis are used to find pages with high
authorities.Unfortunately; the popularity of web page does not
necessarily lead to accuracy of information. In his paper, we
propose “Truth Finder”, which utilizes the relationships
between web sites and their information, i.e., a web site is
trustworthy if it provides many pieces of true information, and a
piece of information is likely to be true if it is provided by many
trustworthy web sites. Our experiments show that Truth Finder
successfully finds quality of information better than Page Rank
and Authority-Hub analysis, and identifies trustworthy web sites
better than the popular search engines.
Keywords: page rank, hub analysis, Trustworthy.
1. Introduction
THE World Wide Web has become a necessary part of
our lives and might have become the most important
information source for most people. Everyday, people
retrieve all kinds of information from the Web. For
example, when shopping online, people find product
specifications from websites like Amazon.com or
ShopZilla.com. When looking for interesting DVDs, they
get information on websites such as NetFlix.com
Unfortunately, the popularity of web pages does not
necessarily leads Accuracy of information. two.
Observations are made in our experiments: 1) even the most
popular websites may Contain many errors, whereas some
comparatively not so popular Websites may provide more
accurate information. 2) More accurate information can be
inferred by using many different websites instead of relying
on single website.
2. Problem Definition
In this paper, we propose a new problem called the
Veracity problem, which is formulated as follows: Given a
large amount of conflicting information about many objects,
which is provided by multiple websites, how can we
discover the true fact about each object? We use the word
“fact” to represent something that is claimed as a fact by
this paper, we only study the facts that are either
properties of objects or relationships between two objects we
also require that the facts can be parsed from the web pages.
There are often conflicting facts on the Web, such as
different sets of authors for a book. There are also many
websites, some of which are more trustworthy than others. A
fact is likely to be true if it is provided by trustworthy
websites. A website is trustworthy if most facts it provides
are true. At each iteration, the probabilities of facts being
true and the trustworthiness of websites is inferred from
each other. This iterative procedure is rather different from
Authority-Hub analysis. Thus, we cannot compute the
trustworthiness of a website by adding up the weights of its
facts as in, nor can we compute the probability of a fact
being true by adding up the trustworthiness of websites
providing it instead, we have to resort to probabilistic
computation. Second and more importantly, different facts
influence each other. For example, if a website says that a
book is written by “Jessamyn Wendell” and another says
“Jessamyn Burns Wendell,” then these two websites actually
support each other although they provide slightly different
facts. We incorporate such influences between facts into our
computational model. In summary, we make three major
distributions in this paper. First, we formulate the Veracity
problem about how to discover true facts from conflicting
information. Second, we propose a framework to solve this
problem, by defining the trustworthiness of Websites,
confidence of facts, and influences between facts. Finally,
we propose an algorithm called TRUTHFINDER for
identifying true facts using iterative methods. Our
experiments show that TRUTHFINDER achieves very high
accuracy in discovering true facts, and it can select better
trustworthy websites than authority-based search engines
such as Google.
3. Basic Definitions
Confidence of facts: -The confidence of fact f is the
probability of f being correct, according to the best of our
Knowledge and is denoted by s (f).
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 89
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Trustworthiness of websites: - The trustworthiness of a
website w is the expected confidence of the facts provided by
w and is denoted by t (w)
Our Problem Setting
• Each object has a set of conflictive facts
• E.g., different author names for a book
• And each web site provides some facts
• How to find the true fact for each object?
on different web sites E.g., “Jennifer Widom” vs. “J.
Widom”.The false facts on different web sites are less
likely to be the same or similar. False facts are often
introduced by random factors. A web site that provides
mostly true facts for many objects will likely provide
true facts for other objects
4.4 Overview of Our Method
3.3.1 Confidence of facts ↔ Trustworthiness of web
sites
A fact has high confidence if it is provided by (many)
trustworthy web sites. A web site is trustworthy if it
provides many facts with high confidence.
Our method, Truth Finder Initially, each web site is
equally trustworthy and Based on the above four
heuristics, infer fact confidence from web site
trustworthiness, and then backwards. Repeat until
achieving stable state.

Web sites facts

Figure 1. Input of Truth finder W1 f1

High
High
3.1 Trustworthiness of the Web Worthiness
The trustworthiness problem of the web. According to a Confidence Hubs Authorities
survey on credibility of web sites:
Figure 2. Facts ↔ Authorities, Web sites ↔ Hubs
• 54% of Internet users trust news web sites most
of time
• 26% for web sites that sell products
3.3.2 Difference from authority-hub analysis
• 12% for blogs
Given a large amount of conflicting information about Linear summation cannot be used. A web site is trustable
many objects, provided by multiple web sites How to if it provides accurate facts, instead of many facts.
discover the true fact about each object? Confidence is the probability of being true. Different
Different websites often provide conflicting info. On a facts of the same object influence each other.
subject, e.g., Authors of “ Rapid Contextual Design”

Table1: Conflicting Information about Book Authors 0.0

User TruthFinder User
Online Store Authors System
Powell’s Holtzblatt, Karen
books
Barnes & Karen Holtzblatt, Jessamyn
Noble Wendell, Shelley Wood Figure 3. Context Diagram
A1 Books Karen Holtzblatt, Jessamyn Burns
Wendell, Shelley Wood 4. Modules
Cornwall Holtzblatt-Karen, Wendell-
books Jessamyn Burns, Wood Collection data: First we have to collect the specific data
Mellon’s Wendell, Jessamyn about an object from different websites. The collected data
books is stored in related database. Create table for specific
Lakeside Wendell, Jessamynholtzblatt, object and store the facts about a particular object.
books Karenwood, Shelley
Blackwell Wendell, Jessamyn, Holtzblatt, Data search: Searching the related data link according to
online Karen, Wood, Shelley user input. In this module user retrieve the specific data
about an object. Here user searches data in three
4.3 Basic Heuristics for Problem Solving ways.1.Normal search2.Page rank search

There is usually only one true fact for a property of an Truth finder search: We design a general framework
object. This true fact appears to be the same or similar for the Veracity problem, and invent an algorithm Called
90 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Truth Finder. It utilizes the relationships between web Set of facts provided
sites and their information. That is a web site is by w
trustworthy if it provides many pieces of true information,
and a piece of information is likely to be true if it is We compute the confidence of a fact f: s (f)
provided by many trustworthy web sites. One minus the probability
that all web sites providing f are wrong
Result calculation: For each response of the query we Probability that w
Is wrong
s( f ) =1− ∏(1−t(w))
are calculating the Performance. Using the count
calculated find the best link and show as the out put. w∈W( f )
Set of websites providing f

Truth Discovery with multiple

conflicting information

5.2 Computation Model (2)

Home
Influence between related facts
Example: For a certain book B
w1: B is written by “Jennifer Widom” (fact f1)
Login Login w2: B is written by “J. Widom” (fact f2)
Validatio f1 and f2 support each other
n If several other trustworthy web sites say this
book is written by “Jeffrey Ullman”, then f1
Query
and f2 are likely to be wrong
Process
5.3 Computation Model (3)

A user may provide “influence function” between

Search Conflicting related facts (e.g., f1 and f2 )
Engine Web Pages E.g., Similarity between people’s names

The confidence of related facts are adjusted according

Truth Truth Finder to the influence function
Finder Webpage’s
t(w1)
w1 s(f1)
Output f1
t(w2) s(f2) o1
Figure 4. System Architecture
w2
f2
5. Computational Model t(w3)
w3
A Website trustworthiness if it provides facts with high
confidence. We can see that the website trustworthiness and
fact confidence are determined by each other, and we can
use an iterative method to compute both. Because true facts Figure 5. .Computing confidence of a fact.
are more consistent than false facts. We introduce the model
of iterative computation Experiments: Finding Truth of Facts
Determining authors of books
5.1 Computation Model (1): t (w) and s(f) • Dataset contains 1265 books listed on
abebooks.com
We compute the trustworthiness of a web site w: t(w) by • We analyze 100 random books (using book mages)
calculating the
Average confidence of facts it provides
Sum of fact confidence
∑ s( f )
t (w) = f ∈F ( w)

F (w)
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 91
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LogisticEquation.html
, 2008.

[2] T. Mandl, “Implementation and Evaluation of a

Table 2: Comparison of the Results of Voting, Truth finder, Quality-Based Search Engine,” Proc. 17th ACM
And Barnes & Noble Conf. Hypertext and Hypermedia, Aug. 2006.
Truth Barnes & [3] R. Guha, R. Kumar, P. Raghavan, and A. Tomkins,
Case Voting
Finder Noble “Propagation of Trust and Distrust,” Proc. 13th Int’l
Correct 71 85 64 Conf. World Wide Web (WWW), 2004.
Miss author(s) 12 2 4 [4] G. Jeh and J. Widom, “SimRank: A Measure of
Incomplete 18 5 6 Structural-Context Similarity,” Proc. ACM SIGKDD
names ’02, July 2002.
Wrong 1 1 3 [5] J.M. Kleinberg, “Authoritative Sources in a
first/middle Hyperlinked Environment,” J. ACM, vol. 46, no. 5,
names pp. 604-632, 1999.
Has redundant 0 2 23 [6] J.S. Breese, D. Heckerman, and C. Kadie,
names “Empirical Analysis of Predictive Algorithms for
Add incorrect 1 5 5 Collaborative Filtering,” technical report, Microsoft
names Research, 1998.
No information 0 0 2

Experiments: Trustable Info Providers Author Profile

Finding trustworthy information sources most D.Vijayakumar received the B.sc Degree
trustworthy bookstores found by Truth Finder vs. Top from ANU University in 2002 and the
ranked bookstores by Google (query “bookstore”) M.sc mathematics degree from ANU
University in 2004. He is doing M.Tech,
Table 3: Comparison of the Accuracies of Top Computer science & Engineering in
Bookstores by TRUTHFINDER and by Google P.V.P.S.I.T, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh,
Truth finder India. Now he was working as a lecturer
in Sri Viveka Institute Of Technology,
Bookstore trustworthiness #boo Accurac
k y
TheSaintBookstor 0.971 28 0.959
e
MildredsBooks 0.969 10 1.0
Alphacraze.com 0.968 13 0.947

Google
Bookstore Google rank #book Accuracy
Barnes & Noble 1 97 0.865
Powell’s books 3 42 0.654

6. Conclusion

In this paper, we introduce and formulate the Veracity

Problem, which aims at resolving conflicting facts from
multiple websites and finding the true facts among them.
We propose TRUTHFINDER, an approach that utilizes the
interdependency between website trustworthiness and fact
confidence to find trustable websites and true facts.
Experiments show that TRUTHFINDER achieves high
accuracy at finding true facts and at the same time identifies
Websites that provide more accurate information

References:

[1] LogisticalEquationfrom Wolfram MathWorld,

92 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
The Online Scaffolding in the Project-Based
Learning
Sha Li
Alabama A & M University, School of Education
4900 Meridian St., AL 35762, USA
sha.li@aamu.edu
Abstract: This is a case study on the students’ attitude and
perspectives on the effectiveness of the online scaffolding in a
graduate computer literacy course. This study used the
qualitative and quantitative mixed methods. Sixty-four students
and one faculty member participated in this study. The findings
show that the online scaffolding is an effective approach to
integrate Internet technology in the computer project-based
learning and help “Leave Nobody Behind.” It is beneficial for
both the students and the faculty. Learning through the online
scaffolding environment also models the students the effective
use of online learning resources that impacted students in their
life time.
Keywords: scaffolding, online learning, distance education,
resource-based learning
1. Introduction
Vygotsky asserted that learning is a social process [19].
Social Learning Theory (SLT) is a category of learning
theories which is grounded in the belief that human
behavior is determined by a three-way relationship between
cognitive factors, environmental influences, and behavior
[2]. “If people observe positive, desired outcomes in the
observed behavior, then they are more likely to model,
imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves” [20]. To
observe the peer’s behaviors could result in even more peer
modeling effect in the learner. The metaphor of scaffolding
is grounded in the social learning theories of Vygotsky’s
“Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD). Vygotsky said:
…the difference between the child’s
developmental level as determined by the
independent problem solving and the higher
level of potential development as determined
through problem solving under adult guidance or
in collaboration with more capable peers. [19]
Learning support falls into three categories: cognitive,
affective, and systematic [18]. They are usually in a
combined mechanism in the teaching process. The skeleton
of the concept is also guided by a series of the guidance,
counseling, coaching, tutoring, assessment, etc. [13].
Scaffolding is an effective teaching approach to support
learners [1]. The theoretical concept of the social learning
underlines the scaffolding perspective. With the scaffolding,
learners are guided, supported and facilitated during the
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
learning process [18]. “Scaffolding refers to providing
contextual supports for meaning through the use of
simplified language, teacher modeling, visuals and graphics,
cooperative learning and hands-on learning” [7]. Combined
with the scaffolding, the learning of the new multimedia
project creation provides more interest and motivation,
keeping students on track and increasing retention [14]. The
scaffolding structured through the Internet platform has
intrigued interest in the educators in the blended classrooms
as well as in the distance education classes [1, 13].
The hands-on learning in the authentic context is known as
experiential learning [21]. Learning would be most effective
when learning takes place in the authentic context [11].
Authentic instruction use teaching strategies such as:
structuring learning around genuine tasks, employing
scaffolding, engaging students in inquiry and social
discourse, and providing ample resources for the learners
[8]. When rich learning resources are incorporated and
available to learners, effective learning would be achieved
[9].
2. Method
This is a case study on the students’ perspectives on the
effectiveness of the online resource-based scaffolding in a
computer project-based learning course. It adopts the
qualitative and quantitative mixed methods. The
quantitative method is one in which the investigator uses
postpositivist claims for developing knowledge, such as
cause and effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and
hypotheses and questions. It takes measurement to test
hypothesis or theories. While the qualitative method is one
in which the inquirer makes knowledge claims mainly based
on constructivist perspectives or participatory perspectives,
or both [3]. The quantitative research statistically measures
situation, attitudes, behavior, and performance, utilizing a
series of tests and techniques. Quantitative research often
yields data that is projectable to a larger population. Because
it so heavily relies on numbers and statistics, quantitative
research has the ability to effectively transform data into
quantifiable charts and graphs. Qualitative research
discovers in the depth to which explorations are conducted
and descriptions are written, usually resulting in sufficient
details for the reader to grasp the idiosyncrasies of the
situation or phenomenon [16]. The quantitative approach
uses predetermined closed ended questions to collect
numeric data, employing statistical procedure scientifically;
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 93
the qualitative approach uses open ended questions in the
interview, observation and document review to collect data
through human interaction. Both methodologies have their
own strengths and weaknesses. The qualitative and
quantitative mixed research method is regarded to better
explain the process of an event and to give a more
meaningful result [6]. The mixed research method draws
from the strength of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches, and minimizes the weakness of either in a
single research study [10]. It increases the validity and
reliability of the findings by allowing examination of the
same phenomenon in different ways and promotes better
understanding of findings [4]. This study adopts the
quantitative descriptive statistics and qualitative mixed
method. The course of FED 529 Computer-Based
Instructional Technology was used as a case for this study.
The purpose of this study is to explore the learners’
perspectives on the effectiveness of the online scaffolding in
the FED 529 project-based learning class.
This study uses three graduate classes of FED 529
Computer-Based Instructional Technology as a case. The
data are collected in three FED 529 classes in the spring,
summer and fall semesters in 2010. Sixty-four graduate
education students and one instructor participated in this
study. The FED 529 class was a project-based computer
literacy class in the traditional classroom. Rich online
learning resources were created on the class website as an
enhancement or support to learning in this class. The
resources like project models, tutorials, multimedia
resources, and writing help are online as scaffolding
resources to learners. The learning content is related to the
concepts and relationships that are relevant to the real-world
instructional projects for various content areas, such as
PowerPoint presentation for science, math, etc.,
instructional web page design, graphics design, video
editing, sound editing, etc. The writing project is a research
paper on the use of the educational technology. Though the
FED 529 class is taught in the traditional classroom, the
classroom teaching and the online learning resource-based
support exist at the same time to make it a blended format
(in a traditional instructional format but also integrating
plenty of online learning resources) so as to enhance
learning in a more effective way [1]. The course website is
at http://myspace.aamu.edu/users/sha.li.
3. Data Analysis
FED 529 Computer-Based Instructional Technology course
is a traditional classroom computer literacy class. The
students age from 20s to 50s. Their computer knowledge
and skills are in a large discrepancy. Even though learning
is in a face-to-face format, the students still expect extra
support or help during the learning process because some
students have limited experiences of using computers. They
are easy to get lost in class. They need extra time and help
to catch up. Others might have missed class because of their
personal events. To follow the principle of No Student Left
Behind, the instructor design the online learning support for
the students by integrating rich course information,
resources to scaffold the learners so as to ensure that
everybody learns successfully. Through the interview and
survey, students gave responses about their experiences and
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
perspectives on their use of the online scaffolding for
learning. The first part of the responses is around the use of
the project samples or examples provided online. Students
value the effect of using the online project samples to learn
to create new projects.
I think it is a great help to access our course
website. In conducting activities to do projects
and assignments, this website gave us a number
of sample projects in various ways (to tell us
how) to do PowerPoint presentations, and using
Excel to create charts and graphs. It helps me
with learning how to effectively use track
change, making flyers for class activities. And
(by following the examples) it saves my time in
doing mail-outs to parents by creating the mail
merge project.
This website provides a lot of good resources for
our projects, saving us a lot of research time.
There were also some good examples of projects
developed by other students which helped (us)
better understand our class assignments to meet
higher requirement.
I am a visual learner. The computer is pretty new
to me. But the class website gave me great
examples to go by…. I have used the website
tutorials to learn some projects, and used the
resources to insert sound, music, and clip arts
into my PowerPoint projects, flyer, and web
pages. I depended on the previous students’
model projects to create in learning to do the
quality work.
The old proverb says that “seeing is believing.” The novice
students are in demand of the visual experience or “first
sight experience” to gain preliminary understanding [5].
Providing only verbal talking without visual presentation
would result in ineffective teaching. So giving the students
samples/examples, or models, enhanced knowledge
acquisition as well as comprehension. The computer literacy
class provides a variety of trainings. The cognitive load is
high for the students especially whose background is weak.
To involve students in the learning activities by starting
with the good examples could smoothly engage the learners
to self goal-setting according to the interesting and high
quality projects.
Tutoring is the next major issue of the teaching. While goal
is set up, hands-on learning starts. About two thirds of the
students could follow in-class instruction to create the
projects, but one third of the students need extra time and
help to finish them, according to Dr. Lee, the instructor of
the class. “Some students are old students, and some are
from the families which could not provide enough computer
access for the students. So both the teacher and the students
have to spend more effort to accomplish the class objectives
with assignments. When I can provide one on one support to
those students, I provide. When I am short of time, I might
refer students to the online tutorials, called FAQs, to learn
during after-class period. This is also effective and also
94
saves me a lot of time. About 90% of the students who used
the online tutorials told me that they feel satisfied to learn
with the help of the online tutorials, because they are clear
to follow and easy to access. The rest of the students are
either too old to learn effective by themselves, or have
limited access to the computer/Internet at home,” Dr. Lee
added. The online FAQs are in two formats: text tutorials
and video tutorials. Some students preferred using the text
FAQs, but majority of the low skill students preferred using
video FAQs. Some of the students’ survey feedback about
the online scaffolding was provided as follows:
The good side of video tutorials is it teaches you
visually and with the instructor’s sound. The
downside of the video tutorials is sometimes it is
hard to download at home, because I use the dial
up phone line to connect to Internet. When I use
videos (to learn) at home, I have to be patient to
download them. But they do help me (learn).
I am familiar with most of the commonly used
computer programs like Microsoft Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, Internet, etc. I can finish most of the
projects in class except some of the advanced
projects which have more advanced skills I don’t
know. When I need to use the FAQs, the text
FAQs are enough for me, because I read text
faster. I only occasionally use video FAQs, not
very much to learn the things I missed.
I prefer video FAQs. The video FAQ allows for
you to view as exactly as it displays on the
computer screen. It is easy to understand for
people like me. Since I am not good at
computers, I like the tutorial to teach me slowly.
The windows media player can pause and slide
back to view video repeatedly. That is exactly
what I like.
The video tutorial was some of the students’ favorite help.
The FAQ files are mall and easy to download. It has video
with instructor’s sound that improves understanding. Dr.
Lee recorded those video tutorials by using the online free
screen capture ware to make them. The screen capture-based
software captures the computer screen interface of the
projecting process from the beginning to the end, displaying
the real procedure of creating a project on the computer step
by step visually and auditorily. With the variety of the
screen capture tools available, integrating the screen
capture-based programs into the scaffolding become an
easier and convenient practice. It empowers the facilitation
and solicits enhanced students engagement in learning. Dr.
Lee told that the current popular screen capture is the
Catasia (www. camtasia.com), but the Catasia is a software
package that costs money. So he chose to use the online free
ware of Windows Media Encoder
(http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb676137.aspx)
or Instant Demo (www.instant-demo.com) to capture the
process of the projecting screen processes. Doing this can
save money in one way, and model the educational
technology use for the teacher students in another. Dr. Lee
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
chose to use more of the Instant Demo to capture screen of
the project tutorials because the Windows Media Encoder
could malfunction for some time when a new version of the
Windows Operating System comes out. The Instant Demo is
more stable with the change of the Windows versions
because it uses the Flash Player to display the video tutorial
that upgrades to the new version of Windows faster than
other programs. Flash works well with multimedia and easy
to play on the Internet. Students like to view the video FAQs
which involved the students at the low level of the
technology skills in effective learning to catch up to a more
advanced level.
The FED 529 class was enhanced with the integration of the
Internet technology. The learners are benefited with the
online learning resources. They offered their feedback in the
interviews on their opinion of the use of the online
resources.
I think that the website is helpful for those who
did not understand or missed a class. They can
have a general idea of what is expected of them.
They can also follow those step by step tutoring
to learn. And the website is easy to access.
The website has good examples of the finished
assignments with tutorials. I felt like it was very
helpful. Whenever I needed an answer, I could
just look at this website for examples. It included
many other useful website links also, such as
BrainyBetty’s multimedia resources, Youtube
video insertion skills with PowerPoint, clip art
download, sample research articles, and APA
writing guide.
Our class website is very informational. It is neat.
It helped me tremendously throughout this
semester. I really wish other teachers could
consider doing websites too. I think all students
should have opportunities to see the examples of
class tasks. I will create my own instructional
websites for my classes when I start teaching in a
school, just like Dr. Lee’s.
The teacher’s instructional website contains
useful information and examples that helped me
understand the class content. With the online
tutor and demonstration, I was able to preview
and practice the projects prior to actually doing
them in class. It allowed me to access very
valuable information with very little effort on my
part. I really appreciate the time and effort that
Dr. Lee put into this website.
Dr. Lee said that his time he contributed to the class
website design was a lot, but the benefit his class received is
also a lot. In this class, not only did Dr. Lee teach and
facilitate students, his website also taught and facilitated the
class. Dr. Lee provided instruction and scaffolding
physically, and his website provided teaching and
scaffolding through online informational resources. “It is a
two-way teaching strategy in this learning environment,” as
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 95
Dr. Lee said. There is another gain. That is that the
integration of the Internet technology into the instruction
has imposed a conspicuous impact on the learners. The
teacher has modeled the use of the online resources to
scaffold learning for students. The students not only learned
the course content, but also learned how to integrate Internet
technology into education that results a long term effect in
students.
In the survey on the students’ attitude and perspectives on
the online scaffolding, students’ responses are displayed in
the Table I.
From the data in Table I, we can see that the Mean of the
students’ overall evaluation of the class is 4.15. It is pretty
high. That means the students highly value their experience
in this online scaffolding resource aided class. The highest
items are number 1 (about the online examples), number 10
(the overall evaluation of the class), number 7 (about the
comfortableness of this class), and number 4 (about the user-
friendliness of the online resources). The number 1 item is
one of the highest probably because most of the students
prefer a “first sight” experience on a satisfying project
outcome. Viewing project examples could increase the
students’ interest and motivation students invest plenty of
time and effort in creating excellent work (Li & Liu, 2005).
The lowest items are the number 2 (about the use of the
online tutorials) and number 8 (about expecting other
teachers to create instructional websites too). The number 2
item is the lowest probably because the students who could
learn without online tutorials are excluded from it. “The
actual students who need more of the online tutorials are
about one third of the total students. The others occasionally
access online tutorials to learn when it is necessary for
them,” Dr. Lee said, “It verifies our scaffolding has targeted
at that group to leave nobody behind. That is exactly what
our scaffolding means.”
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The Table II displays the students’ attitude toward each
specific item of the scaffolding resources.
Table II shows the specific items in the online scaffolding
resources. We can see that the students’ preference to use
the online scaffolding resource
items is middle high as a whole. The lowest is the item of
Tutorials/FAQs (Mean = 2.28). Probably it means that there
were a larger number of students who did not need to
depend on the online scaffolding to learn. But that seems
normal in this class because this class is a blended course.
The online scaffolding is a supplement to those students
who need more help than others.
4. Findings and Conclusion
The findings show that the online scaffolding is effective in
supporting the students in the FED 529 Computer-Based
Instructional Technology course. Integrating the online
scaffolding enhanced the class instruction, motivated the
learners’ involvement and promoted learning outcome [9].
Students value all the scaffolding components in respect to
their learning. The course website is a desirable place to
help the less advanced students to catch up to “Leave
Nobody Behind.” Even though more of the low technology
level students resorted to the online scaffolding than the
high level students, majority of the students in this class
agreed that the online scaffolding was an effective tool and
they would like to create a website for their own classes
when they are ready to teach in a school as a teacher. On the
other hand, the use of the online resource-based scaffolding
models the integration of Internet technology for the
students so that they could observe the instructional
approach/strategies and learn from their classroom
experience. Integrating online scaffolding impacted students
in their perspectives of how to be an effective teacher by
creating an instructional website to teach. The project-based
learning through doing not only prepared the students in
learning the intended content areas and skills, but also left
them a new concept of being a competitive teacher in this
Information Age [1]. This impact is important and long
lasting in their life. This online scaffolding approach also
tells us that though integrating Internet technology requests
for painstaking effort, it is effective once the resources are
created. It is long lasting, upgradeable, and convenient for
learning. By teaching students how to integrating
technology, we also need to teach them the disposition of
being a hardworking teacher who is dedicated to education
and willing to invest personal time and intellectual endeavor
into instructional design to be creative to use technology for
education effectively.
96 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

[19] Wikipeida, Social learning theory. 2009. Available:

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Reference [20] D.A. Kolb., R. Fry. Toward an applied theory of
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[5] R.F. Chong, X. Wang, M. Dang, D.R. Snow, His research interests are in e-learning in the networked
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Multiple Tasks Providing Differing Levels of
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(3794), p. 428-465, 2002.
[9] J.R. Hill, M.J. Hannafin, The resurgence of resource-
based learning. Educational Technology, Research and
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[10] R.B. Johnson, A.J. Onwuegbuzie, Mixed methods
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Educational Researcher, 33(7), p. 14-26, 2004.
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PERIPHERAL PARTICIPATION. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
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[12] S. Li, Daonian. Liu, The Online Top-Down Modeling
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[13] S. LUDWIG-HARDMAN, J.C. DUNLAP, LEARNER SUPPORT
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OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING, 4(1), P. 1-15, 2003.
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[15] M. Myers, Qualitative research and the generalizability
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[16] E. Stacey, Collaborative learning in an online
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 97
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Hybrid Portable Document Format Protection

Scheme based on Public key and Digital
Watermarking
Karim Shamekh1, Ashraf Darwish2 and Mohamed Kouta3
1
Computer Science Department, High Technology Institute, 10th of Ramadan, Egypt,
Karim_Shamekh@hotmail.com
2
Computer Science Department, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
amodarwish@yahoo.com
3
Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime, Cairo, Egypt
mmkouta@hotmail.com

Abstract: Portable Document Format (PDF) developed by
Adobe Systems Inc. is a flexible and popular document
distribution and delivery file format, and it is supported within
various operating systems and devices. The ease of reproduction,
distribution, and manipulation of digital documents creates
problems for authorized parties that wish to prevent illegal use
of such documents. To this end, digital watermarking has been
proposed as a last line of defence to protect PDF files copyright
through visible watermarks in such files. As well as, to preserve
the integrity of the digital watermark, an asymmetric
cryptographic algorithm (DES) is employed. The proposed
watermarking method does not change the values of the stored
data objects. Experimental results show the feasibility of the
proposed method and provide a detailed security analysis and
performance evaluation to show that the digital watermarking is
robust and can withstand various types of attacks.
Keywords: Portable Document Format (PDF), Watermarking
(WM), Data Encryption Standard (DES), Copyright protection,
Cryptosystems.
1. Introduction
The number of files that are published and exchanged
through the Internet is constantly growing and electronic
document exchange is becoming more and more popular
among Internet users. The diversity of platforms, formats
and applications has called for a common technology to
overcome those differences and produce universally readable
documents to be exchanged without limitations. Even
though it is supported by nearly every application on any
machine, plain text ASCII has failed to become popular
because it does not allow text formatting, image embedding
and other features that are required to an efficient
communication. Portable Document Format (PDF) files [1]
are popular nowadays, and so using them as carriers of
secret messages for covert communication is convenient.
Though there are some techniques of embedding data in text
files [2-4], studies of using PDF files as cover media are
very few, except Zhong et al. [5] in which integer numerals
specifying the positions of the text characters in a PDF file
are used to embed secret data. In this paper a new algorithm
for PDF documents protection has been presented.
The PDF, created by Adobe Systems for document exchange
[1], is a fixed-layout format for representing documents in a
manner independent of the application software, hardware,
and operating system. Each PDF file contains a complete
description of a 2-D document, which includes text, fonts,
images, and vector graphics described by a context-free
grammar modified from PostScript. Many PDF readers are
available for use to read PDF files; each PDF file appears in
the window of a PDF reader as an image-like document.
The main advantage of the PDF format is that it allows
documents created within any desktop publishing package to
be viewed in the original typeset design, regardless of the
systems where it is being displayed. Documents with texts,
images, hyper-links and other desirable features in
document authoring, can be easily created with the packages
distributed by Adobe or with any other authoring application
(e.g., Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, LaTeX, etc.) and then
converted to the PDF format. The result is an easy to
distribute, small size document, that will be displayed
exactly in the way it was created, on any platform and using
any viewer application.
Besides being very flexible and portable, PDF documents are
also considered to be secure. Popular document formats like
Microsoft Compound Document File Format (MCDFF) have
been proven to have security flaws that can leak private user
information(see Castiglione et al.(2007)[6]), while PDF
documents are widely regarded as immune to such
problems. This is one of the reasons why many
governmental and educational institutions have chosen PDF
as their official document standard. In this paper, we will
start giving a concise overview of the PDF format, focusing
on how data is stored and managed.
Digital watermarking is a relatively new research area that
attracted the interest of numerous researchers both in the
academia and the industry and became one of the hottest
research topics in the multimedia signal processing
community. Although the term watermarking has slightly
different meanings in the literature, one definition that
seems to prevail is the following [7]: Watermarking is the
practice of imperceptibly altering a piece of data in order to
embed information about the data. The above definition
reveals two important characteristics of watermarking. First,
information embedding should not cause perceptible
changes to the host medium (sometimes called cover
medium or cover data). Second, the message should be
related to the host medium. In this sense, the watermarking
techniques form a subset of information hiding techniques.
However, certain authors use the term watermarking with a
98
meaning equivalent to that of information hiding in the
general sense.
Digital media are replacing traditional analog media and
will continue to do so. By digital media, we mean digital
representations of audio, text documents, images, video,
three-dimensional scenes, etc. These media offer many
benefits over their analog predecessors (e.g., audio and
video cassettes). Unlike analog media, digital media can be
stored, duplicated, and distributed with no loss of fidelity.
Digital media can also be manipulated and modified easily.
Clearly, digital media offer many benefits, but they also
create problems for parties who wish to prevent illegal
reproduction and distribution of valuable digital media (e.g.,
copyrighted, commercial, privileged, sensitive, and/or secret
documents).Two classic methods for protecting documents
are encryption and copy protection. However, once
decrypted, a document can be copied and distributed easily,
and copy-protection mechanisms can often be bypassed. As
a safeguard against failures of encryption and copy
protection, digital watermarking has been proposed as a last
line of defence against unauthorized distribution of valuable
digital media.
This paper provides insight for some of the security issues
within the use of digital watermarking and its integrity with
cryptographic algorithm (DES).
The remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 surveys
related works while Section 3 analyzes the portable
document files (PDF) format. Section 4 reviews the digital
watermarking and cryptographic systems. Section 5
introduces the proposed scheme, experimental results and
analysis. Conclusion and future work are given in section 6.
1.1Copyright Protection
The main requirements for copyright-protection
watermarking algorithms are robustness (denoting how the
watermark can survive any kind of malicious or
unintentional transformations), visibility (does the
watermark introduce perceptible artifacts), and capacity (the
amount of information which can be reliably hidden and
extracted from the document). For copyright applications,
robustness should be as high as possible, and visibility as
low as possible in order to preserve the value of the marked
document. Note, however, that capacity can be low since
copyright information generally requires a rather small
amount of information, which can be an index inside a
database holding copyright information. Other requirements
can be outlined, which are: security (from the cryptographic
point of view), and that the scheme should be oblivious (the
original or cover image is not needed for the extraction
process). Many robust watermarking schemes have been
proposed, consisting in either spatial domain or transform
domain watermarks. The main issue addressed for these
schemes these last years is the robustness of watermarks
against various intentional or unintentional alterations,
degradations, geometrical distortions or media-conversion
which can be applied to the watermarked image. The four
main issues of the state-of-the-art watermark robustness are
described in more details in [8, 9].
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2. Related Work
Information about the Portable Document Format can be
found in [10]. Those documents are the main source of
information on how PDF documents are structured and
managed by various PDF compliant applications.
Even though information leakage in published documents is
a well known issue, only a few publications investigate the
problem. Byers (Byers, 2004 [11]) showed how hidden text
can be extracted from
MicrosoftWorddocuments.Hecollectedover100,000
documents and compared the text that appears when each
document is opened with Microsoft Word, with the text
extracted from the same documents using widely known text
extraction tools Almost each processed document had some
hidden contents like previously deleted texts, revisions, etc.
Castiglione et al.(2007)[6] conducted a more extensive study
on the popular document format, investigating the way
Microsoft Compound documents are created and structured.
The same authors developed some tools to extract document
hidden meta data as well as sensitive publisher information
and show how to use the slack space responsible of such
threat as a steganographic means.
Several companies and institutions have distributed
guidelines to avoid information leakage in published
documents after that the media reported news about
documents published on the Web containing sensitive
information which were not supposed to become public. For
example, in May 2005 the Coalition Provisional Authority
in Iraq published a PDF document on the “Sgrena-Calipari
Incident”. Black boxes were used to conceal the names of
some people involved in the incident, but all of them were
easily revealed copying the text from the original document
into a text editor [12]. Several papers discuss the PDF
structure [13, 14] and some of them introduce tools for
content extraction from PDF documents [15] or tools to use
PDF documents as a steganographic means [16].
3. The Portable Document Format (PDF)
This section will give a brief over view of the PDF format,
highlighting the parts that are relevant to our work. The
Portable Document Format is based on the PostScript
(Adobe Systems Inc., 1999) page description language and
has been introduced to improve performances and provide
some form of user interactivity. A PDF document consists of
a collection of objects which together describe the
appearance of the document pages. Objects and structural
information are all encoded in a single, self contained,
sequence of bytes.
The structure of a PDF file has four main components:
• A header identifying the version of the PDF
specification to which the file complies. The file
header contains a five character magic number,
‘‘%PDF-’’, and a version number in the form 1.x
where x is a digit between 0 and 7, as shown in
Table 1.
• One or more body sections containing the objects
that constitute the document as it appears to the
user;
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 99
• One or more cross-reference tables storing
information and pointers to objects stored in the
file;
• One or more trailers that provide the location of
the cross-reference tables in the file.
Table 1: PDF file header For version 1.7 document
Header Version
%PDF- 1.7
A newly created PDF document has only one body section,
one cross-reference table and one trailer. When a document
is modified, its previous version is not updated, but any
changes and new contents are appended to the end of file,
adding a new body section, a new section of the cross-
reference table and a new trailer. The incremental update
avoids rewriting the whole file, resulting in a faster saving
process, especially when only small amendments are made
to very large files. Objects stored in the body section have an
object number used to unambiguously identify the object
within the file, anon-zero generation number and a list of
key-value pairs enclosed between the keywords (obj) and
endobj. Generation numbers are used only when object
numbers are reused, that is, when the object number
previously assigned to an object that has been deleted is
assigned to a new one. Due to incremental updates,
whenever an object is modified, a copy of the object with the
latest changes is stored in the file. The newly created copy
will have the same object number as the previous one. Thus,
several copies of an object can be stored in the file, each one
reflecting the modifications made to that object from the
time it was created, onwards.
The cross-reference table is composed of several sections
and allows random access to file objects. When a document
is created, the cross-reference table has only one section and
new sections are added every time the file is updated. Each
section contains one entry per object, for a contiguous
number of objects.
Table 2: An example of cross-reference table
xref
0 36
0000000000 65535 f
0000076327 00000 n
0000076478 00000 n
0000076624 00000 n
0000078478 00000 n
0000078629 00000 n
0000078775 00000 n
0000078488 00000 n
0000078639 00000 n
. detectable by unauthorized parties.
. • No reference to original document
. For some applications, it is necessary to recover the
0000100661 00000 n
An example of cross-reference table section is given in
Table 2.As shown, each section starts with the keyword
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
(xref) followed by the object number of the first object that
has an entry in that section and the number of its entries.
Table 2 shows a section with entries of 36 objects, from
object 0 to object 35. Each entry provides the following
information:
• The object offset in the file;
• The object generation number;
• The free/in-use flag with value n if the object is in use or ƒ
if the object is free, that is, if the object has been deleted.
Object 0 is a special object and it is always marked as free,
with generation number 65535. The latest document
(trailer) is stored at the end of the file and points to the last
section of the cross-reference table. A PDF document is
always read from the end (apart when generated with the
“Fast Web View ”flag enabled),looking for the offset
relative to the last section of the cross-reference table,
required to identify the objects that constitute the latest
version of the document. Each time the document is
updated–adding new objects or modifying existing ones–a
new body, cross-reference table section and trailer are
appended to the file. The body section will contain the
newly created objects or the updated version of the existing
ones, the cross-reference table section will store information
to retrieve those objects, while the trailer will have a
reference to the newly created cross-reference table section,
as well as a pointer to the previous one.
4. Digital Watermarking and Cryptosystems:
basics and overview
4.1 Digital watermarking
Digital watermarking requires elements from many
disciplines, including signal processing,
telecommunications, cryptography, psychophysics, and law.
In this paper, we focus on the process of protecting PDF
documents.
An effective watermark should have several properties,
listed below, whose importance will vary depending upon
the application.
• Robustness
The watermark should be reliably detectable after alterations
to the marked document. Robustness means that it must be
difficult (ideally impossible) to defeat a watermark without
degrading the marked document severely-so severely that
the document is no longer useful or has no (commercial)
value.
• Imperceptibility or a low degree of obtrusiveness
To preserve the quality of the marked document, the
watermark should not noticeably distort the original
document. Ideally, the original and marked documents
should be perceptually identical.
• Security
Unauthorized parties should not be able to read or alter the
watermark. Ideally, the watermark should not even be
watermark without requiring the original, unmarked
document (which would otherwise be stored in a secure
archive).
100
• Unambiguity
A watermark must convey unambiguous information about
the rightful owner of a copyright, point of distribution, etc.
Of these properties, robustness, imperceptibility, and
security are usually the most important. When speaking of
robustness, we often talk about attacks on a watermark. An
attack is an operation on the marked document that,
intentionally or not, may degrade the watermark and make
the watermark harder to detect. For text documents, an
attack might consist of photocopying.
4.2. Visible watermarking
Visible watermarking techniques are used to protect the
copyright of digital multimedia (audio, image or video) that
have to be delivered for certain purposes, such as digital
multimedia used in exhibition, digital library, advertisement
or distant learning web, while illegal duplication is
forbidden. Braudaway et al. [17] proposed one of the early
approaches for visible watermarking by formulating the
nonlinear equation to accomplish the luminance alteration
in spatial domain. In this scheme, dimensions of the
watermark image are equal to those of the host image. There
is a one-to-one correspondence between pixel locations in
the watermark image and those in the host image.
According to their brightness, pixels in the watermark
image can be divided into transparent and non-transparent
categories. The brightness of each pixel in the host image in
proportion to the non-transparent regions of the watermark
will be increased or reduced to a perceptually equal amount
by using a nonlinear equation while the brightness of each
pixel in proportion to the transparent regions of the
watermark will remain the same after watermark
embedding.
Meng and Chang [18] applied the stochastic approximation
for Braudaway’s method in the discrete cosine transform
(DCT) domain by adding visible watermarks in the video
sequences. Mohanty et al. [19] proposed a watermarking
technique called dual watermarking which combines a
visible watermark and an invisible watermark in the spatial
domain. The visible watermark is adopted to establish the
owner’s right to the image and invisible watermark is
utilized to check the intentional and unintentional
tampering of the image. Chen [20] has proposed a visible
watermarking mechanism to embed a gray level watermark
into the host image based on a statistic approach. First, the
host image is divided into equal blocks and the standard
deviation in each block is calculated.
The standard deviation value will determine the amount of
gray value of the pixel in the watermark to be embedded
into the corresponding host image. Kankanhalli et al. [21]
proposed a visible watermarking algorithm in the discrete
cosine transform (DCT) domain. First, the host image and
the watermark image are divided into 8 x8 blocks.
Next, they classify each block into one of eight classes
depending on the sensitivity of the block to distortion and
adopt the effect of luminance to make a final correction on
the block scaling factors.
The strength of the watermark is added in varying
proportions depending on the class to which the image block
belongs. Mohanty et al. [22] proposed a modification
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
scheme on their watermark insertion technique of [23] in
order to make the watermark more robust.
Hu and Kwong [24, 25] implemented an adaptive visible
watermarking in the wavelet domain by using the truncated
Gaussian function to approximate the effect of luminance
masking for the image fusion. Based on image features, they
first classify the host and watermark image pixels into
different perceptual classes.
Then, they use the classification information to guide the
pixelwise watermark embedding. In high-pass subbands,
they focus on image features, while in the low-pass subband,
they use truncated Gaussian function to approximate the
effect of luminance masking. Yong et al. [26] also proposed
a translucent digital watermark in the DWT domain and
used the error-correct code to improve the ability of anti-
attacks.
Each of the above schemes wasn’t devoted to better feature
based classification and the use of sophisticated visual
masking models, so Huang and Tang [27] presented a
contrast sensitive visible watermarking scheme with the
assistance of HVS. They first compute the CSF mask of the
discrete wavelet transform domain.
Secondly, they use a square function to determine the mask
weights for each subband. Thirdly, they adjust the scaling
and embedding factors based on the block classification with
the texture sensitivity of the HVS. However, their scheme
should further consider the following issues:
• The basis function of the wavelet transform plays an
important role during the application of CSF for
the HVS in the wavelet transform domain, but the
study [27] didn’t consider this key factor.
• The embedding factors emphasize too much weight
on the low frequency domain, rather than equal
emphasis on the medium to high frequency
domains.
• The interrelationship of block classification and the
characteristics of the embedding location should be
further analysed.
For the first issue, the direct application of CSF for the HVS
in the wavelet transform domain needs to be further studied
[28–32] while the basis function of the wavelet
transformation is a critical factor affecting the visibility of
the noise in the DWT domain.
For the second issue, the watermark embedding in the low
frequency components results in high degradation of the
image fidelity.
How to get the best trade-off between the visibility of the
watermark and the capability of resistance for removal still
needs to be further justified. For the third issue, the plane,
edge and texture block classification in the study [27] is a
genuine approach.
However, the local and global characteristics of wavelet
coefficients should be carefully considered, and the content
adaptive approach is necessary for making the optimal
decision.
4.3. DES (Data Encryption Standard)
Data security research attracted a lot of interest in the
research community in areas like databases [33], data
mining [34], and Internet transaction [35, 36].
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 101
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

The DES algorithm is the most widely known block cipher
in the world and even today, is resistant to most of practical
attacks. It was created by IBM and defined in 1977 as U.S.
standard FIPS 46. It is a 64-bit block cipher with 56 bit keys
and 16 rounds. A round in DES is a substitution
(confusion), followed by a permutation (diffusion).
For each 64-bit block of plaintext that DES processes, an
initial permutation is performed and the block is broken into
two 32-bit halves, a left half ( Li ) and a right half ( Ri ) .
The 16 rounds of substitutions and permutations, called
function f, are then performed. For each round, a DES round
key ( K i ) of 48 bits and the current Ri are input into
function f. The output of f is then XORed with the current
Li to give Ri +1 . The current Ri becomes Li +1 . After the 16
rounds, the two halves are rejoined and a final permutation
is the last step. This process is shown in Fig.1
KPDF document belong to him. Software programs consist
of two major entities: KPDF creator and KPDF viewer.
The KPDF creator as shown in (Fig.2) and the flowchart is
shown in (Fig.3):
1. Embedded digital watermark into PDF document
2. Generate string of the header which contain the
publisher info and the parameters value (Expire date,
Allow password, Allow print and Allow print screen)
then convert it into array of bytes then append last byte
that’s contain (Number of Header bytes)
3. Read the work document (watermark included or not)
into array of bytes then transposition the array of bytes
from Z to A into a new array of bytes
4. Create a new array of bytes that contain header bytes +
reverse bytes and one byte for the trailer which has
header length
5. To preserve the integrity of the digital watermark, an
asymmetric cryptographic algorithm (DES) is
employed using public key hashed to create a unique
32 character (256-bit)
6. Write the all bytes into the KPDF document

(a)

Figure 1. The DES algorithm

In January 1999, a DES cracking contest was held by RSA

Data Security Inc. After only 22 hours and 15 minutes, the
DES encrypted message was cracked by an international
team consisting of a custom hardware DES cracking device
built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) and a
group of distributed computing enthusiasts known as
distributed.net. The EFF hardware cost $250,000 U.S. to
design and build. Creating a second device would be much
cheaper. Distributed.net used the idle CPU time of the
members’ computers at no extra cost. With more money, a
DES cracking hardware device could be built to decrypt
messages within a small number of hours or even minutes.
(b)
In this paper we will use the DES algorithm to encrypt the Figure 2. (a) KPDF Creator without watermark Selection
PDF documents. (b) KPDF Creator with watermark Selection

5. The Proposed Scheme

5.1 Embed and encrypt PDF document

The goal is to protect the copyright of the PDF document
after releasing it. It is assumed that the owner published the
KPDF document and keeps the source of the PDF document
for himself. By showing the watermark and the owner
details, the owner can prove that copies of the released
102
Figure 3. KPDF Creator flowchart
5.2. Decrypt document
The KPDF viewer as shown in (Fig.4) and the flowchart is
shown in (Fig.5):
1. Decrypt the KPDF document by the encryption key
2. Get the last byte from the document that’s has the
header byte length
3. Convert the header array of bytes to a string of
publisher information and parameters value like exp
(Expire date, Allow password, Allow print and Allow
print screen)
4. Transposition the reverse array to its original form
then write the array into PDF document
5. Display the PDF document into PDF control into the
main viewer
Figure 4. KPDF Viewer
Figure 5 KPDF Viewer flowchart
5.3. Discussion
KPDF converts existing PDF files to copy protected format
where digital watermarking has been proposed as a last line
of defense to protect PDF files copyright through visible
watermarks in such files. As well as, to preserve the
integrity of the digital watermark, an asymmetric
cryptographic algorithm (DES) is employed. The proposed
scheme shows that KPDF is generated by the software code
for the following reasons:
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• Embedded digital watermark into PDF documents
• Protect PDF documents by Encryption Key
• Distribute secure PDF documents that cannot be
copied
• Prevent Print screen
• Stop ALL screen capture software
• Password protect PDF documents
• Prevent printing of PDF documents
• Set an expiry date for PDF documents validated by
time server
• Prevent extraction of original images and resources
6. Conclusion AND FUTURE WORK
The Portable Document Format is an almost universally
supported file format. During the past sixteen years it has
become a de facto standard for electronic document
distribution. Besides its portability, it provides its own
security features such as encryption and digital signature
and it is regarded as a secure document standard if com-
pared to other popular document file formats.
Portable Document Format is the most popular standard for
document exchange over the Internet .PDF files are
supported on almost all platforms, from common general
purpose operating systems and web browsers to more exotic
platforms, such as mobile phones and printers.
Such universal support is both a blessing and a burden. For
example, without doubt it is a blessing for authors, who can
trust that a PDF document can be read practically anywhere
by anybody.
However, at the same time all of these machines share a
common surface that is exposed and can be exploited. Being
very complex to parse – the ISO standard document is over
700 pages long – it is also vulnerable as implementation
errors are likely to happen. This is clearly visible from the
vulnerability history of Adobe Reader, which is by no means
Adobe’s problem alone but concerns all other
implementations of PDF readers and writers as well.
However, as
Adobe’s own Reader is likely to be the most common tool
for browsing PDF documents; it is also the one that is most
likely to be attacked.
We have presented a new method to digital watermarking of
PDF documents. Watermarking embeds ownership
information directly into the document, and it is proposed as
a ``last line of defense'' against unauthorized distribution of
digital media. Desirable properties of watermarks include
imperceptibility, robustness, and security. An application
showed how watermarking has been implemented for PDF
files with new algorithm. The success of these methods
encourages the development of more sophisticated
watermarking algorithms as part of a larger system for
protecting valuable digital documents.
In this digital watermarking process the watermark is
protected from any attacks by both transposition cipher and
asymmetric cryptographic algorithm, other ciphers functions
and asymmetric cryptographic algorithms should be
evaluated for future study.
A further study could be done to investigate how to make an
online registration and request your PDF documents online.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 103
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Author’s Profile

Karim Shamekh received the B.S.

degree in Computer Science from High
Technology Institute in 2006. During
2007-2010, he is preparing the M.S.
degree in Computers and Information
Systems from the Arab Academy for
Science, Technology and Maritime
Transport. His interests are concerned
with Information Security, Web Mining
and Image processing.

Dr. Ashraf Darwish received his PhD

degree in computer science in 2006
from computer science department at
Saint Petersburg State University
(specialization in Artificial
Intelligence), and joined as lecturer
(assistant professor) at the computer
science department, Faculty of Science,
Helwan University in 25 June 2006.

Dr. Mohamed Kouta received the B.S.

degree in Electrical Engineering from
Military Technical College in 1972. He
received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
computer science from Jons Hopkins
University and Clarkson University in 1982
and 1985, respectively. He is the Chairman
of Business information system(BIS)
Department (Cairo Branch),college of
management and technology, Arab academy
for science and technology (AAST) and the Vice Dean for
Education.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 105
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Analysis of the Performance of Registration of

Mono and Multimodal Brain Images using Fast
Walsh-Hadamard Transform
D.Sasikala1 and R.Neelaveni2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam. Tamil Nadu-638401, India.
anjansasikala@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu -641004, India.

Abstract: Image registration has great significance in
medicine. Hence numerous techniques were developed. This
paper introduced a method for medical image registration using
Fast Walsh-Hadamard transform and measured their
performance using correlation coefficient and time taken for
registration. This algorithm can be used to register images of
the same or different modalities. Each image bit is lengthened
in terms of Fast Walsh-Hadamard basis functions. Each basis
function is a concept of determining various aspects of local
structure, e.g., horizontal edge, corner, etc. These coefficients
are normalized and used as numerals in a chosen number
system which allows one to form a distinct number for each type
of local structure. The research outcomes show that Fast Walsh
-Hadamard transform accomplished better results than the
conventional Walsh transform in time domain. In addition Fast
Walsh-Hadamard transform established medical image
registration consuming less time and more correlation
coefficient. Since in Medical Images information is very
important than time, hence Correlation Coefficient is used as a
measure. It proves that Fast Walsh Hadamard Transform is
better than Walsh Transform in terms of both the measures.
Keywords: Walsh Transform, Fast Walsh-Hadamard
Transform, Local Structure, Medical Image Registration,
Normalization.
1. Introduction
Digital image processing is building up the basic
machine that could achieve the visual functions of all, that
is, it is an enhancement by improving image quality by
filtering the noise and restoration of images by performing
compression to save storage area and channel capacity
during transmission. It is a rapidly growing field with
emergent applications in many areas of science and
engineering. The main principle of registration is to
combine the sets of data with the deviations if any or with
their similarities into a single data. These sets of data are
obtained by sampling the same scene or object at different
times or from different perspectives, in different co-ordinate
systems. The purpose of registration is to envision a single
data merged with all the details about these sets of data
acquired at different times or perspectives or co-ordinate
systems. Such data is very vital in medicine for doctors to
prepare for surgery. The most familiar and significant
classes of image analysis algorithm with medical
applications [1,3] are image registration and image
segmentation. In Image analysis technique, the same input
gives out fairly detail description of the scene whose image
is being considered. Hence the image analysis algorithms
perform registration as a part of it towards producing the
description. Also in single subject analysis, the statistical
analysis is done either before or after registration. But in
group analyses, the statistical analysis is done after
registration. Though registration transforms the different
sets of data into one co-ordinate system, it’s required for
comparison or integration.
Generally registration is the most difficult tasks among
all in image processing. It is because aligning images to
overlap the common features and differences if any are to be
emphasized for immediate visibility to the naked eye.
There is no general registration [1-17] algorithm that
work reasonably well for all images. A suitable registration
algorithm for the particular problem must be chosen or
developed, as they are adhoc in nature. The algorithms can
be incorporated explicitly or implicitly or even in the form
of various parameters. This step determines the success or
failure of image analysis. The method generally involves
determining a number of corresponding control points in the
images and, from the correspondences, determining a
transformation function that will determine the
correspondence between the remaining points in the images.
This technique may be classified based on four different
aspects given as follows: (i) the feature selection (extracting
features from an image) using their similarity measures and
a correspondence basis, (ii) the transformation function, (iii)
the optimization procedure, and (iv) the model for
processing by interpolation.
Amongst the numerous algorithms developed for image
registration so far, methods based on image intensity values
are particularly excellent as they are simple to automate as
solutions to optimization problems. Pure translations, for
example, can be calculated competently, and universally, as
the maxima of the cross correlation function between two
images [11] [15] [17]. Additional commands such as
rotations, combined with scaling, shears, give rise to
nonlinear functions which must be resolved using iterative
nonlinear optimization methods [11].
In the medical imaging field, image registration is
regularly used to combine the complementary and
synergistic information of images attained from different
106
modalities. A widespread problem when registering image
data is that one does not have direct access to the density
functions of the image intensities. They must be estimated
from the image data. A variety of image registration
techniques have been used for successfully registering
images that are unoccluded. This is generally practiced with
the use of Parzen windows or normalized frequency
histograms [12].
The work proposed in this paper uses Fast Walsh-
Hadamard Transform (FWHT) [18, 19] for image
registration. The coefficients obtained are normalized to
determine a unique number which in turn represents the
digits in a particular range. The experiments conducted on
clinical images show that proposed algorithm performed
well than the conventional Walsh Transform(WT) method
in medical image registration. In addition, this paper
provides a comparative analysis of Fast Walsh-Hadamard
transform and Walsh transform in Medical image
registration in terms of correlation coefficient and time
taken for registration.
The remainder of the paper is ordered as follows.
Section 2 provides an overview on the related work for
image registration. Section 3 explains Walsh transform in
image registration. Section 4 describes the proposed
approach for image registration using Fast Walsh-Hadamard
Transform. Section 5 illustrates the experimental results to
prove the efficiency of the proposed approach in image
registration in terms of correlation coefficient and time
taken for registration and Section 6 concludes the paper
with a discussion.
2. Related Works
This section of paper provides a quick look on the
relevant research work in image registration.
An automatic scheme using global optimization
technique for retinal image registration was put forth by
Matsopoulos et al. in [1]. A robust approach that estimates
the affine transformation parameters necessary to register
any two digital images misaligned due to rotation, scale,
shear, and translation was proposed by Wolberg and Zokai
in [2]. Zhu described an approach by cross-entropy
optimization in [3]. Jan Kybic and Michael Unser together
put forth an approach for fast elastic multidimensional
intensity-based image registration with a parametric model
of the deformation in [4]. Bentoutou et al. in [5] offered an
automatic image registration for applications in remote
sensing. A novel approach that addresses the range image
registration problem for views having low overlap and
which may include substantial noise for image registration
was described by Silva et al. in [6]. Matungka et al.
proposed an approach that involved Adaptive Polar
Transform (APT) for Image registration in [7, 10]. A
feature-based, fully non supervised methodology dedicated
to the fast registration of medical images was described by
Khaissidi et al. in [8]. Wei Pan et al. in [9] proposed a
technique for image registration using Fractional Fourier
Transform (FFT).
3. Walsh Transform
The Walsh, Haar [13], etc are examples of orthogonal
transforms. The coefficients of such an extension point
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
toward the effectiveness of the occurrence of the analogous
structure at the particular position. If these coefficients are
normalized by the dc coefficient of the expansion, i.e., the
local average gray value of the image, then they measure
purely the local structure independent of modality. Walsh
basis functions correspond to local structure, in the form of
positive or negative going horizontal or vertical edge, corner
of a certain type, etc. In addition, registration schemes based
on wavelet coefficient matching do not present a general
mechanism of combining the matching results across
different scales.
Suppose if there are two images I1 and I2, in which I1 is
assumed to represent the reference image whereas I2
represents an image that has to be deformed to match I1.
First, we consider around each pixel, excluding border
pixels, a 3X3 neighborhood and compute from it, the nine
Walsh coefficients (3X3 WT of a 3X3 image patch). If ‘f’ is
the input image, the matrix of coefficients ‘g’ computed for
it using equation (1),
g = (W −1 ) T . fW −1 (1)
Matrix contains the coefficients of the expansion of the
image, in terms of the basis images formed by taking the
vector outer products of the rows of matrix W and its inverse
W-1. These basis images are shown in Fig. 1(a). These
coefficients are denoted by a00, a01, a02, a10, a11, a12, a20, a21,
a22, and in a matrix form as shown in Fig. 1(b). These
coefficients take the value in the range [0, 9]. Moreover
normalization given by equation (2) makes the method
robust to global levels of change of illumination.
αij = aij / a00 (2)
However, the information having dense features and
rigid body transformation allows for plenty of redundancy in
the system and makes it robust to noise and bad matches of
individual pixels which effectively represent lack of local
information. One may construct a unique number out of
eight numbers if one uses these numbers as the digits of the
unique number. The number of levels depends on the
number system adopted. If one decide to stick with the
decimal system, and then the normalized coefficients are
quantized so that they take integer values in the range [0, 9].
(a). WTs basis images for a 3X3 images
a0 a0 a0
0 1 2
a1 a1 a1
0 1 2
a2 a2 a2
0 1 2
(b). Nine coefficients in matrix form
Figure 1. Walsh Transformation
In Figure 1(a) the coefficients along the first row and the
first column are of equal importance, as they measure the
presence of a vertical or a horizontal edge, respectively. The
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 107
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

remaining four coefficients measure the presence of anumber. This unique number can then be used as feature for
corner. image registration. The implementation of FWHT readily
The following ordering of coefficients are used in images, reduces the time consumption for medical image registration
Ordering IA α01, α 10, α 20, α 02, α 11, α 21, α 12, α 22 when comparing the same with conventional WT technique for
Ordering IB α 10, α 01, α 02, α 20, α 11, α 12, α 21, α 22 image registration.
Ordering IIA α 22, α 21, α 12, α 11, α 02, α 20, α 10, α 01
Ordering IIB α 22, α 12, α 21, α 11, α 20, α 02, α 01, α 10 5. Experimental Result
The performance of the FWHT is better than the WT in terms A series of experiments is performed using medical
of Correlation Coefficient(CC) and Time taken for registration images. The tests are performed using different images of
of mono and multimodal image registration. different sizes. A set of CT and MR medical images which
depict the head of the same patient is considered. The
The drawbacks of WT were found to be as follows: original size of these images is given as pixels. In order to
(i) Errors are present in the final registration stage. remove the background parts and the head outline, the
(ii) Consumes more CPU time for registration as lot of original images are cropped, creating sub-images of
calculations are involved. This is the major drawback when different dimension pixels. The algorithms are evaluated by
compared to FWHT. determining the CC and Time taken for registration.
The CC is a statistical measure of how well trends in
The advantages of FWHT were found to be as follows: the predicted values follow trends in past actual values. It is
(i) More reliable as produces least error results in the final a measure of how well the predicted values from a forecast
registration stage when compared to WT. model “fit” with the real-life-data. As the strength of the
(ii)Consumes very less CPU time for registration as calculations relationship between the predicted values and actual values
are performed using divide and conquer method. This is the increases, so does the CC. Thus higher the CC the better it
major advantage when compared to WT. is.
(iii)The performance of the FWHT is better than the WT in Correlation Coefficient
terms of CC for monomodal and multimodal image registration.
The Computed Tomography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance
(MR) images represent monomodal images and CT-CT, CT-MR,
and MR-MR images represent real multimodal pairs and the
successful registration shows that FWHT produce accurate
results while the measures correlation coefficient and time taken
for registration are considered in a diversity of image sets,
without any tuning in the preprocessing step.
4. Proposed Approach

4.1 Fast Walsh Hadamard Transform

A fast transform algorithm can be considered as a sparse
factorization of the transform matrix, and refer to each factor as (i)Correlation Coefficient and Time taken for registration
a stage. The proposed algorithms have a regular interconnection for Monomodal images:
pattern between stages, and consequently, the inputs and outputs For the evaluation of the algorithm, MR T2-Registered
for each stage are addressed from or to the same positions, and images are used.
the factors of the decomposition, the stages, have the property of (a)MRI T2-Registered –Sagittal Image 400 x 419 - 88.8kB.
being equal between them. The 2X2 Hadamard matrix is defined
as H2 by equation (3) as
1 1 
H2 =   (3) A set of
1 − 1
Figure 2. MRI T2-Registered –Sagittal Image 400 x 419 -
radix-R factorizations in terms of identical sparse matrices can 88.8kB Using FWHT
be rapidly obtained from the FWHT property that relates the
matrix H with its inverse and is given in equation (4), The results of WT and FWHT are obtained. Figure
HR n = R n ( HR n ) −1 (4) 3.shows the pictorial outputs from the WT that are different from
n Figure 2 and outputs from the FWHT is same as Figure 2.
Where HR = radix-R Walsh Hadamard transform;
Rn = radix-R factorizations;
n = input element;
The FWHT is utilized to obtain the local structure of the
images. This basis function can be effectively used to obtain the
digital numbers in the sense of coefficients [18] [19]. If these
coefficients are normalized by the dc coefficient of the
expansion, i.e., the local average gray value of the image, then
they measure purely the local structure independent of modality.
These numbers are then normalized to obtain the unique
108 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Image for S.No 2
(ii)Correlation Coefficient and Time taken for registration
for Multimodal images:
(i) Sagittal 840 x 754 - 69k - jpg CT & Sagittal 500 x 500 -
72k - jpg MRI – WT
Image for S.No 4

a) Registered Image obtained using WT

Image for S.No 5

b) Difference in images obtained using WT

Figure 3. MRI T2-Registered –Sagittal Image 400 x 419 - Figure 6. Images obtained using WT
88.8kB using WT
(ii) Sagittal 840 x 754 - 69k - jpg CT & Sagittal 500 x 500 -
72k - jpg MRI – FWHT
Table 1.Represents results of WT & FWHT using CC.
S. X in Y in Angle in CC after CC after
No mm mm degrees registration registration
for WT for FWHT
1 4 -10 9 0.8342 0.8343
2 -12 -7 13 0.8459 0.8464
a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT
3 5 -7 5 0.0416 0.8864
4 -14 -15 2 0.8933 0.8934
5 -8 -7 1 0.2542 0.9426

1 b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT

0.9
0.8 Figure 7. Images obtained using FWHT
0.7
0.6
WT
CC

0.5
0.4
FWHT
(iii) Sagittal 500 x 500 - 72k - jpg MRI & Sagittal 840 x 754 -
0.3
0.2 69k - jpg CT - WT
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5
Ima ges

Figure 4. Comparison of WT & FWHT using CC.

Table 2.Represents Time consumption for Image Registration a) Registered Image obtained using WT
using WT & FWHT
S X in Y in Angle in Elapsed Elapsed
No mm mm degrees Time in Time in
seconds seconds
for WT for
FWHT b) Difference in images obtained using WT
1 4 -10 9 138.297 6.829 Figure 8. Images obtained using WT
2 -12 -7 13 135.922 7.328
3 5 -7 5 133.406 6.328 (iv) Sagittal 500 x 500 - 72k - jpg MRI & Sagittal 840 x 754 -
4 -14 -15 2 136.000 6.750
69k - jpg CT - FWHT
5 -8 -7 1 141.125 6.125

160
140
120
Time in Secs

100
WT
80
60
FW HT
a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
I ma ge s

Figure 5. Comparison of WT & FWHT in terms of time.

From the above analysis it proves that the performance of b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT
the FWHT is better than the WT in terms of time and Figure 9. Images obtained using FWHT
Correlation Coefficient.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 109
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
(v) Axial 320 x 420 - 40k - jpgCT Figure 13. Images obtained using FWHT
Axial 553 x 642 - 38k – jpg-MRI - WT
(ix) Sagittal 432 x 427 - 41k – jpg- CT
Frontal 400 x 400 - 18k – jpg- MRI –WT

a) Registered Image obtained using WT

a) Registered Image obtained using WT

b) Difference in images obtained using WT

Figure 10. Images obtained using WT
b) Difference in images obtained using WT
(vi) Axial 320 x 420 - 40k - jpgCT Figure 14. Images obtained using WT
Axial 553 x 642 - 38k – jpg-MRI - FWHT
(x) Sagittal 432 x 427 - 41k – jpg- CT
Frontal 400 x 400 - 18k – jpg- MRI –FWHT

a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT

a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT

b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT

Figure 11. Images obtained using FWHT
b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT
(vii) Axial 553 x 642 - 38k – jpg-MRI Figure 15. Images obtained using FWHT
Axial 320 x 420 - 40k - jpgCT –WT
(xi) Frontal 400 x 400 - 18k – jpg- MRI
Sagittal 432 x 427 - 41k – jpg- CT- WT

a) Registered Image obtained using WT

a) Registered Image obtained using WT

b) Difference in images obtained using WT

b) Difference in images obtained using WT Figure 16. Images obtained using WT
Figure 12. Images obtained using WT (xii) Frontal 400 x 400 - 18k – jpg- MRI
(viii) Axial 553 x 642 - 38k – jpg-MRI Sagittal 432 x 427 - 41k – jpg- CT- FWHT
Axial 320 x 420 - 40k - jpgCT – FWHT

a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT

a) Registered Image obtained using FWHT

b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT b) Difference in images obtained using FWHT
Figure 17. Images obtained using FWHT
110 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

The FWHT is better than the WT in terms of Time and

Table 3: Represents results for WT & FWHT using CC Correlation Coefficient as their values are maximized for
both monomodal and multimodal images.
S. CC after CC after registration
No registration for Fast Walsh 6. Conclusion
for Walsh Hadamard Transform
Transform This paper proposes the application of FWHT for
1 -0.0459 0.5330 monomodal and multimodal medical image registration.
2 0.1838 0.4429 This transform reduces the time consumption in image
3 0.0130 0.6752 registration. Therefore it proves to be a better approach for
4 -0.0498 0.7483
5 -0.0557 0.5452
medical image registration than any other conventional WT.
6 -0.0837 0.5638 The coefficients obtained using this transform are then
normalized to obtain the unique number. The unique
0.8 number represents the local structure of an image. Moreover
0.6 this unique number indicates the feature of an image for
0.4 WT
image registration. The experimental results revealed the
CC
0.2 FWHT fact that the application of FWHT performs well in image
0 registration. The future work concentrates on Mutual
-0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Information and its application for image registration with
Images the analysis of its performance of monomodal and
multimodal brain images using FWHT. Also to further
Figure 18. Comparison of WT & FWHT using CC. improve the results by using some other transforms that use
Table 4.Represents Time consumption for Image Registration correlation coefficients.
using WT & FWHT
References
S. Elapsed Time Elapsed Time in
[1] George K. Matsopoulos, Nicolaos A. Mouravliansky,
No in Secs after Secs after Konstantinos K. Delibasis, and Konstantina S. Nikita,
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gives better results when compared to WT in terms of Time
[4] Jan Kybic, and Michael Unser, “Fast Parametric Elastic
and CC.
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show the pictorial outputs from the WT that is different
[5] Y. Bentoutou, N. Taleb, K. Kpalma, and J. Ronsin, “An
from outputs from the FWHT. The registration of these
Automatic Image Registration for Applications in
images shows that there is loss of information in pixels
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while registering images using WT due to less CC. But the
and Remote Sensing, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 2127-2137,
rest of the images have the outputs for FWHT.
2005.
800 [6] Luciano Silva, Olga R. P. Bellon, and Kim L. Boyer,
600 “Precision Range Image Registration Using a Robust
400
WT Surface Interpenetration Measure and Enhanced
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Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. R. Neelaveni is presently working as a
400-413, 2009. Assistant Professor, Department of EEE,
[10] R. Matungka, Y. F. Zheng, and R. L. Ewing, “Image PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore.
registration using Adaptive Polar Transform,” IEEE She has a Bachelor’s degree in ECE, a
Master’s degree in Applied Electronics and
Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 18, no. 10, pp.
PhD in Biomedical Instrumentation. She has
2340-2354, 2009. 19 years of teaching experience and has
[11] Jr. Dennis M. Healy, and Gustavo K. Rohde, “Fast guided many UG and PG projects. Her
Global Image Registration using Random Projections,” research and teaching interests includes
4th IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Applied Electronics, Analog VLSI, Computer Networks, and
Imaging: From Nano to Macro, ISBI 2007, pp. 476- Biomedical Engineering. She is a Life member of Indian Society
479, 2007. for Technical Education (ISTE). She has published several
[12] C. Fookes and A. Maeder, “Quadrature-Based Image research papers in national and international Journals and
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[18] M. Bossert, E. M. Gabidulin, and P. Lusina, “Space-
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[19] L. Ping, W. K. Leung, and K. Y. Wu, “Low-rate turbo-
Hadamard codes,” IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 49, no.
12, pp. 3213–3224, Dec. 2003.

Author’s Profile
D.Sasikala is presently working as Assistant
Professor, Department of CSE, Bannari
Amman Institute of Technology,
Sathyamangalam. She received B.E.( CSE)
from Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore and M.E. (CSE) from
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli. She is now pursuing Phd in Image
Processing. She has 11.5 years of teaching experience and has
guided several UG and PG projects. She is a life member of ISTE.
Her areas of interests are Image Processing, System Software,
Artificial Intelligence, Compiler Design.
112 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

A Robustness Steganographic Method Against

Noise For RGB Images Based On PCA
Hamid Dehghani1, Majid Gohari2
1
Malekashtar University of Technology, Department Computer Scienses,
Lavizan Road, Tehran, Iran
H_deh@yahoo.com
2
Malekashtar University of Technology, Department of Secret Communication,
Lavizan Road, Tehran, Iran
m48.gohari@gmail.com

Abstract: In this paper an effective color image steganography
method based on Principle Component Analysis (PCA) is
proposed. After applying the PCA technique on the RGB
trichromatic system, eigenimages obtained, the least significant
bit of the Eigenimages pixels value are replaced with the data
bits. Then inverse PCA applied and stego-image is resulted. The
method used the correlation between the colors of RGB image.
Experimental results show that the proposed algorithm robust
against noises, attacks and detection comparable to LSB
methods that replace the LSBs of pixel value directly. Hope with
optimizing the method, makes it an effective steganographic
technique in security communication.
Keywords: Steganography, Principle Component Analysis,
RGB image, correlation.
1. Introduction
Steganography is combination of science and art concealing
the secret message so that the very existence of it is not
detectable [1]. The major steganography characteristics are
providing a larger hidden capacity for data-hiding and
maintaining a good perceived quality [2]. In the
steganography process, first and more important term that
must regarded is undetectability and then robustness
(resistance to various image processing methods and
compression) and capacity of the hidden data, that separate
it from related techniques such as watermarking and
cryptography. The steganographic algorithms can be divided
into two groups: spatial/time domain and transform domain
techniques. In the spatial domain in the case of images,
secret message directly embedding in pixels value of image.
The transform domain methods operate in the Discrete
Cosine Transform, Fourier or wavelet transform domains of
the host signal [2]. The proposed method belongs to
transform domain but color transform domain. Applying
PCA transform caused images that called eigenimages [3].
In natural RGB images, R-, G- and B-component have high
correlation: , and [4],
while eigenimages aren’t correlated and distribution of data
is quite heterogeneous. Hence changing pixels value of RGB
image caused most sensible variation of changing pixels
value of eigenimages [5]. Tow characteristics uncorrelation
and data distribution of eigenimages can be used for
effective steganographic. Watermarking based on PCA
transform for tamper-proof of web pages is proposed by
Qijun and Hongtao [6]. The proposed scheme generates
watermarks based on the PCA technique. The watermarks
are then embedded into the web page through the upper and
lower cases of letters in HTML tags. When a watermarked
web page is tampered, the extracted watermarks can detect
the modifications to the web page. A. Abadpour and S.
Kasaei [7] use the PCA to compression and watermarking of
color images. However steganography based on PCA
technique is typically a novel and first attempt scheme.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: first, Section 2
PCA technique briefly discussed. The proposed PCA-based
steganography scheme is specifically described in Section 3.
The paper continues with Section 4 which contains the
experimental results and discussions. Finally, Section 5
concludes the paper.
2. Principle Component Analysis
Let I be an N×N matrix, denoted by I ∈ , where F
represents either the real number domain or the complex
number domain. The first step of PCA is to calculate the
covariance matrix V of I, which is defined as
V= ,
Where is the row vector in I, t denotes the transpose
operation, and ∈ is the average vector of the row
vectors in I, i.e.
.
Then eigen decomposition (ED) is applied to V:
V = UL ,
Where denotes the inverse matrix of U. L is a diagonal
matrix with eigenvalues of V as its diagonal
elements , and the columns of U, , , . . . ,
, are the eigenvectors of V.
According to theory of linear algebra, the primary
information of V is in the larger eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors. Without loss of generality, we
assume that these diagonal elements in L have been sorted
in descending order ( . A property of
PCA is its optimal signal reconstruction in the sense of
minimum mean square error (MSE) when only a subset of
eigenvectors, called principal vectors, is used as basis
vectors of a feature space S:
S = span ( , ,..., ), m N.
With the feature space S, we can obtain another
representation of the original data I by projecting them into
the space S. Specifically this is as the following equation:
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 113
= .[ , ,..., ], i= 1, 2, . . . , N,
Where ∈ can be viewed as the coordination of the
original data in the feature space S. Actually they are what
we call ‘principal components’, which, to some extent, can
distinguish the original data well [7]. In the context of the
proposed stenographic method, we generate principal
components (eigenimages) as m=N=3, which we will show
in the next part. Further details on PCA can be found in
Refs. [8, 9]. However, we will not discuss it more in this
paper due to limits of space.
3. Data embedment and extraction
In order to apply PCA, we have first to construct a matrix, I,
from the given RGB image of size M×N. the elements of R-,
G- and B-component taken into three rows of the matrix:
I= . percent of correct retrieval data with different embedding
PCA is then applied to the matrix I, and we choose all the
m=N=3 principal components as eigenimages (PCA1,
PCA2, PCA3). Secret message bits are embedded in the
pixel value of these images with common LSB stenographic
methods. In this way rounding of elements of PCA1, PCA2
and PCA3 images in the transmitter and receiver is needed.
The act of rounding caused error. For conquest the error,
convolutional coding (Error-Correcting Code) [10] of
message bits applied. After applying invers PCA, stego
image is obtained. Flowchart of data embedding process
shown in Fig. 1(a).
Figure 1. The embedding and extraction schemas of the
proposed method. (a) Embedding schema, and (b)
Extraction schema.
In side of receiver, the extraction process can be carried out
by reversing the embedding procedure as the block diagram
of Fig. 1(b). From this figure, it is obvious that this PCA is
blind. The receiver first compute the eigenimages of stego
image and then apply the LSB extraction. After decoding
the retrieval data, secret message is obtained.
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
4. Implementation Results
One of the error metrics used to compare the host image and
stego-image is Pick Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR);
PSNR = 10× dB
Where, M and N are the size of the images. c(i,j) and s(i,j)
are sequentially pixel of cover and stego images
[11].
4.1. Image quality
To quantify the invisibility of the embedded secret message,
three 512×512 images, namely, Lena, Baboon and pepper,
shown in Fig. 2, were used as host images. Size of secret
message is 35000×3 bits (35000 bits embedded in each of
eigenimages) coded via convolutional coding of rate 4/8.
Table 1 show average PSNR of R-,G- and B-component and
rate and different LSB locations (bpp: bits per pixel; LSB
loc.: LSBs location under embedding)
for the host images. Usually error occurs in lower lsbs. so
with selecting upper LSB location(s) for imbedding message
bits, error decrease. But increasing the LSB location caused
the PSNR be decreased. We do experiments for 1, 2, 3, 4, 6
and 7 bit(s) per RGB pixel (that been used). Selecting of
LSB location is based on the maximum data retrieval and
then for the similar types, maximum PSNR is selected.
Since transform domain of proposed method and frequency
transform domain methods and also supported format (RGB
format for the color transform domain; Greyscale and JPEG
format for FT, DCT and Wavelet domain) aren’t similar, we
while not compare the proposed method with these methods.
4.2. Embedding capacity
Since, usually, the proposed method is with loss, using
Error-Correcting Codes is needed. Therefore embedding
capacity is depended on image properties and coding rate.
Maximum capacity and PSNR can be optimized by using
adaptive process depended on coding rate and LSB
locations. It is clear that total bits number of secret
message, , after embedding can be calculated by below
equation:
Where is bpp of PCAi and show the used
coding rate of embedding of PCAi in M-by-N RGB image.
The results of Table 1 shown that the proposed algorithm
has acceptable capacity but (because of coding) lower than
LSB method.
4.3. Robustness against noise
In this evaluation, as an active attack, we generate White
Gaussian Noise by using wgn(m,n,p) function of Matlab
software and added to image components. wgn(m,n,p)
generates an m-by-n matrix of white Gaussian noise. The p
parameter specifies the power of the matrix in bits.
Parameter-p selected to equal the numbers of bits embedded
in a pixel (bpp). Secret message is coded by convolutional
coding with rate 4/8. LSB and proposed methods are
simulated and results gathered for the test images in Table
114 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

2. It can be seen from this Table that the PCA-based

method is highly Robustness against white Gaussian noise
than LSB method.
When we hide secret message bits sequentially in PCAi
pixels lsb caused the change in image domain that dispread
in all of components. So the effect of noise reduced.
Figure 2. Test images

Table 1: The average PSNR and percent of correct retrieval data for different bpp and optimum locations.

bpp – LSB loc. percent of correct retrieval data

PCA1 PCA2 PCA3 PCA1 PCA2 PCA3 PSNR
not used 1–3 not used - 100 - 49.62
1–2 1–2 not used 100 100 - 46.25
Lena
1- 3 1–2 1–2 100 100 99.99 41.60
1–3 2 - 2:3 1–2 100 100 100 40.44
1–2 2 - 2:3 3 - 1:3 100 99.99 99.41 41.81
1–2 3 – 1:3 3 – 1:3 100 99.62 99.35 42.47
not used not used 1–2 - - 100 50.48
1–2 1–2 not used 100 100 - 46.51
Baboon 1–2 2 - 3:4 not used 100 100 - 41.84
1–3 2 - 2:3 1–2 100 100 100 40.59
2 - 3:4 2 - 3:4 2 - 2:3 100 100 100 36.08
2 - 3:4 2 - 3:4 3 - 2:4 99.99 100 99.69 36.31
not used 1–3 not used - 100 - 47.95
not used 2 - 2:3 not used - 100 - 49.56
Pepper not used 2 - 2:3 1–1 - 100 97.71 46.88
1–1 2 - 1:2 1–1 96.76 99.64 98.01 48.26
2 - 2:3 2 - 1:2 2 - 1:2 96.25 97.05 95.78 43.64
2 - 2:3 3 - 1:3 2 - 1:2 96.01 98.63 95.46 42.43
6 6 3 4
Pepper 99.3 98.9 87.1 89.3
Table 2: Percent of correct retrieval data in presence of 2 1 2 3
white Gaussian noise with variance equal to bpp, for LSB
and PCA-based methods (secret message size is 35000×3
bits and coding rate is 4/8) 5. Conclusion
1 2 3 4
bpp bpp bpp bpp In this paper a novel transform domain steganography
Lena 50.2 50.2 49.9 50.0 method based on Principle Component Analysis for secure
7 4 6 3 and robustness steganography was proposed. The main idea
LSB Baboon 50.0 49.6 50.3 49.4 is based on embedding a secret data in the pixels value of
2 0 3 9 obtained images from colour transform domain. The
Pepper 49.7 50.0 50.3 50.1 proposed blind steganography method has the acceptable
8 2 9 1 capacity and reduces the stego image visual distortion by
Lena 98.2 97.5 94.5 80.3 hiding the secret data in eigenimages. Robustness against
PCA- 3 0 0 7 White Gaussian Noise is the major characteristic of the
Based Baboon 99.9 75.7 69.0 78.4 proposed method.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 115
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Reference

[1] S .Katzenbeisser, F .Petitcolas, Information Hiding

Techniques for Steganography and Digital
Watermarking, Artech HousePublishers, 2000.
[2] A. Cheddad, Digital image steganography: Survey and
analysis of current methods, IEEE Trans. Signal
Processing 90 (2010) 727–752.
[3] Arash Abadpour & Shohreh Kasaei, Color PCA
eigenimages and their application to compression and
watermarking, Image and Vision Computing 26 (2008)
878–890.
[4] Paluse H., Reprensentation of color images in different
color spaces, in the color image processing handbook,
S.J .Sangwine and R.E.N, Eds., 67-90 .Chapman and
hall, London, 1998.
[5] A. Abadpour, Color image processing using principal
component analysis, Master’s thesis, Sharif University
of Technology, Mathematics Science Department,
Tehran, Iran, 2005.
[6] Q. Zhao, H. Lu, PCA-based web pagewatermarking,
Pattern Recognition 40 (2007) 1334 – 1341.
[7] A. Abadpour, S. Kasaei, Color PCA eigenimages and
their application to compression and watermarking,
Image and Vision Computing 26 (2008) 878–890.
[8] J.E. Jackson, A User’s Guide to Principal Components,
Wiley, New York, 1991.
[9] I.T. Jolliffe, Principle Component Analysis, Springer,
New York, 1986.
[10] M. Bossert and F. Hergert, “Hard- and soft-decision
decoding beyond the half minimum distance An
algorithm for linear codes,” IEEE Trans. Inform.
Theory, vol. IT-32, pp. 709–714, Sept. 1986.
[11] Z. Wang, A. Bovik, A universal image quality index,
IEEE Signal Process. Lett. 9 (March 2002) 81–84.

Majid Gohari received the B.S. degrees in

Electrical Engineering from Ferdowsi University
of Mashhad in 2008. He is now Graduate student
of Secret Communication in Malekashtar
University of Technology
116 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Evolution Of FTTH As A Novel Subscriber’s

Broadband Service Access Technology
P. Rajeswari1, N. Lavanya2 and Shankar Duraikannan3
1
Student M. E. Communication Systems,
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering, Ranippettai Engineering College, Walajah – 632 513
raji_ece2009@yahoo.com
2
Student M. E. Communication Systems,
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering, Ranippettai Engineering College, Walajah – 632 513
nlavanya1986@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor,
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering, Ranippettai Engineering College, Walajah – 632 513
itzdshankar@yahoo.in

Abstract: Internet access has become more and more
convenient to the extent that it is now often seen by customers as
a “utility”, a relatively undifferentiated key service. Emergence
of new equipment which requires the optimal use of bandwidth
like HDTV, mobile TV, wireless sound system, operators in
recent years have developed more and more services requiring
higher bandwidth. Without fiber, operators face a bottleneck on
service development and therefore on the ability to develop new
services and revenues. This paper focus on deployment of the
FTTH using Ethernet and PON architectures. The comparative
performance analysis of the architectures and the survey on
different access networks emphasis that FTTH(using fiber optic
cables) will be a promising technology for future bandwidth
requirements and offers a way to eliminate the bottleneck in the
last mile, with speeds 100 times higher than copper and also
enables new applications and services within the digital home.
Key Words: FTTH, Ethernet, Access, PON
1. Introduction
The increasing need in the telecommunication services is
the key driver behind the development in the access
networks. Among the various broadband access technologies
like digital subscriber loop (DSL) and cable/modem, Fiber-
to-the-home (FTTH) is the end game for many service
providers.
Since packets and frames of other categories of networks
are transmitted over the broadband access networks, we
need to find the technologies and the architectures that will
enable cost effective transport of this traffic all the way to
the home via an access networks.
FTTH deployed with Passive Optical Network (PON)
technology seems to be the best solution to alleviate the
bandwidth bottleneck in the access network. FTTH is an
access technology in which the optical fiber runs from the
central office to the subscribers living or workspace. The
optical line terminal (OLT) resides at the central office and
optical network unit is on the customer premises. OLT and
ONU are interconnected by means of an optical fiber. The
function of an ONU is to provide the services received from
the OLT to the Home. ONU can also serve many homes; in
that case the network is called FTTC (fiber to the curb).
Many applications like CATV, VOIP reaches the central
office and the ONU converts them in to single wavelength
and they are transmitted via optical fiber. Figure.1
represents the architecture of FTTH.
2. FTTH Architectures
FTTH can be deployed using either Ethernet or PON
architectures. Ring, Star and Tree are the topologies that are
considered and of which Tree is the mostly preferred and
used topology [1].
FTTH architectures that have been deployed can be
classified in to three broad categories.
• Ring Architecture of Ethernet switches.
• Star Architecture of Ethernet switches.
• Tree architecture using PON technologies.

2.1 Point to Point Ethernet Based Architectures

Figure 1. General architecture of FTTH
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) is a widely used LAN standard. The
requirements for rapid time to market and low cost per
subscriber have favored network architectures based on
Ethernet switching. Ethernet transmission and switching
have become commodities in the enterprise networking
market and have led to attractive costs, mature products, and
rapid innovation cycles.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 117
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Initially in Europe, FTTH using Ethernet is based on the
architectures where the switches are located in the
basements of the multiple dwelling units that have been
interconnected in the form of a ring. Such architectures
provide excellent resilience against fiber cuts and it is cost
effective. But the sharing of bandwidth over each ring is
comparatively small and because of this reason star
architectures are preferred.
typically, PON has a physical tree topology with the central
office (CO) located at the root and the subscribers connected
to the leaf nodes of the tree. OLT is the root of the tree and
the ONUs are connected to the OLT the root, by
optical fibers through passive optical splitter/combiners,
which interconnects the ONUs. The function of an optical
splitter (OS) is to divide the power among the users in the
link. The maximum splitting ratio is 1:64 and 1:128 [6].i.e.,
OS can serve up to 128 users simultaneously.

Figure 2. General representation of point to point

Ethernet networks
Figure 3. Implementation of PON
Figure 2 represents simple point to point FTTH Ethernet
2.2.1. Traffic Flow In PON
architectures using star topology. A Dedicated link runs
In PON traffic flow is outlined by Downstream and
from the OLT to the home. The fiber may be a single mode
Upstream data flows. Transport from the service provider to
with 100BX or 1000BX or a pair of fibers with 100LX or
subscriber is represented as Downstream and its counter part
1000LX. There are a number of specifications has been
as Upstream.
released in recent years and different interfaces to the
physical layer were defined [1].
2.2.1. a. Downstream Data Flow
1. 100BASE-LX10: point-to-point 100 Mbps Ethernet links
over a pair of single-mode fibers up to at least 10 km.
2. 100BASE-BX10: point-to-point 100 Mbps Ethernet links
over an individual single-mode fiber up to at least 10 km.
3. 1000BASE-LX10: point-to-point 1000 Mbps Ethernet
links over a pair of single-mode fibers up to at least 10 km.
4. 1000BASE-BX10: point-to-point 1000 Mbps Ethernet
links over an individual single-mode fiber up to at least 10
km.
The supported maximum transmission speed is 100Mbit/s
for slower links (100BASE–X) or 1000Mbit/s for faster
links (1000BASE–X).

2.2 Passive Optical Networks-PON Architectures

Passive optical networks (PON) are identified as an
economic and future safe solution to alleviate the bandwidth
bottleneck in the access network [4], [5]. A Passive Optical
Network (PON) is a single, shared optical fiber that uses
inexpensive optical splitters to divide the single fiber into
separate strands feeding individual subscribers. As the name
implies, passive optical networks are typically passive, in
the sense that they employ a simple passive optical splitter Figure 4. Traffic flow in downstream direction
and combiner for data transport. As shown in the Figure 3,
118
The downstream represents the data transmission from the
OLT to ONU. The wavelength preferred is 1490-1550nm,
since the attenuation is very less 0.2 db/km. From the
Figure 4, the services like voice, data and video etc., from
different application networks transported over the optical
network reaches the OLT and are distributed to the ONUs
through the OS by means of power splitting.
The optical splitter splits the power of the signal i.e., if
there are N users the splitting ratio is 1:N. Due to power
splitting the signal gets attenuated but its structure and
properties remain the same. Each Home receives the packets
intended to it through its ONU.
2.2.1. b. Upstream Data Flow
The upstream represents the data transmission from the
ONU to OLT. The wavelength preferred is 1310 nm. If the
signals from the different ONUs arrives the splitter input at
the same time at the same wavelength 1310nm, it results in
superposition of different ONU signals when it reaches
OLT. Hence TDMA [1] is adopted to avoid the interference
of signals from ONUs. In TDMA time slots will be provided
to each user on demand for transmission of their packets. At
the optical splitter packets arrive in order and they are
combined and transmitted to OLT.
Figure 5. Traffic flow in upstream direction
2.3PON Flavors
Figure 6. Evolution of PON
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2.3.1 Broadband PON (BPON)
BPON is the first introduced PON standard. It is accepted
and given a standard by ITU T as ITU T G.983 in 1999[7].
The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) protocol is used
to carry user data, hence sometimes access networks based
on this standard are referred to as APONs [8], [9]. ATM
uses 53-byte cells (5 bytes of header and 48 bytes of
payload). Because of the fixed cell size, ATM
implementations can enforce quality-of-service guarantees,
for ample, bandwidth allocation, delay guarantees, and so
forth. ATM was designed to support both voice and data
payloads. Yet, the advantages of ATM proved to be the
main obstacle in deployment of BPON and despite many
field trails [10], [11] BPON did not gain much popularity.
The APON protocol operates differently in the
downstream and upstream directions. All downstream
receivers receive all cells and discard those not intended for
them based on ATM addressing information. Due to the
broadcast nature of the PON, downstream user data is
churned, or scrambled, using a churn key generated by the
ONT to provide a low level of protection for downstream
user data.In the upstream direction, transmission is
regulated with a time-division multiple access (TDMA)
system. Transmitters are told when to transmit by receipt of
grant messages. Upstream APON modifies ATM and uses
56-byte ATM cells, with the additional 3 bytes of header
being used for guard time, preamble bits, and a delimiter
before the start of the actual 53-byte ATM cell.
2.3.2 Ethernet PON (EPON)
EPON standards are set by the IEEE and represented as
IEEE 802.3ah Ethernet first mile task force in 2001.
Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON) is a point to
multipoint network topology implemented with passive
optical splitters that follows the Ethernet standard. It follows
the specification 100baseX, 1000baseX.
2.3.3 Gigabit PON (GPON)
In 2001 a new effort for standardizing PON networks
operating at the bit rates above 1Gbps. The GPON standards
were accepted by ITU-T in Jan 2003 and are known as
ITU-T recommendations G.984 [1]. Apart from the need to
support higher bit rates, the overall protocol has been
opened for re-consideration and the sought solution should
be the most optimal and efficient in terms of support for
multiple services.
The main GPON requirements are:
• Full Service Support including voice (TDM, both
SONET and SDH), Ethernet (10/100 BaseT),
ATM, leased lines and more.
• Physical reach of at least 20 km with a logical
reach support within the protocol of 60 km.
• Support for various bit rate options using the same
protocol, including symmetrical 622 Mb/s,
symmetrical 1.25 Gb/s, 2.5 Gb/s Downstream and
1.25 Gb/s upstream and more.
• Security at the protocol level for downstream traffic
due to the multicast nature of PON.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 119
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

3. Performance of FTTH Networks the optical distribution network have a longer lifecycle of at
least 30 years.
Demand for the bandwidth is increasing with the emergence
of new applications like tele-working, video conferencing,
video telemetry. FTTH provides enormous bandwidth and
long rich offering for triple play services(voice, data,
video).From the Figure 7, the extent to which FTTH can
provide greater bandwidth at lower cost is unmatched by any
other technology[15].

Figure 9.Cost considerations

This longevity and the high cost of labor required in

physical construction places strong demands on proper
design of the fiber plant.

Figure 7.Estimated bandwidth demand for future [15] 5. FTTH Forecast

Based on measurements of performance, FTTH performs
better than other types of broadband and this performance
gap is widening over time.
According to the FTTH Worldwide Market-Technology
Forecast, 2006-2011, as shown in Figure 10, the number of
homes connected to fiber will grow from about 11 million at
the end of 2006 to about 86 million at the end of 2011,
representing about 5% of all households worldwide. Growth
will be dominated by Asia (59 million households in the
Asia Pacific Region – APAC – will have fiber by 2011). The
rest of the subscriber base will be split equally between the
Americas and the Europe Middle-East and Africa (EMEA)
region [13].

Figure 8. Tested download performance of broadband

media Mbps by year [14]

The Recent Surveys on the use of broadband Figure 8,

shows that, FTTH download speeds are currently 1.5 times
faster than cable modem download speeds, and 5.7 times
faster than the median DSL download speeds. In terms of
upload speeds, FTTH is 3.2 times faster than cable modem,
and 5.7 times faster than DSL [14].

4. Cost Considerations
From Figure 9, the cost of FTTH network equipment and
installation cost is less compared to all other technology as
the dominant part of the cost is the civil works which can be
considerably reduced if the construction is planned in
advance.
Furthermore, while the FTTH network and its electronic
elements have a lifecycle of many years, the fiber plant and
Figure 10. Estimated growth of FTTH in EMEA (Europe
Middle East and Africa), APAC (Asia Pacific region) and
America (2005-2011) [13]
6. Comparison of PON flavors
The selected characteristics of Existing PON flavors have
been compared and summarized as in Table.1.
120 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Table 1. Comparison of PON flavors [7] ITU-T, “G.983.1 - Broadband Passive Optical Networks
(BPON): General characteristics,” June 1999.
PARAMETERS BPON EPON GPON
[8] David Faulkner, Rajendrakumar Mistry, Tom
Rowbotham, Kenji Okada, Wsewolod Warzanskyj,
STANDARD ITU T G.983 IEEE 802.3ah ITU T G.984 Albert Zylbersztejn, and Yves Picault, “The Full
Services Access Networks Initiative,” IEEE
PACKET SIZE 53 BYTES 1518 BYTES
53-1518 Communications Magazine 35, pp. 58–68, Apr. 1997.
BYTES
[9] Yoichi Maeda, Kenji Okada, and David Faulkner,
DOWNSTREAM
622Mbps 1.25Gbps 2..5 Gbps
“FSAN OAN-WG and future issues for broadband
DATA RATE optical access networks,” IEEE Communications
UPSTREAM Magazine 39, pp. 126–132, Dec. 2001.
155Mbps 1.25 Gbps 1.25 Gbps
DATARATE
[10] Ingrid Van de Voorde and Gert Van der Plas, “Full
DOWNSTEAM 1490 - 1550 1490 – 1550
WAVELENGTH nm
1550 nm
nm
Service Optical Access Networks: ATM Transport on
Passive Optical Networks,” IEEE Communications
UPSTREAM
1310 nm 1310 nm 1310 nm Magazine 35(4), pp. 70–75, 1997.
WAVELENGTH
[11] Hiromi Ueda, Kenji Okada, Brian Ford, Glenn
ATM
TRAFFIC
ATM ETHERNET ETHERNET Mahony, Stephen Hornung, David Faulkner, Jacques
MODES Abiven, Sophie Durel, Ralph Ballart, and John
TDM
Erickson, “Deployment status and common technical
MAX PON
32 16 64 or 128
specifications for a B-PON system,” IEEE
SPLITS Communications Magazine 39, pp. 134–141, Dec.
2001.
[12] www.ftthcouncilap.org, www.ftthcouncil.com
BANDWIDTH 40 Mbps 75 Mbps 1.25 Mbps
[13] “FTTH white paper on Cable solutions for operator
diversity and lower CAPEX”, February 2008.
BER - 10-12 10-10 [14] “Consumer study report about FTTH” RVA 2010.
[15] John George“ Cost Innovations Speed Fiber Past
Copper to Enable Widespread FTTH Deployment” OFS
EFFICIENCY 72% 49% 94% Optics.

Author’s Profile
7. Conclusion
This paper has provided overview of FTTH and its P. Rajeswari received her B.E. degree
architectures based on Ethernet and PON. The comparative in Electronics and Communication from
analysis of the features in all the architectures Table.1 shows Anna University, Chennai, India in 2009
the access based on PON will be a promising technology of with a rank of 41 among 15535. Presently
the future as it also proves to be a fast growing technology she is doing her M.E. in Communication
from the survey results. FTTH not only eliminate the bottle Systems at Ranippettai Engineering
neck problem at the last mile but also offers much higher College affiliated to Anna University.
bandwidth and supports applications like HDTV, VOIP, and
Telecom when compared to other access technologies like N. Lavanya received her B.E. degree in
DSL and cable. Electronics and Communication from
Anna University, Chennai, India in 2008.
Presently she is doing her M.E. in
References
Communication Systems at Ranippettai
Engineering College affiliated to Anna
[1] Dawid Nowak and John Murphy, “ FTTH: The
University.
Overview of Existing Technologies”. University
College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland.
[2] Albert Domingo Vilar, “Modeling and deployment of
Shankar Duraikannan received his B.E.
NGAN in competitive market” 2009.
degree from University of Madras and
[3] Ziad A.Elsahn ,“Smooth upgrade of existing FTTH
M.Tech. from Anna University in 1996
access networks: SAC-OCDMA and Dense SS-WDM
and 2000 respectively. He has a decade of
solutions” 2010.
teaching and research experience
[4] C. Lin, “Broadband optical access networks and fiber-to-
in the field of Optical Communication
the-home: Systems technologies and deployment
and Networks. Presently he is working as
strategies”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., September 2006.
an Assistant Professor in Department of Electronics and
[5] A. Girard, “FTTx PON technology and testing”, Quebec
Communication Engineering, Ranippettai Engineering
City, Canada: Electro- Optical Engineering Inc., 2005.
College, Tamil Nadu, India.
[6] T.Koonen, “Trends in optical access and in-building
networks’ COBRA - Eindhoven the Netherlands.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 121
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

A Modified Framework of Knowledge Management

System Components for Collaborative Software
Maintenance
Mohd Zali Mohd Nor1, Rusli Abdullah2, Masrah Azrifah Azmi Murad3 and Mohd Hasan Selamat4
1
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
43400 Serdang, Malaysia
mohd.zali@my-newstar.com
2
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
43400 Serdang, Malaysia
rusli@fsktm.upm.edu.my
3
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
43400 Serdang, Malaysia
masrah@fsktm.upm.edu.my
4
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
43400 Serdang, Malaysia
hasan@fsktm.upm.edu.my

organization. The interrelations between these levels not

Abstract: Knowledge Management System (KMS) is critical to
software maintenance (SM) due to highly complex, knowledge-
driven and collaborative environment. We propose a KMS
framework for collaborative SM environment to model the
requirements for sharing and sustaining knowledge in SM
environment. The initial framework was based on literatures on
Knowledge Management (KM), KMS and SM frameworks to
identify the knowledge, contents and technology components
related to SM environment. To verify the model, questionnaires
are subjected to a pilot study before being sent out to users and
maintainers. The final questionnaire survey responses were
analyzed using Rasch methodology. As a result, several less
important components were excluded from the initial model.
The revised model shall be further used in our ongoing study to
develop a tool to assist SM Community of Practice (CoP)
members to perform their activities better.
Keywords: Knowledge Management, Knowledge Management
System, Software Maintenance, Collaborative Environment
1. Introduction
Within software engineering activity cycle, software
maintenance (SM) has yet to receive proper attention [29] It
is a costly process, where previous works [14][23][29][34]
estimated SM costs of between 60% to 90% of total software
life cycle costs. The motivation in applying KM in SM in
driven by the fact that the activities are knowledge-intensive
and depend largely on expertise of the maintainers,
However, SM organizations often have problems identifying
resources and use of knowledge [30]. Managing knowledge
in this area is therefore critical to ensure that maintainers
can perform SM activities properly and timely, by sharing
and obtaining vital knowledge.
SM organization consists of individuals (users and
maintainers) working in interconnected groups/teams called
Community of Practices (CoP). Therefore, knowledge flows
not only within individual, but also within teams and
only affects the way knowledge is shared and transferred,
but may also becomes barrier to efficient knowledge flows
[36].
However, there are various issues associated with the SM
knowledge, which makes organizing, storing, sharing and
disseminating knowledge difficult. Among the problems are:
• Some of these skills and expertise are documented as
explicit knowledge, but more are hidden as tacit
knowledge due scarcity of documentation [33].
• Maintainers have to collaborate with colleagues and
other parties to obtain various information to enable
them to carry out their software maintenance tasks.
• Domain knowledge are becoming more important to
software maintainers but are seldom stored in KMS or
other electronic means [25]. Often, maintainers have to
rely on experts and also codes to understand the details
[9][42]. While domain knowledge are important to
maintainers, they are lacking, not stored properly or
not readily available [33]. As such, maintainers,
especially newcomers, spend a lot of time searching,
collaborating and understanding these knowledge.
Changes to domain knowledge due to enhancements or
new business practices often affect usage of software
application.
• Many SM tools are still not integrated to allow
seamless information combination, which hampers
information acquisition and sharing [25].
To address the above issues of knowledge within SM
environment, a KMS framework shall be proposed. KMS
framework is required to ascertain that KM requirements
are fulfilled, includes the necessary conceptual levels and
support integration of the individual, team and
organizational perspectives [38].
Before the KMS framework in SM environment is proposed,
concepts of KM, KMS and SM activities shall be reviewed,
122 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

as follows: Meanwhile, KM frameworks for organization structure

Knowledge, KM and KMS Frameworks
As an overview, knowledge is defined as “a fluid mix of
framed experience, values, contextual information and
expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and
incorporating new experiences and information. It
originates and is applied in the mind of knowers. In
organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in
documents an repositories but also in organizational
routines, processes, practices and norms.” [10].
Meanwhile, KM, in technical perspective, is defined as
the strategies and processes of identifying, understanding,
capturing, sharing, and leveraging knowledge
[2][3][10][35]. One of the major challenges is to facilitate
flow of knowledge not only within individual, but also
within teams and organizations [3].
For individual knowledge cycle, many KM frameworks
have been formulated [27][41], which were based on
Polanyi’s tacit and explicit knowledge. Nonaka and
Takeuchi’s models the knowledge creation components as
socialization, internalization, combination and
externalization. This SECI model has been used and
synthesized by many others to model the KM for team and
organization levels. In SM, usage of SECI model can be
depicted in per Figure 1.
includes Szulanski’s model of knowledge transfer [36],
APQC’s organizational KM model [4], Choo’s model of
knowing organization [8], Selamat et al.’s KM framework
with feedback loop [35] and Holsapple and Joshi’s 3-fold
collaborative KM framework [19]. This framework
synthesizes the knowledge resources from Leonard-Barton,
and Petrach and Sveiby models; KM activities from Nonaka,
APQC, Wiig, Van der Spek and Alavi’s models, and KM
influences from Wiig, APQC, Van der Speck, Szulanski and
Leonard-Barton models..
To transform KM framework into a system, KMS
framework is conceptualized. KMS is defined as “I.T-based
system developed to support and augment the organizational
process of knowledge creation, storage, retrieval, transfer
and application” [3]. In general, a KMS framework consists
of influential factors of KMS initiatives and their
interdependent relationships and a model of KMS
implementation [15]. However, systems and technology
alone does not create knowledge [10], various other social
“incentives” and organizational strategy and culture are
often required to stimulate use of technology to share
knowledge. As an example, the KMS frameworks by Meso
and Smith and Abdullah et al. are illustrated in Figure 2 and
Figure 3, respectively.
TECH NOLO G IES FUNCT IONS

Tacit To Tacit Knowledge Tacit To Explicit Knowledge Com puter-Media ted

Collaboration
Via Socialization Via Externalization
El ectronic task
SM knowledge are exchanged Articulate tacit knowledge into O RG ANIZATION AL
KM
managem ent
KNOW LEDGE

through experience sharing, explicit via concepts, SYSTEM Messaging

USI NG
K NOW LEDG E Know-how
brainstorming, observation metaphor, or models. In SM Video Confere nc ing Know-wha t
and practice. cases, these could be in form of & Visualiz at ion
Know-why

Today technologies: screenshots of errors, shadow Group Decision

Support
Se lf-M oti vat ed
Crea tivity
sessions, emails, conversations
Collaboration tools - W eb Browsing Person al T ac it

teleconferencing, desktop Today technologies: Data Mining

FIND ING Cultur al T ac it
K NOW LEDG E
Orga ni zational
video conferencing tools, Email, terminal sessions, chat Se arch & Re tri ev al
Ta cit

live-meetings, village wells, CREATING

K NOW LEDG E
Regu latory
Assets
Intel ligent Age nts
synchronous collaboration
Doc ument PACK AG ING
Explicit To Tacit Knowledge Explicit To Explicit Management
K NOW LEDG E

Via Internalization Knowledge Via Combination

Knowledge is documented or
verbalized, to help
maintainers internalize and
transfer knowledge, and also
help other maintainers to
‘reexperience’ bug scenarios.
Today technologies:
Helpdesk and SCM
applications are used to store
bug reports and changes.
Visualization tool to read or
listen to success stories.
Figure 7. Nonaka's SECI Model (elaborated for SM)
Figure 8. Meso and Smith KMS Framework [24]
Knowledge are combined,
sorted, added , exchanged and
categorized, via specifications,
SCM entries and error analysis
Today’s technologies:
Collaboration tools - E-mail,
GroupWare, Homepages,
consolidates in SCM. Data
mining to sort, and filter
information.

When individuals collaborate and share knowledge, they

commonly do so within a team or group. Wenger defines
this group as the Community of Practice (CoP) - “a group of
people who share a concern, set of problem, or a passion
about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and Figure 9. Abdullah et al. KMS Framework
expertise in this area by interacting on regular basis”. [40]
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 123
Software Maintenance Knowledge
Software maintenance (SM) is defined as “The totality of
activities required to provide cost-effective support to
software system. Activities are performed during the pre-
delivery stage as well as the post-delivery stage” [20].
After studying the SM process flow in a SM organization
[25], we envisage that the knowledge flow in SM
environment is somewhat analogous to a river. Starting
from several streams or sources (call tickets, bugs reports,
testing bugs, request for enhancements, etc.) , the inputs
merge into the maintenance request mainstreams which go
through many plains before ending at a delta of changed
objects, released applications and changes to domain rules.
To support these flow of maintenance information, several
SM governance activities and tools are required. Tools such
as Helpdesk, Software Configuration Management (SCM),
Source Control, Project Management and others allow the
team and organization to monitor and control the processes.
In addition, collaborative tools and platform allows users
and maintainers to communicate, cooperate and coordinate
the required information to ensure good maintenance
process.
The knowledge required in SM can be summarized as
follows [16][31][32]:
• Organizational knowledge, such as roles and resources.
The parties involved in software maintenance activities
consist of various application users and software
maintainers. The list may include enduser, superuser,
maintenance manager, business analyst, systems
analyst, project manager, QA personnel, build
manager, implementation personnel and trainer.
Attached to these roles are the areas of expertise.
• Managerial knowledge - such as resource management,
task and project tracking and management.
• Technical knowledge – such as requirement analysis,
system analysis, development tools, testing and
implementation. Critical to this is also the knowledge
on supporting groupware and CASE tools such as
SCM, helpdesk and testing tools
• Domain knowledge – knowledge of the products and
business processes.
• Knowledge on source of knowledge – where the
knowledge resides, such as source codes,
documentation, supporting CASE tools and more
importantly, the where the experts are.
Based on past researches on KMS in SM, many
researchers concentrate only on SM processes, tools,
ontology, and knowledge flow. A proper study on KMS
framework in collaborative SM environment is still lacking.
The purpose of this paper is therefore to conceptualize such
KMS framework.
This paper is structured as follows: section II discusses
the related work on the related KMS frameworks and
Section III reviews the methodology for the study. Then,
section IV discusses the proposed KMS component model
for collaborative SM environment. Section V elaborates the
findings of a questionnaire survey on the above KMS
components and proposes a revised framework of KMS
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Components for Collaborative SM.
2. Related Works
KMS for SM has been studied since late 1980s by Jarke
and Rose [22], who introduced a prototype KMS to control
database software development and maintenance, mainly to
facilitate program comprehension. The KMS is a decision-
based approach that facilitates communication across time
and among multiple maintainers and users, thus improving
maintenance support. Even though this research was carried
out quite some time ago, it provides the foundation on how
decisions could be assisted via shared knowledge. However,
facilitating program comprehension is not enough as SM is
more than just understanding codes and extracting
knowledge from codes.
Similarly, Deraman introduced a KMS model for SM
which, albeit very simple, could provide us with the main
essence of SM knowledge – the Software Knowledge,
Change Request Knowledge and their functional interaction
[11]. However, these alone, are not enough for users and
maintainers. Newer technologies such as software agents are
used to capture SM process knowledge in several researches
[31][39]. However, no proper KMS framework was
conceptualized by these studies.
Looking at the wider perspective of software engineering
(SE), KMS in SE have been studied by many, including
Santos et al. [33], Rus and Lindval [32] and Aurum et al.
[5]. Rus and Lindval described the three main tasks of SE
(individual, team and organization) and identified the three
level of KM support for each task. The 1st level includes the
core support for SE activities, document management and
competence management. Meanwhile, the 2nd level
incorporates methods to store organizational memory using
method such as design rationale and tools such as source
control and SCM. The 3rd KM support level includes
packaged knowledge to support knowledge definition,
acquisition and organization. Although the illustrative
model is not given, the above should describe the KMS
framework for SE. However, this model does not consider
the social, physiological and cultural aspects of KM, as
identified by the previous other generic KMS frameworks.
Therefore, the main motivation for this study is to
formulate a more detailed KMS framework for Collaborative
SM environment. The long-term goal of this study is to
formulate a tool to support and automate KM tasks within
collaborative SM environment. As such, the KMS
framework shall place more emphasize on the technological
perspective.
3. Methodology
To formulate the KMS framework for Collaborative SM,
the following steps are used:
1. Review the existing KM and similar KM frameworks.
2. Review the existing KMS frameworks within the
related areas of SM.
3. List the KMS dimensions and components which
include the SM processes, tools and KM activities.
124
4. To verify the above dimensions and components,
suitable questionnaires are developed.
5. To ensure reasonable face validity, questionnaires were
further deliberated and refined by academic lecturers in
Software Engineering, a statistician and several SM
managers. A pilot study of 13 respondents were
carried out to do the following:
a. Verify the constructs of the questions, based
on the responses given by a pilot group of
respondents.
b. Determine if the questions are well
understood by respondents (i.e. hard to
answer questions)
c. Determine if the questions are mundane and
trivial (i.e. too easy) that perhaps the
questions could just be left out.
d. Rasch Unidimensional Measurement Model
(Rasch) was used to analyze the above pilot
data. Some problematic questionnaire items
are identified, revised and some discarded
to make the questionnaire more acceptable.
6. Distribute questionnaires to three in-house software
maintenance organizations in Klang Valley, Malaysia.
7. Analyze questionnaire responses using Rasch
methodology to:
a. Determine reliability of respondents and items
b. Determine outliers for both respondents and
items.
c. Determine the component groups’ cut-off points
to exclude the components from the model. This
should give us the final KMS component model
for collaborative SM environment.
8. Revise the model for KMS Components for
Collaborative SM Framework
The questionnaire are developed using a 4-Likert Scale
order of importance, with 1 being less important and 4
denotes more important. Evaluation of questionnaire results
shall be performed using Rasch. It is a probabilistic model
that uses ‘logit’ as the measurement units, by transforming
the ordinal data and raw scores into a linear scale [7]. Being
linear, Rasch enables us to conduct more constructive
analyses.
4. Initial KMS Dimensions and Components
To build the list of dimensions and components for a
KMS framework, a review of current KMS framework for
generic KMS, and related SE/SM KMS are conducted. The
theoretical constructs for KM framework, KMS framework
and SM knowledge dimensions are summarized in
Appendix B, Appendix C and Appendix D, respectively.
Based on the construct summary, components suitable for
SM KMS framework are identified as follows:
• Required knowledge, such as organizational
knowledge, managerial knowledge, technical
knowledge, business domain knowledge and
knowledge on source of knowledge, are derived from
Ghali [16, Rus and Lindval [31], Dias et al [12] and
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Rodriguez et al. [30]
• KM Activities are derived from Nonaka and Takeuchi
[27] and Holsapple & Joshi [19]. This includes
Acquiring knowledge, Selecting knowledge, using
knowledge, Providing/ Creating knowledge and
Storing knowledge.
• SM governance tools are from Rus and Lindval [31],
IEEE 14764 [20] and Mohd Nor et al. [25]. To support
these flow of SM information, tools such as Helpdesk,
SCM, Source Control and Project Management (PM)
are crucial to monitor MRs.
• KM Components and Infrastructure are derived from
Abdullah et al. [1], Meso & Smith [24], Dingsoyr &
Conradi [13], and Rus and Lindval [32] frameworks.
The major components includes computer-mediated
collaboration, Experience Mgmt System, Document
Management, KM portal, EDMS, OLAP, and
Middleware tools.
• Automation and knowledge discovery tools are from
Meso and Smith [24], Abdullah et al. [1], Rodriguez et
al. [31] and new internet tools in the market. Tools
such as GDSS, Intelligent Agents, Data
mining/warehouse, Expert system and Case-Based
Reasoning (CBR). Active tools such as RSS are also
useful to get the right knowledge to the right users at
the right time.
• KM Influences are derived from Holsapple and Joshi
[19] and Abdullah [2]. Among these are the
managerial influences and strategy, and psychological
and cultural influences.
The questions are, what do users and maintainers want
from such a KMS, which of these components affect the
KMS and, most important of all, how does these
components affect KM activities in Collaborative SM? To
answer the above questions, questionnaires are drafted and
distributed to selected users and maintainers to gauge their
perspective on these KM components, mainly to explain the
following issues:
4.1 The Important And Required General KM And
SM Knowledge
Required knowledge, such as organizational knowledge,
managerial knowledge, technical knowledge, business
domain knowledge and knowledge on source of knowledge
are important in SM processes. However, in most of the
cases, we suspect that the business domain knowledge are
important, but not stored for maintainers to access.
4.2 How Important Are SM Governance Tools As
Enablers In Knowledge Activities
Based on IEEE 14764, SM processes include process
implementation, problem and modification analysis, review
and acceptance, development/modification, migration and
retirement. Whilst KM components deals with converting
tacit to explicit and then storing the knowledge, the SM
governance tools are used to manage the flow of information
and knowledge relating to the SM daily activities and
processes. Tools such as Helpdesk application, SCM, source
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 125
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

control and project management are used throughout the discussed in Section 4 above, are analyzed in three parts;
SM processes and hence provides a good deal of input to the data reliability, fitness of respondent data and questionnaire
knowledge contents. The questions are – how well and items data and determination of component groups cut-off
important are these tools in the KM activities (acquiring, points.
selecting, using, providing/creating and storing knowledge).
5.2 Data Reliability
4.3 The Importance Of KMS Foundation
Components And Infrastructure Summary statistics for respondents (person) and items
KMS foundation components include, among a few, (questions) are depicted in Table 1 and Table 2,
computer-mediated collaboration, Experience Mgmt System, respectively. 41 respondents returned the survey
Document Management, KM portal, EDMS, OLAP, and questionnaire. Out of which, Rasch identified an extreme
Middleware tools and Knowledge Map. While collaboration score which will later be excluded from further analysis.
tools allow users to impart and share both tacit and explicit
knowledge synchronously and asynchronously, the other Table 1. Summary of 40 Measured (Non-Extreme) Persons
tools are useful to search and extract available explicit Raw Cou Mea Infit Outfit
information. Knowledge map refers to navigation aid to Score nt sure mnsq zstd mnsq zstd
both explicit and tacit knowledge, by illustrating the mean 133.8 42.8 0.49 1.02 -0.2 1.01 -0.2
knowledge flows within the organization [17]. In many s.d. 14.9 3.5 0.69 0.52 2.1 0.53 2
aspects, it involves establishing knowledge ontology, max. 167 45 2.64 3.14 6.4 3.37 6.7
mapping/linking the knowledge and validating the min. 86 30 -0.65 0.28 -4.5 0.28 -4.4
knowledge map. Real RMSE =.30 Adj.SD=.62 Separation =2.10 Person Reliability= .82
Model RMSE =.27Adj.SD=.64 Separation=2.35 Person Reliability= .85
4.4 How Important Are Different Automations And
S.E. Of Person Mean = .11Maximum Extreme Score: = 1 Persons
Automation Tools To The Overall Activities Of KMS?
Valid Responses: 95.0%
Automation speeds up and assists maintainers in their
Person RAW SCORE-TO-MEASURE CORRELATION = .51
daily activities. Technologies such as knowledge-map, CBR,
(approximate due to missing data)
expert system, agent technology and RSS are useful to assist CRONBACH ALPHA (KR-20) Person RAW SCORE RELIABILITY =
users and maintainers to get the right knowledge at the right .94 (approximate due to missing data)
time.
4.5 How Important Are Managerial Influences And Table 2. Summary of 45 Measured Items
Strategies To The KMS Activities And Processes? Raw Infit Outfit
Managerial influences such as leadership, coordination, Score Count Measure mnsq zstd mnsq zstd
control and measurement [19] may affect the general SM mean 118.9 38 0 1 0 1 0.1
KM activities and processes. Strategy deals with how KMS s.d. 16.6 3.3 0.62 0.12 0.6 0.15 0.7
is planned for use, whether through codification (storing the max. 150 40 1.16 1.29 1.5 1.4 1.9
explicit information), or personalization (storing the min. 88 29 -1.2 0.83 -1.3 0.74 -1.3
knowledge map). Real RMSE = .32 Adj.SD =.54 Separation =1.69 Item Reliability = .74
Model RMSE = .27 Adj.SD = .64 Separation =2.35 Item Reliability =.75
4.6 How Important Are Psychological And Cultural
S.E. Of Person Mean = .09
Influences In The Overall Activities Of KMS?
Psychological issues include motivation, reward and
awareness. Meanwhile cultural influences include the trusts, The spread of person responses is = 3.29 logit is fair. This
beliefs, values, norms and unwritten rules.. is due to extreme responses by a person (code=PAUS2).
However, Reliability = 0.82 and Cronbach Alpha=0.94
indicates high reliable data and hence the data could be used
5. Discussion
for further analyses.
The Pilot study [26] revealed the item reliability in the On the questionnaire items aspects, the summary of 45
initial questionnaire was found to be poor and a few measured questionnaire items (see Table 3) reveals that the
respondents and items were identified as misfits with spread of data at 2.36 logit and reliability of 0.74 are good
distorted measurements. Some problematic questions are and fair, respectively. Details on measured items are listed
revised and some predictably easy questions are excluded in Appendix A. None of the items are beyond the critical
from the final questionnaire. measures (0.4 < Acceptable Point Measure Correlation < 0.8
In the final questionnaire survey, 41 respondents from and 0.5 < Outfit Mean Square < 1.5, and -2.0 < Outfit z-
three organizations participated in the survey. Among these, standardized value < 2.0). The previous pilot study is
27% are users and superusers, 22% are systems analysts, therefore proven helpful in making the questionnaire more
15% are programmers, 15% SM managers, 10% business reliable.
analysts and the rest are DBAs, Helpdesk and other
technical staff. In years of service, 40% of respondents have
more than 10 years experience, 34% have between 1 to 5
years, 24% have between 6 to 10 years and only 3% have
less than 1 year of service.
The results of the survey, based on the components
126 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Table 3. Items Statistics – Measure Order

Mea-
Item sure Model Outfit
No. (Logit) mnsq Infit ZStd mnsq ZStd PT Mea Corr.
1 -1.18 0.98 0 1 0.1 0.31 B1 Roles
2 0.12 0.88 -0.7 0.84 -0.8 0.44 B2 Resources
3 -0.32 0.88 -0.6 0.85 -0.7 0.43 B3 SM_Tasks
4 -0.26 0.84 -0.8 0.81 -1 0.46 B4 Req_analysis
5 -0.4 0.97 0 1.13 0.6 0.37 B5 Sys_analysis
6 -0.29 0.92 -0.3 0.9 -0.4 0.43 B6 Dev_skill
7 -0.1 0.87 -0.5 0.88 -0.4 0.49 B7 Testing_skill
8 -0.01 0.84 -0.7 0.84 -0.8 0.48 B8 Implementation
9 -0.28 1.03 0.2 1.02 0.2 0.31 B9 Info_Source
10 -0.82 1.04 0.3 1 0.1 0.28 BA Domain
11 -0.56 1.06 0.3 1.1 0.4 0.24 CA SCM
12 -0.53 1.19 0.6 1.27 0.9 0.13 CB Helpdesk
13 0.05 0.9 -0.2 0.93 -0.1 0.48 CC VCS
14 0.11 0.83 -0.5 0.87 -0.4 0.56 CD PM
15 -0.72 0.89 -0.6 0.8 -0.7 0.31 D1 Email
16 0.92 1.27 1.2 1.25 1.1 0.38 D2 Fax
17 0.99 1.06 0.4 1.07 0.4 0.49 D3 Memo
18 0.15 1.17 0.6 1.17 0.6 0.28 D4 E-Group Figure 10. Person-Item Distribution Map
19 0.09 1.03 0.2 1 0.1 0.43 D5 BB
20 -0.36 1.06 0.4 1.04 0.3 0.3 D6 F2F
21 -0.36 0.97 -0.1 0.96 -0.1 0.36 D7 Phone Person PAUS2 (a User) being the highest in PIDM, have
22 1.06 1.29 1.5 1.35 1.7 0.29 D8 Chat the tendency to give high importance ratings to most of the
23 0.85 1.11 0.6 1.1 0.6 0.37 D9 Conference
24 0.83 0.86 -0.6 0.86 -0.6 0.53 DA Audio/Video
questionnaire items, whilst P4SA2 (a Systems Analyst)
25 -0.12 1.11 0.5 1.09 0.4 0.3 DB Portal tends to rate lower. On detailed post-questionnaire
26 0.47 1.25 1.2 1.24 1.2 0.24 DC Intranet inspection, person PAUS2 is a new user which is not
27 -0.45 1.06 0.3 1.05 0.3 0.32 DD Search
28 -1.2 0.99 0 1.03 0.2 0.29 DE Groupware
familiar with the technology components being asked in the
29 0.17 0.89 -0.2 0.88 -0.2 0.47 EA GDSS questionnaire and has tendency to give equal high ratings to
30 0.76 0.95 0 0.91 -0.1 0.31 EB CBR all question. Likewise, person P4SA2 is a long-serving user
31 0.2 0.83 -0.2 0.74 -0.3 0.56 EC Agent
who is familiar with the components. Since PAUS2 has
32 0.02 1.1 0.4 1.21 0.8 0.28 ED SMS
33 0.53 0.91 -0.2 0.89 -0.3 0.44 EE RSS been identified by Rasch as extreme, the person shall be
34 -0.09 0.86 -1.3 0.79 -1.3 0.39 F1 Leadership excluded from further analysis. This is reasonable, since our
35 0.81 0.9 -0.9 0.87 -1 0.41 F2 Coordination
priority is to evaluate the items and less on persons.
36 -0.25 0.9 -0.3 0.87 -0.4 0.49 F3 Control
37 0.75 0.95 -0.2 0.96 -0.2 0.45 F4 Audit On the Item side, the distribution is quite closely bunched
38 1.13 1.1 0.8 1.14 0.9 0.26 F5 Codification together, with no obvious outliers. Among these items, B1
39 -0.5 1 0.1 1.05 0.3 0.4 F6 Personalization Roles, BA Domain, DE Groupware, G1 Management and
40 1.16 1 0 1.01 0.1 0.35 F7 Combination
41 -0.99 1.16 0.9 1.4 1.9 0.2 G1 Mgmt G5 CoP are below the minimum measure of Persons. This
42 -0.74 0.97 -0.1 1.01 0.1 0.41 G2 Org_value indicates overall agreeableness on the high importance of
43 -0.08 1.02 0.2 1.04 0.3 0.35 G3 these components.
Hoard_knowledge
44 0.24 1.03 0.2 1.02 0.2 0.37 G4 Rewards 5.3 Component Group Cut-off Points
45 -0.79 0.98 0 0.93 -0.2 0.39 G5 CoP
avg 0 1 0 1 0.1 63.5 There are no hard and fast rules on how to determine
S.D. 0.62 0.12 0.6 0.15 0.7 11 which of the less important KMS components should be
excluded from the framework. We listed the components
and sorted them in descending logit values. The list was
Fitness of Respondent and Questionnaire Items data distributed to four experts from knowledge management and
software engineering fields, and three software maintenance
managers, to identify the cutoff point for important
components.
Rasch provides the Person Item Distribution Map Based on the overall experts’ judgments, the following
(PIDM), which is similar to histogram (see Figure 5). PIDM components are selected to be excluded from the model:
allows both person and items to be mapped side-by side on • B8 - Knowledge on implementation is important in my
the same logit scale to give us a better perspective on the line of work.
relationship of person responses to the items. PIDM • B2 - Knowledge on how to manage resources in SM
indicates a higher Person Mean (0.48) compared to the organization.
constrained Item Mean. This indicates tendency to rate • CD - Project Management tool to store and share
higher importance to the prescribed questionnaire items. explicit knowledge on SM resources and activities
• D2 - Electronic fax
• D3 - Paper memo
• D8 - On-line chat (MSN Messenger, Yahoo Chat, etc)
• EE - RSS technology disseminate information
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 127
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

• EB - Expert Systems or CBR tools to finalize the important components for KMS framework
• F5 - Codification strategy (storing explicit information) for collaborative SM environment. This new framework
• F7 - Combination of both codification and shall be used in our ongoing study to develop a tool to assist
personalization strategies SM CoP members to perform their SM activities better.
• G4 – Rewards should be implemented to promote more
knowledge sharing Acknowledgment
This research is funded by the Malaysia Ministry of
6. Revised KMS Framework Science and Technology (MOSTI) e-ScienceFund Project
Based on the above reduced components, the revised No.01-01-04-SF0966.
framework is depicted in Figure 5, which consists of the
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 129
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Effect of Handoff on End-to-End Delay over Mobile

IP Networks
Reza Malekian1, Abdul Hanan Abdullah2 and Elmarie Biermann3
1
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor, Malaysia
reza_malekian@sfu.ca
2
SFaculty of Computer Science and Information Systems, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor, Malaysia

3
F’SATI, Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Cape Town, South Africa,

Abstract: Mobile IP allows for a Mobile Node (MN) to Access

remain reachable while handoff occurs to a new foreign HA Network FA MN
network. When a MN moves to a new network, it will be
unreachable for a period of time. This period is referred to as
handoff latency. In general, it is caused by the time used to Registration Request
discover a new network. This include obtaining and validating a
new Care of address (CoA) that identifies the current location of
the mobile node; obtaining authorization to access the new
network, making the decision that a handoff should be initiated, Registration Reply
and, finally, executing the handoff. Executing the handoff
involves notifying the home agent of the new CoA and awaiting
the acknowledgment from the home agent (HA).IP mobility
must be able to support performance in terms of initializing the
handoffs as well as smoothing the process. In this paper, we
study the effect of handoff latency on end-to-end delay mobile
IPv4 through extensive simulation. Figure 1. CoA Registration

Keywords: Mobile IP, Hand off, tunneling, End-to-end delay. Once the MN handoff (handover) and moves from its
home agent, it delivers packets via a tunnel. In our scenario
1. Introduction the MN follows specific trajectories, when visiting FA1,
In the event that a Mobile Node moves to a foreign network, FA2, and FA3, respectively, as depicted in Figure 2. The
it is required to register its care of address in relation to the MN registers the new CoA in HA and sends or receives
home agent. The CoA is the secondary address of the mobile packets via tunnels 1, 2, 3.
node, reflecting its current “away from home” location. This
address is temporary and whenever a MN changes its
foreign network a new CoA must be registered. Figure 1
depicts the registration process and the message flows
between these entities [5]. The MN sends a registration
request message to the HA via a Foreign Agent (FA). The
HA updates its binding table, changes the CoA entry related
to the MN and sends a registration reply which indicates the
mobile’s registration request has been received. Once this is
completed the MN is able to continue communicating within
the core network (CN) [1].

Figure 2. Tunneling in Mobile IPv4

130 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

2. Handoff latency in Mobile IPv4 Figure 4 show the results of layer-2 connectivity between the
MN and any of the HA/FAs. The Base Station Subsystem
The main problem which arises with hand off is the time
(BSS) ID numbers reflected within the graph, identify the
span in which a MN is not able to receive packets. During
MN to which the agent is connected. The value of -1
this time the mobile node obtains a new CoA and updates its
indicates the MN losing connectivity with an agent [2].
last communications [8]. This period of time can be above
the threshold required for the support of real-time services
As the MN follows the trajectory, it establishes layer-2
[3].
connectivity with all the agents. When the MN moves out of
Authors in [4] proposed pre-registration and post-
the home network, it loses connectivity with the home agent
registration handoff methods to minimize handoff latency in
(BSS ID=0) at 10 min and connect to FA1 (BSS ID=1).
mobile IP networks. In pre-registration handoff method, the
Disconnection occurs again at approximately 25 min when
MN communicates with the new foreign agent (nFA) while
the MN leaves FA1 and enters FA2. Connection with FA2 is
still being connected to the old foreign agent (oFA). This
lost at approximately 41 min when it roams to FA3.
means the MN is able to do a registration prior to handoff to
Ultimately, the MN looses agent connectivity upon leaving
the new network.
FA3 at 55 min.
In post-registration handoff a tunnel is setup between the
nFA and the oFA. The MN is thus still connected to the
oFA while on new foreign agent’s subnet. With this
condition, the MN can perform a registration after
communication with the nFA is established. Both of these
methods minimize handoff latency.

The focus of our research is to conduct an in-depth study

into the effect of handoff latency on end-to-end delay within
Mobile IPv4. We set a simulation scenario in which the
connectivity of the mobile node to the home and foreign
agents are analyzed.

3. Simulation Results
In order to study the effect of handoff latency on end-to-end
delay Mobile IPv4 we set a simulation scene as revealed in
Figure 3. It consists of one MN, one correspondent node,
one HA, three FAs, and one IP cloud that interconnects
them. At the start of the simulation, the MN is located on
the home network and from there move to foreign networks Figure 4. Agent connectivity
along a defined trajectory with an average speed of 10km/h.
Simulation results are conducted using OPNET 14.
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate both tunneled and un-tunneled
traffic received during periods of 1 hour (packets per
second) and 3 hours (bits per second) respectively. When the
MN is within its home network it does not need to receive
packets from the CN via a tunnel due to the MN using the
IP protocol when residing in its home network. When the
MN traverses through foreign networks it sends and receives
traffic via a tunnel. Gaps appear between the tunneled traffic
received as the MN roams between various foreign agents.
For example, the MN is disabled to receive tunneled traffic
upon leaving FA1 and entering FA2 at 25 min.

Figure 3. Simulation Scene

 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 131
Figure 5. Traffic (packets/sec)
Figure 6. Traffic (bits/sec)
End-to-end packet delay is depicted within Figure 7. Within
the simulation results, packet loss begins at approximately 7
min, when the MN moves out of the home network, loses
connection with the HA and resumes again at approximately
10 min. Packet flow resumes when the MN successfully
registers its current location in the FA1. Figure 7 indicates a
gap between 23 and 25 min when the MN roams between
FA1, FA2. Packet loss occurs again at approximately 40
min when the MN leaves FA2 and enters FA3. Packet flow
resumes again at approximately 43 min.
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 7. End-to-end delay
When the MN is in the home network, minimum end-to-end
delay is much smaller than end-to-end delay in foreign
networks. The main reason for this is that the MN ignores
mobile IP protocol when it resides in the home network and
uses the IP protocol to communicate with the CN. When the
MN moves to foreign networks it utilizes the MIP protocol.
It thus needs to register its CoA in the home agent and also
needs to send/receive packets via a tunnel. This is shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Average end-to-end delay
4. Conclusion
In his paper we presented end-to-end delay and average and-
to-end delay based on handoff in mobile IPv4. From this
study we distinguish important metrics that should be
considered in order to increase performance within mobile
networks. Performance evaluation for handoff includes
handoff latency as well as the number of performed
handoffs. When several networks are candidates to serve as
target for a handoff, the network that provides most
bandwidth and the most stable connection should be the first
choice.
132 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Acknowledgments
Adjunct Professor Dr. Elmarie Biermann is a
This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Grant research professor at the French South African
Institute of Technology (F’SATI) at the Cape
Scheme (FRGS). The authors would like to acknowledge the
Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT),
FRGS for their support of our research project. Cape Town. She completed the BSc, BSc
(Honns) and MSc at the Potchefstroom University and her PhD at
References the University of South Africa. She is specializing within computer
security and software agents and is also the manager/founder of a
[1] Jhy-Cheng Chen, Tao Zhang, “IP-Based next research and training company within South Africa.
generation wireless networks”, WILEY-Interscience, .
2004.
[2] OPNETWORK 2005, 1348 Planning and Analyzing
Mobile IP networks
[3] R. Malekian, “ The study of Handoff in Mobile IP
Networks:, In proceeding of Broadcom’08 (IEEE), pp.
181-185, Pretoria, South Africa, 2008
[4] Svetoslav Yankov, Sven Wiethoelter, “Handover
blackout duration of layer3 mobility management
scheems”, Telecommunication networks group,
Technical University Berlin, May 2006.
[5] E. Fogelstroem, A. Jonsson, C.E. Perkins, “Mobile
Ipv4 regional registration”, RFC 4857, June 2007.
[6] Y. Chen, W. Zhuang, “DiffServ resource allocation for
fast handoff in wireless mobile Internet”, IEEE
Communication Magazine, 2002.
[7] Michal Skorepa, “Mobile Ipv4 simulation and
implementation”, In proceeding of student EECIT
2008, Czech Republic, 2008.
[8] Jeng-Yueng Chen, Chen-Chuan Ynag, Li-Sheng Yu,
“HH-MIP: An enhancement of mobile IP by home
agent handover”, EURASIP Journal on Wireless
Communication and Networking, Vol 10, 2010.

Author’s Profile
Reza Malekian is conducting research in the
area of mobile IP in the Department of
Computer Science and Information Systems
at the Universiti Technologi, Malaysia. His
research interest is in wireless
communication. He is a member of IEEE
Vancouver section and also editor-in-chief of
The International Journal of Wireless Communication and
Simulation. During summer 2010, he was a visiting researcher at
the Communications Network Laboratory (CNL), Simon Fraser
University of Canada to do a new proposal on Mobile IP version 6.

Professor Dr Abdul Hanan Abdullah is the

Dean, Dept. of Computer Systems &
Communication, University Teknologi,
Malaysia. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc
from University of San Francisco, California,
and the Ph.D degree from Aston University,
Birmingham, UK, in 1995. His research interest is in Information
Security. He is also a head of Pervasive Computing Research
Group (PCRG) UTM and member of ACM.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 133
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Design of Cryptographic Hash Algorithm using

Genetic Algorithms
Siva Prashanth J1, Vishnu Murthy G 2 and Praneeth Kumar Gunda3
1,2,3
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering,
CVSR College of Engineering,
Ghatkesar, Andhra Pradesh, India
siva_prashanth86@yahoo.com, gvm189@gmail.com, praneethkumar@live.com

and verifying its contents. Magnet links are another

Abstract: Hash functions play a prominent role in signing the
digital documents. The classical one being SHA-1 is used even example. Such file hashes are often the top hash of a hash
now which is very costly in the terms of space and time list or a hash tree which allows for additional benefits.
complexities. Here in this paper, we propose a new One way, Hash functions can also be used in the generation of
Collision Resistant and an Economic Hash function , which is pseudorandom bits, or to derive new keys or passwords from
equivalently secure and efficient as SHA-1, designed using a single, secure key or password.
Genetic algorithms and a pseudo random number generator
Rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 deals
which makes it secure against Timing attacks. A Comparison
study with the classical hash functions such as MD5 and SHA-1
with the description of Blum Blum Shub Cryptographically
are also given. Secure Pseudo Random Bit Generator (CSPRBG), Section 3
presents the algorithm and finally Section 4 deals with the
Keywords: Hash algorithm, Genetic functions.
security aspect of proposed algorithm and finally, section 5
shows the juxtaposition of the algorithm with SHA-1, MD 5
1. Introduction and RIPEMD-160 respectively. Section 6 and 7 concludes
A cryptographic hash function is a deterministic procedure and proposes future enhancements.
that takes an arbitrary block of data and returns a fixed-size
bit string, the (cryptographic) hash value, such that an 2. Literature Survey
accidental or intentional change to the data will change the
2.1 Blum Blum Shub Random Bit Generator
hash value. The data to be encoded is often called the
A popular approach for generating secure pseudorandom
"message", and the hash value is sometimes called the
number is known as the Blum, Blum, Shub (BBS)
message digest or simply digest.
generator, named for its developers [3]. The procedure is as
Cryptographic hash functions have many information
follows. First, choose two large prime numbers, p and q,
security applications, notably in digital signatures, message
such that both have remainder of 3 when divided by 4.
authentication codes (MACs), and other forms of
i.e., p≡q≡3 (mod 4)
authentication. They can also be used as ordinary hash
means that (p mod 4)= (q mod 4)= 3. Let n = p X q. Next,
functions, to index data in hash tables, for fingerprinting, to
choose a random number s, such that s is relatively prime to
detect duplicate data or uniquely identify files, and as
n; this is equivalent to saying that neither p nor q is factor of
checksums to detect accidental data corruption. Indeed, in
s. Then the BBS generator produces a sequence of numbers
information security contexts, cryptographic hash values are
Xi according to the following algorithm:
sometimes called (digital) fingerprints, checksums, or just
X0 = s2 mod n.
hash values, even though all these terms stand for functions
for i =1 to infinite
with rather different properties and purposes.
Xi= (Xi-1)2 mod n
An important application of secure hashes is verification
The BBS is referred to as a cryptographically secure
of message integrity. Determining whether any changes
pseudorandom bit generator (CSPRBG). A CSPRBG is
have been made to a message (or a file), for example, can be
defined as one that passes the next- bit test , Which is
accomplished by comparing message digests calculated
defined as follows: “A Pseudo random bit generator is said
before, and after, transmission (or any other event).
to pass the next-bit test if there is not a polynomial-time
A message digest can also serve as a means of reliably
algorithm that, an on input of the first k bits of an output
identifying a file; several source code management systems,
sequence, can predict the (k+1)st bit with probability
including Git, Mercurial and Monotone, use the sha1sum of
significantly greater than 1/2”.
various types of content (file content, directory trees,
An interesting characteristic of the Blum Blum Shub
ancestry information, etc) to uniquely identify them. Hashes
generator is the possibility to calculate any xi value directly
are used to identify files on peer-to-peer filesharing
(via Euler's Theorem):
networks. For example, in an ed2k link, an MD4-variant
hash is combined with the file size, providing sufficient
information for locating file sources, downloading the file The security of BBS is based on the difficulty of factoring
134 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

n. That is, it is hard to determine its two prime factors p and
q. If integer factorization is difficult (as is suspected) then
B.B.S. with large n should have an output free from any
nonrandom patterns that can be discovered with any
reasonable amount of calculation. Thus it appears to be as
secure as other encryption technologies tied to the
factorization problem, such as RSA encryption.
In the proposed algorithm we use two genetic functions
“CROSSOVER” and “MUTATION”. Crossover is a genetic
function which can be described by the following figure: As
Illustrated in the Figure 1 the Binary representation of key
and plain text are Crossected. We have two forms of
crossover: Single and Double Crossover. Where we take,
one breaking point for single crossover and two breaking
points for double crossover.
3. while y[i] != null or y[i+2]!=null do
If the number is even perform right shift by p%8 bits.
Else, perform left shift Xi % 8.
( i )Perform CROSSOVER between
y[i] and y[i+2].
( ii ) Perform mutation on the resultant
and store it in array Z .
end.
4.copy the elements of Z[ ] into res[ ]
5. for i = 0 to N where N is number of
elements in the array res
hash = res[N+1] = res[0] res[1]....res[N]
6. Append the hash to Z[ ] .
4. Analysis
Table 1 shows the comparison of GHA-1 with SHA-1,
RIPEMD-160 and MD5 in the aspects of there features and
Table 2 distinguishes how prone the algorithm GHA-1 is
when compared to the above said algorithms.

Table 1: Comaprision of Various algorithms in terms of

processing

Figure 1: Crossover Functi Wor Comput Endi operati

Mutation is a genetic function where the bit at a given on d ation an on
position is inversed (i.e., 0 to 1 and vice versa). Mutation Valu
can be of a single point or at multiple points. es

3. Proposed Algorithm RIPE 32 320 Little ABS

The algorithm consists of two phases where the first MD-
phase is of generating keys and the other is of hashing. 160
3.1. Key Generation

The algorithm uses a 3-tuple key {p, q, s} where p and

q are large prime numbers, s is a chosen random number MD 5 32 512 Little ABS
which is relatively prime to n, the product of p and q. Then,
the algorithm uses the Blum, Blum, Shub Generator for
generating the random numbers (Section 2.1) which are SHA-1 32 160 Big ABS
used as keys in each iteration for generating hash value. An
example is given ahead which tells the working of the
algorithm
1. Choose p=7 and q=19 Propos 64 2 Big B
2. Implies, n= 7 X 19 = 133 ed
3. Choose s=100, relatively prime with 133
4. Then, X0=s2mod n= (100)2 mod 133= 25 In the above table, the representations used are:
X1=(X0)2 mod n= (25)2 mod 133= 93 A(Addition),B(Bitwise operations), S(Shift, Rotation).
..
From the above, we infer that the processing of algorithm is
..
economic in all the aspects when compared with the other
Here, the key is represented as {7, 19, 100}.
algorithms.
3.2 Hash Algorithm
1 . Read the message and store it in array X.
2 . Obtain the ASCII value for each element in X[ ]
and convert into binary format and
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 135
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

[5] Subramil Som, Jyotsna Kumar Mandal and Soumya

Basu, “A Genetic Functions Based Cryptosystem
Functio Has No. of Best-Known (GFC)”, IJCSNS, September 2009.
n h Ro attacks
und
S s Author’s Profile
i Collisio Preima
z n ge
J Siva Prashanth received the B.Tech
e Degree in Computer Science and
Engineering and pursuing M.Tech,
working as Asst. Professor at CVSR
College of Engineering. His areas of
RIPE 160 80 251.48 interest include software engineering
MD- and Information Security.
160
Vishnu Murthy G received the
B.Tech.and M.Tech. degrees in Computer
MD 5 128 64 210 2127 Science and Engineering. He is resource
person for IEG and Birla Off campus
programmes. He is presently pursuing his
Ph.D in J.N.T.U. and heading the
Department of Computer Science and
SHA-1 160 80 251 Engineering in CVSR College of
Engineering. His areas of interest
include software Engineering,
35 Information Security and Image Processing.
Propos 512 2 2 .24
ed
Praneeth Kumar Gunda received the
Table 1: Comparison of Various algorithms in terms of B.Tech Degree in Computer Science and
vulnerability to attacks Engineering from Progressive
The above table clearly shows that GHA-1 is much more Engineering College in 2008. He is
resistant to all the attacks than the above said algorithms. pursuing M.Tech at CVSR College of
Engineering. During May’ 2008 – Aug’
2009, he worked in Concepts in
Computing(CIC) as a Software
5. Conclusion and Future Enhancements Engineer. He is presently working at
The above analysis proves that proposed one is an CVSR College of Engineering as an Assistant Professor. His
areas of interest include Image Processing
economic and an efficient algorithm which is competent and Information Security.
enough with SHA-1 in all the aspects.
The author will dedicate the future work in making this
algorithm work accordingly with PGP and S/MIME.

References

[1] Praneeth Kumar G, and Vishnu Murthy G, “Design of a

Novel Cryptographic algorithm using Genetic
Functions”, IJCNS, Austria, Vienna Vol.2 No.4, April
2010 pp. 55-57.
[2] Vishnu Murthy G, Praneeth Kumar G , and A Krishna
Kumari “Design of a Novel Image Encryption
Technique using Genetic Algorithms”, Proceedings of
SPVL,June 2010 pp. 459-461.

[3] Lenore Blum, Manuel Blum, and Michael Shub.,

“Comparision of two pseudo random number
generators” Proc. CRYPTO’82, pages. 61-78, Newyork,
1983
[4] William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network
Security”, Prentice Hall, 3rd Edition.
136 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Design of CMOS Active-RC Low Pass Filter

Using 0.18 µm Technology
Dilip Singar1, D.S. Ajnar2 and Pramod Kumar Jain3
1
Department of Electronics & instrumentation engineering,
Shri G.S. Institute of technology and science
23, Park Road, Indore (M.P.)
dilip.singar@gmail.com
2
Department of Electronics & instrumentation engineering,
Shri G.S. Institute of technology and science
23, Park Road, Indore (M.P.)
dajnar@sgsits.com
3
Department of Electronics & instrumentation engineering,
Shri G.S. Institute of technology and science
23, Park Road, Indore (M.P.)
pramod22in@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: In this paper advances on analog filter design for

telecom transceivers are addressed. Portable devices require a
strong power consumption reduction to increase the battery life.
Since a considerable part of the power consumption is due to the
analog baseband filters, improved and/or novel analog filter
design approaches have to be developed. We design an active RC
filter for this application in this paper. To demonstrate the
proposed techniques, a ±0.8 V, 2-MHz second-order filter
fabricated in a conventional 0.18 µm CMOS process is
presented. The filter achieves a THD of 40 dB. The measured
power consumption for the filter alone consumes about 0.19
mW for a supply voltage of ± 0.8 V. Design and simulation of
the circuit is done in Cadence specter environment with UMC
0.18 µm CMOS process.
Keywords: Analog IC design, active RC filter, THD, op amp,
telecom transceiver
1. Introduction
The active filters are widely used in instrumentation and
communication systems. Technical evolution and market
requirements demand for high-performance fully integrated
telecom transceivers. The most popular receiver architecture
is the Direct Conversion (DC) one: for this case, the
following discussion is applied. Figure.1 shows the typical
DC receiver architecture.
The signal from the antenna is processed
by an external prefilter to reject an amount of the out-of-
band interferers. The front-end consists of LNA and a
quadrature mixer that down converts the signal. The
baseband part is composed by the low-pass filter (LPF),
variable gain amplifier (VGA) and analog to digital
converter (ADC). LPF and VGA perform the following
functions:
- The LPF selects the channel and reduces the noise and the
out-of-band interferes, relaxing ADC requirements.
- The VGA increases the in-band input signal in order to
optimize analog to digital conversion performed by the
following ADC.
Figure1. Block Diagram of Direct Conversion (DC) receiver
For example: in the UWB systems, the input signal power
are typically very low (about -40dBm) therefore it needs to
be amplified by more than a 40dB Factor [2].
The LPF can be implemented with different solutions,
depending on several reasons as:
- The power consumption minimization is strongly required
by portable devices to increase the battery life;
- Different communication standards require strongly
different analog active-RC filter’s performances in terms of
bandwidth, distortion, Noise.
2. Circuit Implementation
2.1 Architecture of Filter
Figure 2 shows the Active-RC low pass filter using the AM
biquad topology. It is the suitable filter structure needed to
achieve high filter pole frequency for a given unity
bandwidth. The biquad is the slightly modified form of the
original AM biquad. In which C2 will be omitted and a
resister will be added in parallel with C1 of the first
integrator to control Q factor. The advantage of the
modification is that it allows the adjustment of Q factor by
adjusting the value of C2 only for given value of C1. The
pole frequency is depends on the value of C1 and C2. In the
above figure four op-amp filters (so called quads) are used in
one integrated circuit. The circuit can be adjusted in a non-
interactive manner for precise filter parameter. A3 is non-
inverting op-amp amplifier and A1, A2, A4 are the inverting
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 137
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

amplifier. The A1 and A3 have no dc-feedback path in Power dissipation ≤ 0.52 mW

between and converted the signal directly.Quality factor is
set by the resistor QR. PSRR(Vdd) ≥ 29dB

2.2 OP AMP Design:

Design of op-Amp: operational amplifier is very important
to get accurate result. The Op-Amp is characterized by
various parameters like open loop gain, Bandwidth, Slew
Rate, Noise and etc. The performance measures are fixed
due to design parameters such as transistors size, bias
current and etc. Transistors M8 and M9 functions as a
constant current source, and transistors M1, M2 and M3
functions as two current mirror 'pairs'. The transistors M4,
M5, M6 and M7 are the differential amplifier. Transistor
M10 is an output amplifier stage [4]. Figure 3 represents the
op amp design which is used in the filter.

Figure 2. Schematic on CMOS active-RC low pass filter

The output of a second-order low-pass filter with a very high
quality factor responds to a step input by quickly rising
above, oscillating around and eventually converging to a
steady-state value. The low pass filter gain is controlled by
R/K, varying the value of this resistor the gain can be
adjusted to our specifications of the filter. We will consider
this on the Ackerberg-mossberg circuit shown in figure 2.
The low pass output filter realizes for C1, C2 and indicated
resistors [2].
The transfer function is given by

(S) = =- =
We have chosen, as shown in figure 2 two identical
capacitors to keep with common, and have identified the Figure 3. Schematic of CMOS Op-Amp
quantities K and Q at the corresponding resistors that
determine these filter parameters. The two resistors R1 and 3. Measured Performance
R2 of the inverter are arbitrary. Let us employ a fourth op-
The active RC filter is designed and simulated in Cadence
amp as a summer, shown in the lower part of figure 2.
spectre environment with UMC 0.18-µm silicon technology.
This equation has four solutions bandwidth (BW), the two
The whole circuit is biased with a supply voltage of ± 0.8 V.
positive ones are ω1and ω2 and their difference can be
Figure 4 plots the open loop gain of filter. It shows that the
shown to be
open loop gain is found to be 40 dB with 3 dB bandwidth of
BW= ω2 – ω1 = ω0 / (Q (1) 2MHz. It has unity gain frequency of 80 MHz. With the
Let us determine the value of Q required meeting the sweep of ± 0.8 V of supply the Dc sweep response represents
specified 1/q over a band ∆f that the offset voltage is reduced to 5 mV. Figure 5 plot the
change in power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) with
(2) frequency.It is found that the PSRR of filter is 28 dB.
The specifications for the desired filter are given in the table
I.
Table 1: Specification Results

Experimental Value
Results
Open loop Gain ≥ 23 dB
3dB frequency ≥ 1.5 MHz
Input referred ≤ 160
noise(1KHz) nV/√Hz
138 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

The third order harmonic distortion plot is shown in figure

7.THD performance versus different peak-to-peak
magnitudes at the low-pass output of the main filter for two
different frequencies (5 and 100 kHz). Less than -40 dBc of
THD can be achieved for a peak-to-peak output voltage. The
final output results of active RC filter with comparisions are
represented in table 2.

Figure 4. Simulation result of Gain and phase response

Figure 7 Simulation result of Total harmonic distortion

Table 2: SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Figure 5. Simulation result of PSRR Response Experimental This Ref [2]

If a voltage source inserted in series with the input source Results Work
generates the input referred noise. Input referred noise at Open loop Gain 40 dB 23dB
1KHz has been found 62.08 nV/sqrt (Hz), the input referred 3dB frequency 2 MHz 1.5MHz
plot is shown in figure 6. Since the first-order components Unity Gain 80 MHz 50 MHz
grow linearly and third-order components grow cubically, Frequency
They eventually intercept as the input power Input referred 62 160 nV/√Hz
level increases. The IP3 is defined as the cross point of the
noise(1KHz) nV/√Hz
power for the 1st order tones, w1 and w2, and the power
for the 3rd order tones, 2 w1 and w2 & two w2 and w1 on Output referred 30 120 nV/√Hz
the load side. The input intercept point (IIP3) was found to noise (10KHz) nV/√Hz
be 0.448 dBm.
Power dissipation 0.19 0.52 mW
mW
Input Offset 5.34 8 mV
Voltage mV
PSRR(Vdd) 29 dB 29 dB
Total harmonic 40 dBm 60 dBm
distortion

4. Conclusion
In this design, a low-voltage CMOS active RC low pass
filter is designed using a Akerberg Mossberg topology. The
Figure 6. Simulation result of Input referred noise response proposed techniques can be used to design low-voltage and
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 139
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

low-power active RC low pass filter in a standard CMOS
process. To demonstrate the proposed techniques, a ±0.8V
and 2-MHz second-order filter implemented in a standard
0.18µm CMOS process.
profession since 1988. He is now working as Reader in
Department of Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering,
S.G.S.I.T.S. Indore India. His interested field of research is analog
circuit design.

Reference

[1] A. M. Durham, W. Redman-White, and J. B. Hughes,

“High linearity Continuous -time filters in 5-V VLSI
CMOS,” IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, volume
27, page no. 1270–1276 Sept.1992.
[2] M. De Matteis1, S. D Amico A.Baschirotto “Advanced
Analog Filters for Telecomm-unications’’, IEEE Journal
of Solid-State Circuits, volume 65, page no. 06–12, Sept.
2008.
[3] H. Huang and E. K. F. Lee, “Design of low – voltage
CMOS continuous time filter with on chip automatic
tuning ,” IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, volume
36 page no. 1168–1177 Aug. 2005.
[4] Eri Prasetyo, Dominique Ginhac Michel Paindavoine,’’
Design and Implementation a 8 bits Pipeline Analog to
Digital Converter in the Technology 0.6 um CMOS
Process’’. Makalah ada di prosiding ISSM05, Paris, 30th
September – 1st October 2005.
[5] AKERBERG, D:' Comparison of method for active RC
telecommunication Theory, Royal Institute Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden, technical report 19, June 1999

Authors Profile

Dilip Singar received the B.E. degree in

Electronics and Communication Engineering
from Rajiv Gandhi Technical University
Bhopal, india in 2008 and M.Tech in
Microelectronics and VLSI Design from
S.G.S.I.T.S. Indore, India in 2010. Recently
he is working with analog filter design and
analysis.

D.S.Ajnar received the B.E. degree in

Electronics and Communication Engineering
from D.A.V.V.University, India in 1993 and
M.E. Degree in Digital Techniques &
Instrumentation Engineering from Rajiv
Gandhi Technical University Bhopal, India in
2000. He has been teaching and in research
profession since 1995. He is now working as
Reader in Department of Electronics &
Instrumentation Engineering, S.G.S.I.T.S, and Indore, India. His
interest of research is in Designing of analog filter and Current-
Conveyor.

P.K.Jain received the B.E. degree in

Electronics and communication Engineering
from D.A.V.V. University, India in 1987 and
M.E. Degree in Digital Techniques &
Instrumentation Engineering from Rajiv
Ghandhi Technical University Bhopal, India in
1993. He has been teaching and in research
140 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Identification of Critical Factors for Fast Multiple

Faults Recovery Based on Reassignment of Task in
Cluster Computing
Sanjay Bansal1, Sanjeev Sharma2
1
Medi-Caps Institute of Technology and Management
Indore, India
sanju2.bansal@gmail.com
2
School of Information Technology
Rajiv Gandhi Prodhyogiki Vishwavidya
Bhopal, India
sanjeev@rgtu.net

Abstract: Performance of a recovery algorithm based on
reassignment of task in distributed system can be improved by
improved scheduling algorithm. By equal load distribution of
task in a recovery, execution time and resource utilization can
be improved. This is done by distributed scheduling algorithms.
Fast and efficiency are most desirable features of a recovery
algorithm. In this paper important critical issues involved in fast
and efficient recovery are discussed. Impact of each issue on
performance of reassignment based recovery is also discussed.
Relationships among issues are also explored. Finally
comparisons of important issues are done between simple
reassignment based recovery and fast reassignment based
recovery.
Keywords: Splitting Ratio, Reassignment, Distributed
System.
1. Introduction
Fault tolerance is a crucial requirement in distributed
computing. As the size and complexity of distributed system
is increasing to provide services to millions of users with
large data transfer to and from, probability of faults have
also increased. Faults are now inevitable and can not be
prevented 100%. Air traffic control, defense application,
online railway reservation system and online banking are
few applications where user must be unaware of faults and
must be continued with his or her normal operation. Even a
single fault can lead to great loss of human lives and money.
In such a situation inclusion of fault tolerance becomes
essential. This inclusion of fault tolerance introduces an
overhead which affects the performance of whole system. In
case of multiple faults situation it becomes more severe. In
real time application producing the output after a
predetermined time for which system is designed seems to
be impossible due to lack of fast and efficient recovery.
A cluster is a type of parallel or distributed processing
system which consists of a collection of interconnected
computers cooperatively working together as a single,
integrated computing resource. Cluster is a multi-computer
architecture. Message passing interface (MPI) or pure
virtual machine (PVM) are used to facilitate inter process
communication in a cluster. Clusters and distributed systems
offer fault tolerance and high performance through load
sharing. For this reason cluster is attractive in real-time
application. When one or more computers fail, available
load must be redistributed evenly in order to have fault
tolerance with performance [1]. The redistribution is
determined by the recovery scheme. The recovery scheme
should keep the load as evenly distributed as possible even
when the most unfavorable combinations of computers break
down [13]. Fault tolerance with performance in cluster
computing can be achieved by distributing the available load
evenly and equally among computing devices. In case of
multiple faults or multiple node failures up to a reasonable
value, load can be redistributed among all available nodes.
This reassignment based recovery can be easily
implemented in cluster computing. Reassignment based
recovery algorithm can be improved by reducing the various
overhead of reassignments and by improving scheduling
algorithm for reassignments. Redistribution of task is done
by scheduling algorithm.
Recovery based on reassignment of task using some
scheduling algorithm must be fast in the sense that it must
take less number of iterations and time to redistribute the
task evenly and equally among all working or non faulty
nodes. A reassignment based recovery can be made fast by
after investigating and optimizing the critical issues related
to reassignment, system environment and nature of
computation and communication. In a fast recovery based
on reassignment algorithm, available load is redistributed by
reassignment to different computing nodes with less
number of iterations and time. So a fast recovery based on
reassignment is a special case of reassignment based
recovery with fast convergence. A fast recovery based on
reassignment takes less or optimal iterations to converge an
algorithm to reassign or redistribute the load evenly across
all computing nodes in a distributed system with low
communication overhead when one or more computers
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 141
break down. In the next section, various critical issues
related to fast reassignment based recovery are discussed.
2. Critical Factors in Fast Recovery Based on
Reassignment
2.1 Instability and Thrashing
Recovery based on reassignment of task is performed by
distributing the available tasks among all available
computing nodes. This is known as recovery based on
reassignment. Recovery time can be reduced by making the
reassignment evenly and equally [2]. This can be achieved
by task migration from heavily loaded computing node to
lightly loaded computing node. In doing this, sometimes
cluster becomes unstable. It could enter in a state in which
all the computing nodes are spending their time in load
transfer without accomplishing the useful work. This is
known as thrashing. A token based algorithm have been
proposed to overcome thrashing or instability [3]. A node
computation capability is divided among several parts. This
part is called a token. A process that has to execute on that
node requests for token and then it can execute. The
algorithm works well if computation time of all nodes is
known in advance. Load balancing is done by load
balancing decision. Contradictory decision is main cause of
thrashing. An algorithm is said to be thrashing free or stable
if it proves that load calculation remain constant during load
balancing. By forming groups thrashing can be prevented to
some extent. Still in highly dynamic system thrashing is a
problem. Sometime limit can be set for such a dynamic
system. In this way thrashing or instability depends on the
strategy chosen for taking the decision. Selection of
particular strategy depends on the characteristics of system
such as static, dynamic, highly dynamic etc.
2.2 Effectiveness
Another issue with fast recovery algorithms is its
effectiveness. Effective reassignment based recovery policy
ensures optimal use of the distributed resources whereby no
computing node remains in an idle state while any other
computing node is busy. Effectiveness in reassignment
based recovery depends on accuracy of knowledge of the
state of individual computing node. This level of accuracy
will decide assignment of task of failure node to appropriate
computing node reassignment policy. A regeneration-theory
approach is used to measure the effectiveness. It analytically
characterizes the average overall completion time in a
distributed system. The approach considers the
heterogeneity in the processing rates of the nodes. It also
considers the communication delays. An optimal one-shot
algorithm is proposed by Sagar Dhakal [4]. This algorithm
is effective since it minimizes the average completion time
per task while improving the system processing rate.
However this is proposed by considering the two nodes only
whereas in practical situation multimode distributed
computing takes place. A fast reassignment based algorithm
must redistribute the load evenly but in reality no algorithm
can redistribute almost evenly or uniformly. Up to some
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
extent of uniform or even reassignment can be achieved.
Heterogeneity is main issue that must be addressed carefully
to achieve the effectiveness of reassignment based
algorithm. Weighted load reassignment is one of the
approaches to address heterogeneity. This heterogeneity
must be addressed before any decision for redistribution of
load in a recovery technique.
2.3 Splitting Ratio
In reassignment based recovery time can be reduced by
assigning the more tasks to lightly loaded computed node as
well as by transferring the load of heavily loaded computing
nodes to lightly loaded computing node. This is done by
process migration or load transfer. Load transfer module
transfers a part of load from maximum loaded node to
minimum loaded node. This part of load is called load
transfer ratio (LTR). A larger LTR takes less number of
iterations to balance a load. However a smaller LTR takes
more number of iterations to balance the load [9].
2.4 Convergence
Convergence of fast reassignment based algorithm is
related to number of iterations and time taken by an
algorithm to reach to an optimal reassign state [5]. Rapid
convergence algorithm is a need for today’s distributed
system. Different recovery algorithms are based on various
reassignments strategies. While some strategies probably
converge in polynomial time, for others the convergence
time might require an exponential number steps [6]. A fast
reassignment based recovery must have faster convergence
speed and a lower communication overhead. However, fast
convergence causes instability, threshing etc. A
reassignment based algorithm must be convergence after a
higher bound number iteration and time. In case of fast
reassignment based algorithm this upper bound limit is less.
Fast convergence is a requirement but it causes instability
and fast transfer mechanism as well. Convergence can also
be improved by improving the communication delay traffic
minimization and by increasing the load transfer ratio.
2.5 Cost Function
Cost function predicts the recovery time for any given
reassignment based recovery in a multi-user heterogeneous
network environment. Finding an accurate optimization cost
function for a reassignment based recovery algorithm is very
difficult [7]. Williams suggested cost function as the sum of
a part that minimizes load imbalance and a part that
minimizes communication [8]. Cost function can be reduced
by fast convergence, by reducing the communication delay
and various scheduling overheads. Minimizing the load
imbalance depends on effectiveness of the algorithm.
Redistribution will be effective if it will result in almost
uniform and even load distribution on every working node.
In case of nods of different speed and performance
effectiveness can be achieved if load is distributed in
proportion to their computational power. So cost function is
more crucial in case of heterogeneity as compare to
homogeneity. By selecting the appropriate scheduling
technique communication cost can be reduced .In one
algorithm, task of resource management is handled by
142
dividing the nodes into mutually overlapping subsets.
Thereby a node gets the system state information by
querying only a few nodes. This minimized scheduling and
communication overhead and therefore cost function [10].
2.6 Reassignment estimation policy
Reassignment estimation policy determines how to estimate
the workload of a particular node of the system [1].
Estimation of the workload of a particular node is a difficult
problem for which no completely satisfactory solution exists.
A node's workload can be estimated based on some
measurable guidelines. These guidelines could include time
dependent and node dependent factors such as number of
processes on the node, resource demands on these processes,
instruction mixes of these processes , architecture and speed
of the node's processor [3].
2.7 Process transfer policy
Process Transfer Policy determines whether to execute a
process locally or remotely. This issue is mainly for dynamic
reassignment based recovery algorithm [10]. Process
transfer policy decision is major issue that affects the
performance of a reassignment based recovery algorithm.
Generally this policy is based on threshold value. Threshold
value is a value or set of values used as a criterion to
determine weather a processor is overloaded or not [11].
2.8 Reassignment Strategies
Reassignment strategy could be sender-initiated vs. receiver-
Initiated strategies, global vs. local strategies and
centralized vs. distributed strategies. In sender initiated
policies, heavy loaded nodes attempt to move work to
lightly-loaded nodes. In receiver-initiated policies, lightly-
loaded nodes look for heavily-loaded nodes from which
work may be received [12]. In case of global strategies, load
balancer uses the performance of all workstations whereas
in case of local strategies workstations are partitioned into
groups. In a centralized scheme, the load balancer is located
on one master workstation node. In a distributed scheme,
the load balancer is replicated on all workstations [13].
2.9 Nature and type of application running on cluster:
A reassignment based algorithm works well with one type of
task may not work well with another type of load. Thus
nature and type of load is a major issue which decides the
performance of a load balancing algorithm. The types of
load can be of following types; communication intensive v/s
computation intensive, I/O intensive v/s CPU intensive.
Researchers suggested a fast reassignment based algorithm
for intensive I/O and memory requirement by allocating the
job to highest unused I/O and memory. Videos on demand
are an example of intensive I/O and memory [14].
2.10 Communication Complexity
An algorithm must have low communication complexity.
Researcher suggested low communication complexity where
each node receives information of other node from all the
nodes without redundancy. A Distributed system with n
nodes, the communication complexity is O (n2). Researcher
developed algorithm with lesser complexity [15].
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2.11 Failure detection time
Fast multiple fault recovery depends on immediate detection
of occurred faults. In some case, it is difficult to determine
the cause of a fault in order to provide fast fault
restoration/isolation [16]. A fault must be detected as soon
as fault has occurred. The time elapsed between occurrence
of a fault and detection must be as small as possible. This
fast fault detection is very difficult because it can declare a
healthy processor to fault due to heavy load and traffic. The
time taken to recovery is sum of time taken to failure
detection and time taken to run recovery algorithm after
detection. Avoiding extensive application or system data
undo or redo upon recovery is key for providing fast
recovery [17]. Conventional recovery algorithms redo the
computation of the crashed process since the last checkpoint
on a single processor. As a result, the recovery time of all
protocols is no less than the time between the last
checkpoint and the crash. In fast recovery there is need for
improved algorithm to address this drawback [18]. If faults
are detected immediately than further loss will be less and
recovery process can prevent further loss as immediately as
it can. In that case job of recovery will be not too hard and
hence recovery will be fast recovery.
2.12 Selection of node/nodes to run recovery
The fast recovery also depends on selection of node for
running the recovery algorithm. The list of available
computers and their current work loads are dynamic within
clusters; having a direct impact on which computers should
be used each time a recovery operation begins [19].
Recovery manager has to select one best node to run
recovery algorithm among list of several computers. A
reliable, fast and ideal node had to select in order to run the
recovery algorithm. In cluster, nodes are added and removed
dynamically. Loads are dynamically fluctuating as well. In
such a situation selection of idle node to run recovery is
tedious. Recovery process can be run on single node or can
be run on more than one. Running of recovery on multiple
nodes are free from single point failure as well as it is
distributed recovery scheme.
2.13 Performance
Performance of reassignment policy is affected of various
delays. These delays include delay due to transfer of loads
from one computer node to another. This transfer delay
varies as load varies. This delay also dependant on traffic
among source and destination node. Another delay which is
significant as per performance is communication delay.
Scheduling overhead is another delay which affects the
performance of recovery based on reassignment [20]. In
order to make a reassignment based recovery all delays and
overhead must be minimized.
2.14 One-Time Assignment vs. Dynamic Reassignment
The one-time assignment of a task may be dynamically done
but once it is scheduled to a given processor, it can never be
rescheduled to another one [21]. On the other hand, in the
dynamic reassignment process, jobs can migrate from one
node to another even after the initial placement is made.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 143
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

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Authors Profile
Sanjay Bansal has passed B.E. (Elex & Telecom Engg.) and M.E.
(CSE) in 1994 and 2001 respectively .Presently he is working as
Reader in Medi-Caps Institute of Technology, Indore. He is
pursuing PhD from Rajeev Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishvavidyalaya,
Bhopal, India.

Sanjeev Sharma has passed B.E (Electrical Engg.) in 1991 and

also passed M.E. in 2000.He is PhD. His research areas are mobile
computing, data mining, security and privacy as well as adhoc
networks. He has published many research papers in national and
international journals. Presently he is working as an Associate
professor in Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya Bhopal
(India)
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 145
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Evaluating Clustering Performance for the Protected

Data using Perturbative Masking Techniques in
Privacy Preserving Data Mining
S.Vijayarani1, Dr.A.Tamilarasi2
1,
School of Computer Science and Engg.,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu,India
vijimohan_2000@yahoo.com
2
Dept. of MCA, Kongu Engg. College, Erode, Tamilnadu, India
drtamil@kongu.ac.in

Abstract- Privacy Preserving Data Mining has become very
popular for protecting the confidential knowledge which was
extracted from the data mining techniques. Privacy preserving
data mining is nothing but the study of how to produce valid
mining models and patterns without disclosing private
information. Several techniques are used for protecting the
sensitive data. Some of them are statistical, cryptographic,
randomization, k-anonymity model, l-diversity and etc. In this
work, we have analyzed the two statistical disclosure control
techniques i.e additive noise and micro aggregation. We have
examined the clustering performance of additive noise and
micro aggregation techniques. The experimental results show
that the clustering performance of additive noise technique is
comparatively better than micro aggregation.
Keywords- Data Perturbation, Micro Aggregation, Additive
Noise, K-means clustering
1. Introduction
The problem of privacy-preserving data mining has become
more important in recent years because of the increasing
ability to store personal data about users, and the increasing
sophistication of data mining algorithms to leverage this
information. Many data mining applications such as
financial transactions, health-care records, and network
communication traffic are deal with private sensitive data.
Data is an important asset to business organization and
governments for decision making by analyzing it. Privacy
regulations and other privacy concerns may prevent data
owners from sharing information for data analysis. In order
to share data while preserving privacy data owner must
come up with a solution which achieves the dual goal of
privacy preservation as well as accurate data mining result.
The main consideration in privacy preserving data mining is
twofold. First, sensitive raw data like identifiers, names,
addresses and the like should be modified or trimmed out
from the original database. Second, sensitive knowledge
which can be mined from a database by using data mining
algorithms should also be excluded, because such knowledge
can equally well compromise data privacy.
The main objective in privacy preserving data mining is to
develop algorithms for modifying the original data in some
way, so that the private data and private knowledge remain
private even after the mining process [8]. Data modification
is one of the privacy preserving techniques used to modify
the sensitive or original information available in the
database that needs to be released to the public. It ensures
high privacy protection.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,
we present an overview of micro data and masking
techniques. Section 3 discusses different types of micro data
protection techniques. Additive noise and micro aggregation
techniques are discussed in section 4. Section 5 gives the
performance results of additive noise and micro aggregation.
Conclusions are given in Section 6.
2. Micro Data
Protecting static individual data is called micro data. It can
be represented as tables. It consists of tuples (records) with
values from a set of attributes. A micro data set V is a file
with n records, where each record contains m attributes on
an individual respondent [3]. The attributes can be classified
in four categories which are not necessarily disjoint:
Ø Identifiers. These are attributes that unambiguously
identify the respondent. Examples are the passport
number, social security number, name surname, etc.
Ø Quasi-identifiers or key attributes. These are attributes
which identify the respondent with some degree of
ambiguity. Examples are address, gender, age,
telephone number, etc.
Ø Confidential outcome attributes. These are attributes
which contain sensitive information on the respondent.
Examples are salary, religion, political affiliation,
health condition, etc.
Ø Non-confidential outcome attributes. Those attribute
which do not fall in any of the categories above.
146
3. Classification of micro data protection
techniques (MPTs) [3]
Figure 1. Micro-data Protection Techniques
3.1 Masking Techniques
Protecting sensitive data is a very significant issue in the
government, public and private bodies. Masking techniques
are used to prevent confidential information in the table.
Masking techniques can operate on different data types.
Data types can be categorized as follows.
Ø Continuous. An attribute is said to be continuous if it is
numerical and arithmetic operations are defined on it.
For instance, attributes age and income are continuous
attributes.
Ø Categorical. An attribute is said to be categorical if it can
assume a limited and specified set of values and
arithmetic operations do not have sense on it. For
instance, attributes marital status and sex are
categorical attributes.
Masking techniques are classified into two categories
Ø Perturbative
Ø Non- Perturbative
3.1.1 Perturbative Masking
Perturbation is nothing but altering an attribute value by a
new value. The data set are distorted before publication.
Data is distorted in some way that affects the protected data
set, i.e. it may contain some errors. In this way the original
dataset may disappear and new unique combinations of data
items may appear in the perturbed dataset; in perturbation
method statistics computed on the perturbed dataset do not
differ from the statistics obtained on the original dataset [3].
Some of the perturbative masking methods are,
Ø Micro aggregation
Ø Rank swapping
Ø Additive noise
Ø Rounding
Ø Resampling
Ø PRAM
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Ø MASSC etc.
3.1.2 Non-Perturbative Masking
Non-perturbative techniques produce protected microdata by
eliminating details from the original microdata. Some of the
Non-perturbative masking methods are
Ø Sampling
Ø Local Suppression
Ø Global Recoding
Ø Top-Coding
Ø Bottom-Coding
Ø Generalization
3.2 Synthetic Techniques
The original set of tuples in a microdata table is replaced
with a new set of tuples generated in such a way to preserve
the key statistical properties of the original data. The
generation process is usually based on a statistical model
and the key statistical properties that are not included in the
model will not be necessarily respected by the synthetic data.
Since the released micro data table contains synthetic data,
the re-identification risk is reduced. The techniques are
divided into two categories: fully synthetic techniques and
partially synthetic techniques. The first category contains
techniques that generate a completely new set of data, while
the techniques in the second category merge the original
data with synthetic data.
3.2.1 Fully Synthetic Techniques
Ø Bootstrap
Ø Cholesky Decomposition
Ø Multiple Imputation
Ø Maximum Entropy
Ø Latin Hypercube Sampling
3.2.2 Partially Synthetic Techniques
Ø IPSO (Information Preserving Statistical
Obfuscation)
Ø Hybrid Masking Random Response
Ø Blank and Impute
Ø SMIKe (Selective Multiple Imputation of Keys)
Ø Multiply Imputed Partially Synthetic Dataset [3]
4. Analysis of the SDC techniques
The main steps involved in this work are,
• Sensitive numerical data item is selected from the
database
• Modifying the sensitive data item using micro
aggregation and additive noise
• Analyzing the statistical performance
• Analyzing the accuracy of privacy protection
• Evaluating the clustering accuracy
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 147
4.1 Micro aggregation
Micro aggregation is an SDC technique consisting in the
aggregation of individual data. It can be considered as an
SDC sub-discipline devoted to the protection of the micro
data. Micro aggregation can be seen as a clustering problem
with constraints on the size of the clusters. It is somehow
related to other clustering problems (e.g., dimension
reduction or minimum squares design of clusters). However,
the main difference of the micro aggregation problem is that
it does not consider the number of clusters to generate or the
number of dimensions to reduce, but only the minimum
number of elements that are grouped in the same cluster [9].
Any type of data, micro aggregation can be operationally
defined in terms of the following two steps:
Ø Partition: The set of original records is partitioned into
several clusters in such a way that records in the same
cluster are similar to each other and so that the number
of records in each cluster is at least k.
Ø Aggregation: An aggregation operator (for example, the
mean for continuous data or the median for categorical
data) is computed for each cluster and is used to replace
the original records. In other words, each record in a
cluster is replaced by the cluster’s prototype.
From an operational point of view, micro aggregation
applies
Ø A clustering algorithm to a set of data obtaining a set of
clusters. Formally, the algorithm determines a partition
of the original data. Then, micro aggregation proceeds
by calculating a cluster representative for each cluster
finally,
Ø Each original datum is replaced by the corresponding
cluster representative [7]
After modifying the values the k means algorithm is applied
to find, whether the original value and the modified value in
the micro aggregation table are in the same cluster.
4.2. Additive Noise
It perturbs a sensitive attribute by adding or by multiplying
it with a random variable with a given distribution. [2]
Ø Masking by uncorrelated noise addition
The vector of observations xj for the j-th attribute of the
original dataset Xj is replaced by a vector
zj = xj +εj
where εj is a vector of normally distributed errors drawn
from a random variable εj ∼ N(0, σ2εj ), such that Cov(εt, εl)
= 0 for all t ≠ l. This does not preserve variances nor
correlations.
Ø Masking by correlated noise addition.
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Correlated noise addition also preserves means and
additionally allows preservation of correlation coefficients.
The difference with the previous method is that the
covariance matrix of the errors is now proportional to the
covariance matrix of the original data, i.e. ε ∼ N(0,Σε),
where Σε = αΣ.
In this work we have used the given additive noise
algorithm.
• Consider a database D consists of T tuples.
D={t1,t2,…tn}. Each tuple in T consists of set of
attributes T={A1,A2,…Ap} where Ai Є T and Ti Є D
• Identify the sensitive or confidential numeric attribute AR
n
• Calculate the mean ΣARi
i=1
• Initialize countgre=0 and countmin=0
• If ARi>=mean then
{
Store these numbers separately
group1= ARi (i=1,..n)
countgre=coungre+1
}
• else if ARi <mean then
{
Store these numbers separately
group2= ARi (i=1,..n)
countmin=countmin+1
}
• Calculate the noise1 value as 2*mean/countgre
• Calculate the noise2 value as 2*mean/countmin
• Subtract the noise1 value from each data item in group1
• Add the noise2 value to each data item in group2
• Now release the new modified sensitive data
• In the modified data find out the mean value which is
same as the original
• Adding the noise1 and noise2 produce the result as 0.
5. Experimental Results
In order to conduct the experiments, synthetic employee
dataset can be created with 500 records. From this dataset,
we select the sensitive numeric attribute, income. Additive
noise and micro aggregation techniques are used for
modifying the attribute income.
The following performance factors are considered for
evaluating the two techniques
5.1 Statistical Calculations
The statistical properties mean, standard deviation and
variance of modified data can be compared with the original
data. Both the techniques were produced the same results.
148 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

with the modified clusters. The additive noise modified data

set clustering is same as the original clustering.

Figure 2. Statistical Performance

5.2. Privacy Protection

In order to verify the privacy protection, we have analyzed
whether all the sensitive data items are modified or not.
From the results, we know that, there is a 100% privacy
protection.
Figure 4.Accuracy of additive noise and micro aggregation.
6. Conclusions
Preserving privacy in data mining activities is a very
important issue in many applications. In this paper, we have
analyzed micro aggregation and additive noise perturbative
masking techniques in privacy preserving data mining.
Micro aggregation and additive noise performance are good
in statistical calculations and privacy protection. Then we
have used the modified dataset for clustering, the results
show that the additive noise technique is comparatively
better than micro aggregation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank “The UGC, New Delhi” for providing

me the necessary funds.

Figure 3. Data Modification References

5.3 Accuracy of Clustering
Ø K-Means Clustering Algorithm
The k-means algorithm for partitioning, where each
cluster’s center is represented by the mean value of the
objects in the cluster
Input
• K : the number of clusters
• D : a data set containing n objects
Output: Set of k clusters
Method
• arbitrarily choose k objects from D as the initial
cluster centers;
• Repeat
• (re)assign each object to the cluster to which the
object is the most similar, based on the mean value
of the objects in the cluster
• Update the cluster means, i.e. calculate the mean
value of the objects for each cluster
• Until no change
In order to verify the clustering accuracy we have used k-
means clustering algorithm. Original clusters are compared
[1] Brand R (2002). “Micro data protection through noise
addition”. In Domingo-Ferrer J, editor, Inference
Control in Statistical Databases, vol. 2316 of LNCS,pp.
97{116. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg.
[2] Charu C.Aggarwal IBM T.J. Watson Research Center,
USA and Philip S. “Privacy preserving data mining:
Models and algorithms” Yu University of Illinois at
Chicago, USA.
[3] Ciriani, S.De Capitani di Vimercati, S.Foresti, and
P.Samarati “Micro data protection” © Springer US,
Advances in Information Security (2007)
[4] Feng LI†, Jin MA, Jian-hua LI (School of Electronic
Information and Electrical Engineering,“ Distributed
anonymous data perturbation method for privacy-
preserving data mining”. Shanghai Jiao Tong
University, Shanghai 200030, China).
[5] G. R. Sullivan. The Use of Added Error to Avoid
Disclosure in Microdata Releases. PhD thesis, Iowa State
University, 1989.
[6] J. J. Kim. A method for limiting disclosure in microdata
based on random noise and transformation. In
Proceedings of the Section on Survey Research Methods,
pages 303–308, Alexandria VA, 1986. American
Statistical Association.
[7] Vicen c Torra “Constrained micro aggregation: Adding
constraints for Data Editing” IIIA - Artificial
Intelligence Research Institute, CSIC - Spanish Council
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 149
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for Scientific Research, Campus UAB s/n, 08193

Bellaterra (Catalonia, Spain).
[8] Vassilios S. Veryhios, Elisa Bertino, Igor Nai Fovino
Loredana Parasiliti Provenza, Yucel Saygin,
Yanniseodoridis, “State-of-the-art in Privacy Preserving
Data Mining”, SIGMOD Record, Vol. 33, No. 1, March
2004.
[9] Xiaoxun Sun1 Hua Wang1 Jiuyong Li2 “Microdata
Protection Through Approximate Microaggregation”
2009, Australian Computer Society, Inc. Thirty-Second
Australasian Computer Science Conference
(ACSC2009), Wellington, New Zealand. Conferences in
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(CRPIT), Vol. 91. Bernard Mans, Ed.

Authors Profile

Mrs. S.Vijayarani has completed MCA and

M.Phil in Computer Science. She is working
as Assistant Professor in the School of
Computer Science and Engineering,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. She is
currently pursuing her Ph.D in the area of
privacy preserving data mining. She has
published two papers in international journal
and presented six research papers in
international and national conferences.

Dr. A.Tamilarasi is a Professor and Head in

the Departmentof MCA, Kongu Engineering
College, Perundurai. She has supervised a
number of Ph.D students. She has published a
number of research papers in national and
international journals and conference
proceedings.
150 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Security Architecture Objectives for Beyond 3G

Mobile Networks: A Survey and Critical Evaluation
Mana Yazdani1, and Majid Naderi2
1
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Iran University of
Science & Technology, Tehran, Iran
manayazdani@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Iran University of
Science & Technology, Tehran, Iran
m_naderi@iust.ac.ir

applications. EAP-TLS (Transport Layer Security) [5],

Abstract: This paper provides a review on the different
authentication and key agreement candidate protocols, EAP-
SIM, EAP-AKA, EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS, and PEAP, for the
interworking of the WLAN with 3GPP networks. Each protocol’s
message flow is also presented. A critical evaluation and
comparison between the protocols is provided in order to reveal
the deficiency and vulnerability of each procedure. The identity
protection, the Man-in-the-Middle attack, possibility of replay
attack, latency, energy consumption and the total size of these
protocols are evaluated.
Keywords: Security, WLAN, 3G, EAP-SIM, EAP-AKA, EAP-
TLS, EAP-TTLS, PEAP.
1. Introduction
The wireless communications are being integrated to
comply with the recent increasing demand and rapid
development. The integration of different wireless networks
dramatically originates new security issues. It should be
taken into consideration that the act of integrating two
secure networks must not negatively impact the overall
security, bit rate, and mobility of each network.
The Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
(UMTS) as a 3rd Generation (3G) mobile network and
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) are among the most
practical technologies providing wireless services. 3G
networks benefit from the wide area coverage, roaming, and
mobility while WLAN systems offer very high bit rates. On
the other hand, 3G and WLAN systems suffer from limited
capacity and less area coverage respectively. Practically, the
3G-WLAN interworking keeps the advantages of both 3G
and WLAN networks intact providing the users with the
ubiquitous services. Numerous studies have been conducted
to improve various security aspects of such a heterogeneous
network [13]-[16].
Although the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
has accepted two access scenarios for the 3G-WLAN
interworking: Extensible Authentication Protocol-
Subscribed Identity Module (EAP-SIM), and Extensible
Authentication Protocol and Key Agreement (EAP-AKA)
[1]-[4], they have shown security flaws and deficiencies
[11]. Besides, some other authentication protocols have been
also evaluated to fulfill the interworking requirements.
These protocols were essentially proposed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and widely used for internet
EAP-TTLS (Tunnel TLS) [6], and PEAP (Protected EAP)
[7] are among the most applicable Internet protocols. A brief
introduction to these protocols with the critical security
assessment will be provided in this paper.
2. Interworking Authentication Protocols
EAP is a wrapper for authentication protocols that
encapsulates the protocols and provides an end to end
security between the Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting (AAA) server and the User Equipment (UE) [8].
In this section the authentication protocols which have
been evaluated as candidates for the integration of 3G-
WLAN are briefly presented. As mentioned earlier, two
protocols, EAP-SIM and EAP-AKA, have been accepted
and are currently employed by 3GPP as the authentication
protocols used for the interworking of 3G-WLAN [1], [2].
The other authentication protocols have been assessed in
articles as alternative candidates.
2.1. EAP-SIM
EAP-SIM is a protocol used in the interworking of 3G and
WLAN when the SIM-card of the GSM/GPRS is being
applied in the UE side. Although the security credentials
used in the GSM are also engaged in the authentication
process of EAP-SIM, some enhancements have been
implemented to eliminate the known security weaknesses of
GSM.
The main vulnerability of the GSM networks was mainly
emerged from the opinion that owning a base station is not
affordable for a potential attacker. Consequently, the mutual
authentication is not supported in the GSM/GPRS and only
the user is authenticated to the network. Another security
flaw unveiled is the weak ciphering systems used in the
authentication process. Many attacks have been published
on A5/1 and especially A5/2, the main cryptographic
primitives of the GSM/GPRS [9], [10]. EAP-SIM is
enhanced in comparison to the GSM/GPRS authentication
to have the mutual authentication and use a longer security
key. Practically, the security key for the GSM/GPRS is 64
bit which is enhanced up to 128 bit for the EAP-SIM [3].
The EAP-SIM authentication and key agreement
procedure is presented in Fig. 1. The steps of the
authentication procedure are shown by numbers 1 through
10 in the Fig. 1. The first and second steps are the
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 151
initialization of the authentication procedure in which the
user communicates with the wireless AP via the EAP Over
LAN (EAPOL). The user sends his identity in the format of
the Network Access Identifier (NAI). This identity can be
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) or his
temporary identity (TMSI). The IMSI must be sent in a
plain text in the first connection setup and the TMSI is used
in the other setups.
Figure 1. EAP-SIM authentication protocol
AAA server recognizes the user’s identity through steps 3
and 4 and the authentication procedure is started at this
point. Then, the NONCE sent in the fifth step is the user’s
challenge to the network. In the steps 6 and 7, the AAA
server obtains n (n=2 or n=3) authentication triplets
(RAND, SRES, and Kc) for a specific user. The generation
of these triplets is based on a permanent secret key shared
between the user and the network. The step 8 is to send the
n RANDs and the MACserver. The MACserver is calculated
using the NONCE and the n RANDS in a MAC algorithm.
The user can authenticate the network by verifying the
received MACserver. The ninth step includes the MACuser
and n XRES values which are calculated by the UE. The
AAA server verifies the MACuser and checks if the received
XRES is equal to the SRES upon receiving this message. If
the check is accomplished successfully, the user is
authenticated to the AAA server and EAP success message
is sent to the user indicating the completion of the
authentication procedure. At the end of this procedure, the
session key is sent to the access point via the AAA server by
an AAA protocol (Radius or DIAMETER). This session key
is used for encryption purposes between the UE and the AP.
Further details on the EAP-SIM authentication procedure
can be accessed in references [3] and [11].
2.2. EAP-AKA
EAP-AKA is another authentication protocol which is used
in the interworking of 3G-WLAN when the user owns a
USIM card [4], [11]. A USIM card is the application
utilized on the smart card (UICC) of the 3G user equipment.
EAP-AKA implements the UMTS authentication and key
agreement procedure and applies the same protocols for
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
communication between the network components as
EAPOL, Radius, DIAMETER, etc.
The vulnerabilities mentioned for the GSM/GPRS
authentication were concerned in the structure of the
UMTS-AKA protocol; this authentication protocol benefits
from the mutual authentication and new cryptography with
a higher degree of security. Because EAP-AKA is an
encapsulation of the AKA procedure in EAP, it certainly
does not suffer from the GSM/GPRS vulnerabilities.
Figure 2. EAP-AKA authentication protocol
Fig. 2 depicts the authentication procedure and the key
agreement in the EAP-AKA protocol through steps 1 to 10.
The first two steps are the initialization process. Similar to
the EAP-SIM protocol, the identities transmitted in an NAI
format (in the third step) may be either permanent (IMSI) or
temporary (TMSI). If the AAA server does not possess a 3G
Authentication Vector (AV) gained from a previous
authentication, it will request AVs from the HSS/HLR
(Home Subscriber Server / Home Location Register). The
HSS generates n AVs for the specific user by the permanent
secret key shared between the UE and the HSS/HLR. The
AVs transmitted in the fourth and fifth step include a
random challenge (RAND), the authentication token
(AUTN), the calculated response (SRES), the encryption key
(CK), and the integrity key (IK). The AAA server chooses
one of the AVs for the current session and stores the rest for
other sessions. The CK and IK with the identity of the user
are calculated in a MAC algorithm to generate the master
key in the EAP-AKA process. The produced master key is
eventually used to generate the master session key. The
MACserver calculated in the AAA server from the master
key is sent with the RAND and AUTN in the sixth step. The
verification of the MACserver and AUTN will be used to
authenticate the network to the user. The AAA server
verifies the calculated MACuser and XRES sent in the
seventh step to authenticate the user. If XRES is equal to the
SRES received in the fifth step and the MACserver value is
acceptable, then the user is authorized. An EAP success
message terminates the EAP-AKA procedure while the
session key is transmitted via the AAA server to the AP to
be applied for the security purposes between the user and the
AP.
152 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

2.3. EAP-TLS
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) is the most widely used security
protocol on the wired internet which employs a public key
infrastructure [12]. As a result, many works have focused on
applying the SSL based authentication protocols to the
wireless networks to make a compatible integration between
wireless and wired networks [13]-[16]. Performance
considerations have discouraged the use of SSL based
protocols in the resource constraint environments such as
the wireless environment. On the other hand, the relatively
small sizes of wireless data transactions imply that the
public key encryption dominates the security processing
requirements in wireless networks.
UE AP
Ww Wa
EAPOL AAA (Radius or
Diameter)
1. Connection Establishment
2. EAP Request / Identity
support the PKI in the UMTS architecture. A procedure for
the session resumption is also presented that improves the
efficiency of the repeated connection attempts. In this
structure, the need for the generation of the AVs by the
HSS/HLR is eliminated. Finally, EAP-TLS provides an end
to end authentication procedure.
2.4. EAP-TTLS
EAP-TTLS is the revision of the EAP-TLS in which the
need for the PKI in the structure was a deficiency in the
wireless networks [6]. EAP-TTLS utilizes the secure
connection established by the TLS protocol. The TLS
handshake used in the TTLS may be either mutual or one
AAA Server HSS/HLR way (only the server is authenticated to the client). The
Wx
client may be authenticated using an AAA protocol such as
SS7
RADIUS. The authentication of the client may be EAP or
another protocol such as CHAP (Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol) [15], [16].
UE AP AAA Server HSS/HLR

Ww Wa Wx
3. EAP Response / Identity (NAI) EAPOL AAA (Radius or SS7
Diameter)
4. Access Request with UserID
(EAP-Type=EAP-TLS,
start bit set, no data)
1. Connection Establishment
5. EAP-TLS Start
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS 2. EAP Request / Identity
(TLS Client-Hello)]
6. EAP Response [EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS Server-
Public key operation to Hello, TLS Certificate, TLS-Key- 3. EAP Response / Identity (NAI)
verify AAA server’s Exchange, TLS Certificate-Request,
certificate TLS Server-Hello-Done)]
7. EAP Request 4. EAP-TLS Start
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS
Certificate, TLS Client-Key-Exchange,
TLS Certificate-Verify, TLS Change- 5. Client Hello
Cipher-Spec, TLS Finished)]
8. EAP Response
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS (TLS Change- 6. Server Hello, Server Certificate, Server Hello Done
Cipher-Spec, TLS Finished, New
Encripted Pseudonym)]-RADIUS 7. Client Key Exchange, Change Spec
Access Success (In SSL),
9. EAP Request
Finished (Encrypted)
The session key
Decrypt New is sent using the
Pseudonym (P-TMSI) Session Key 8. Change Spec. Finish (Encrypted)
AAA protocol
[EAP-Type=EAP-TLS]

10. EAP Response 9. Username. CHAP Challenge, CHAP Response

10. RADIUS Authentication Request

11. EAP Success (Includes CHAP message)

Figure 3. EAP-TLS authentication protocol 11. RADIUS Access Accept

EAP-TLS is an authentication and key agreement 12. Success, Data Cipher Suit

protocol which is mainly based on SSL v.3. Similar to the Session Key

SSL protocol, EAP-TLS engages public key cryptography to 13. EAP Success

securely communicate with the AAA server. EAP-TLS is Figure 4. EAP-TTLS authentication protocol
known as one of the most secure EAP standards on wireless
EAP-TTLS has the advantage of easy deployment on an
LANs. The requirement for a client to possess a certificate is
existing structure in a wireless network. This protocol is in
part of the authentication procedure that casted doubt on the
fact a combination of two protocols: an outer and an inner
feasibility of implementing EAP-TLS on the wireless
protocol. The inner is the legacy authentication protocol and
networks. The papers in the references [13], [14] present
the outer protects the inner protocol messages. Moreover,
some practical aspects of the implementation of the EAP-
the outer protocol provides a tunnel that enables the network
TLS on the wireless networks.
to perform the functions such as the client authentication
Fig. 3 illustrates the structure of EAP-TLS authentication
and the key distribution. On the other hand, the inner
protocol proposed in the references [13], [14]. The message
protocol includes a TLS handshake which is used to
flow in the figure includes the essential adaptations to the
authenticate the server to the client based on a public or a
EAP-TLS to make it “mobile-enabled” [14]. The
private key certificate.
initialization procedure is NAI based and similar to the
Fig. 4 shows the EAP-TTLS authentication procedure. In
protocols mentioned in the previous sections. The user sends
this figure, the TLS protocol is used to authenticate the
his identity (IMSI or TMSI) along with the certificate in an
server and the CHAP protocol performs the client
EAP response message and the EAP server verifies the user
authentication. The server must verify the value of the
identity by this certificate. On the other side, the client
CHAP challenge to authenticate the user. The steps 1
checks the server certificate validity which is signed by a
through 3 in the Fig. 4 are the initialization procedure
trusted Certification Authority (CA).
similar to the other protocols and the steps 4 through 8
In the EAP-TLS architecture proposed in the reference
demonstrate the creation of a TLS tunnel in which the
[14], the use of PKI is mandatory; so, a CA must be
server is authenticated. The rest of the steps are to
connected to the 3G core network to issue the certificates.
authenticate the client in the established tunnel. In EAP-
Different structures are proposed in the reference [14] to
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 153
TTLS, if the client uses a certificate for the authentication,
the protocol will have the same procedure as the EAP-TLS
[15], [16].
2.5. PEAP
PEAP provides a wrapping of the EAP protocol within TLS
[7]. The PEAP, similar to the EAP-TTLS, implements a
tunnel to transfer the protocol authentication messages. One
of the protocols encapsulated in the PEAP tunnel is the
EAP-AKA authentication. As mentioned earlier, the tunnel
derives the session keys.
The message flow in PEAP with the EAP-AKA
authentication is illustrated in the Fig. 5. The UE and the
HSS own a common secret key which is used during the
authentication. In the initialization phase, the UE sends an
Identity (IMSI/TMSI) as part of the EAP-AKA. An AAA
protocol like MAP or DIAMETER or RADIUS sends the
IMSI from AAA server to the HSS/HLR. Then, HSS/HLR
calculates and sends the AVs (RAND, AUTN, XRES, IK,
and CK) to the AAA server. The chosen AV is sent to the
UE for the verification so that the network is authenticated
to the user. The RES is sent back to the AAA server and if
RES=XRES, the UE is authenticated. After the AKA
procedure is completed, the session keys are derived and
shared between the UE and the AP. These session keys are
not the same as those derived in the 3G-AKA but derived
from the TLS master secret.
Figure 5. PEAP authentication protocol
3. Deficiencies and Vulnerabilities
The five authentication protocol candidates for the
integration of wireless networks were explained earlier. In
this section, a critical evaluation is made introducing the
deficiencies and vulnerabilities of each protocol separately.
Some of these vulnerabilities are revealed by the proposed
attacks in the literature which are also addressed in this
section. Additionally, the deficiencies are unveiled by
making critical comparisons between different protocols.
3.1 Vulnerabilities of the protocols
Generally, the authentication protocols presented in the
previous section set up connections between the cellular
networks and the WLAN. The security protocols included in
the WLANs are mainly based on the different versions of
802.11. The basic version of the 802.11 is considered as one
of the most vulnerable security protocols. Currently, new
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
versions of this security protocol are implemented in the
wireless networks. One of the new security architectures for
the 802.11 security protocol is called WiFi Protected Access
(WPA). WPA2 version, which is widely used in the wireless
networks, suffers from a number of vulnerabilities such as
denial of service attacks, session hijacking in the absence of
encryption, and the lack of trust relationship within the
WPA architecture. On the other hand, the user equipment
may initiate a bottleneck. This happens when, for instance, a
Trojan in the terminal can originate a challenge response
with the UICC and forwards the results to an active attacker.
The attacker then analyzes the messages and sets up an
attack. Another example is the malicious software residing
in a different host which can launch Distributed Denial of
Service (DDOS). When a user intends to access a WLAN
service via a cellular authentication procedure, the
SIM/USIM must be used remotely from the WLAN client
through a serial, Infrared, or Bluetooth connection. Sending
credentials on these connections can endanger the user
confidentiality.
3.3.1 EAP-SIM
EAP-SIM protocol establishes a secure connection between
the GSM and WLAN [1]-[3]. The GSM network suffers
from many security weaknesses such as the unidirectional
authentication and the key agreement protocol, the
possibility of replay attacks, and the weak cryptographic
primitives that resulted in many successful attacks to this
architecture [9], [17]. EAP-SIM claims that it has solved
many of the security flaws in the GSM though.
Some of the vulnerabilities of the EAP-SIM could be
summarized as follows.
• The mobile user is obliged to send his permanent
identity (IMSI) in a plain text during the first
authentication attempt. Correspondingly, a passive
eavesdropper may steal this identity and use it in a later
active attack.
• The messages transmitted between the UE and the
Radio Network Controller (RNC) are the only messages
provided with an integrity protection; hence, the
protocol may be vulnerable to replay attacks.
• Many EAP-SIM messages (EAP-Request/Notification,
EAP Success, or EAP Failure) are exchanged
unprotected enabling an attacker to send false
notification and mount denial of service attacks.
• Although EAP-SIM mandates the use of fresh
authentication triplets, there is no mechanism that
enables the user to check whether the authentication
triplets received from the AAA server are fresh.
Therefore, if an attacker has access to authentication
triplets, he may use the compromised triplets as long as
the master secret key remains unchanged for the target
user.
• A possible way of implementing a Man-in-the-Middle
(MitM) attack on the EAP-SIM is when the same
authentication triplets are used in both GSM and
WLAN access. If the HSS is not used specifically for
the interworking of the GSM and WLAN, then HLR
will be used as the data base that stores the
authentication credentials. Accordingly, the
authentication triplets stolen from a GSM connection
154 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

can be misused to mount a false WLAN connection by

an adversary in EAP-SIM.

3.3.2 EAP-AKA
EAP-AKA is the authentication protocol used in the
interworking of the WLAN and the UMTS cellular networks
[1], [2], [4]. In this protocol, EAP encapsulates the AKA
procedure which is known for providing enough security.
Moreover, the authentication token (AUTN) and the
sequence number in the message flow of the authentication
procedure are engaged in order to defeat the possibility of
the replay and impersonation attacks. In spite of all the
attempts to make a secure protocol, it is blamed to have
some vulnerabilities as below.
• EAP-AKA does not support cipher suit or protocol
version negotiation and the key sizes and the algorithm
are fixed making it a less secure and inflexible protocol.
• The integrity protection is only guaranteed when
communicating between the radio network controller
and the user equipment; hence, the protocol may be
vulnerable to replay attacks. Figure 6. MitM in the EAP-TTLS
• IMSI is sent in plain text on the first authentication As it is shown in the Fig. 6, the MitM captures the
attempt; so, an adversary pretending a valid server may initialization procedure of a legitimate user and sets up a
force the user to send his IMSI and gain his permanent tunneled authentication protocol with the AAA server using
identity. the UE identity. Afterwards, the MitM forwards the
• Many EAP-AKA messages (EAP-Request/Notification, legitimate client authentication protocol messages through
EAP-Success, and EAP-Failure) are exchanged the tunnel. The MitM unwraps the messages received from
unprotected enabling an attacker to mount denial of the AAA server and forwards them to the legitimate user.
service attack. After the successful completion of the procedure, the MitM
• Although the AKA procedure is strong enough to defeat derives the session keys and starts an active or passive
the MitM attack, the integration of the UMTS with the attack.
GSM has resulted in the interception of all the UE 3.3.5 PEAP
initiated calls [18], eavesdropping attack, and an PEAP is a tunneling protocol similar to the EAP-TTLS
impersonation attack [19]. If the HSS is not used which provides a wrapping for the legacy protocols such as
specifically for the interworking of the UMTS and the the EAP-AKA. The most significant vulnerability of this
WLAN, a MitM attack is likely to happen. The protocol arises from the nature of including a tunneling
authentication credentials gained from mounting the procedure. The MitM attack in PEAP with EAP-AKA is
previously mentioned attacks on the HLR assist the displayed in the Fig. 7.
attacker to initiate a MitM attack in the EAP-AKA.
3.3.3 EAP-TLS
EAP-TLS appeared to provide the acceptable level of
security in the wired networks. It has not yet even shown
vulnerability to the MitM attacks. Nevertheless, similar to
the other interworking authentication protocols, the
Network Access Identifier (NAI) can divulge the permanent
user identity under certain circumstances thus
compromising the user privacy.
3.3.4 EAP-TTLS
EAP-TTLS was proposed to eliminate the need for a PKI in
the EAP-TLS and provide more security by tunneling which
itself augmented the possibility of a MitM attack [20]. The
attack suggested in the reference [20] is due to the fact that
the legacy client authentication protocol is not aware if it is
run in a protected or unprotected mode. The main cause of Figure 7. MitM in the PEAP with EAP-AKA
the MitM attack in EAP-TTLS is the ability of an
authentication to proceed without tunneling. The message According to the Fig. 7, the MitM initiates a tunneled
flow of the MitM attack in the EAP-TTLS is depicted in the authentication protocol with the network while
Fig. 6. masquerading as the legitimate AP to the user. MitM
unwraps the tunneled messages received from the AAA
server and forwards them to the victim. At the end of the
procedure, the MitM owns the session keys.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 155
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

3.2 Deficiencies of the protocols EAP-SIM and EAP-AKA because of their easy compatibility
Each candidate protocol has its advantages and with the existing cellular network infrastructures. On the
disadvantages to be employed in the interworking of the other hand, the EAP-TLS/TTLS and PEAP, which were
WLAN with the cellular networks. The most notable used in the Internet, showed promising advantages to be
drawback in the EAP-SIM and EAP-AKA is their employed in the interworking structure. The security
dependency on the network structure and thus cannot be vulnerability and the deficiency of each authentication
dynamic. However, the advantage of the EAP-TLS/TTLS or protocol were addressed and compared.
PEAP is that the user can be authenticated locally and does Although 3GPP has accepted the interworking protocols for
not need to first connect to the cellular access gateway. the WLAN-Cellular network, more studies on the efficiency
Another deficiency of the two protocols is the latency of the of the security protocols for the beyond 3G networks are
authentication procedure which is exacerbated due to the required.
frequent roaming of the users among different WLANs; this
frequency is caused by the comparatively small range of References
each WLAN AP. Another advantage of the EAP-TLS/TTLS [1] 3GPP, “3GPP system to Wireless Local Area Network
or PEAP in comparison with the EAP-SIM/AKA is their (WLAN) interworking; System description,” 3GPP
applicability in the beyond 3G heterogeneous networks since TS 23.234 V9.0.0, Jan. 2010.
they have been successfully implemented as protocols in the [2] 3GPP, “Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Internet which is the backend of the beyond 3G networks. interworking security,” 3GPP TS 23.234 V9.2.0, June
Many researches have focused on comparing the energy 2010.
consumption, latency, and the total size of these [3] H. Haverinen, J. Saloway, “EAP-SIM authentication,”
authentication protocols in an interworking scenario [13]- RFC 4186, Jan. 2006.
[16]. All the researches demonstrate that EAP-SIM and [4] J. Arkko, H. Haverinen, “EAP-AKA authentication,”
EAP-AKA suffer from the considerable latency but benefit RFC 4187, Jan. 2006.
from the small total size on the UE. [5] B. Aboba, D. Simon, “PPP EAP TLS Authentication
The most significant problem in the implementation of Protocol,” IETF RFC 2716, Oct. 1999.
the legacy wired internet protocols in the interworking of [6] P. Funk, S. Blake-Wilson, "EAP Tunneled TLS
the WLAN with the cellular networks is the infrastructures Authentication Protocol version0," IETF RFC 5281,
required for using the public key and the PKI. EAP- Feb. 2005.
TLS/TTLS or PEAP use a public key infrastructure and [7] H. Anderson, S. Josefsson, “Protected Extensible
certificate authority which are not introduced in the existing Authentication Protocol (PEAP)” IETF RFC 2026,
2G and 3G cellular networks. Another problem of using the Aug. 2001.
certificate authority is that the USIM, which is a constraint [8] L. Blunk, J. Vollbrecht, “Extensible Authentication
resource, must be preloaded with all the CA public keys. Protocol (EAP)” IETF RFC 3748, March 1998.
Furthermore, most of the UEs are not equipped with the [9] E. Barkan, E. Biham, N. Keller, “Instant ciphertext-
digital certificate. only cryptanalysis of GSM encrypted communication,”
The Table 1 summarizes the main vulnerabilities and Journal of Cryptology, Vol. 21 Issue3, 2008.
deficiencies mentioned earlier. [10] A. Bogdanov, T. Eisenbath, A. Rupp, “A hardware-
assisted real time attack on A5/2 without
Table 1: Vulnerabilities and deficiencies comparison precomputations,” in Cryptographic Hardware and
EAP- EAP- EAP- EAP-
PEAP Embeded Systems, vol. 4727 , pp. 394-412, 2007.
SIM AKA TLS TTLS
[11] Ch. Xenakis, Ch. Ntantogin, “Security architectures for
User identity
û û û ü ü B3G mobile networks,” Journal of Telecommunication
protection
Secure against Systems, vol.35, pp. 123-139, Sept. 2007.
û û ü û û [12] V. Gupta, S. Gupta, “Experiments in wireless internet
the MitM
Secure against security,” Proc. IEEE Wireless Communication and
û û û û û Networking Conf., Vol. 1, pp. 859-863, March 2002.
replay attack
Interworking [13] G. Kambourakis, A. Rouskas, S. Gritzalis, “Using SSL
û û ü ü ü
with Internet in authentication and key agreement procedures of
Short future mobile networks,” Proc. 4th IEEE Int. Conf. on
û û ü ü ü
latency Mobile and Wireless Communication Networks 2002,
Low energy pp. 152-156, Sept. 2002.
ü ü û û û
consumption [14] G. Kambourakis, A. Rouskas, G. Kormentzas, S.
Small Gritzalis, “Advanced SSL/TLS-based authentication
ü ü û û û
total size for secure WLAN-3G interworking,” IEEE
Communications Proceedings, Vol. 151, pp.501-506,
4. Conclusion Oct.2004.
The authentication and the key agreement procedure of the [15] P. Prasithsangaree, P. Krishnamurthy, “ A new
interworking architecture between the WLAN and the authentication mechanism for loosely coupled 3G-
cellular networks for different candidate protocols were WLAN integrated networks,” In Proceeding of
discussed. The two accepted protocols by the 3GPP were the Vehicular Technology Conference 2004, IEEE, Vol. 5,
pp.2284-3003, May 2004.
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[16] Y. Zhaho, Ch. Lin, H. Yin, “Security authentication of

3G-WLAN interworking,” 20th International
Conference on Advanced Information Networking and
Applications, Vol. 2, pp. 429-436, 2006.
[17] C.J. Mitchell, “The security of the GSM air interface
protocol,” Technical Report, Royal Holloway
University of London, RHUL-MA-2001-3, 2001.
[18] U. Meyer, S. Wetzel, “A Man-in-the-Middle attack on
UMTS,” in ACM workshop on wireless security 2004,
pp. 90-97, 2004.
[19] Z. Ahmadian, S. Salimi, A. Salahi, “New attacks on
UMTS network access,” Wireless Telecommunications
Symposium 2009, Prague, pp. 1-6, April 2009.
[20] N. Asokan, N. Valteri, K. Nyberg, “Man-in-the-Middle
in tunneled authentication,” Internet Drafts, Nokia
Research Center, Oct. 2003.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 157
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

A Modified Hill Cipher Involving Permutation,

Iteration and the Key in a Specified Position
V.U.K.Sastry1 and Aruna Varanasi2
1
Department of computer Science and Engineering,SNIST
Hyderabad, India,
vuksastry@rediffmail.com
2
Department of computer Science and Engineering,SNIST
Hyderabad, India,
varanasi.aruna2002@gmail.com

In a recent investigation, sastry et al. [4], have applied a

Abstract: In this paper we have developed a block cipher by
modifying the classical Hill cipher. In this we have introduced
additional features such as Permutation and Iteration. For
simplicity and elegancy of this cipher, the plaintext is multiplied
by the key from the left side in the first iteration and from the
right side in the second iteration and this process is continued in
the subsequent iterations. The above mentioned operations
carried out in this analysis led to a thorough confusion and
diffusion of the information. The avalanche effect and the
cryptanalysis, carried out in this paper, clearly indicate that the
cipher is a strong one. In this analysis the permutation is
playing a very prominent role in strengthening the cipher.
Key words: Encryption, Decryption, Cryptanalysis, avalanche
effect, permutation.
1. Introduction
The classical Hill Cipher [1], which came in to existence
much before the advent of Computers has brought in a
revolution in the area of Cryptography. It is governed by the
relations
C = KP mod26, and (1)
P = K¯1C mod26. (2)
In these relations P is a plaintext vector, C the Ciphertext
vector, K the key matrix and K¯1 is the modular arithmetic
inverse of K. In the above relations mod 26 is used as 26
characters of English alphabet are used in the development
of the cipher.
In the literature of Cryptography, it is well established
that this cipher can be broken by the known plaintext attack.
This is due to the fact that the equation (1) can be brought to
the form
Y = KX mod 26,
in which X and Y are matrices containing appropriate
number of column vectors of the plaintext and the
corresponding column vectors of the ciphertext, and the
modular arithmetic inverse of X can be obtained in several
instances.
Before proceeding to the development of Feistel cipher[2-
3], Feistel has noticed that the Hill cipher involving only a
linear transformations is quite vulnerable and it can be
broken. Thus he has introduced a XOR Operation, linking
the portions of the plaintext and the key, and an iterative
procedure so that confusion and diffusion, which offer
strength to the cipher, can be achieved.
key matrix on both the sides of the plaintext matrix and
have avoided the direct possibility of breaking the cipher.
They have strengthened the cipher by using a function
called mix() for mixing the plaintext bits at every stage of
the iteration process involved in the cipher. They have
found that the relation between the Ciphertext and the
plaintext is highly nonlinear and hence the cipher cannot be
broken by any cryptanalytic attack. Of late sastry et al.[5]
have developed a cipher, wherein they have taken a pair of
keys. In this they have introduced an iterative procedure,
which includes a Permutation and have shown that the
cipher is significantly strong.
In the present paper our objective is to develop a block
cipher which involves a nonlinear relation between the
Ciphertext and the plaintext. In this analysis we have
introduced the key matrix, K as a left multiplicant in one
step of the iteration, and as a right multiplicant in the next
step of the iteration, and we have continued this process till
all the iterations are completed. The procedure is
strengthened by using a function named Permute() for
achieving confusion and diffusion.
In what follows we present the plan of the paper. In
Section 2, we introduce the development of the cipher, and
put forth the algorithms for encryption and decryption.
Section 3 is devoted to illustration of the cipher. In section
4 we discuss the cryptanalysis in detail. Finally in section 5
we mention the computations related to the cipher and draw
conclusions.
2. Development of the cipher
Consider a plaintext, P. Let this be written in the form of
a matrix given by
P = [Pij], i= 1 to n , j=1 to n. (3)
Here each element of P is a decimal number lying
between
0 and 255.
Let us take a key matrix K, which can be represented in
the form
K = [Kij], i=1 to n, j=1 to n, (4)
where each Kij is a decimal number in the interval 0 to 255.
Let the Ciphertext, C be given by
C = [Cij], i=1 to n, j=1 to n, (5)
In which all the elements of C also lie between [0-255].
158 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

In this we have used 0-255 as we have made use of EBCDIC and

code for the conversion of plaintext into the corresponding P= Permute(P).
decimal numbers.
The process of encryption and the process of decryption are The process of decryption is given by
described by the flowchart given in Figure-1.
The basic relations governing the process of encryption C=IPermute(C )
are given by and
if (r mod 2 = 1) then if(r mod 2 =1) then
P=KP mod 256 C=K-1 C mod 256
else else
P=PK mod 256 C=C K-1mod 256.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 159
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The process of permutation can be described as follows. 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Let P be a matrix containing n rows and n columns. This 
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
can be written in the form of a matrix containing m(=n2) 
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

(9)
rows and eight columns as shown below: 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
 
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
 p111 L p118 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


 p121 O p128

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1


 M  0

1 1 1 1 0 0 1

O M (6) .
  1
0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0
 M O M  
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

 pnn1 K pnn8 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
This is obtained by converting each element of the P into
In order to have clear insight into the process of
its binary form. On assuming that the n is an even number,
permutation let us explain what we have done. Here we
the above matrix can be divided into two equal halves,
have started with the last element of the last row of the
where in each half contains m/2 rows. Then the upper half
upper half in (8), and have gone in the backward direction (
is mapped into a matrix containing m rows and four
placing the elements one after another in a column wise
columns. In the process of mapping we start with the last
manner in the first column, second column, etc., ) till we
element of the upper half and place it as the first row, first
have reached the first element of the matrix. This results in
column element of a new matrix. Then we place the last but
the first four columns of (9). Then we have commenced
one element of the upper half as the element in the second
with the first element of the lower half and filled up,
row and first column. We continue this process of placing
element after element, in the remaining four columns of (9)
the remaining elements of the upper half, one after another,
till we have reached the last element of (8). This has
till we get m rows and four columns of the new matrix.
enabled us to obtain (9). This process of permutation is
Then we place the elements of the lower half from the
expected to thoroughly permute the binary bits which are
beginning to the end in their order , such that they occupy
obtained as a consequence of the product of the plaintext
four more columns and m rows. Thus we again get a matrix
matrix and the key matrix.
of size mx8.
The matrix (9) can be brought into its corresponding
For example when n=4 (i.e., m=16), let us suppose
decimal form as shown below.
that the plaintext matrix, P is given by
 216 218 18 234
 86 103 83 56   
 35 43 36 219  165 116 155 128 
P=   (7)  107 121 154 12  (10)
210 242 12 16   
   48 194 56 
 3 
114 165 10 193 
Obviously as it is expected the elements of original
matrix, P (7) and the elements of the matrix (10) obtained
on permutation are totally different.
This can be brought to the binary form given by
It may be noted here that the IPermute() in the
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 decryption is a reverse process of the Permute() used in the
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1  encryption.

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 The algorithms for encryption and decryption are
 
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
(8) written below.
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
 
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Algorithm for Encryption
 
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
 
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1. Read n,P,K,r
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
  2. for i = 1 to r
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
{
 
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 if ( (i mod 2)=1)
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
  P=(KP) mod 256
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
  else
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
P =( PK) mod 256
On permuting the above matrix in accordance with P= Permute(P)
the process explained earlier, we get }
C=P
3. Write( C )
160 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Algorithm for Decryption Let us take the key, K in the form

1. Read n,C,K,r 123 25 9 67

2. K¯1 = Inverse(K) 134 17 20 11
3. for i= r to 1 K=  (14)
 48 199 209 75
{  
 39 55 85 92
C = IPermute(C) On applying the encryption algorithm, described in
If ((i mod 2)=1) section 2, with r=16, we get the Ciphertext given by
C = (K¯1 C ) mod 256 115 168 140 127
else  
146 72 8 57 
C= (C K¯1 ) mod 256 C=  (15)
 63 133 218 101
 
}  0 193 141 195
4. P=C
5. Write (P) On adopting the decryption algorithm, we get back the
original plaintext given by (13).
Algorithm for Inverse(K) In order to estimate the strength of the algorithm, let us
1. Read A, n, N study the avalanche effect.
// A is an n x n matrix. N is a positive integer with which Here we replace the fifth character “e” of the plaintext
modular arithmetic (12) by “d”. The EBCDIC codes of “e” and “d” are 133 and
is carried out. Here N= 256. 132, which differ by one bit in their binary form. Thus, on
2. Find the determinant of A. Let it be denoted by Δ, using the modified plaintext, the key (14) and the
where Δ ≠ 0. encryption algorithm, let us compute the corresponding
3. Find the inverse of A. The inverse is given by [Aji]/ Δ, i= ciphertext. This is given by
1 to n , j = 1 to n
// [Aij] are the cofactors of aij, where aij are the  80 6 60 130 
elements of A  7 181 53 106 
for i = 1 to N C=   (16)
{  75 36 232 91 
 
// Δ is relatively prime to N 224 22 148 255
if((iΔ) mod N == 1) break;
} On converting (15) and (16) into their binary form, we
d= i; notice that the two ciphertexts differ by 69 bits (out of 128
B = [dAji] mod N. // B is the modular arithmetic bits). This shows that the cipher is a strong one.
inverse of A. Let us now change a number in key, K. We replace
199,the third row second column element of (14), by 198.
3. Illustration of the cipher These two numbers also differ by only one binary bit. On
performing the encryption with the modified key and the
Let us consider the plaintext given below. original plaintext intact, we get the ciphertext given by
Father! it is really a pleasure to see India as a visitor. Each
village has a temple, each town has an engineering college  22 63 75 65 
and of course, each place has a liquor shop. (11)  
239 228 137 58 
We focus our attention on the first sixteen characters of C=  (17)
 82 253 221 232
the plaintext (11). This is given by  
Father! it is re (12)  79 255 248 95 
On using EBCDIC code the plaintext (12) can be
written in the form of a matrix, P given by Now on comparing the binary forms of (15) and (17), we
find that they differ by 68 bits (out of 128 bits). This also
198 129 163 136 shows that the cipher is a potential one.
133 153 79 64 
P=   (13) 4. Cryptanalysis
137 163 64 137
  In the literature of Cryptography the general methods of
162 64 153 133 cryptanalytic attack are
• Ciphertext only attack (Brute force attack)
• Known plaintext attack
• Chosen plaintext attack and
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 161
• Chosen ciphertext attack
In this analysis we have taken the key, K consisting of 16
numbers, where each number can be represented in terms of
8 binary bits. Thus the length of the key is 128 bits, in view
of this fact the size
12. 8 of the
12.key
8 space is
2128 = 210 ≈ 103 =1038.4.
If the determination of the plaintext for each value of the
key takes 10-7 seconds, then the time required for
computation with all the possible keys in the key space is
given by
(10 )
x10 −7
( )
38.4
= 3.17 x 10 38.4 x10 −15
365 x 24 x 60 x 60
( )
= 3.17 x 10 23.4 years.
Thus the cipher cannot be broken by the Ciphertext only
attack.
In the case of the known plaintext attack, we know as
many pairs of plaintext and ciphertext as we require. For
example, we confine our attention only to two rounds of the
iteration process in the encryption. For the sake of
convenience in presentation, let us denote the function
Permute() as F(). Then we have
P = (KP) mod 256, (18)
P = F(P), (19)
P = (PK) mod 256 and (20)
P = F(P) mod 256. (21)
C=P (22)
From (18) - (22), we get
C = F(( F((KP) mod 256) K) mod 256). (23)
In (23) the innermost K and P are multiplied and the
result is operated with mod 256. On converting the
resulting numbers into their binary form, permutation is
performed, as mentioned earlier, and the resulting matrix
containing decimal numbers is obtained. Then this matrix is
multiplied by K on the right side and mod 256 is taken.
Thus we have got a new matrix whose permutation yielded
C. In this process the K and P are getting thoroughly
interacted, and their binary bits are undergoing diffusion
and confusion in a very strong chaotic manner. This is all
on account of the permutation and mod operation. The K
and P are losing their shapes and getting thoroughly mixed,
so that no trace of them can be found separately. In the
above analysis we have taken only two rounds.
In general in our analysis of this problem, as we have
sixteen rounds, we get
C =F((….. F((F((KP) mod 256)K)mod 256)…..) mod 256).
In this relation, as we have multiplication, mod 256 and
Permutation playing a vital role, the binary bits of K and P
are undergoing several changes several times. Thus we are
not able to get the key or a function of the key so, that the
cipher can be broken. Hence the cipher is a very strong one.
The third and fourth attacks namely chosen plaintext
and chosen Ciphertext attacks merely depend upon the
vision and the intuition of the attacker. Though the cipher is
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
an elegant one, its suggesting a plaintext or a Ciphertext to
be chosen is found to be impossible. Hence the cipher
cannot be broken in the last two cases too.
The above analysis clearly shows that the cipher cannot
be broken by any attack.
5. Computations and Conclusions
In this paper we have modified the Hill Cipher by
introducing a Permutation, Iteration and the key in a
specified position. In the first round the key is on the left
side of the plaintext and it is on the right side in the second
round. The same pattern is continued in the subsequent
rounds.
The algorithms for encryption and decryption, mentioned
in section 2, are implemented in java.
On using the program for encryption the Ciphertext
corresponding to the entire plaintext given in 3.2 is
obtained as
In carrying out the computation, we have taken a block
of 16 characters of the plaintext in each round. In the last
round when the plaintext has fallen short to sixteen
characters by a few characters, we have appended additional
characters at random to make up the block complete.
In this analysis we have seen that the multiplication of K
and P, the mod operation which is modifying the product
and the permutation causing a thorough diffusion and
confusion are playing a prominent role in strengthening the
cipher. The potentiality of the cipher is seen markedly in
the discussion of the avalanche effect. The cryptanalysis
clearly indicates that the cipher cannot be broken by any
cryptanalytic attack.
The key K as a left multiplicant in all the odd rounds and
as a right multiplicant in all the even rounds is expected to
play a significant role in diffusing the information in all
directions, so that the strength of the cipher is enhanced.
From the development and the analysis of the above
cipher, we notice that the modified Hill Cipher is a strong
one and it can be applied very confidently for the security of
information.
References:
[1] William Stallings, Cryptography and Network Security,
Principles and Practice, Third edition, Pearson, 2003.
[2] Feistel, H. “Cryptography and Computer Privacy”
Scientific American, May 1973.
[3] Feistel, H., Notz., W., and Smith,J. “Some
Cryptographic Techniques for Machine-to-Machine
Data Communications.” Proceedings of the IEEE,
November 1975.
162 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
[4] V.U.K.Sastry, D.S.R.Murthy, S. Durga Bhavani, “A
Large Block Cipher Involving a Key Applied on both
the Sides of the Plaintext”, Vol.2, No.2, pp.10-
13,February.2010.
[5] V.U.K.Sastry, V.Aruna, Dr.S.Udaya Kumar, “ A
Modified Hill Cipher Involving a Pair of Keys and a
Permutation”, Vol.2,No.9, pp.105-108, September
2010.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 163
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Neural Network based Regression Model for

Accurate Estimation of Human Body Fat - Obesity
Assessment using Circumference Measures
N.Revathy1 and Dr.R.Amalraj2
1
Department of Computer Applications, Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India
revsforu@yahoo.com
2
Department of Computer Science, Sri Vasavi College, Erode, India

skinfold based measurement is very tedious and may lead to

Abstract: Obesity is a matter of great concern for individuals
and organizations including the armed forces. Excess fat is
detrimental to physical fitness and work performance. Although
the height-weight tables adopted by the armed forces for obesity
assessment are simple to use, yet they are not accurate enough,
as a muscular individual may be labeled obese while a lean
person with normal weight range may escape detection
although he may have an abnormal fat content. The author
compared the skin-fold method of body fat assessment,
circumferences method of body fat assessment and the Body
Mass Index (BMI). The circumference method is recommended
to be used in the armed forces rather than the inaccurate
height-weight measures.
inaccurate measurements. The other laboratory based
techniques such as total body water and body fat by
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and deuterium oxide
dilution (D2O) are also comparatively expensive.
But, there are simple and cost effective methods
which use the age and the body circumference
measurements which are easy to obtain without much
measurement errors. There are lot of statistical methods and
formulas to estimate the percentage of fat in human body. In
this paper, we have proposed a neural network based model
for body fat estimation using simple circumference
measures.

keywords: Obesity, Overweight, Body Mass Index, Skin-fold, Measurement Based Body Fat Estimation Methods
Circumference, Neural Networks There are two commonly used methods for body fat
measurements. They are
Ø Skin fold thickness method
Ø Circumference method
1. Introduction Skin fold method was standardized by Dumin and
Womersley [15]. In this method, the body fat is estimated
using different skin fold measured which are taken form
Throughout most of human history, a wide girth
different parts of the body such as midtriceps, biceps,
has been viewed as a sign of health, and prosperity. Yet it is
subscapular, suprailiac, etc., regions. These measurements
ironical that several million people are sent early to their
will be made using an apparatus called constant force
graves by damaging effects of eating too much and moving
caliber.
too little. Clearly, overweight cannot be taken lightly. The
Circumference methods were first developed by
problem of obesity is a matter of serious concern to the
Wright, Davis and Doston. This methods estimates the
individual as well as the state. Obesity increases mortality
percentage of body fat using different circumference
and morbidity at all ages. Excess fat is considered a
measures taken in different parts of the body such as, upper
detriment to physical fitness and work performance, which
and lower arm, waist, neck, abdomen, hip thigh etc.,
is also affected by a number of other variables such as age,
sex, training, attitude, and motivation, genetic and
Skin fold thickness method of body fat measurement:
environmental factors. Obesity is a condition in which there
Since most adipose tissue is in the subcutaneous layer, the
is an excessive accumulation of body fat in body. Estimation
present body fat has been traditionally estimated by
of human body fat has lot of applications in different areas
measuring skin folds at midtriceps, biceps, subscapular and
of medicine and other medical fitness tests. The most
suprailiae regions, using a constant force calipers. The
accurate way of calculating body fat percentage is the one
method was standardized by Dumin and Womersely [15].
provided by Siri’s equation [6], which requires a
Body fat is indirectly assessed from body density. The
measurement of Density via weighting under water. But this
percent body fat is calculated by the equation: % BF =
is expensive and unpractical. Anthropometry (height,
[(4.95 / body density) – 4.5] * 100. Though more accurate
weight and multiple skinfold thicknesses) by trained
than the, H-W measures, the main drawback of the skin fold
observers using standardized technique to calculate body fat
measurements is their poor repeatability in the absence of a
by Durnin and Womersley's equation [15]. But taking
skilled observer. Moreover, measurements may be difficult
164
or impossible in very obese people whose skin folds would
not fit between the jaws of the measuring caliper.
2. Techniques Used in Measurement Based
Body Fat Estimation Methods
Regression and multi-dimensional regression are
the most commonly used statistical techniques in the design
of the above two types of measurement based fat estimation
methods. There is lot of statistical methods available to
solve multi-dimensional regression problem. In statistics,
regression analysis includes any techniques for modeling
and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
Most of the existing techniques for measurement
based body fat estimation formulas were based on statistical
relationships in the data. But, in the recent years, new
techniques such as; artificial neural networks and fuzzy
inference systems were employed for developing of the
predictive models to estimate the needed parameters. Soft
computing techniques are also now being used as alternate
statistical tool.
Some previous work shows that the radial basis
function(RBF) neural network based prediction systems
exhibiting a high performance than multilayer perceptron
(MLP) network, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
(ANFIS) and multiple regression (MR) technique. So in
this work, we explored the possibility of using a neural
network to solve the body fat estimation problem.
A radial basis function (RBF) neural network
is trained to perform a mapping from an m-dimensional
input space to an n-dimensional output space. RBFs can be
used for discrete pattern classification, function
approximation, signal processing, control, or any other
application which requires a mapping from an input to
an output. Radial Basis Functions (RBF) represent
alternative approach to MLP's in universal function
approximation. RBFs were first used in solving
multivariate interpolation problems and numerical analysis.
Their prospect is similar in neural network applications,
where the training and query targets are rather continuous.
While MLP performs a global mapping (i.e., all inputs
cause an output), RBF network performs a local mapping
(i.e., only inputs near specific receptive fields will produce
an activation). The units (in the hidden layer) receiving the
direct input from a signal may see only a portion of the
input pattern, which is further used in reconstructing a
surface in a multidimensional space that furnishes the best
fit to the training data. This ability of the RBF network to
recognize whether an input is near the training set or
outside the trained region provides a significant benefit over
MLP's. RBF's are useful in safety critical applications, as
well as in those having a high financial impact.
3. Definitions and Measurement
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The height-weight tables suggested by body
composition working group have been extensively adopted
as a first line screening technique for obesity and the same
has been adopted by the India Armed Forces. Obesity is
defined as, weight 20% greater than the desirable weight for
that particular person.
Several methods have been used to assess body
composition. Most methods of measuring the fat content in
the living subject are, to a lesser or greater degree, indirect.
The three classical methods used in the lab are the
measurements of whole body density whole body water, and
whole body potassium. Though more accurate these method
are time consuming and not feasible for routine body fat
assessment.
Several workers have developed height-weight indices,
also called indices of relative weight or ‘indices of
adiposity’. These are easily calculated requiring nothing
more than the height(H), weight(W) and Age(A). A
commonly used index is the Body Mass Index (BMI) /
Quetlet’s index which is = weight (kg) / height (m)2. The
acceptable (normal) range is 20 to 25; A BMI of greater
than 27 is overweight while obesity is taken to start at a
BMI of 30, and a BMI of 40 and above indicates gross /
morbid obesity. The standards are the same for men and
women.
However the H-W indices measure ‘overweight’ rather
than obesity. Since the H-W indices cannot distinguish
between excess fat, excess muscle mass (e.g. in weight
lifters). Fluid retention (oedema), large bones etc., these
drawbacks lead to a high degree of inaccuracy.
Circumference methods of body fat measurement: In
circumference methods, estimates of present body fat are
made with equations based on circumference measures
typically involving areas prone to excess fat accumulation
such as the upper and lower arm, waist, hip and thigh. The
equations were first developed by Wright, Davis and Doston
in 1981 and include two body circumferences for males viz.
Neck circumference (NC), measured around the neck with
the measuring tape passing just below the larynx; Abdomen
circumference (AC), measured around the abdomen at the
level of the umbilicus. For females, three circumferences are
included in addition viz., Bicep circumference (BC),
measured at the largest circumference of the arm with the
arm extended and plan facing up; Forearm circumference
(FC), measured at the largest circumference of the forearm
and; Thigh circumference (TC), measured on the left
thigh just below the buttock. All circumferences are
measured in centimeters.
In 1984, Hodgdon and Beckett derived equations for
estimation of percent body fat in the males, using the same
circumference measures and height (in cms) of the
individual. The equations are:
Percent body fat (men)
= (0.740 * AC) – (1.249 * NC) + 0.528
Percent body fat (females) =
(1.051 * BC) – (1.522 * FC) – (0.89 * NC) + (0.326 * AC)
+ (0.597 * TC) + 0.707
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 165
The circumference measures and height is used to
estimate body density by the following equation: Body
density (men)
=(0.19077*log10(ACNC)+(0.15456*log10[Ht])+1.0324
Percent body fat is then estimated from the body density
by the same equation as used in the skin fold method of
body fat measurement.
The estimate used by Hodgdon and Beckett is currently
used by U.S. Navy, Since October 1986 for the initial
screening for obesity during the initial medical examination
of its personnel. Conwayet al (1989), found that the
estimates of percent body fat were more strongly related
with physical fitness than were the H-W indices, and thus
concluded that circumference methods of body fat
estimation assess actual body fat more reliably than the H-
W indices.
4. Implementation of RBF Neural Network
Based Fat Percentage Estimation Model
Like most feed forward networks, RBFN has three layers,
namely, an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer.
The nodes within each layer are fully connected to the
previous layer nodes. A schematic diagram of an RBFN
with n inputs and m outputs is given in Fig. 1.
y1 yj ym
θ 01 Σ θ0 j Σ θ 0m Σ output
layer
Φ Φ Φ hidden
layer
input
layer
x1 xi xn
Figure 12 :. Schematic diagram of RBFN [5]
The input variables are each assigned to a node in
the input layer and pass directly to the hidden layer without
weights. The hidden layer nodes are the RBF units. Each
node in this layer contains a parameter vector called a
center. The node calculates the Euclidean distance between
the center and the network input vector, and passes the
result through a nonlinear function(.). The output layer is
essentially a set of linear combiners. The ith output yi due to
input vector x, x=[x1, . . ., xn]T, can be expressed as
( )
Ms
yi = θ 0 i + ∑θ ji Φ || x − c j ||, σ j
j =1
where Ms is the number of hidden units, cj and j are the
center and the width of the jth hidden unit respectively, ji
represents the weight between the jth hidden unit and the ith
output unit, and 0i represents the bias term of the ith
output unit.
In this work,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Ø The dimension of the input layer will be equal to
the dimension of training patterns, that is the
number of circumference measures in the dataset.
Ø The number of Hidden Layer will be decided
automatically in the used Matlab version of RBF
network
Ø The dimension of the output layer will be equal to
one since there is only one output ‘percentage of
body fat’ which is to be mapped with respect to m
dimensional input.
Several ways have been proposed for training RBF
networks. Recently, Professor Simon has proposed the use
of Kalman filters for training RBF networks . We are going
to use this model for our application.
After training the RBF network with the selected
number records (50/100/150/200/250 records of the 13
measurements) the whole data set (252) is considered as
test data and fed in to the trained network and the value of
percentage of fat has been predicted.
Then the correlation between predicted values and
the originally calculated values (of under water weighing
method) has been calculated.
The correlation between two variables reflects the
degree to which the variables are related. The most common
measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation or called Pearson's correlation in short. When
measured in a population the Pearson Product Moment
correlation is designated by the Greek letter rho (ρ). When
computed in a sample, it is designated by the letter "r" and
is sometimes called "Pearson's r."
Pearson's correlation reflects the degree of linear
relationship between two variables. It ranges from +1 to -1.
A correlation of +1 means that there is a perfect positive
linear relationship between variables.
5. Evaluation and Results
The Evaluation Dataset
The proposed model has been tested with the
human body fat data set distributed by Roger W. Johnson,
Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, South
Dakota School of Mines & Technology, Rapid City, South
Dakota, North America. This dataset has been originally
provided by Dr. A. Garth Fisher (personal communication,
October 5, 1994), age, weight, height, and 10 body
circumference measurements are recorded for 252 men.
Each man's percentage of body fat was accurately estimated
by an underwater weighing and the density as well as the
measured percentage of body fat were provided along with
that data.
• Age (years)
• Weight (lbs)
• Height (inches)
• Neck circumference (cm)
• Chest circumference (cm)
166 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
• Abdomen circumference (cm) 5 250 7.9687 0.1802
• Hip circumference (cm)
The following graph shows the time taken for
• Thigh circumference (cm) training for different number of records used for training.
• Knee circumference (cm) As shown in the graphs, The time is gradually increasing
with respect to the increase in the size of training data set.
• Ankle circumference (cm)
• Biceps (extended) circumference (cm) 6. Conclusion
• Forearm circumference (cm) The proposed idea has been successfully
• Wrist circumference (cm) implemented using Matlab. The input parameters of the
• Percent body fat from Siri's (1956) equation (%) RBF network has been selected based on several
• Density determined from underwater weighing (cm) experiments. The experiments were repeated for several
These data are used to produce the predictive times with different number of records.
equations for lean body weight. The scope is to predict body The arrived results were more significant and
fat percentage on the basis of these variables, using comparable. The performance measured in terms of the
proposed RBF based regression model. The all body Pearson's correlation between the originally calculated
measurements are continuous variables. The first 13 values and newly estimated values reached almost 0.9
variables will be used as inputs to RBF network and 14th which is better than most of the classical methods and
value (the Percent body fat %) will be used as the expected almost equal to that of previous skinfold based methods.
output during training the network. The density value (15) The accuracy of the system was good while the
is just given here as an information and it will not be used number of records used for training is high. As far as we
for training or testing. have tested, the network can be trained in few seconds with
The following two dimensional plots are roughly few hundred records. After that, it was capable of predicting
showing the distribution of data. Singular Value the percentage of fat of few hundred records with in a
Decomposition is used to find the first principal component fraction of a second. So there will not be any practical
of the 13 features circumference measure data set. In x axis, difficulty in using the system different classes of training
we used that first principal component and the y axis we sets.
used the percentage of fat. So, the plot is showing only
approximate distribution of the data. 7 Scopes for Future Enhancements
It is obvious that the data used in this experiment
contains some outliers and little errors. Even with those
outliers and errors, the proposed system performed well. If
we apply suitable methods to remove the outliers and isolate
any abnormal records, in the training data set, then we can
expect better accuracy in prediction. Our future works will
address this issues. In this work, we have only used the
proposed regression model to estimate the percentage of
body fat. But this method is a generic model which can be
applied to any multidimensional non linear regression
Figure 2 : The 2D Plot of Input Data Space problem. So our future works will address other application
areas where the proposed model can bring better results.
Evaluation of RBF Training Performance
We have trained the RBF network with different Reference
number of records and measured the time taken for training
as well as the mean square error of last two consecutive [1] Wayt Gibbs W. Gaining on Fat Scientific American
iteration of the training. The following tables list the August 1996.
obtained results. [2] Isik Yilmaz and Oguz Kaynar, "Multiple regression,
ANN (RBF, MLP) and ANFIS models for prediction of
Table 4 : Performance of Training swell potential of clayey soils", Geophysical Research
Abstracts, Vol. 12, EGU General Assembly,TURKEY,
Number of The Time 2010
The [3] Siri, W.E., "Gross composition of the body", in
Sl. Records Taken For
Training Advances in Biological and Medical Physics, vol. IV,
No Used for Training
Error edited by J.H. Lawrence and C.A. Tobias, Academic
Training the RBF
1 50 2.4218 0.0230 Press, Inc., New York, 1956.
[4] Roger W. Johnson, Fitting Percentage of Body Fat to
2 100 3.3594 0.0645
Simple Body Measurements, Journal of Statistics
3 150 3.2812 0.1056
Education v.4, 1996
4 200 4.1562 0.1439
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 167
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
[5] Katch, Frank and McArdle, William, Nutrition,
Weight Control, and Exercise, Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston, 1977
[6] Behnke, A.R., Wilmore, J.H. An anthropometric
estimation of body density and lean body weight in
young men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1969.
[7] Jackson, A.S., Pollock, M.L. Generalized equations for
predicting body density. British Journal of Nutrition,
1978.
[8] Behnke, A.R. and Wilmore, J.H., Evaluation and
Regulation of Body Build and Composition, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1974
[9] Katch, F.I., McArdle, W.D., Nutrition, Weight Control,
and Exercise. Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia. PA, 1983.
[10] Wilmore, Jack, Athletic Training and Physical Fitness:
Physiological Principles of the Conditioning Process,
Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1976
[11] Dumin & Womersley J, Body fat assessed from total
body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness:
measurement on 481 men and women aged from 16 to
72 years. Br J Nutr 1974

Authors Profile

N. Revathy received BSc Computer Science and Master of

Computer Applications (MCA) degree from Bharathiar University
in 2000 and 2003 respectively. Received M.Phil, Computer
Science degree from Alagappa University in 2005. At present
working as a Assistant Professor in Karpagam College of
Engineering, Coimbatore, India

Dr. R.Amalraj Completed Bsc Computer Science, Master of

Computer Applications (MCA) and PhD in Computer Science, At
present working as a Professor in Department of Computer
Science at Sri Vasavi College, Erode, India.
168 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

An Innovative Simulation of IPv4 to IPv6 BD-SIIT

Transition Mechanism Methodology between IPv4
Hosts in an Integrated IPv6/IPv4 Network
J.Hanumanthappa1,D.H.Manjaiah2
1
Dept of Studies in Computer Science,University of Mysore
Manasagangotri,Mysore,India
hanums_j@yahoo.com
2
Dept of Computer Science,Mangalore University
Mangalagangotri,Mangalore,India
ylm321@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: The concept of transition from IPv4 network to IPv6 through an Integrated IPv6/IPv4 network and hence we will
network is being processed vigorously. Extensive research study is call it Bi-directional Stateless Internet Inter control
being done presently on this topict as a transition from IPv4 to messaging protocol(BD-SIIT) as the IPv6/IPv4 network
IPv6 requires a high level compatibility and clear procedure for maintains a dual stack of both IPv4 and IPv6. The necessity
easy and independent deployment of IPv6. The transition between of reexamining the problem arises as the research in these
IPv4 internet and IPv6 will be a long process as they are two areas has not very widely been explored.The rest of this paper
completely incompatible protocols and will significant amount of
is structured as follows.Section 2 discusses the proposed new
time.For the smooth interoperation of the two protocols,various
well defined transition mechanisms have been proposed so far .In
network architecture. Section 3 illustrates the Simulation
this paper a comparative study of the behavior of IPv4-only Models of BD-SIIT Translator.The Performance
network with that of BD-SIIT under various types of traffic measurement procedures Scenario is discussed in Section 4
patterns is carried out. In the proposed BD-SIIT enabled network and Section 5 shows the Implementation and evaluation of
architecture,the hosts in IPv4 initiates a connection with hosts in BD-SIIT Translation for UDP and TCP protocols.Finally the
the IPv4 network over an integrated IPv4/IPv6 network. The whole paper is concluded in Section 6.
performance metrics considered in this research paper are
Throughput,End-to-End delay(EED),and Round trip 2. Proposed Novel Network Architecture
time(Latency).The various simulations are performed using
Network Simulator 2(ns-2).
Keywords: BD-SIIT, IPv4,IPv6,Transition mechanism. In this section, we present the description of the architecture
of the simulation environment for our work.The scenario
given in the Figure-2 depicts a conversation between two
1. Introduction IPv4 based nodes over an IPv6 based network.Assumption in
Over the last decade,the IETF has been working on the the BD-SIIT is made based on the data exchange.In this
deployment of IPv6[1,2] to replace the current internet paper we proposed a new transition algorithm called BD-
protocol version (IPv4).The motivations behind IPv6 are SIIT how it works with UDP and TCP protocols.As we know
briefly discussed in the following section and are covered in that SIIT(Stateless Internet Protocol/Internet control
the literature[4,5,6,7].The Internet Protocol version(IPv6) is messaging Protocol Translation(SIIT) is an IPv6 transition
now gaining momentum as an improved network layer mechanism that allows IPv6 only hosts to talk to IPv4 only
protocol.The current version of Internet protocol,IPv4 has hosts.BD- SIIT is said to be a stateless IP/ICMP translation
been in use for almost 30 years and exhibits some innovative ,which means that the translator is able to process each
challenges in supporting emerging demands for address space conversion individually without any reference to previously
cardinality,high-density mobility,multimedia,strong security translated packets.In paper,the authors have adopted the
etc.IPv6 is an improved version of an IPv4 i.e. designed to BD-SIIT to study network performance with few types of
coexist with IPv4 and eventually provide better traffic sources:voice over IPv4(VoIPv4),FTP-over-
internetworking capabilities than IPv4.IPv6 offers the IPv6(FTPv6) and MPEG-4-over-IPv6.The performance is
potential of achieving the scalability,reachability,end-to-end evaluated considering bandwidth,throughput, percentage of
internetworking,Quality of service(QoS),and commercial- packets dropped,and mean end-to-end delay of each traffic
grade robustness for data as well as for VoIP,IP-based flow for both IPv4 and IPv6.The ns-2 simulator shows that
TV(IPTV),distribution and triple play networks.The aim of when the traffic density of IPv6 session increases,the
this IJCNS Journal paper is to examine the behavior of a bandwidth of IPv6 increases at the expense of the session.On
transition mechanism that will involve the communication the other end,the increment of the traffic density of IPv4
between the two IPv4 hosts over an IPv6 network under session does not increase its bandwidth.
various traffic conditions.This will make possible the
exchange of information between IPv4-only network hosts
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 169
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Figure 1. Proposed Network Architecture of BD-SIIT Figure 2. Network Based BD-SIIT Translation
Process

2.1 IP Header Conversion

As we know that BD-SIIT is a stateless IP/ICMP 0 79 80 95 96 127
translation.The BD-SIIT translator is able to process each 80-Zero bits FFFF(16 bits) 32 bits(IPv4 Address)
conversion individually,without any reference to previously
translated packets.Although most of the IP header field Figure 3. IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address
translations are relatively very simple to handle,however one
of the issue related with BD-SIIT translator is how to map the
IP addresses between IPv4 and IPv6 packets.The BD-SIIT 2.3 The BD-SIIT architecture
translation process supports the other two additional types of In this paper we have implemented the IPv4/IPv6 BD-
IPv6 addresses. SIIT bwhich operates when hosts in the native IPv4 network
1.IPv4-mapped address (0:FFFF:v4):-This is an IPv6 address initiates connections with hosts in the native IPv6 network
simply created by including the IPv4 address of the IPv4 host and viceversa. The newly implemented BD-SIIT system
(v4) with the prefix shown. The BD-SIIT mainly uses this should depends on the following two important
type of address for the conversion of IPv4 host addresses to characteristic features.
IPv6 addresses.
2.IPv4 translated addresses (0:FFFF:0:v4):-According to
IETF specification this address is created by IPv4 address Table 1: DNS46 Database able of IPv6 and IPv4 Public
temporarily assigned to the IPv6-only host and allows for the address
mapping of the IPv4-translated address of the IPv6 host to an
IPv4 address.
3.IPv6 over IPv4 Dynamic/Automatic tunnel
addresses.These addresses are designated as IPv4- LeasedPublic- Leased
Compatible IPv6 addresses and allows the sending of IPv6 Public –IPv4
Time IPv6 Time
traffic over IPv4 networks in a transparent manner.They are IPv4-1 180s IPv6-1 180S
represented as: 156.55.23.5. IPv4-2 IPv6-2
4.IPv6 over IPv6 Addresses Automatic representation.These …. …… ……….. ……..
addresses allow for IPv4-only nodes to still work in IPv6 IPv4-N IPv6-N
networks. They are designated as IPv4-mapped-IPv6 1v4-v6 DNS(DNS46):-It’s a server which identifies two
addresses and are represented as ::FFFF.They are also public IPv4 and IPv6 addresses statistically or
represented as ::FFFF.156.55.43.3. dynamically for each IPv4/IPv6 communication system.
2.2 The IPv6 mapped address in BD-SIIT Translator The Table-1 shows the DNS46 Database of the IPv6 and
BD-SIIT resides on an IPv6 host and converts outgoing IPv6 IPv4 Public addresses.
headers into IPv4 headers, and incoming IPv4 headers into
IPv6. To perform this operation the IPv6 host must be 2.3.1 v4-v6 enabled gateway
assigned an IPv4 address either configured on the host or
obtained via a network service left unspecified in RFC It’s a part of BD-SIIT translator which performs address
2765.When the IPv6 host wants to communicate with an mapping between an IPv4 and an IPv6 addresses as well as
IPv4 host,based on DNS resolution to an IPv4 address,the header conversions process between the IPv4 and IPv6
BD-SIIT algorithm recognizes IPv6 address as an IPv4 packet headers. Therefore the v4-v6 DNS(DNS46)server in
mapped-address as shown in Fig.4.The one of the our proposed system (BD-SIIT) has information regarding
mechanism to translate the resolved IPv4 address into an work station(host names) and their IP addresses which are
IPv4 mapped address available in both network regions.Table-1 clearly states that
the Database table which stores two groups of IPv4 and IPv6
public addresses and their leased times which is used to
 170 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
identify the specific period of time for which each situated at [Note:-Consider Host X as a Client and Host Y as a Server. If
the v4-v6 enabled gateway shows the actual IP addresses of the client A sent a HTTP get command to retrieve a web page
the two communication hosts(IPv4 and IPv6 hosts) with from the server Y.].
their corresponding public addresses (IPv4 and IPv6) with 1.As a response for the received command from a client X,
the two derived mapping values like G and F.The Table-2 server Y creates packet(s) then forwards them via a network
and Table-3 shows the IPv4 and IPv6 DNS on DNS46 and to the client X using the public IPv6 zone
v4-v6 enabled gateway. address(ABC2::4321) as a destination address.
1. When v4-v6 enabled router receives a packet which has
Table 2: IPv4 and IPv6 DNS on DNS46 been sent by Server Y then it verifies its
Sl.No IPv4 IPv6 DNS Address
Address Address mapping
2. Table-1 and Table-3 depending on the addressing mapping
value value like 37 in our scenario it refers to 220.12.145.10 as a
1 212.17.1.5 ---- B 4
2` 223.15.1.3. 1C::DACF Y 37
sender address in Table-2 and 223.15.1.3 as a destination
address in Table-2 instead of instead of 1C::DACF and
Table 3: V4-V6 enabled Gateway ABC2::4321 IPv6 rely.
IPv4 IPv6 P_IPv P_IPv TT M_Value M_
3. After that the v4-v6 enabled router creates a new IPv4
4 6 L 1 Val packet, based on the accepted IPv6 packet then forward it
ue2
245.87.09.6 2D::BDE IPv4-1 IPv6 120 G1 F1
is to the destination (Client X).When the client X receives
8 F s the IPv4 packet, its starts to process successfully without
any problem.
2.4 The BD-SIIT A Novel Transition Address-mapping
algorithm for the forward operation Case-1:v4-to-v4 and v6-to-v6 direct connection by using a
Based on the presence of IPv4-mapped-IPv6 address the router
destination IP addresses of the BD-SIIT algorithm performs
the header translation as described in Algorithm-1 and
Algorithm-2 to obtain an IPv4 packet for transmission via
data link and Physical layers. The Fig-4 shows the protocol
stack view of BD-SIIT.

IPv6 IPv4
applications applications

Sockets API
TCP/UDP v4 TCP/UDP v6
IPv4 IPv6
L2 Figure 5. v6-to-v4 BD-SIIT connection via BD-SIT
L1 translator
Figure 4. Protocol stack view of BD-SIIT

Algorithm-1:-IPv4->IPv6: How BD-SIIT works with UDP

1.When Host X belongs to X-zone initiates a request (Query
message) to DNS46 in order to get the IP-address of Host Y
which belongs to IPv6 zone.
2.When the DNS46 receives a query message as a request
then it checks its Table-2 to identify whether Host Y has an
IPv6 address which is unknown for the Host X.The DNS46
knows that the whole IPv6 zone has a public IPv4 address
(like NAT method) i.e. 195.18.231.17 address in the Figure 6. v4-to-v6 BD-SIIT connection via BD-SIIT
destination address field of IPv4 header then forwards it via translator
a network.
3. Performance measurement procedures
3. Simultaneously the DNS46 sends another The majority of the tests were done for a sufficiently long
message to v4-v6 enabled router in order to period of time and resulted in the exchange of 50,000 packets
update Table-3. to 1,000,000 packets, depending on the size of the packets
Algorithm-2:-IPv6->IPv4: How BD-SIIT works with TCP sent and their corresponding test.We have conducted an
The following steps signify how BD-SIIT works with TCP in empirical measurement test based on the following
the feedback operation from IPv6-IPv4. parameters: Throughput,End-to-End
delay(EED),RTT,(Latency)All these performance metrics are
simulated using NS-2 Simulator.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 171
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3.1 Throughput 4. Implementation and Evaluation
The rate at which bulk data transfer can be transmitted from We compute the mean end-to-end delay(EED),Throughput,
one node to another over a sufficiently long period of and RTT for IPv4 only network as well as for IPv6 network
time,and the performance is measured in Mbits/s.We with BD-SIIT enabled.The end to delay(EED),RTT and
calculated the throughput performance metric in order to Throughput has been calculated for varying packet sizes for
identify the rate of received and processed data at the the same network architecture.The mean end-to-end delay is
intermediate device(router or gateway)during the simulation calculated by taking into consideration of the time at which
period. The mean throughput for a sequence of packets of a packet starts at the source node and the time at which the
specific sizes are calculated by using equations 1 and 2. packet reaches the destination node and also the number of
packets received as given in the equations (3) and (4).This
(1)
information is extracted from the trace file obtained for the
Where Thrj = (2) corresponding tcl script used for the simulation with the
help of a Perl script.
Where Thrj is the value of the throughput when the packet j
Case-2:v4-tov6 and v6-to-v4 connections via the BD-SIIT
is received at intermediate device like BD-SIIT
translator.
Gateway,v4/v6 Router and N is the number of received
packets at intermediate device,Pr is the no of packets received
4.1 Proposed Network architecture for BD-SIIT in IPv6
at intermediate device and Pg is the number of packets
generated by source host.
To realize the DSTM,ns-2.26 with MobiWan patch pack is
used to create IPv6 based scenario.The utility of this ns-2
3.2 End-to-End Delay(EED) mobiWan patch pack is that it provides some implemented
We calculate the mean end-to-end delay for IPv4-only
protocols through which IPv6 based network simulations
networks as well as for the IPv6 networks with BD-SIIT
can be performed.The proposed DSTM scenario consists of
enabled.The end to end delay has been calculated for varying
IPv4 source node which sends its node id to a DSTM
packet sizes for the same network architecture.The mean end
server.The IPv4 to IPv6 DSTM network architecture
to end delay is calculated by taking into consideration of the
consists of two DSTM servers the DSTM TSP and TEP and
time at which a packet starts at the source and the time at
IPv4 hosts.
which the packet reaches the destination and also the number
of packets received as mentioned in (1).This information is
4.2 The Simulation Scenario of BD-SIIT
also extracted from the trace file obtained for the
The proposed transition mechanism, BD-SIIT is evaluated
corresponding tcl script used for the simulation with the help
through simulation using the Network Simulator ns-2.In
of a Perl script.
this figure the topology for the BD-SIIT transition
Hjd= (3) mechanism is shown.This topology is designed for the
Hi=end-to-end delay of packet ‘i’=Tdi-Tsi (4) simulation in ns-2.26 with MobiWan patch pack.This
Tsi =Time of packet ‘i’ sent at Source. topology consists of two IPv4 hosts like to communicate
Tdi =Time of packet ‘i‘ received at Destination. with each other over other two IPv6 networks.To realize the
Nr=Number of Packets received at Destination. BD-SIIT,ns-2.26 with MobiWan patch pack has been used
in an IPv6 based scenario.The utility of the MobiWan patch
3.3 Round Trip Time(RTT) is that it provides some implemented protocols through
RTT is also known as Latency:- It’s the amount of time taken which IPv6 based network simulations can be performed
by a packet to travel from one source node to another
destination node and back to the original source node, and
the performance metric is also measured in microseconds per
RTT.
The round trip time (RTT) is one of the performance metric
that is computed in our simulation for the BD-SIIT.The mean
RTT for the sequence of packets with a specific size is
computed as follows.
RTTi (5)
Where i is a packet number and N is the number of packets
sent. It is worth noted that the packet size is directly
proportional to round trip time (RTT)(Refer.Fig.9). Figure 7. BD-SIIT and DSTM Mean EED

RTTi =Tri -Tsi (6)

Where RTTi is the Round trip time of packet “i”, TSi is the
created time of a packet “i” at source host, Tri is the received
time of packet “i” at the destination host at the end of its
trip.
 172
Figure 8. BD-SIIT and DSTM Mean Throughput
Figure 9. Mean RTT of different packets in BD-SIIT
5. Conclusions
The aim of this paper is to examine the behavior of a
transition mechanism that will involve the communication
between the two IPv4 hosts over an IPv6 network.And
hence we will call the BD-SIIT transition mechanism as
the Integrated IPv6/IPv4 network. The necessity of
reexamining the problem arises as the research in this
area has not widely been explored. This research
is just an attempt to show the current scenario of the
impact of transition mechanisms over a network.This
work also concludes that in spite of imposing extra delay
to the network, the DSTM is significant as a transition
mechanism due to two reasons.Firstly a transition
mechanism is required for the smooth,interoperation of
both the protocols and secondly the DSTM has shown to
have several features of tunneling and dual stack
approach which can be taken as an intermediate of these
two transition mechanisms. In this way DSTM supports
better reliability and low data loss by combining the
specific characteristic features of the two transition
mechanisms.
References
[1] G.C.Kessler,IPv6:“The Next Generation Internet
Protocol,“The handbook on Local Area Network.
[2] Jovial Govil,Jivesh Govil,Navkeerat Kaur,Harkeerat
Kaur,”An examination of IPv4 and IPv6
Networks: Constraints and Various Transition
mechanisms”, IEEE Region 3 Huntsville
Section (IEEE Southeast Con 2008),April3-
6,2008,Huntsville,Alabama,USA.,pp.178-185.
[3] Jivika Govil,Jivesh Govil,“On the Investigation of
Transactional and Interoperability Issues between
IPv4
And IPv6”in Proceedings of the IEEE
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
electro/Information Technology(EIT07) May
2007,Chicago, USA.vol-2,pp.604-608.
[4] S.Deering and R.Hinden “Internet Protocol Version
6(IPv6) Specification”,RFC 2460,December 1998.
[5] John.J .Amoss and Daniel Minoli,” Handbook of IPv4
to IPv6 Transition: Methodologies for
institutional and corporate Networks”,Auerbach
Publications.
[6] S.G.Glisic Advanced Wireless Networks 4G
Technologies John Wiley and Sons Ltd,The
Atrium,Southern Gate,Chichester,West Sussex
PO198SQ,England, 2006.
[7] Juha wiljakka, Jonne Soninnen,Managing IPv4–to–
IPv6 Transition Process in Cellular Networks and
introducing new Peer-to-Peer Services.
[8] Ioan R,Sherali.Z.2003,”Evaluating IPv4 to IPv6
Transition mechanism”,West Lafayette,USA,vol-
1,pp.1091–1098.
[9] Andrew.S.Tanenbaum,“Computer Networks”,Third
Edition,Prentice Hall Inc.,1996, pp.686,413-436,437-
449.
Author’s Profile
Hanumanthappa.J. received his Bachelor of
Engineering degree in Computer Science
and Engineering from University
B.D.T.College of Engineering,Davanagere
Karnataka(S),India(C),from the Kuvempu
University,at Shankarghatta,Shimoga in 1998
and his Master of Technology in CS& Engineering from the NITK
Surathkal,Karnataka(S),India(C) in 2003 and Currently he is
pursuing his PhD in Computer Science and Engineering from
Mangalore University under the supervision of Dr.Manjaiah .D.H
on entitled “Investigations into the Design, Performance and
Evaluation of a Novel IPv4/IPv6 Transition Scenarios in 4G
advanced wireless networks”. Presently he is working as an
Asst.Professor at DoS in Computer Science,Manasagangotri and
Mysore. He has authored more than 40 research papers in
international conferences and reputed journals.
Dr. Manjaiah.D.H is currently Reader and
Chairman of BoS in both UG/PG in the
Computer Science at Dept.of. Computer
Science,Mangalore University and Mangalore.
He is also the BoE Member of all Universities
of Karnataka and other reputed universities in
India.He received Ph.D degree from University of
Mangalore,M.Tech.From NITK,Surathkal and B.E.,from Mysore
University. Dr.Manjaiah.D.H has an extensive academic,Industry
and Research experience.He has worked at many technical bodies
like IAENG,WASET,ISOC,CSI,ISTE and ACS.He has authored
more than-65 research papers in international conferences and
reputed journals.He is the recipient of the several talks for his area
of interest in many public occasions.He is an expert committee
member of an AICTE and various technical bodies.He had written
Kannada text book,with an entitled,“COMPUTER
PARICHAYA”,for the benefits of all teaching and Students
Community of Karnataka.Dr.Manjaiah D.H’s areas interest are
Computer Networking & Sensor Networks,Mobile
Communication,Operations Research,E-commerce,Internet
Technology and Web Programming.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 173
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Optimizing AODV routing protocols through

queuing creation and converting flow model into
packet model in wireless sensor networks
Ehsan Kharati 1, Alireza Baharizadeh 2, Meysam Chegini 3 and Mohsen Amerion 4

1
Islamic Azad University of Arak,
Computer Engineering Department,
Arak, Iran
e-kharati@iau-arak.ac.ir

2
Sama Technical and Vocational Trainig School
Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Barnch
Shahrekord, Iran
a.bahari@gmail.com

3
Sharif University of Technology,
Mechanic Department,
Tehran, Iran
meysam.chegini@gmail.com

4
Halmstad University
School of Information Science, Computer and Electronic Engineering
Halmstad, Sweden
mohsenamerion@gmail.com

Abstract: In this paper, a combination model of routing
network has been presented. Flow models and packet model with
together combines as Discrete Event in created queue in AODV
routing protocol. In proposed combination model, available flow
model in network has been analyzed dynamically and it causes
reduce routing time. Simulation results in this method show that
with increase network nodes, latency and rate of packet lost
reduce in comparison with pervious methods. Thus with replace
packet model Instead of flow model, overflow calculation have
reduced and it can improve network performance.
Keywords: Routing protocol, Fluid flow, Packet model, rate
of packet lost, wireless sensor networks
1. Introduction
In this paper, traffic flow and discrete event models are
combined to route in AODV protocol of wireless sensor
networks. To do so, there is packet loss problem; to solve
this issue queuing method is used in the middle nodes [1].
To calculate the rate of packet loss, first it is essential to
convert packets to flow and subsequently using related
differential equations and parameters such as queue length,
bandwidth, etc., routing delay and packet loss rate in the
nodes can be calculated. Afterwards, by evaluating and
comparing obtained rates of the proposed method with
previous methods and increasing network scale as well, the
efficiency of the proposed method can be realized.
AODV protocol is a routing protocol in wireless sensor
networks which sends packets via adjacent nodes to
destination. This protocol is based on demand and provides
the routing information any time it is required. Hence, there
is no need to periodic refresh. This protocol selects the
minimum distance to support QoS and operates based on
DSDV Protocol algorithm. The protocol maintains
established routes until they are active; therefore it is
suitable for non-ring and large networks. When the location
of nodes and network topology are changed; AODV
Protocol can establish new routes quickly between nodes
using response packets of previous routes which cause
overhead increase in this protocol. This is because of
releasing packets from source node to other nodes; to reduce
this overhead different methods have been proposed. For
example in [1], using queue in nodes results in storing
packets and routing them in the next periods and also
reduces the time and routing restrictions. In [2], to reduce
routing packets a special algorithm is used. This algorithm
sends routing packets only for adjacent nodes that respond
to routing request during a particular time. Lack of
coordination in timing, causes slow routing and reduces
response time to the interactions. With distributed and
paralleled computational resources in discrete event, routing
processing rate can be increased [3]. In routing of flow
model networks, user is able to lead network traffic and
exchanges, similar to streams flowing, in contrary to single
package. The two models differ in foreground traffic of
174
packet orientation and background traffic of flow model.
Background traffic is less important from the standpoint of
accuracy and precision; but these two traffics are competing
for network resources [4]. The problem in flow model in
AODV protocol is integration with packet routing of
discrete events. In contrast with packet streams which use
discrete events to describe routing, flow model, routes the
network and traffic streams with a series of differential
equations and continuous variables. Flow models routing
based on discrete event is much accurate than packet model
in AODV protocol. Packet loss rate decreases as well. In [5],
a combination model of these two models is proposed and
passes the flow of packets through the virtual network.
Therefore, flow model events can be routed on packets. In
[6] a flow-based model has been proposed that uses a series
of ordinary differential equations (ODE) to describe the
behavior of stable AODV streams. These differential
equations can be solved numerical and by using complex
computation. In [7], model [6] is upgraded by improving
network topology information, a series of delay differential
equations and Runge-Kutta time interval algorithm. The
results show that this model has better accuracy and
precision run time for a large number of AODV flows in
compared to closed surface routers. In this reference, flow-
based traffic are combined with packet flows of discrete
event; for this purpose it is necessary to divide network into
two parts of packet and flow and all flows compete for
network resources. In flow network, network’s primary core
is global; and its statuses are determined by solving
differential equations. In packet network, transactions are
routed like discrete events. This combination occurs while
the packets are entering and network flow is being converted
to packet flows steadily. Additionally, this reference shows
the probability of delay, packet loss and exiting out of the
network based on the schedule. In [8], a similar approach
through implementation in MATLAB is presented that
solves the differential equations of processing packet events
which are passing through the flow network faster.
Since the traffic of flow and packet model in AODV
protocol are separate and the network structure cannot be
changed while routing, therefore, most of listed methods,
divided network into flow and packet parts prior to routing.
However, the proposed method in this paper merges packet
and flow models together instead of dividing the network.
Therefore, queue size dynamism and other details in flow
network during routing can be investigated. But since
packets flow only is available as surface traffic in the
network, so it causes limitation of sending packets in virtual
network. The flow model also can only route packet streams
from a node to another and is not able to specify packet loss
and delay.
In real time routing in AODV protocol, the user can send
real packet streams to any part of the virtual network.
Therefore, each router in any part of the virtual network
combines inputted fluid and packet streams and enqueues
them. Created dynamic queue is under control by a set of
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
differential equations. These equations are resolved using
Runge-Kutta fixed interval. Enqueued packet will be routed
as discrete events and sent according to queue mode. Thus
packet loss and delay probability can be calculated. Other
features and advantages of the proposed method include the
following items:
• Network is not divided between packet and flow
models; and flows and packets are combined
dynamically. Therefore the network traffic could be
transferred to all sections of the virtual network or
could have interaction with all the flows.
• Only in network queue, packet streams are converted
to fluid. This does not happen in any other parts of
the network. Whereas in [7], packet flows are
converted to fluid flows upon their arrival to
network. Thus, the proposed method can maintain
packet level accuracy with regard to changes in
packet.
• User can change network traffic between packet and
flow models dynamically. Therefore network
accuracy and precision are specifiable by time
limit. Also with increasing packet stream ratio in
combined model, traffic and detail could be routed
more in terms of computational time.
The rest of this article is expressed as it follows. First,
section 2 expresses the features of flow model. Section 3
describes how to convert packet and flow models.
Afterwards, in section 4 the accuracy, precision and
performance of the proposed method is evaluated. Finally, in
section 5, conclusion is presented and future functions are
introduced.
2. Flow model
The first flow model in a network was created with Active
Queue Management (AQM) routers [9]. This model used a
series of differential equations to route traffic behavior in
order to produce the network traffic with the aid of flow
classes. Each class contains ni homogeneous flow with the
same specification which pass the same route. The task of
these equations is the frame size control in every flow class,
queue state control, release control and reducing the risk of
loss and delay inside the network. Frame size in time t, for
each AODV flow in flow class i, is equal
dWi ( t ) 1 W (t )
dt = R ( t ) − i2 × λ i (t )
i (1)
Where Wi (t) is the frame size at the time t, Ri(t) is the
delay of going and coming back flow and λi (t) is the rate
of packet loss at time t. This equation shows AODV format
behavior changes in traffic avoidance stage, but does not
specify the size range of packet frame. Queue size l at time t
is:
dql (t )
dt = Λ l (t ) × (1 − pl (t )) − Cl (2)
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 175
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Where ql(t) is l queue length at time t, Cl is bandwidth of Where is entered flow rate i to queue l. However,
the link and ql(t) is packet loss probability. Λl(t) is arrival overall delay caused by packet loss equals:
rate of passing flow classes and is equal to:
ql (t) if l =si
Λ l (t ) = ∑ Ail (t ) i  Cl
i∈N l
(3) dl (t f ) = 
q (t )
dbi (l) (t−ab (l) )+ab (l) + Cl otherwise
l
Where Ai (t) is instantaneous arrival rate of flow class i and  i i i l (10)
Nl is set of passing flow classes through link l. In this
equation the queue length range that should be between 0 Where is flow class delay i in queue l at the time t
and maximum queue size ql is not applied either. The and bi(l) is the queue prior to queue l on the route of flow i.
network which uses random early detection (RED) Thus the loss rate for all of the packets is:
regulation for its queues, packet loss probability is based on
the average queue size and this amount can be calculated i
Ail (t)×pl (t) if l =si
rl (t f ) = r i ×(t−a )+Al (t)×p (t)
from the instantaneous queue size.
dxl (t ) ln(1− a )
 bi (l) bi (l) i l otherwise
ln(1− a ) (11)
= δ × xl (t ) − δ × ql ( t )
dt (4) i
Which r l (tf) is the loss rate for all the packets by flow I in
Where xl(t) is the average queue size, δ is movement step queue l. Since packet loss and queuing delays in the return
size and α is the used weight in calculation of Exponential flow path are inappreciable, and assuming that traffic is
Weighted Moving Average (EWMA). Therefore the only on the forward way; we will have:
i
probability of packet loss in AODV protocol is equal to: Ri ( t ) = d fi ( t − π i ) + π i
(12)
0 0≤ x< q min
 x−q min r ifi (t −π i )
q max − qmin × pmax q min ≤ x≤ q max λi (t ) =
 ni
(13)
p( x) = 
 x− qmax ×(1− p max ) + p max
max
q max ≤ x≤ 2q max Where is trip time, λ i (t) is packet loss rate in flow , πI
 q
1 otherwise
is one way path flow class delay and fi is the last queue
(5) that flow class has passed on going way.
Where qmin ,qmax and pmax are RED queue configuration The proposed model is only able to send AODV flows in
parameters in it; therefore the arrival rate of flow classes of i RED queues, but by changing equation (1), which controls
to the first queue si, equals: the size of sent frame, it is possible to use this model for
n W (t ) developing and modeling a wider flow class such as User
s
Ai i (t ) = iR (i t ) Datagram Protocol (UDP) and time limit processing easily
i (6) [10]. UDP Protocol, like TCP protocol, works in the session
As input rate in flow class i increases, input packet and layer, but unlike TCP is without connection. Therefore, it is
flows enter to the next queue instead of entering to middle faster, but it cannot control errors appropriately. Thus, its
nodes. Therefore, the arrival rate to the next queue equals: reliability is low. The main usage of UDP protocol is to send
g (l ) l
and receive data in high levels. So for a network that its
Ai i (t + a l ) = Di ( t ) traffic is produced via compact flows with fixed rate; this
(7)
model offers a natural solution. In [11], through calculating
g i (l ) periodic fixed point and a set of nonlinear equations a
Where Ai is entrance rate to the next queue; a l is link
solution has been proposed; here, the problem could be
release delay and gi (l) is the next node which flow i enters to solved directly and without any changes in the fluid model,
its l queue. Entrance rate to queue l has delay due to by shortening the RED queue. In this case, packet loss
queuing. This delay equals: probability equals to:
ql ( t )  (Λ (t )−C )
tf = t +  l l if queue is full AND Λl (t)>Cl
Cl  Λ (t )
(8) pl (t) =  l

0 otherwise
tf is queue creation delay in AODV protocol while flow is  (14)
entering at the time t and Cl is the bandwidth of link. Thus
if the arrival rate is more than the capacity of service, packet
loss rate would be equal to entrance rate. Otherwise, loss 3. The suggested model of converting flow
rate commensurate with flow arrival rate which are model to packet
currently competing for shared services, so we have:
Packet and fluid flows pass through the network and
Ail (t)×(1− pl (t)) if Λl (t )×(1− pl (t))≤Cl
l  compete for network resources. But only packets that are
Di (t f ) =  Al (t ) enqueued can be routed. Deciding whether to accept a
Λl (t)×Cl
i otherwise packet in queue depends on queue status at entrance time,
(9) instantaneous queue size and packet loss probability. Queue
176 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
status is controlled by a set of differential equations that was q~l = min{ Ql , max{ 0 , q~l + ∆ t i ( Λ l ( kδ )(1 − ~
p l ) − C l )}}
presented in the previous section. To calculate time interval
If the packet is lost with the probability of or queue is
of queues status change and flow class frame size, Runge-
Kutta fixed time interval method is used. full, arrived packet will be separated and next event
processed. Otherwise, packet length will be added to the
If δ is time interval and for each flow of which passes
instantaneous queue length; and average queue length and
through queue , in each time interval , is flow arrival packet loss probability will be re-calculated according to
rate, send rate, traffic delay, packet loss rate, RED method. Consequently, processing this packet with
traffic frame size, instantaneous queue scheduling and queuing delay is complete. Thus, flow
length, average queue length, packets
model is compatible with Runge-Kutta packet model using
arrival rate, packet loss probability, Sum of the these variables and queue mode can be specified at the
packets that entered to queue from the beginning, to beginning of each interval to update arrival of each packet.
calculate the number of packet flows entered into a network Also, the impact of packet flows on the fluid flows can be
queue, packets should be tracked until the last time interval obtained by solving fluid model equations 17 and 18.
in Runge-Kutta. In this case packets arrival rate equals:
4. Efficiency evaluation of the proposed
l N l ( kδ ) − N Pl (( k −1)δ ) method
AP ( kδ ) = P δ (15)
Simulation with time limit makes the possibility of
Packets as well as flows compete for queue space while interaction with physical world and coordination with real
entering. Thus, required queue length for packet arrival can time. Furthermore, it causes to direct traffic from router
be calculated by equation (2). Therefore queue length equals nodes to other routers and links in the network [2, 4]. The
to: problem is the time limit and events process guarantee
dql ( t ) before their deadlines. We perform and simulate the
= ξ l ( t ) × (1 − pl (t )) − Cl
dt (16) combination scheme of packet and flow models in PRIME
SSFNet test network. This network is special for routing
Where is entrance rate for both packet and fluid with time limit and most of its models are dependent on the
flows; is bandwidth of the link. So: RINSE simulator from UIUC [9]. Figure 1 shows the
ξl(t) = Λl(t) + Apl(t) (17) topology of this network that was used in [8] for the first
When the entrance rate is more than service capacity, the time. In the second experiment, the Dumbbell topology has
rate of packet loss is commensurate with the entrance rate been used which its topology is shown in Figure 2. These
packet and fluid flows which are currently competing for the operations have been conducted on SSFNet simulator for
shared service. Therefore, we have: 100 seconds on a machine with AMD Athlon64 CPU,
2.2GHz and 2GB of RAM.
 Ail ( t )×(1− pl (t )) if ξl (t )×(1− pl (t ))≤Cl
l  In the first experiment, the network consists of 12 nodes and
Di ( t f ) =  Al (t ) 11 links which all links delay is 10 milliseconds and their
 ξl ( t ) ×Cl
i otherwise
bandwidth is 100Mbps. According to the number of nodes,
(18)
there are 22 RED queues which their maximum size is
The problem in here is that packets which have arrived into
5MB. In packet routing trend, TCP Reno model is used
the queue between the Runge-Kutta time intervals are not
which its maximum frame size is 128. Also we suppose that
routable. To solve this problem, using three variables,
the interval size of flow model is constantly 1ms, applied
including instantaneous queue length ( ), average queue weight in EWMA calculation is 0.0004 and configuration
length ( ) and packet loss probability ( ), the changes are parameters of RED queue are qmin=100KB, qmax=4.5MB and
calculated. According to previous Runge-Kutta time interval pmax =0.1.
their primary values, respectively from left to right, equal: There are four flow classes in the test network. Class 0 and
q~l (t ) := ql ( kδ ) , ~
xl := xl (kδ ) , ~p := pl (kδ ) 1 are consisting of 10 flows, Class 2 of 20 flows and Class 3
If we assume packet events E1, E2, ..., Em, are currently of 40 AODV flows. Class 0, 1 and 2 start from time zero
entering the queue l and t1, t2, ... , Tm are these events time and last for total time of routing; but class 3 starts at time 30
intervals, So that t0 = 0 and and just lasts for 30 seconds. As we will see, there is a
competition between classes 2 and 3, and traffic will occur
; then the time
in connection between nodes 4 and 7 at the time of 30 to 60
between successive packet entrance events will be equal seconds.
with: Figure 3, only shows packet and flow routing results in a
Δti = ti - ti-1 number of required packets to store in the queue between
Where: i=1, 2… m nodes 4 and 7. Packet routing has many changes, but fluid
Since packets enter individually and flow enter continuously model has almost steady behavior; because the overload of
to the queue, so the queue length changes at each time mode changing has been decreased due to computational
interval of event processing. As a result, the first efficiency. Additionally, global queuing level by fluid model
instantaneous queue length during flow arrival equals: is higher than packet routing. Thus it is required to set flow
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 177
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
model more. In [7], a method has been proposed for this S1 C1
regulation.
To examine the accuracy and precision of combination
model, the flow model in classes 0, 1 and 3 are used; and in S2 C2
class 2 AODV flows are routed as a combination of packet
and fluid flow. In this test, packet flow ratio in class 2 is R1 R2
increased from 10% to 50% and finally to 100%. Figure 4 S3 C3
shows the total delay from source to destination in two
classes, namely, 0 and 2 with flow and combined models. It
could be seen, as the packet flow increases, queue length
and the total delay from source to destination increase as SN CN
well.
In the next test by using the Dumbbell topology which is Figure 2. Network topology of Dumbbell
shown in Figure 2, the computational efficiency of
combination model has been investigated. This topology
often used for analyzing AODV traffic control algorithms. It
has N server nodes as traffic sources on the left and N client
nodes as traffic collector on the right.
During the routing, both server and client nodes
simultaneously participate in M sessions and each node has
a queue with maximum size of M MB and connections
towards the routers with the bandwidth of (10×M) Mbps.
The bandwidth between two routers is (10 × M × N) Mbps
and maximum queue size of each router is (M × N). RED
queue parameters are set so that qmin is a hundredth of
maximum queue size and qmax is half of maximum queue.
Figure 5, shows the experiment results that the number of
server and client nodes are 5 and AODV simultaneous
packet flow ratio is increasing from 5 to 40. As the figure
shows, when the number of flows and nodes is the same,
virtually no time is consumed to complete the routing, but
by increasing the packet flows, routing time increases.

Class 3
Figure 3. Packet flow in Comparison with Fluid flow and
5 8
affect on queue size
Class 2

1 2 4 7 10 12

3 6 9 11
Class 0 Class1

Figure 1. Tentative topology of network with 4 categories of

flow

Figure 4. Average of Latency in different model of flow

routing
178
Figure 5. Comparison of Run time for different model of
network
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a combination routing model in AODV
protocol was introduced, that shows the combination and
converting discrete and continuous events via packet and
fluid flow interactions in each router. Also it has shown that
through solving differential equations in each router, flow
model is much faster than packet routing and by increasing
fluid flow in the system, little overhead is produced in
compared to AODV packet flows routing cost.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
ip networks”, ACM Transactions on Modeling and
Computer Simulation (TOMACS 2004), Vol 14. Issue
3: pp. 305-324, July 2004.
[8] J. Zhou, Z. Ji, M. Takai, and R. Bagrodia, “Integrating
hybrid network modeling to the physical world”, ACM
Transactions on Modeling and Computer Simulation
(TOMACS), MAYA, Vol 14. Issue (2): pp. 149-169,
April 2004.
[9] Y. Gu, Y. Liu, and D. Towsley. “On integrating fluid
models with packet simulation”. In Proceedings of
IEEE INFOCOM 2004, pp. 2856-2866, March 2004.
[10] M. Zukerman, T. D. Neame, and R. G. Addie.
“Internet traffic modeling and future technology
implications”. In Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM
2003, pp. 587-596 ,April 2003,.
[11] D. M. Nicol, M. Liljenstam, and J. Liu, “Advanced
concepts in large-scale network simulation”. In
Proceedings of the 2005 Winter Simulation Conference
(WSC’05), pp. 153-166, 2005.

References
[1] E. Kharati, “A Survey and optimization of routing
protocol for Wireless Ad-hoc Networks”, Master
Thesis Project, Islamic Azad University of Arak, pp.
98-119, 2004.
[2] E. Kharati and Ali Movaghar, “An object-oriented
routing structure in J-Sim environment for Wireless
Sensor Networks”, In 13th International CSI Computer
Conference, March 2008.
[3] E. Kharati and Ali Movaghar, “Optimization of S-Mac
routing protocol to reduce energy consumption for
Wireless Sensor Networks”. In 13th International CSI
Computer Conference, March 2008.
[4] E. Kharati, “Create a Debugger in simulation for
DiSenS Sensor Networks”. In First Annual Symposium
of Computer Engineering, Electronic Engineering, IT
Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Hamedan,
March 2008.
[5] C. Kiddle, R. Simmonds, C. Williamson, and B.
Unger, “Hybrid packet/fluid flow network simulation”,
In Proceedings of the 17th Workshop on Parallel and
Distributed Simulation (PADS’03), pp. 143–152, June
2003.
[6] V. Misra, W-B. Gong, and D. Towsley, “Fluid based
analysis of a network of AQM routers supporting TCP
flows with an application to RED”, In Proceedings of
the 2000 ACM SIGCOMM Conference, pp. 151–160,
August 2000.
[7] Y. Liu, F.L. Presti, V. Misra, D.F. Towsley, and Y. Gu,
“Scalable fluid models and simulations for large-scale
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 179
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Evaluation and improvement of resource retrieving

method, using reinforcement learning in Grid
Network
Erfan Shams1, Abolfazl Toroghi Haghighat2 and Ehsan Ghamari3
1
Islamic Azad University Qazvin Branch, School of Computer Engineering,
Qazvin, Iran
Eshams1364@yahoo.com
2
Islamic Azad University Qazvin Branch, School of Computer Engineering,
Qazvin, Iran
at_haghighat@yahoo.com
3
Islamic Azad University Qazvin Branch, School of Computer Engineering,
Qazvin, Iran
ehsan.ghamari@gmail.com

Abstract: Network calculations make virtual organization able
to share distributed resources in geographical view, to achieve
common goals this method lacks a place, a central controlling
and trusted relation generally , in order to solve the gride
problem. It is necessary to find the most suitable resource in the
shortest time. This purpose as applied in part of solving process.
All devoted approaches of information retrieving try to serve all
requests optimally in the shortest time, but they are unable to
match with or be flexible to grid network changes. Therefore,
the flexibility in retrieving and resource allocation are
necessary. In the presented paper, a few part is inserted into
protocol in order to manage decision controlling based on
reinforcement learning, that using learning patterns in grid
network, space recognition , factor recognition, a number of
factors and obtaining resource information in grid network ,this
part performs retrieving operation and resources allocation
more optical than other methods.
Keywords: resource retrieving, grid , reinforcement learning.
1. Introduction
Network computation is a computation model that huge
computations can be processed through them, using
computation power of many netted computes in addition to
keeping them as a unique virtual computer in view. In other
words, rid is able to solve enormous computational
problems, using computational power of several separated
computers which are mostly connected through network
(internet) [1, 3]. One of the most important current issues of
computer network is the distributed network with grid
architecture. Regarding of computer applications
development as well as hardware rapid, advancement ,
creating integrated systems ( from free heterogeneous
resources in order to multi purpose process along with
supporting of maximum- efficiency resources).
As many as some of the investigate and computational
application these networks are for bottleneck problem
solving and in order to provide users dedicating optimal
resources to execute these processes is significant issue in
the field of distributed networks with grid architecture.
In this paper, we will consider a part, called decision
controlling management , based on reinforcement learning
in resource management unit in grids, which makes us
know better about the resources by passing of time and also
makes the resources map onto the request optimally and
rapidly.
We will utilize reinforcement learning since this method
matches grid network. Reinforcement learning is the online
learning and also is applied in environment which is
reportedly visible .this method is independent of long
information mass for instructor (such as neural network and
genetic – based method). But in our framework, regarding
rewards which are achieved in the of path, we obtain
recognition or generally rewards based on traversed steps
repeating this approach. Our resource (node) recognition
will be stronger; therefore we can understand the network
better.
Following, we introduce a new approach which is proved by
comparison and testing, to show important and efficiency of
our work to the previous studies.
2. Introduction of information retrieving in
grid network
Serving request is performed in two manners: 1.real-time
and 2. Non-real-time method. First, serving is rapidly
performed to set out appropriate resources as soon as
receiving request from broker resource which has mentioned
conditions, send a message to broker, then broker selects the
best resource based on different factors such as distance and
send the request to the resource for serving. Obviously, this
method makes the network traffic heavier. In second,
information of resources is available at request reporting
180
time the discovered resources are saved by brokers in
resource management part. Optimal resources are searched
and selected as soon as request report and then the request
will be sent for selected resources. According to this way,
network traffic is significantly decreased and therefore the
requests are responded more rapid.
2.1 Breadth First Search (BFS)
BFS is one the simplest and most functional searching
method with easy process. In this method, every node what
has request, sends the request to all its neighbors. The node
also searches its local information in order to find perfect
answer. These mentioned steps will be done for every node
which receives request in the case of finding necessary
resourced , a message asks the resources through the nearest
node which has replied to its request [8]. Making heavy
traffic is the disadvantage of this method. Assume that, we
have ‘n’ given nodes so that every node has m neighbors. In
the first step, the broker sends a message to or responding m
nodes .after passing of some steps, several messages are
sent. This phenomenon makes the network occupied.
2.2 Random Breadth First Search (RBFS)
This method is similar to the previous one with this
different that corresponding node doesn’t send the message
for all its neighbors in every step, but it sends the inquiry to
the part of neighbors also this method has some
disadvantages and advantages decreasing network traffic
and rapid operating of the search are advantages. Since
nodes haven’t any information about neighbors that the
message is sent for them. Therefore there is no wasting time
to verify and decide in other words. Every node selects
randomly some of the neighbors and sends the message to
them. Neighbor random selection is the significant
disadvantage of this method because the dead parts of
network which are weakly connected to the network, almost
never are made inquiry.
2.3 Random Breadth First Search with RND-Step
actually , this is improvement of previous ones in this
method, we start the search, using ‘n’ brokers instead of
only one broker(‘n’ is depended on given steps) and then
every node of n node searches the releasing resources.
Disadvantages of this method are like RBFS deliberations.
In other words, because of being random performance in
searching step, optimal results will not e obtained. On other
hand, searching through couple of paths (and linear
increasing of number of neighbors of all nodes) makes the
efficiency higher.
2.4 Searching with keeping information
In spite of 3 mentioned methods, this method responds the
request in non-real status. There are some methods which
consider the status of neighbors and responses to the
requests, including directed breadth first search (DBFS) and
hashing method the efficiency of those methods are higher
then random based methods. In detail, these methods
decrease significantly network traffic and mount of inquires
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
and therefore are able to rapidly the required resources to in-
time responses of requests [10, 12].the notable difference of
our presented method with mentioned ones are applying of
reinforcement learning which makes suitable recognition by
passing of time in to allocate optimally resources.
3. Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning [13] generally is the art of finding
strategy to improve the status to achieve the certain goal,
regarding of environment recognition, relation results
behind environment and benefits-damages of performing
several task simply, Reinforcement learning is the learning
through environmental relation to achieve specified goal
decision maker and the person who learn, are called
“Agents”. The thing what agent make relation with it,
named environment (in fact, every foreign thing of agent is
involved). This relation continuously, is occurred in this
manner that, agent makes decision and then operates an
action accordingly. After that, the environment will respond
with granting reward. Lastly, the agent will be transferred to
new state.
In detail, agent and environment have relation sequencly
through time step t=1,2,3,…. . in every step, for example in
step t, the agent receives a new state from environment. In
this paper, we suppose that the whole space of grid is s. st Є
S where S is the possible state set of allocating environment
resources. at is the possible task set of agent whom does
them in state st. in the new step, environment grants reward
R in time t + 1, so that r(t+1) Є R. based on its previous
task, the agent will be transferred to the new state S(t+1). To
mathematics, a policy is a mapping. For instance
Π :S× A 
→[0,1] is a policy. It means, a number in
[0,1] is appropriated for any pair (action, state) like (s,a)
which are belong to Π : S × A . This is shown by
Π ( S × A) as follow:
Pr{at = a}{st = s} = Π (s, a )
The set of states, actions and sequenced rewards is
considered in reinforcement learning as follow:
Figure 1. The set of stats, actions and sequenced rewards.
The value of s is a function of state value:
Calculating of real value of the whole state is known as
policy evaluation providing of following of policy Π and it
is necessary for perfect learning the value which can be
considered for action-state (s,a) is:
Example: when we are going to learn reinforcement
learning system appropriated for the separated and best
resources to serve requests. According to the mount and
time of processing to allocate resources, we initial this unit
+1 : appropriate, -1 “ inappropriate , 0: middle. It is notable
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 181
that rewarding should be granted so that agent van satisfy
us, maximizing reward and also it shouldn’t learn, how to
satisfy o instance, in example 2 , score +1 ill be granted
when the best resource is selected for processing.
4. Proposed approach to improve retrieving
resources
in this paper, it is considered that, firstly there is no exact
information based on grid network environment (about
entity nodes) but generally, allocating resources will be
more optimal, using patterns learning in grid network and
recognition spaces. Agent st and number of agent a as well
as gaining resource information in grid network. There are
3 general decisional states to allocate resources for agent
including:
• The resource has suitable processing power and
execution memory as well as suitable bandwidth.
• The resource has not suitable processing power and
execution memory but there is suitable bandwidth( this is
notable that 2 components of resources are not
appropriately recognized to process information for
making network process rate stable and also it is not
recorded at RLDU).
• The resource owns suitable power of processor and
executable memory but the appropriated bandwidth is
not suitable (it is notable that the resource is recognized
proper for small processing and the resource allocation
unit appropriates the small processing for this unit) thus
s or state space is S={Good Node, Bad Node, Normal
Node } and selection or tasks apace is : A={Specialty
Process For This Process, Not Specialty Process} . To
optimize resource allocation in a grid network, select
resource issue has effect on efficiency of thought of
network and resource managing select resource has 3
above general stats to select the best resource in state
space s. in reinforcement learning, the agent goal is
considered in the form of reward signal which is
percepred from the environment. In every time step,this
reward is considered as simple number rt Є R. In simple
statement, is that the agent goal is maximizing of total of
these rewards. Reward maximizing should be done in
long term. this doesn’t mean maximizing reward in
every step, to use this method in resource allocation, it is
supposed that a unit is added to the network layout in
grid network and rewards/punishes to resource allocation
unit based on 2 factors as follow: 1- Appropriated
processing time for resource 2- Recorded information of
resource in workload management. Fig.2 sows the
implementation of 2 new proposed added units to the
grid layout network.
In this fig, two different unit are added to the grid protocol
that these two units make decision for resource allocation to
process.
Reinforcement learning decision unit (RLDU):
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Figure 2. Adding reward and punishment units to the grid
model
This term is modeled reinforcement learning core based on
marcov model and dynamic programming which
dynamically make relation with 3 other layers (scheduler-
broker- Gram). This unit decides +according to the two time
factors which are for a processing in previous mapping and
recorded information in above unit such as processing rate
and data transfer bandwidth to appropriate this resource.
RLDU announces proposed resources (the output of RLDU)
to the grid resource manager-Gram. Reword/punishment
(RE/PE) unit grants score +1 t suitable resource allocation
for the processing and otherwise grants score -1 to RLDU.
4.1 Resource classification
Information is saved on RLDUU based on every mapping
for resource, but information included processor power,
bandwidth, mount of score based on reward/punishment unit
and 3 above condition will be recorded in RLDU before
allocating resource the same as in search time of
information and resource comparison. If there is no suitable
resource for processing the request will be queued until
finding suitable resource .the main reason of this strategy is
to optimize and profit resource allocation , since if the
request is delivered to the appropriate resource, it will not
probably be completed on certain time. The resource
allocation operation and planning must be repeated this is a
disadvantage.
In this method, this score will be granted to the resources
nor request, hence the core will not be granted to the
resources of RLDU, until performing resource allocation
and request planning we can utilize a selection function for
choosing a batch of resources to refer to the resources in
order to avoid increasing information volume in RLDU. For
example, we separate 20 resources which are matched the
request from bank and then we start searching for finding
optimal resource until the search time is decreased. Then
resource will be classified in 3 batches based on
classification space defined above, by passing of few times
that the information is collected over the network. Dynamic
property of grid is notable, since the resource of every
system gets off inadvertently.
In this case, the corresponding node must e deleted from
classification, the score -2 will be granted by RE/PE unit,
because of non-responding of RLDU. This process makes
the resource delete however the information of resources
182
will be updated permanently by broker, since if the deleted
resource comes back to the network, it will be classified.
The RE/PE unit grants score -2 whenever resource
allocation and planning are completed, as well as the
request is sent to the resource. But the corresponding
resource will be deleted from network before delivering the
request.
5. Experimental results and valuations
The simulation results show that proposed approach is
matched with distributed network along with grid
architecture and also efficiency stable.
As compare with other methods of searching and allocation,
out approach has high efficiency and optimality. In addition
to that, because of using intelligent factor which make
relation with other units, proposed approach is matched
with grid dynamic heterogeneous network. Using limitation-
maker search function, we are able to decrease search rate of
recorder information in RLDU. In order to perform this
decreasing, we can consider a search strategy applying
different method in order to select resource. We can
consider optimality of search time and selects resource
simultaneously.
In Figure 3 shows a number of search methods in search
space, using proposed reinforcement learning which is
presented in model and also compared with others.
Figure 3. Optimization of resource allocation based on
reinforcement learning.
As shown, search time as compared with used methods is
decreased. This improvement is evaluated in view of time
and selecting optimal resource for request. In fig 4, search
methods are compared with proposed approach in
distributed grid network .as result, my work is optimal in
view of search time and cost. It means we can optimize the
result about 15% which are significant in time and cost.
Figure 4. Compartment of search method with presented
approach
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
6. Conclusion
In this paper, we try to propose an approach to retrieve
resource and verify its efficiency in order to evaluate
resource retrieving methods in grid network. Generally we
come to conclusion that:
• The efficiency of presented work will be more optimal by
passing of time and resource recognition.
• In the case of changing network significantly and high
importing and exporting of network, the efficiency of our
work will be decreased.
In future work, we are going to improve the efficiency of our
work and presenting some search methods for resource in
network. This work uses genetic algorithm and
reinforcement learning at the same time.
References
[1] B. Jacob, L. Ferreira, N. Bieberstein, C. Glizean, J.
Girars, R. Strachowski, and S. Yu, Enabling,
Applications for Grid Computing with Globus, IBM
Red Book Series, 3P, 2003.
[2] I. Foster, C. Kesselman, and S. Tuecke, ”The Anatomy
of Grid, Enabling Scalable Vitrual Organizations”,
International Journal of High Performance Computing
Applications, XXX (3), pp. 200-222, 2001.
[3] A. Abbas, “Grid Computing, A Practical Guide to
Technology and Applications”, Charles Rivar Media,
2004.
[4] M. D. Dikaiakos,” Grid benchmarking: vision,
challenges, and current status”, Concurrency and
Computation: Practice & Experience, 19 (1), pp. 89-
105, Jan 2007.
[5] ”How does the Grid work?”, Available:
http://gridcafe.web.cern.ch/gridcafe/openday/How-
works.html.
[6] R. Buyya, S. Venugopal, “A Gentle Introduction to Grid
Computing and Technologies”, CSI Communications,
Computer, Science of India,July 2005.
[7] “what is the difference between the internet, the web
and he Grid?”, Available: http://gridcafe.web.cern.ch/
gridcafe/openday/web-grid.html.
[8] “Job life-cycle”, Available: http://gridcafe.web.cern.ch/
gridcafe/openday/New-JobCycle.html.
[9] David Johnson, “Desktop Grids”, Entropia.
[10] Rajkumar Buyya, “Grid Technologies and Resource
Management Systems”, A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy, School of Computer Science and
Software Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia, April,12, 2002.
[11] “Sun Powers the Grid, An Overview of Grid
Computing”, Sun Microsystems, 2001.
[12] I. Foster, “What is the Grid? A Three Point Checklist”,
Argonne National Laboratory & University of Chicago,
July 20, 2002.
[13] "Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction", Richard
S.Sutton and Andrew G.Barto, Cambridge, MA, 1998,
MIT Press.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 183
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Node Realization: Proposed techniques of random

walk, statistical and clustering
A.Kumar1, P.Chakrabarti2 and P.Saini3
1
Dept. of Comp. Sci. & Engg., Sir Padampat Singhania University,
Udaipur-313601,Rajasthan, India
1
arunkumarsai@gmail.com
2
Dept. of Comp. Sci. & Engg., Sir Padampat Singhania University,
Udaipur-313601,Rajasthan, India
2
prasun9999@rediffmail.com
3
Dept. of Comp. Sci. & Engg., Sir Padampat Singhania University,
Udaipur-313601,Rajasthan, India
3
poonam.saini9@gmail.com

• There is a starting point.

Abstract: The paper deals with positional node detection on the
basis of random walk motion. The concept of curve fitting has
been applied for random walk observation in n-dimension. The
paper also points out the research issues of node inspection
using statistical approaches. Nodal communication strategies in
cluster based network structures have also been studied. The
related graphical representation has been cited with proper
justification.
Keyword:Node, Random walk, curve fitting, statistical
approaches, cluster
1. Introduction
The random walk model concept dates back to the irregular
motion of individual pollen grains experimented by Robert
Brown (1828), [1],[2],[3] and now it is called Brownian
Motion. Brownian Motion in two dimensions
Brownian motion, in some systems can also be described as
noise, and is a continuous motion of small particles. The
striking features of this concept are:
• The motion is very irregular, composed of
translations and rotations, and the trajectory of the
motion appears to have no tangent.
• Two particles appear to move independently, even
when they approach one another, within a distance
less than their diameter.
• The smaller is the particle; the more active is the
motion.
• The composition and density of the particles have no
effect.
• The less viscous is the fluid; the more active is the
motion.
• The higher is the temperature; the more active is the
motion.
• The motion never ceases.
In a simple random walk model for node moving in a
mobile adhoc network, the following assumptions are
considered -
• The distance from one point in the path to the next
is constant
• The direction from one point in the path to the next
is chosen at random, and no direction is more
probable than another.
Consider a node moving on an infinite, one dimensional
uniform line .Let the node start its journey at the origin (
x=0) and then it moves a small distance δ either left or right
in a short time τ . The motion is completely random and the
probabilities of moving both left and right is 1/2 .The can be
either at left or right of the origin and the distance is as
assumed earlier i.e. δ. The next time step the node will be at
a position 2δ to the left or right of the origin with
probability of 1/4 each or even the node can return to its
original position.On assuming the above behavior of the
node, the probability that the node will be at a distance mδto
the right direction of the origin or to the left direction of the
origin after taking n time steps and can be represented as a
binomial distribution with mean 0 and variance n. The
mean location for one dimension is zero and the mean
squared displacement is equal to 2Dt.Therefore we conclude
that when direction bias is missing,there is no overall
movement in any direction. The graphical representations
of Random Walk Motion in n-dimension[4]i.e. for 1D, 2D
and 3D have been shown in figures 1, 2, 3.
Figure 1. Random Walk Motion in 1D
184 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Here , and are the coefficients and x and y are the
coordinate values for the mobile node,and e is the error
value.
(5)
Taking differentiation of the above equation, we get
(6)
(7)
(8)
Rearranging the above equations, we get,
(9)
(10)
(11)
In general we can write:
(12)
Figure 2. Random Walk Motion in 2D (13)
Here refers to the standard error of the estimate, y/x
indicates that the error is for predicted value of y
corresponding to the value of x. The Figure1 shows the
quadratic equation fitting curve for a data for the nodes , for
a least square parabola. In figure 4, we observe that the
nodes are scattered throughout the network, but least square
method as shown in figure 5 for a line will not fit the data
plotted. We, then use the least square parabola as shown in
figure 6, to fit the data about the nodes scattered in a
network.

Figure 3. Random Walk Motion in 3D

2. Proposed Node Realization using Curve
Fitting
Since mobile nodes are spread throughout the network, and Figure 4. Data points plotted and failure of the least
every node will have an independent coordinate position, a Square fit line to cover all the points.
mathematical procedure for finding the best fitting curve to
a given set of points is by minimizing the sum of the squares
of the offset points from the curve. We need to derive an
approximate function that fits the data.
It is to use the curve that minimizes the discrepancy between
the data points and the curve. Therefore, let us first quantify
the discrepancy. Therefore we will fit a straight line to a set
of paired observations .
The mathematical expression of the straight line is Figure 5. Least square parabola
(1)
where, and are intercept and slope of the line; here,
e refers to error between model and observation, which is
represented as:
(2)
The best fit line through the data would minimize the sum
of the residual errors for all the data.
(3)
Since it is not necessary that the nodes may fit in a straight
line, therefore the nodes by default are scattered throughout
the network.
If we extend the least square procedure to fit the higher
order polynomial, it is called polynomial regression, e.g. 2nd Figure 6. Parabola covering all the points scattered
order polynomial or quadratic.
+e (4)
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 185
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
3. Statistical Relation Based Node Sensation
3.1 Quadrant Based Classification

We consider the nodal positions respective to the timing

instants t1, t2, ……tn as (x1, y1), (x2, y2),……, (xn, yn)
respectively. We propose a technique of central point
selection and then realizing the existence of nodes in virtual
Now let us consider the case when there is only one element
quadrants. The density of quadrants is estimated and the i.e. 1*1.In this particular case, if we want to communicate
most one is selected as the area of observation. between the farthest nodes, then there will be only one node
in between the source and the destination which can be
Issue 1: If the nodes are more or less equally distributed in further visualized as follows:
all the quadrants, in that case the origin(0,0) will be the
center and based on that an imaginary circle will be drawn
whose radius r will be equal to

3.2. Relation Based Classification

If we denote it by using the function f(x), then the value of
Issue 2: Node trace can be facilitated, if there exists any f(x)will be 1.f(x) =1,the intermediate node is II.
relation between co-ordinates of the nodes[5]. Now, let us consider the case 2*2 matrix, the value here will
bef(x)=1+2=3; The intermediate nodes are 1(2,3),2(4,3).
Justification:We assume that the nodes N1(x1, y1), N2(x2,
y2),……,Nn(xn, yn) are the observed nodes such
That for each node yi=cxi, (1≤i≤n) and c is constant.
The representation is shown in table 1 which is as follows:

Table 1: Nodes and respective co-ordinate representation

Nodes xi yi =c xi For the case for the 3*3 matrix, the value of the function
N1 x1 y1 =c x1 f(x)=1+2+2=5;
N2 x2 y2 =c x2
….. …… …………
Nn xn yn =c xn

c x1).( c x2)………… (cxn) = cn

1/n
Therefore, (cn 1/n
=c( 1/n

Therefore, geometric mean of y co-ordinates is equal to the

product of the constant and geometric mean of x co-
ordinates.
4. Node Realization in Cluster Networks
This section mainly focuses on the nodal communication
between the farthest node in a N*N structure.Let us assume
each cluster to be consisting of 16 nodes and then try to
communicate between the source and the destination
node.The point to be noted here is that to establish the
communication link between the adjacent elements or units
of the cluster we have to have the communication in just
reverse order in the two adjacent elements.The order of the
communication is
The condition can be visually imagined as follows:
Similarly for the 4*4 matrix, we can get the value of
f(x)=1+2+2+2=7.
Here, in this case, we were having only 4 elements in a
ring.Suppose we have 8 elements in the ring, in that case,we
have to compute the number of nodes required to
communicate or to establish the connection between the
farthest nodes.
Justification:Let us consider the case of 1*1 matrix to
communicate between the farthest nodes, we need 3 nodes,
i.e. f(x)=3.In case of 2*2 matrix, to communicate between
the farthest nodes, we need 7 nodes, i.e. f(x)=3+4;In case of
3*3 matrix to communicate between the farthest nodes, we
need 7 nodes, i.e. f(x)=3+4+4;In case of 4*4 matrix, to
communicate between the farthest nodes, we need 7 nodes,
i.e. f(x)=3+4+4+4;In case of 16 elements in a ring, we can
proceed as follows:let us consider the case of 1*1 matrix to
communicate between the farthest nodes, we need 3 nodes,
i.e, f(x)=7.In case of 2*2 matrix to communicate between
the farthest nodes, we need 7 nodes, i.e. f(x)=7+8;In case of
3*3 matrix to communicate between the farthest nodes, we
186 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
need 7 nodes, i.e, f(x)=7+8+8;In case of 4*4 matrix, to [4] A.Kumar ,P.Chakrabarti , P.Saini , “Approach towards
communicate between the farthest nodes, we need 7 nodes, analyzing motion of mobile nodes- A survey and
i.e. f(x)=7+8+8+8;Now the total number of nodes can be graphical representation” published in International
derived by the general formula as (N/2-1)+(M-1)*(N/2), Journal of Computer Science and Information
where N is the number of nodes present in the unit or Security, IJCSIS , USA , Vol 8 No 1 , 2010, pp250-
element and M is the dimension of the square matrix.The 253
data can be represented in the tabular form as shown in [5] P.K.Giri ,J.Banerjee , Introduction to Statistics,
table 2. Academic Publishers , 2001
Table 2:Number of Nodes Corresponding to the matrix
No. of 1*1 2*2 3*3 4*4
nodes
4 1 3 5 7
8 3 7 11 15
16 7 15 23 31

The Graphical representation of nodal communication in

Cluster is shown in figure 7 where, the x-axis represents the
M*M matrix where M varies from 1 to 3.The y-axis
represents the number of optimum communication nodes
required in the establishing the path between the source
node and the farthest node. The number of nodes per
element is indicated by the 3colors.

Figure 7. Graphical representation of nodal communication

in
Cluster

5. Conclusion
The paper deals with random walk based node sensation. It
has been shown how based on dimension random walk
representation is varied. The paper also points out proposed
schemes of node realization on the basis of curve fitting and
statistical based approaches. Nodal communication between
the farthest nodes in a cluster based network structure has
also been studied with relevant graphical representation.
References
[1] Edward A. Coding, Michael J. Plank and Simon
Benhamou, “ Random walk models in biology”
published[online] in Journal of The Royal Society
Interface, 15 April, 2008.
[2] M. I. MohdSaad, Z. A. Zukarnain, “ Performance
Analysis of Random-Based Mobility Models in
MANET Routing Protocol” published in European
Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 32 No 4(2009), pp
444-454.
[3] Christian Bettstetter, “Mobility modeling in wireless
networks: categorization smooth movement and border
effects” published in ACM SIGMOBILE mobile
computing and Communication review 2001.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 187
Adoption OF Business Continuity Planning In IT
Services Case Study: MyLinE
Parvaneh Sarshar1 and Mohd Zaidi Abd Rozan2
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Computer Science and Information System,
1
sparvaneh2@live.utm.my, 2mdzaidi@utm.my
Abstract: The importance of having information technology
(IT) in every single part of any organization is undeniable,
however the systems integrated with it may face some threats,
hazards and risks. One of the most suitable methods to prevent
or recover from risks is Business Continuity Planning. BCP first
was introduced in IT department but since IT has become wide
spread, it has now been applied beyond IT sector. The case study
(MyLinE) chosen by the researcher was because BCP is not
utilized in their organization and was not capable of mitigating
or even identifying existing vulnerabilities and threats, therefore
this research was conducted to investigate the threats that are
faced by MyLinE, the vulnerabilities that are exploited by the
threats and significantly the impact of the incidents that may be
caused by these factors. With adoption of BCP in MyLinE, the
level of threats and vulnerabilities were assessed, mitigation
strategies were delivered to help MyLinE reduce the risk level.
On the other hand, the Business Impact Analysis (BIA) which
had been conducted, illustrated the importance of mitigation
level based on the impact of each incident on the stakeholders.
Finally this paper has been developed to document the
achievement of risk assessment and BIA in MyLinE and the
researcher intend to reach to a comprehensive plan that can be
applied for all IT services.
Keywords: Business Continuity Planning, risk assessment,
BIA, IT services
1. Introduction
IT services have been facing unpleasant incidents or
disasters from the moment of birth and there have been
always lots of attempts to overcome these incidents. They
are two possibilities of incidents; premises-based incidents
such as power outage, fire, flood or service-based incidents
such as email, venue facilities, and network services and so
on. Specialists have always been trying to defeat these
threats to protect IT services, therefore great deals of
solutions have been continuously provided.
One of the most powerful remedies used to overcome and
recover from the likely risks and their impacts on the
business before, during and after an incident or a disaster is
Business Continuity Planning (BCP), to be studied in this
research. Business Continuity Planning is a very essential
tool used in many businesses and the need of this plan in all
the organizations especially for their IT services is deniable.
Since ten years ago, some new concepts such as Computer
Based Training, Computer Based Assessment have been
introduced to the IT world especially among academic
organizations. Today, those terms are represented by “e-
learning”. Factors like flexibility, greater collaboration,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
convenience, portable, lower cost and higher retention, are
the benefits of e-learning that caused it to be very popular all
over the world.
There are many types of risk and challenge associated with
e-learning like hack, fire, Internet infrastructure outage,
Communication infrastructure outage and so on. The case
study that is to be examined is an Online Resource for
Learning in English called MyLinE. Since MyLinE as an IT
service and a sort of e-learning, probable to be confronted
with any of the risks that have been mentioned and there is
no suitable plan or strategy in the current service, we need
some organized procedures that enable the organization to
recover from a disaster which may cause interruption to the
business especially on to its critical parts. Since MyLinE is
being used by 20 universities and institutes all over
Malaysia, interruption in the system are not a wise option to
confront.
2. Literature Review
British Standards (BSI) [1] defines BCP as a methodology
used to develop a plan to maintain or store business
operations in the required time scales following interruption
to, or failure of, critical business processes. In addition, in
[2] it is stated that BCP is a documented collection of
procedures and information that is developed, compiled and
maintained in readiness for use in an incident to enable an
organization to continue to deliver its critical activities at an
acceptable predefined level.
Same as any other plans, BCP has objectives and goals
while being adopted by any organizations, this includes:
• avoiding financial ruin
• maintaining market share
• minimizing negative publicity
• identifying hazards that may affect critical functions or
activities
Based on [9] the overall goals of a business continuity plan
are to ensure customers, trading partners and regulatory
agencies maintain confidence in the business and to resume
business as usual for employees as soon as possible.
Fulmer [4] says that the most common reasons for
neglecting BCP are:
• lack of time and resources
• lack of top management support
• lack of money
188
• too many causes of disasters to plan for, effectively
• little awareness of potential hazards
• lack of knowledge in developing a plan
• Lack of sense of urgency
Although in today's environment, where technology reaches
into every corner of almost every organization, business
continuity planning has become imperative, unfortunately, it
falls very low on a long list of IT priorities. [5]
The difference between BCP and BCM (Business Continuity
Management) refers to Business Continuity Planning (a
process) or Business Continuity Plan (the documentation)
and before an organization can develop BCM program, it
should have BCP in advance. BCM is inclusive of BCP
activities, as well as, the on-going activities. [14] Figure 1
shows this difference.
Figure 1. Differences between BCP and BCM [14]
Since understanding the differences between different
contingency plans such as BCP, DRP (Disaster Recovery
Planning) or IRP (incident Recovery Planning) has been a
controversial issue, figure 2 from [13] can show these
differences and contingency planning steps so it can be
understood by everyone.
Figure 2. Contingency Plan steps
3. Framework
A wide variety of frameworks and models are available for
business continuity planning (BCP) [10], [11], [7] & [8].
Except for the project initiation stage in BCP development,
these models are not exactly the same in the other stages.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
[6]. For this research, since there is not a specific framework
that can suit all the organizations, and the BCP frameworks
vary based on the objectives;
• the type of the products and services that the
company is delivering,
• the size of the organization,
Therefore the researcher decided to come up with a
combination of some frameworks that can be best for
MyLinE which is an IT service.
This modified framework is a combination and modification
of three different frameworks which have been retrieved
from literature review. This framework has five phases and
is cyclic, which means BCP never ends and this process
continues and is being updated.
Figure 3. Modified framework
3.1 Phase One: Project foundation
Project foundation or project initiation is the very first phase
of developing a Business Continuity Plan. The most
important factor for starting a Business Continuity Plan is
having the senior management support. To kick off the
project, these steps are critical [12];
• establish a business continuity working group and
give it specific objectives,
• empower the group by including key business and
technical stakeholders who have the decision-
making authority to make it happen.
This phase of the framework has been derived from
MAMPU (Malaysia Administrative Modernization and
Management Planning Unit) standard for BCM [15]. It
consists of five sub-steps:
3.1.1. Purpose
In the very first step of each plan or project, the purpose of
the project should be mentioned.
3.1.2. Objectives
In this sub-process the objectives of developing a BCP and
Implementation of a suitable framework must be covered.
3.1.3. Scope
The scope of the plan should be defined.
3.1.4. BCM team structure
The members of the plan who are going to be engaged
before, during and after a disaster should be identified.
3.1.5. Roles and responsibilities
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 189
All the responsibilities should be defined well and assigned
to the responding employees. Training may be applied when
needed.
3.2 Phase Two: Business Assessment
This phase has been retrieved from British Standard [16]
and it consists of two very prominent sub-processes:
3.2.1. Risk Assessment
Risk Assessment is an evaluation of the exposures present in
an organization’s external and internal environment. It
identifies whether or not the facility housing the
organization is susceptible to floods, hurricanes, tornadoes,
hack, sabotage, etc. It then documents what mitigating steps
have been taken to address these threats [3].
Based on [16], Risk assessment consists of risk analysis and
risk evaluation.
• Risk analysis should include:
1. identification of assets
2. valuation of the identified assets
3. identification of significant threats and
vulnerabilities for the identified assets
4. assessment of the likelihood of the threats and
vulnerabilities to occur
• Risk evaluation includes:
1. calculation and evaluation of risks based on a
predefined risk scale
3.2.2. Business Impact Analysis
A BIA is an assessment of an organization’s business
functions to develop an understanding of their criticality,
recovery time objectives, and resource needs. By going
through a Business Impact Analysis, the organization will
gain a common understanding of functions that are critical
to its survival. It will enable the client to achieve more
effective planning at a lower cost by focusing on essential
corporate functions [3].
The business impact analysis is an evaluation of the effects
of extended outages on the ability to continue mission
critical business functions. An analysis is business impact
driven, and is both qualitative and quantitative. A business
impact analysis should measure impacts on business
elements including, financial, operations, customers,
regulatory compliance and long-term obligations [17].
3.3 Phase Three: Strategy selection
This phase is about selecting a strategy to mitigate the risks
and vulnerabilities. One of the most important objectives of
this phase is to decrease the total cost of the impact and the
chosen solution. This phase is a proposed framework by
J.C.Barnes [3].
3.4 Phase Four: Plan development
In this step, the Business Continuity Plan for the case study
will be delivered. This phase is also from J.C.Barnes
proposed framework [3]. When a disaster happens, only the
companies with a powerful BCP can survive, the phase of
developing a comprehensive plan is very important. The
objectives of a plan are to get the organization into business
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
as soon as possible and to keep the extraordinary expenses
to a minimum.
Two important steps in developing a plan are recovery team
notification and documentation. In BCP the responsibilities
are assigned to each member of the team and the
documentation of the plan should be very good and user
friendly so the members can understand their duties soon in
order not to waste any time.
3.5 Phase Five: Testing and maintenance
In this final step which has been derived from J.C.Barnes
proposed framework [3], while the plan is completed and
being approved by senior management, it needs to be tested
to make sure that it works very well. Testing is an important
step, since shows the planners and the team that the plan is
accurate but some of the organizations ignore or neglect to
do it. In organizations with an exhaustive plan, the testing is
done every 6 months to once a year.
After making sure that the plan is doing well, it should then
be maintained. Most BCPs that are written are not
maintained. Within a year or less the plan becomes useless
because staffs have changed, vendors are different, and the
resources required to get the product out the door have
evolved. By maintaining the plan on a regular basis, the
organization will avoid the time required to create a plan
from scratch and it will be prepared whenever a disaster
strikes.
4. Application and findings
Before proceeding with any analysis, it is very important to
understand about the case study which is MyLinE, at UTM.
Interviews have been conducted with MyLinE manager and
MyLinE admin. The goal of interview is to find out the
current situation of MyLinE towards risk and to find out
what they have done up to now to prevent or solve a disaster
when it occurs and how risky is the system that they are
housing.
From this interview these result have been achieved;
• It is an online self-access resource for learning
English to enhance English language
communication skills among students at tertiary
level.
• The goal of making it a self-access learning
resource is that it persuades students to be
responsible for their learning.
• MyLinE has lots of activities and learning and
teaching resources to help the students and
lecturers to improve their English proficiencies.
• Currently MyLinE has over 200,000 users in 20
universities and institutes all over Malaysia.
A large number of users will be affected and the
consequences considered disastrous and a disruption will
definitely have a severe impact on reputation of MyLinE and
UTM. In addition, the threats are most likely to occur by
technical problems and usually resulted in more than 4
hours but less than 24 hours, but they may repeat frequently
within 30 days. Besides, when a business disruption happens
it causes a delay and missed deliverables and it will affect
190 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
all 20 universities which shows that risk level and
vulnerability in MyLinE is definitely high.
BCP framework that has been illustrated in figure 3 has
been applied for this case study. After developing project
foundation in the first step, two types of questionnaires were
conducted, threats and vulnerability questionnaire and BIA
questionnaire.
For identifying threats and evaluation of the identified
threats and vulnerabilities, a questionnaire with two phases
was needed. Through factor analysis, the numbers of factors
achieved from questionnaire are reduced. For identifying the
impact of the risks, second questionnaire for BIA in four
different types for four different kinds of stakeholders, was
developed. Based on this questionnaire, the respondents
were asked to rank the impact that these risks could have on
them if occur on the assets of MyLinE, based on the
following scale:
1 à Almost No impact
2 à Moderate impact
3 à Significant impact
The result of the questionnaires and the analysis of the data
is shown in appendix 1.
In step three, for the threats and vulnerabilities that were
threatening MyLinE, some strategies are required that can
mitigate this threats and the following impact of the risks on
the system and stakeholders. Based on the vulnerabilities of
MyLinE, the researcher came up with this strategies and it
is hoped that they can be useful in order to help MyLinE
prevent or overcome disasters.
In phase four, a comprehensive business continuity plan has
been developed and been submitted to the MyLinE manager
and the plan has been tested in phase five by the MyLinE
employees and the required changes and strategies are being
applied, some plan exercise programs have been established
and then some training for employees was considered.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, several achievements have been obtained,
from interview, the current situation of MyLinE toward
disasters and business continuity planning has been defined.
From literature review; assets, threats and vulnerabilities
that may threaten MyLinE have been identified. Soon after,
via questionnaires, the valuation of assets, threats and
vulnerabilities and risk assessment have been conducted.
From questionnaires, business impact analysis (BIA) has
been delivered and finally, some useful mitigation strategies
have been proposed by the researcher.
Since BCP is very critical for all organizations, especially
for the ones that are holding important information and data
such as MyLinE, the researcher highly recommend to
MyLinE unit that they have to take BCP seriously, because
the importance of having BCP in any organization have
been proved.
Another recommendation is that to consider the mitigation
strategies that the researcher has suggested to them, and try
to adopt them based on their importance priorities, budget
and alignment with mission, vision and goal of MyLinE.
Finally, MyLinE staff should not neglect to update the
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
existing BCP and test it regularly, so it can always be
applicable, and if a change occurs in the system, BCP can be
updated easily and it will not lead to losing the existing BCP
and having a new one, which is very costly for all
organizations.
References
[1] BSI , Information technology – Code of practice for
information security management BS ISO/IEC
17799:2000, BSI, pp.56-60, 2001
[2] BSI, Business continuity management –Part 2:
Specification, BS 25999-2, 2007
[3] J.C.Barnes, 'A Guide to Business Continuity Planning',
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 2001.
[4] Kenneth L. Fulmer, 'Business Continuity Planning: A
Step-by-Step Guide with Planning Forms', Rothstein
Associates, Third Edition 2005.
[5] Susan Snedaker, ' Business Continuity and Disaster
Recovery Planning for IT Professionals', Burlington,
MA. Syngress Publishing, Inc., 2007.
[6] Roberta J.Witty, 'Research Roundup: Business
Continuity Management and IT Disaster Recovery',
Gartner, January 2009
[7] Pitt, M.and Goyal, S. (2004), “Business continuity
planning as a facilities management tool”, Facilities,
Vol. 22, No. 3/4, 2004, pp 87-99.
[8] BCPG, (1998), PACE - Business Continuity Planning
Guide (BCPG), Office of Government Commerce
(OGC), London, UK, May 1998.
[9] Jim Hoffer, 'Backing Up Business - Industry Trend or
Event', Health Management Technology, Jan, 2001
[10] Elliott, D. et al. (2002), Business continuity
management-a crisis management approach, Routledge,
2002
[11] Savage, M. (2002), “Business continuity planning”,
Work study, Vol. 51, No. 5, 2002, pp 254-261.
[12] Wing Lam, 'ensuring business continuity', 2002
[13] Michael E.Whitman and Herbert J.Mattord,
'management of information security', Course
Technology- Cengage Learning, 2008
[14] http://www.bcprm.com/demo/bcm/htmlhelp/ProjectMan
agement.htm, [online] (Retrieved on 10/12/2009)
[15] http://gcert.mampu.gov.my/doc, [online] (Retrieved on
15/04/2010)
[16] BSI , Information security management systems – Part
3: Guidelines for information security risk
management, BS 7799-3: 2006
[17] Robert McDonald, 'New Considerations for Security
Compliance, Reliability and Business Continuity', 2008.
Author’s Profile
Parvaneh Sarshar received her B.S.
degree in Computer Engineering from
Azad University of Lahijan in 2008 and
M.S. degrees in IT-Management from
University Technology Malaysia (UTM)
in 2010. She is now doing some research
on the impact of social networks on
different concepts and new ideas on BCP.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 191
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Mohd Zaidi Abd Rozan (Dr.) received

his B.Sc. (Hons.) in Physics & Comp w.
Ed., and M.Sc. IT from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia. He
received a Doctorate of Engineering (D.
Eng) in Information Science & Control
Engineering from Nagaoka University of
Technology, Japan. He is also a PRINCE2 Certified &
Registered Project Management Practitioner. Currently, he
is the Head Department of Information Systems, Faculty of
Computer Science & Information Systems, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), and also the UTM MSc IT-
Entrepreneurship (SKIT) Programme Coordinator. He is the
Founder and Leader of PRIMELAB (Project Innovation
Management & tEchnoentrepreneurship). His research
interests are IT Project Management, Technopreneurship,
Disaster Management, Profiling and Data Mining utilizing
Multivariate Approach. He holds a Radio Amateur Licence,
with callsign 9W2DZD.

Appendix 1
Table 1: Risk Assessment and BIA
192
Denoising of Magnetic Resonance Images using
Wavelets- A Comparative Study
S Satheesh1 Dr.KVSVR Prasad2
1
Asst.Prof., Dept. of ECE, G Narayanamma Institute of Technology and Science, Hyderabad, , India
satheesh.s17@gmail.com
2
Prof. & Head Dept. of ECE, D.M.S.S.V.H. College of Engineering, Machilipatnam, India
3
Asst.prof., Dept. of ECE, G Narayanamma Institute of Technology and Science, Hyderabad, India
Abstract: Image denoising has become an essential exercise in
medical imaging especially the Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI). As additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) exhibits finest
grain property of noise, multi resolution analysis using wavelet
transform is gaining popularity. The aim of the work is to
compare the effectiveness of three wavelet based denoising
algorithms viz. Wiener filter, hard threshold and soft threshold
using MRI images in the presence of AWGN. Wiener filter
performs better visually and in terms of PSNR than the other
thresholding techniques.
Keywords: Denoising, Wavelet, MRI, Wiener filtering,
Threshold
1. Introduction
Image denoising is a procedure in digital image
processing aiming at the removal of noise, which may
corrupt an image during its acquisition or transmission,
while retaining its quality. Medical images obtained from
MRI are the most common tool for diagnosis in medical
field. These images are often affected by random noise
arising in the image acquisition process. The presence of
noise not only produces undesirable visual quality but also
lowers the visibility of low contrast objects. Noise removal is
essential in medical imaging applications in order to
enhance and recover anatomical details that may be hidden
in the data.
The wavelet transform has recently entered the arena of
image denoising and it has firmly established its stand as a
powerful denoising tool. There has been a fair amount of
research on filtering and wavelet coefficients thresholding
[8], because wavelets provide an appropriate basis for
separating noisy image from the original image. These
wavelet based methods mainly rely on thresholding the
discrete wavelet transform (DWT) coefficients, which have
been affected by AWGN.
There has been much research by Donoho & Johnstone [1,
2, 3] on finding thresholds, however few are specifically
designed for images. One of the most popular method
consists of thresholding the wavelet coefficient (using the
hard threshold or the soft threshold) as introduced by
Donoho.
Another denoising method in the wavelet domain consists of
Wiener filtering the wavelet coefficients. In this paper, the
performance of this method is done on a degraded image X
such that X=S+N where S is the original image and N is an
AWGN. The performance of three denoising techniques
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
P.Vasuda3
such as hard thresholding, soft thresholding and Wiener
filter is compared both visually and in the PSNR sense.
2. Wavelet Based Image Denoising
DWT has attracted more interest in image denoising [5].
The DWT can be interpreted as image decomposition in a
set of independent, spatially oriented frequency channels.
The image is passed through two complementary filters and
emerges as two images, Approximation and Details. This is
called Decomposition or Analysis. The components can be
assembled back into the original image without loss of
information. This process is called Reconstruction or
Synthesis. The mathematical manipulation, which implies
analysis and synthesis, is called DWT and inverse DWT.
For a 2D image, an N level decomposition can be performed
resulting in 3N+1 different frequency bands namely, LL,
LH, HL, HH.
Denoising algorithms that use the wavelet transform consist
of three steps:
• Calculate the wavelet transform of the noisy image
• Modify the noisy wavelet coefficients according to
some rule.
• Compute the inverse transform using the modified
coefficients.
2.1 Wiener Filter
In signal processing, the Wiener filter is a filter proposed
by Norbert Wiener during the 1940s.Its purpose is to reduce
the amount of noise present in a signal by comparison with
an estimation of the desired noiseless signal. The discrete-
time equivalent of Wiener's work was derived independently
by Kolmogorov in 1941. Hence the theory is often called the
Wiener-Kolmogorov filtering theory.
The inverse filtering is a restoration technique for
deconvolution, i.e., when the image is blurred by a known
lowpass filter, it is possible to recover the image by inverse
filtering or generalized inverse filtering. However, inverse
filtering is very sensitive to additive noise. The approach of
reducing one degradation at a time develops a restoration
algorithm for each type of degradation and simply combines
them. The Wiener filtering executes an optimal tradeoff
between inverse filtering and noise smoothing. It removes
the additive noise and inverts the blurring simultaneously.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 193
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
The Wiener filtering is optimal in terms of the mean When using the Haar wavelet transform the steps for
square error. In other words, it minimizes the overall mean implementing denoising using the Wiener filter technique is
square error in the process of inverse filtering and noise as follows:
smoothing. The Wiener filtering is a linear estimation of the i. Apply the Haar wavelet transform to the original image

{ } {y }
original image. The approach is based on a stochastic 2
framework [6, 7]. ii. qi , j is computed by convolving i, j with a
2.1.1 Wiener Filter in the Wavelet Domain kernel of size 9.
In the model we assume that the wavelet coefficients are iii. The Wiener filter is then applied using the formula
conditionally independent Gaussian random variables. The max(qi , j − σ n2 , 0)
noise is also modeled as stationary independent zero-mean sˆ = yi , j = aˆi , j yi , j
qi , j
Gaussian variable. Let us consider an image corrupted by a
zero-mean Gaussian noise. The coefficients of the noisy iv. Apply the inverse Haar wavelet transform.
image in the wavelet domain are given by [4].
yi, j = si, j + ni , j (1) 2.2 Soft Thresholding
Where yi , j represent the coefficients of the noisy image in In soft thresholding, the wavelet coefficients with
magnitudes smaller than the threshold are set to zero, but
the wavelet domain, si , j represent the coefficients of the the retained coefficients are also shrunk towards zero by the
amount of the threshold value in order to decrease the effect
undegraded image, ni , j represent the coefficients of the
of noise assumed to corrupt all the wavelet coefficients. Soft
noise. thresholding shrinks the coefficients above the threshold in
Without loss of generality, we can assume that absolute value.
the E { yi2, j } ’s can be determined by averaging the squared When using the Haar wavelet transform, the steps for
implementing denoising using the soft thresholding
values of yi , j in a window centered at (i, j). This technique is as follows:
information can be expressed as • Apply the Haar wavelet transform to the original
R R image
Qi , j = ∑ ∑y
k =− R l =− R
2
i − k , j −1 • Apply the soft thresholding on the wavelet
(2) coefficients y(i, j )
M = (2R + 1)2
(3)
 y − T if y(i , j ) ≥ T
Qi , j 
qi , j = s$ (i, j ) =  y + T if y(i , j ) ≤ −T
M  0
(4)  otherwise
As a result, the coefficients of the Wiener filter can be (9)
expressed as T = σ 2 log ( n )
(10)
qi , j − σ n2 Where y(i, j ) is the standard deviation of the noise, n is
ai, j =
qi , j the number of wavelet coefficients, sˆ(i, j ) are the de-
(5) noised wavelet coefficients, and T is the universal
Restricting the values to only positive values, the numerator threshold and the variance is estimated using MAD
of the equation (4) takes the form max ( qi , j − σ n2 , 0 ) and so method.
sˆi , j = max ( a i , j , 0 ) yi , j • Apply the inverse haar wavelet transform.
(6) 2.3 Hard Thresholding
Where sˆi , j is the best linear estimate of the signal
In hard thresholding, the wavelet coefficients with greater
component si , j magnitudes than the threshold are retained unmodified as
The noise variance is estimated using the mean absolute they are thought to comprise the informative part of data,
deviation (MAD) method and is given by while the rest of the coefficients are considered to represent
2 noise and set to zero. However, it is reasonable to assume
 mad 
var iance =   (7) that coefficients are not purely either noise or informative
 0.6745  but mixtures of those.
mad ( ( wi )i ) = median (( w ) )
i i
The denoising method described in the previous
subsection (soft thresolding) can be carried out using the
(8) hard threshold instead of the soft threshold on the wavelet
wi represents the wavelet coefficients. coefficients in (ii).
The hard thresholding formula is given as
194 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
pretty well in the smooth regions but performs poorly along
f y(i , j ) ≥ T the edges.
 y(i, j )
sˆ(i, j ) = 
0 if y(i, j ) < T The comparison of PSNR of the three wavelet filters for
(11) different MRI images are tabulated in Table1 and is
observed that the Wiener filter gives better values compared
3. Results and Discussion to soft and hard thresholding for different noise variances
(σ ) such as 15, 20, 25, 30.
In this section, simulation results are presented which is
performed on the four MRI images i.e. Brain, Knee, Spine
Abdomen. White Gaussian noise is added to the MRI Table 1: Comparison of PSNR of different wavelet filters
images and denoised with the methods described previously. for different MRI images corrupted by AWGN
The performance of the three techniques is compared
using PSNR , which is defined as
255 2
PSNR = 10log10
MSE Peak Signal to Noise Ratio in dB(PSNR)
Image Noise
(12)
(σ )
Where MSE denotes the mean square error for two
Hard Soft Wiener
m × n images l (i , j ) & k(i, j ) where one of the images is
Thresholding Thresholding Filter
considered a noisy approximation of the other and is given
15 25.441 26.946 27.692
as
2
Brain 20 22.936 25.065 25.615
1 m−1 n −1
MSE = ∑∑ [l (i, j ) − k(i, j )]
mn i =0 j = 0
25
30
21.031
19.452
23.507
22.181
23.957
22.577
(13) 15 25.219 26.231 26.803
From the simulation results it has been observed that the Knee 20 22.810 24.542 24.977
Wiener filter outperforms both thresholding methods 25 20.924 23.087 23.457
visually and in terms of PSNR. More details were lost with 30 19.357 21.836 22.170
the thresholding methods especially for the hard threshold 15 25.093 26.069 26.561
Spine 20 22.753 24.458 24.812
wherein the background was not well denoised. If the
25 20.869 23.073 23.359
Wiener filter could be thought as another thresholding
30 19.348 21.871 22.126
function, it will perform better as its shape is smoother than 15 25.402 27.135 27.656
the hard and soft thresholds. Abdomen 20 22.917 25.227 25.614
This can be clearly seen from Figure1 and Figure2 that the 25 21.011 23.660 23.981
background of the denoised images with Wiener filter 30 19.436 22.324 22.622
appears smoother. The Wiener filter removes the noise

Figure1. Denoising of Brain MRI image for variance=20 (a) Original image (b)Noisy image (c)Denoised image with hard
threshold (d) Denoised image with soft threshold (e) Denoised image with Wiener filter

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure2. Denoising of Spine MRI image for variance=30 (a) Original image (b)Noisy image (c)Denoised image with hard
threshold (d) Denoised image with soft threshold (e) Denoised image with Wiener filter
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 195
4. Conclusions
The paper presents a comparative analysis of three image
denoising techniques using wavelet transforms. The analysis
of all the experimental results demonstrates that Wiener
filter surpasses other methods that have been discussed.
There are a couple of areas which would like to be improved
on. One area is in improving the denoising along the edges
as the Wiener method did not perform so well along the
edges. Another area of improvement would be to develop a
better optimality criterion as the MSE is not always the best
optimality criterion.
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr. K. Jitender
Reddy, Consultant Radiologist, Dept. of Radiology &
Imaging Sciences, Apollo Health City, Hyderabad for
providing us with different MRI image datasets.
References
[1] DonohoD.L and. Johnstone I.M “Ideal spatial
adaptation via wavelet shrinkage” Biometrica, Vol.
81, pp. 425-455,1994
[2] Donoho D.L “De-noising by soft-thresholding” IEEE
Transactions on Information Theory, Volume: 41,
Issue: 3, Pages: 613 – 627, May 1995
[3] Donoho, D.L “Wavelet Shrinkage and W.V.D.: A 10-
minute Tour; (David L. Donoho's website)
[4] Kazubek, M “Wavelet domain image denoising by
thresholding and Wiener filtering” IEEE Signal
Processing Letters, Volume: 10, Issue: 11, Nov. 2003
[5] Kother Mohideen S, Dr. Arumuga Perumal. S , Dr.
Mohammed Sathik M “Image Denoising using Discrete
Wavelet Transform”, International Journal of Computer
Science and Network Security, Vol.8, No.1, January
2008.
[6] Lakhwinder Kaur , Savita Gupta , R.C. Chauhan
“Image Denoising using Wavelet Thresholding” Third
Conference on Computer Vision, Graphics and Image
Processing, India, Dec 16-18, 2002
[7] Nevine Jacob and Aline Martin “Image Denoising in
the Wavelet domain using Wiener filtering”, December
17, 2004.
[8] Zhong, S, Cherkassky V “Image Denoising using
Wavelet Thresholding and Model Selection” Image
Processing 2000, Proceedings. 2000 International
Conference on, Volume: 3, Pages: 262 -265, 10-13
Sept. 2000
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Author’s Profile
S.Satheesh received the B.Tech degree in
Electronics and Communication
Engineering from VRSEC (ANU,
Vijayawada, India) in 2001, and the M.E
(ECE) degree in Communication
Engineering specialization from CBIT
(OU, Hyderabad, India) in 2005.He is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree under
the guidance of Dr. KVSVR Prasad at
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Hyderabad, India. He is the member of ISTE, IAENG
and IACSIT. His research interests are in the area of Medical
Image Processing and Signal Processing.
Dr. KVSVR Prasad obtained B Sc.
Degree in 1963 from Andhra University,
B.E (Telecommunication Engineering) in
1967 and M.E (ECE) Microwave
Engineering specialization in 1977 from
Osmania University. He received the
Ph.D. in 1985 from IIT Kharagpur in strip
and micro strip transmission lines. He
published six papers in IEEE Transactions
in MTT, Antenna and Propagation and
EMI/EMC and three papers in National
Conferences. He is fellow of IETE (life member). He worked in
various capacities in the Department of ECE, Osmania University,
Hyderabad. Presently he is working as professor and head,
Department of ECE, D.M.S.S.V.H. college of engineering,
Machilipatnam, India.
P.Vasuda received B.Tech degree from
G.Narayanamma Institute of Technology
and Science, Hyderabad, India in
Electronics and Communication
Engineering in the year 2007.Currently
she is pursuing her M.Tech degree from
G.Narayanamma Institute of Technology
and Science, Hyderabad, India in Digital
Electronics and Communication
Engineering. Her area of interest includes
Image Processing and Digital Communications.
196 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

A Novel Data Imputing Algorithm

Ahmed sobhy1, Hany Harb 2 , Sherif Zaky 3 and Helmi Mahran4
1
Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computers & Informatics,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
asse_ahmed_sobhy@yahoo.com
2
Department of Computers & Eng., Faculty of Engineering,
Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.
harbhany@yahoo.com
3
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
sherifibrahim@gmail.com
4
Department of Basic Science , Faculty of Computers & Informatics,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
helmimahran@yahoo.com

Abstract: DNA microarray analysis has become the most
widely used functional genomics approach in the bioinformatics
field. Microarray gene expression data often contains missing
values due to various reasons. Clustering gene expression data
algorithms requires having complete information. This means
that there shouldn't be any missing values. In this paper, a
clustering method is proposed, called "Clustering Local Least
Square Imputation method (ClustLLsimpute)", to estimate the
missing values. In ClustLLsimpute, a complete dataset is
obtained by removing each row with missing values. K clusters
and their centroids are obtained by applying a non-parametric
clustering technique on the complete dataset. Similar genes to
the target gene (with missing values) are chosen as the smallest
Euclidian distance to the centroids of each cluster. The target
gene is represented as a linear combination of similar genes.
Undertaken experiments proved that this algorithm is more
accurate than the other algorithms, which have been introduced
in the literature.
Keywords: Missing Values, Imputation, Microarray,
Regression.
1. Introduction
In the last decade, molecular biologists have been using
DNA microarrays as a tool for analyzing information in
gene expression data. During the laboratory process, some
spots on the array may be missing due to various factors e.g.
insufficient resolution, image corruption, or simply due to
dust or scratches on the slide. Repeating the experiments is
often very costly or time consuming. As a result, molecular
biologists, statisticians, and computer scientist have made
attempts to recover the missing gene expressions by some
ad-hoc and systematic methods.
Microarray gene expression data have been formulated as
gene expression matrix E with m rows, which correspond to
genes, and n columns, which correspond to experiments.
Many analysis methods, such as principle component
analysis, singular value decomposition or clustering
analysis, require complete matrices. Missing log2
transformed data are often replaced by zeros [1] or, less
often, by an average expression over the row, or ‘row
average’. This approach is not optimal, since these methods
do not take into consideration the correlation structure of the
data. Thus, many analysis techniques, as well as other
analysis methods such as hierarchical clustering, k-means
clustering, and self-organizing maps, may benefit from
using more accurately estimated missing values.
There is not a lot of work in the literature that deals with
missing value estimation for microarray data, but much
work has been devoted to similar problems in other fields.
The question has been studied in contexts of non-response
issues in sample surveys and missing data in experiments
[2]. Common methods include filling in least squares
estimates, iterative analysis of variance methods [3]
randomized inference methods, and likelihood-based
approaches [4]. An algorithm similar to the nearest
neighbors was used to handle missing values in CART-like
algorithms [5]. Most commonly applied statistical
techniques for dealing with missing data are model-based
approaches. Local least squares imputation as k-nearest
neighbor imputation (KNNimpute) [6] and an estimation
method based on Bayesian principal component analysis
(BPCA) have been introduced [7].
In this paper, a local least squares imputation is proposed,
where a target gene that has missing values is represented as
a linear combination of similar genes. A k-means clustering
algorithm has been used to cluster the complete microarray
matrix. Rather than using all available genes in the data,
only the genes with high similarity with the target gene are
used in the proposed method which has the smallest
Euclidian distance between the target gene and the centeroid
of each cluster. The rest of the paper is organized as follows:
Section 2 includes a description of a mathematical model of
local least squares imputation based on regression model.
Section 3, discusses the proposed k-means algorithm which
is used in the clustering process. Section 4, introduces the
proposed PCA as a solution for the initial number of clusters
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 197
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
parameter and the initial centeroid for each of the clusters.
Section 5, explains the proposed novel imputing algorithm where are the coefficients of the linear combination,
based on the previous solutions. The results of numerical found from the least squares formulation (1). And, the
missing values in g can be estimated by
experiments are given in Section 6. Section 7 concludes the
paper. ,
,
2. Local Least Squares Imputation
where α1 and α2 are the first and the second missing values
A matrix denotes a gene expression data matrix in the target gene. For estimating missing values of each
gene, we need to build the matrices A and B and a vector w,
with m genes and n experiments, and assume . and solve the least squares problem of Eqn. (1).
In the matrix , a row represents expressions of
the ith gene for n experiments. In order to recover the total of 2. K-Means Clustering
q missing values in any locations of a target gene g, the k- K-means [8] is one of the simplest unsupervised learning
nearest neighbor genes of g,
algorithms that solve the well known clustering problem.
The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a
,
given data set through a certain number of clusters (assume
are found. In this process of finding the similar genes, the q k clusters) fixed a priori. The main idea is to define k
components of each gene at the q locations of missing centroids; one for each cluster. These centroids should be
values in g are ignored. Then, based on these k-nearest placed in an accurate way because different locations cause
neighbor genes, a matrix , a matrix different results. As a result, the best choice is to place them
, and a vector are formed. The ith as much as far away as possible from each other. The next
row vector of the matrix A consists of the ith nearest step is to take each point belonging to a given data set and
neighbor genes , with their elements
associate it with the nearest centroid. When no point is
at the q missing locations of missing values of g excluded.
pending, the first step is completed and an early group page
Each column vector of the matrix B consists of the values of
the jth location of the missing values (1 ≤ j ≤ q) of the k is done. At this point we need to re-calculate k new
vectors centroids as new centers of the clusters resulting from the
. The elements of the vector w are the n − q elements of previous step. After we have these k new centroids, a new
the gene vector g whose missing items are deleted. After the binding has to be done between the same data set points and
matrices A and B and a vector w are formed, the least the nearest new centroid. A loop has been generated. As a
squares problem is formulated as result of this loop we may notice that the k centroids change
(1) their location step by step until no more changes are done.
Finally, this algorithm aims at minimizing an objective
Then, the vector of q missing values can function, in this case a squared error function. The objective
be estimated as function
, (3)
, (2)

where is the pseudo inverse of . where is a chosen distance measure between a

For example, assume that the target gene g has two missing data point and the cluster centre , is an indicator of
values in the 1st and the 10th positions among total 10 the distance of the n data points from their respective cluster
experiments. If the missing value is to be estimated by the k centers.
similar genes, each element of the matrix A and B, and a The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
vector w are constructed as • Place K points into the space represented by the
objects that are being clustered. These points
represent initial group centroids.
, • Assign each object to the group that has the closest
centroid.
• When all objects have been assigned, recalculate
where and are the missing values and are the positions of the K centroids.
the k genes that are most similar to g. The known elements • Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until the centroids are longer
of w can be represented by moving. This produces a separation of the objects
,
198 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
into groups from which the metric to be minimized
can be calculated.
3. Principal Component Analysis
Principal component analysis (PCA) is probably the most
popular multivariate statistical technique and it is used by
almost all scientific disciplines. It is also likely to be the
oldest multivariate technique. In fact, its origin can be
traced back to Pearson [9] or even Cauchy [10].
The modern instantiation was formalized by Hotelling [11]
who also coined the term principal component. PCA
analyzes a data table representing observations described by
several dependent variables, which are, in general, inter-
correlated. Its goal is to extract the important information
from the data table and to express this information as a set
of new orthogonal variables called principal components.
PCA also represents the pattern of similarity of the
observations and the variables by displaying them as points
in maps [12][13].
The data table to be analyzed by PCA comprises I
observations described by J variables and it is represented by
the matrix X, whose generic element is . The
matrix X has rank L where . product of the factors score matrix by the loading matrix as:
The matrix X has the following singular value
decomposition [14][15]:
(4)
where P (Principle direction) is the matrix of left
singular vectors, Q (Principle components) is the
matrix of right singular vectors, and is the diagonal
matrix of singular values.
Equation 4 can also be rewritten as
(5)
with being the rank of X and , and being
(respectively) the singular value, left and right singular
vectors of X. This shows that X can be reconstituted as a
sum of L rank one matrices (i.e., the terms). The
first of these matrices gives the best reconstitution of X by a
rank one matrix, the sum of the first two matrices gives the
best reconstitution of X with a rank two matrix, and so on,
and, in general, the sum of the first M matrices gives the
best reconstitution of X with a matrix of rank M.
The goals of PCA are to (a) extract the most important
information from the data table, (b) compress the size of the
data set by keeping only this important information, (c)
simplify the description of the data set, and (d) analyze the
structure of the observations and the variables.
In order to achieve these goals, PCA computes new
variables called principal components which are obtained as
linear combinations of the original variables.
The first principal component is required to have the largest
possible variance. Therefore, this component will "explain"
or "extract" the largest part of the inertia of the data table.
The second component is computed under the constraint of
being orthogonal to the first component and to have the
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
largest possible inertia. The other components are computed
likewise. The values of these new variables for the
observations are called factor scores, these factors scores can
be interpreted geometrically as the projections of the
observations onto the principal components.
In PCA, the components are obtained from the singular
value decomposition of the data table I. Specially, with
, the matrix of factor scores, denoted F is
obtained as
, (6)
The matrix Q gives the coefficients of the linear
combinations used to compute the factors scores. This
matrix can also be interpreted as a projection matrix because
multiplying X by Q gives the values of the projections of the
observations on the principal components. This can be
shown by combining Equations 4 and 6 as:
(7)
The components can also be represented geometrically by
the rotation of the original axes. The matrix Q is also called
a loading matrix. The matrix X can be interpreted as the
(8)
This decomposition is often called the bilinear
decomposition of X .
4. The proposed algorithm
In this section, a Local Least Squares imputation that
depends on the Clustering model will be introduced.
Clustering complete data sets into K clusters with K
centroid per each clusters will also be discussed. Target gene
that has missing values represented as a linear combination
of similar genes. The similar genes are the clusters whose
centroids have the smallest Euclidian distance to the target
gene.
4.1. Getting number of clusters
Clustering algorithms are unsupervised learning processes
i.e. users are usually required to set some parameters for
these algorithms. These parameters vary from one algorithm
to another, but most clustering algorithms require a
parameter that either directly or indirectly specifies the
number of clusters. This parameter is typically either k, the
number of clusters to return, or some other parameter that
indirectly controls the number of clusters to return, such as
an error threshold. Setting these parameters requires either
detailed prior knowledge of the data, or time-consuming
trial and error. The latter case still requires that the user has
sufficient domain knowledge to know what a good
clustering “looks” like. However, if the data set is very large
or is multidimensional, human verification could become
difficult. It is necessary to have an algorithm that can
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 199
efficiently determine a reasonable number of clusters to
return from any clustering algorithm. The following
proposed algorithm will identify the correct number of
clusters to return from a clustering algorithm.
The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
• will be the complete microarray matrix by
removing each gene row with missing value.
• By Eq. 4 get the eigengene matrix with
. nearest neighbor. Bayesian Principle Component (BPCA),
• Compute
• Choose the eigengenes that contribute to be
about 70%-75% of the total expression level as the
number of clusters K .
4.2. Getting initial centroids of clusters
The k-means algorithm starts by initializing the K cluster
centers. Two simple approaches to cluster center
initialization are either to select the initial values randomly,
or to choose the first K samples of the data points. However,
testing different initial sets is considered impracticable
criteria, especially for large number of clusters [16].
Therefore, different methods have been proposed in
literature [17][18][19]. When random initialization is used,
different runs of K-means typically produce different
clusters groups and the resulting clusters are often poor.
Another problem with the basic K-means algorithm given
earlier is that empty clusters can be obtained. This paper
proposes that principal components are actually the
continuous solution of the cluster membership indicators in
the K-means clustering method.
The main basis of PCA-based dimension reduction is that
PCA picks up the dimensions with largest variances(Eq. 5).
Mathematically, this is equivalent to finding the best low
rank approximation of the data via the singular value
decomposition (Eq. 6). As a result, the first component is
used as an index indicator to the K initial centroids.
The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
• will be the complete microarray matrix by
removing each gene row with missing value.
• By Eq. 4 get .
• Compute first component by Eq. 6.
• Sort first component vector.
• Let the first K component indexes of be the first
K initial centroids.
4.3. Clustering
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
K-means clustering algorithm, as shown in section 3, has
been used as a clustering algorithm for our proposed
imputation algorithm. After applying this algorithm, K of
disjoint subsets are obtained. Each cluster
is identified by its centroid
4.4. Imputing.
K-nearest neighbor method (KNNimpute) does not
introduce an optimal and restricted method to find the
depends on a probabilistic model. This model requires
certain statistical parameters that must be known before.
Local Least Squares Imputation (LLSimpute), depends on K
coherent genes that have large absolute values of Pearson
correlation coefficients. This can be costly in calculations.
This paper proposes Local Least Squares imputation. This
method represents a target gene that has missing values as a
linear combination of similar genes. The similar genes are
the cluster whose centroid has the smallest Euclidian
distance to the target gene.
The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
• will be the original microarray matrix.
• will be the target gene (with q missing
elements).
• By using algorithm proposed in section 5.1 get K.
• By using algorithm proposed in section 5.2 get K
centroids.
• By using algorithm proposed in section 5.3 get K
clusters.
• Get the nearest cluster to the target gene.
6.1. From with columns
corresponding to complete elements of .
6.2. From with columns
corresponding to missing elements of .
• with columns corresponding to complete
elements of .
• Solve Eq. 2 to get estimated q missing values of .
• Repeat steps from 2 to 8 until estimation of all
missing genes.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Data Sets
Six microarray datasets were obtained for the purpose of
comparison. The first data set was obtained from -factor
block release that was studied for identification of cell-cycle
regulated genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae[20]. A
200 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
complete data matrix of 4304 genes and 18 experiments performances differ when the missing rate is large. Our
(ALPHA) that does not have any missing value to assess method ClustLLsimpute performs very close to other three
missing value estimation methods. The second data set of a as in Figures 1(f) with 20% rate, though still a little better.
complete matrix of 4304 genes and 14 experiments (ELU) is From these results, it is deduced that the ClustLLsimpute
based on an elutriation data set [20]. The 4304 genes method performs better than both BPCA and LLSimpute,
originally had no missing values in the -factor block the two most recent imputation methods [24][25].
release set and the elutriation data set. The third data set
was from 784 cell cycle regulated genes, which were
classified by Spellman et al. [20] into five classes, for the
same 14 experiments as the second data set. The third data
set consists of 2856 genes and 14 experiments (CYC-a).
The fourth data set of 242 genes and 14 experiments (CYC-
b). The fifth data set is from a study of response to
environmental changes in yeast [21]. It contains 5431 genes
and 13 experiments that have time-series of specific
treatments (ENV). The sixth data set is the cDNA
microarray data relevant to human colorectal cancer
(CRC)[22]. This data set contains 758 genes and 205
primary CRCs that include 127 non-metastatic primary
CRCs, 54 metastatic primary CRCs to the liver and 24
metastatic primary CRCs to distant organs exclusive of the
liver, and 12 normal colonic epithelia (CRC).
This is a challenging data set with multiple experiments
with no time course relationships. The ALPHA, ELU, and
CRC are the same data sets that were used in the study of
BPCA [7] and LLsimpute[23].
The performance of the missing value estimation is
evaluated by normalized root mean squared error(NRMSE) :

(9)

Where and are vectores whose elements are the

estimated values and the known answer values, respectively,
for all missing entries.
The similarity between the target genes and the closest
centroid is defined by the reciprocation of the Euclidian
distance calculated for non-missing components.

5.2. Experimental results

In the experiments, we randomly removed some percentage,

i.e. missing rate, of expression level to create missing values
(between 1 and 20% of the data were deleted). Each method
was then used to recover the introduced missing values for
each data set, and the estimated values were compared to
those in the original data set.
From the plots of NRMSE values (Figure 1) achieved by all
five methods on six datasets, we can see that KNNimpute
method always performs the worst and ClustLLsimpute
always performs the best. For all the other three methods,
they perform equally well on env-dataset and crc-dataset but
ClustLLsimpute performs better than the other three. In fact,
from Figures 1(b) and 1(e), it is hard to tell which one of
them performs better than the other three except
ClustLLsimpute which is outperform. All other three
methods again perform equally well on elu-, cyc-a-, and
alpha-datasets when the missing rate is small, i.e. less than
5% (cf. Figures 1(a), 1(d), and 3(f)) and also
ClustLLsimpute is outperform all of them. However, the
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 201
Figure 1. NRMSE comparison for ILLsimpute, BPCA,
LLSimpute, KNNimpute and ClustLLsimpute on six
datasets with various percent of missing values
7. Conclusions
This paper proposes a novel version of Local Least Squares
Imputation (ClustLLsimpute) method to estimate the
missing values in microarray data. In ClustLLsimpute, the
complete dataset is clustered by using a novel clustering k-
nearest clustering method to obtain k-clusters and its
centroids. The number of nearest neighbors for every target
gene is automatically determined as the cluster with the
nearest centroid, rather than prespecified in most existing
imputation methods. The experimental results on six real
microarray datasets show that ClustLLsimpute outperforms
the four most well known recent imputation methods BPCA,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
LLSimpute, , ILLSimpute and KNNimpute, on all datasets
with simulated missing values.
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 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 203
Providing a model to estimate the probability of the
complexity of software projects
Foad Marzoughi1*, Mohammad Mehdi Farhangian 2* and Alex Tze Hiang Sim3
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia,
1
Mfoad4@live.utm.my, 2Mfmohammad2@live.utm.my, 3alex.utm@gmail.com
Abstract: Function Point Analysis (FPA) is most used
technique for estimating the size of a computerized business
information system which was developed by Allan Albrecht.
Various studies proposed new methods to extent FPA algorithm;
mainly they tried to make it more precise but they are based on
the similarity of previous projects so this paper is proposed. This
paper, presents a statistical simulation method that can be
applied for each generic project. The proposed method is a new
method to assess estimation of size and effort of software
projects by a stochastic and Markov chain approach. Based on
Metropolis-hasting simulation algorithm, we formulate a
Probabilistic Function Point Analysis (PFPA). Moreover, A
Bayesian belief network approach is used for determination of
complexity of system. It determines the function weights
utilizing Markov chain theory to support estimating the effort of
software projects. As a case study, this new method is applied in
online publication domain. This method can increase the
chance of implementation of generic projects on time.
Keywords: Bayesian Probability, Markov chain Monte Carlo
Simulation, Function Point Analysis.
1. Introduction and Background
Estimation efforts and cost of the project is a crucial task for
project managers [1]. A majority of projects fail in their
development phase because of a poor estimation [2].
Nowadays , there are many demands for software projects
and a precise and reliable method for predicting different
aspects of projects is needed more than any time else [3].
Estimation time and cost of software projects is essential in
first phase of project development life cycle for determining
the feasibility of project [4]. During the project, these
estimation can be used for validation and controlling the
project progress [5].
For estimation of software projects’ cost, many methods
have been introduced, including Metric System of Halstead,
COCOMO II, PUTNAM-SLIM ,and FPA .FPA determines
the size of system functionality and measure the
performance of project teams. FPA is the most used method
for projects’ estimation all over the world[6]. As every
project is unique and each on is totally independent from
previous ones, the mention methods do not satisfy
managers’ expectations.
In FPA two components of system are computed: the
information processing size and the technical complexity of
factor. The information processing size is classified as five
components that are inputs, outputs, inquiries , files and
program interface and each random variables classified as
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
low, medium and average that represent the complexity of
each factor. It depends on many factors that the most
important of them is the weights of the complexity to
estimate of UAFP.
As the classification of the system is based on experts’
judgment, FPA uses an imprecise manner of classification
the functions as simple, average and complex. Sometimes
the functions with different values are classified in same
category and sometimes functions with same values are
classified in different categories. These kinds of problems
will be more noticeable in large projects especially in
governmental projects. In practice, many of weights that are
dedicated in information size and technical complexity are
not valid.
Many studies reviewed FPA critically and criticize it in
term of its weakness. For instance, Symons in 1988 assessed
functionality and validity of FPA [7]. Besides, many studies
proposed new methods for extending FPA. Full Function
Points (FFP) developed by Abran and his colleagues in 1997
that is applied for real-time software [8]. In 2003 Junior,
Farias and Belchior suggested a fuzzy based function point
analysis method [9].
This paper presents a statistical simulation method
that can be applied for each generic project. Using this
method provides accurate estimation for generating software
projects. This paper is presented in three main sections.
First section includes knowledge and concepts which are
applied in this method such as Markov chain and function
point analysis. In second section the proposed method is
presented and finally it is applied in a case study.
2. Function Point Analysis
The first definitions of FPA were refined and extended in
IBM CIS Guideline 313, AD/M Productivity Measurement
and Estimate Validation [10]. In 1986, a group of FPA users
formed the International Function Point User Group
(IFPUG), which is responsible for keeping their associates
informed regarding any updates in technique [11].
The five function elements which are outputs, inputs,
queries, files and program interfaces are assessed based on
their complexity based on value of three categories: Low,
Medium and High. The final function point calculation
yields a single number that represents the total complexity.
The total unadjusted function point (UFPs) is calculated
by the values of the various weighting factors as equation (1)
204 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

(1)
The choice of weight factors was justified by Albertch
[4]. It is doubtful whether the weights will be appropriate for
all users in all circumstances. The weights are derived from
study of project of IBM; the weights of IBM cannot be
applied for other projects. For overcoming this problem, in
this paper by using the concepts of Bayesian theory and
Monte Carlo simulation with Markov chain theory, the
traditional FPA extends to Bayesian function point analysis.
3. Bayesian Belief Network
Bayesian belief networks are graphical tools for modeling
causes and effects in various domains[12]. In cases that
input data is uncertain, Bayesian belief network modeling is
effective. Bayesian belief networks are based on the
stochastic variables which will be represented by nodes and
dependency among variables represented by arrow
heads[13].
4. Proposed Method
The proposed method has three main steps that are
explained in the Marzoughi and Farhangian paper
2010[14]. These steps are fitting distribution, Estimate
unknown parameter and Optimization of weights by
Markov chain Monte Carlo Simulation. In fourth step the
complexity of the software project will be computed based
on Bayesian belief network approach.
The posterior will be calculated by following formula
(4)
Where, is the Poisson rate parameter, and a data set.
In this stage, discrete distribution is converted to continuous
distribution – Gamma distribution. It is expressed in a
following formula in a form of a rate parameter rather than
a scale parameter where rate=1/scale
For (5)
Constants not involving can be ignored. So the needed
formula is presented in following equation instead of the
entire Gamma density.
(6)
According to the procedure that described in proposed
model, the fitting model is distributed as:
(7)
For a sequence of random samples from this distribution, a
metropolis-hasting method is selected. Regarding raw data
that is obtained from estimation.
In the first state, the expert estimated the input low is equal
to 2. That can be presented as follows:
(8)
Each state presents an interval. The next state of input low
will be calculated as follows
= =

There are 14 factors listed in table 2. This table is used for (9)
determining the complexity of the project. By using
Bayesian belief network and omitting no effected factors, the The steady state factors will be computed as
adjusted processing complexity will be calculated. The total follows:
processing complexity will be calculated as following ⇒ = (10)
formula:
(2) is selected as the weight of input low for next stage, since
5. Case Study it has the highest probability 0.39 of weights.
After determining the Total Unadjusted Function Point
(TUFP), the next step is computing the complexity of system
The proposed method is validated as such: We simulate the
by a Bayesian belief network approach.
estimations of 20 experts. By fitting data, Poisson
Firstly the factors with no influence will be omitted
distribution is identified with the unknown parameter . All
according the following table:
the functions including inputs, outputs, queries, files and
program interfaces are classified in different bounds. The
Table 1. Total Unadjusted Function Point
probability of each state is estimated in condition of prior
Data Communication 2
state. The data of input is presented as an example, other
Heavy use configuration 0
functions follows same procedure. This model can be
applied in other case studies with same condition. Input is Transaction rate 0
divided into 9 main groups that are: low1, low2, low3, End-user efficiency 0
medium4, medium5, medium6, high7, high8, high9. From Complex Proceeding 0
the fitting data, the distribution of is identified as follows: Installation ease 0
(3) Multiple sites 0
The following process is applied for search function in Performance 0
online publication and other functions can be followed with Distributed functions 1
the same method. Online data entry 0
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 205
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Online update 0
Reusability 0
Operational ease 0
Extensibility 0

In this table factors with no influence are 0, factors with

low influence are 1, factors with medium influence marked
by 2 and factors with high influence marked by 3.The
factors with no influence will be omitted. And the
probability of other factors will be computed by a Bayesian
Belief Network approach. All the probabilities in the According to formula .., for complexity being “low “the
following table the results of Markov Chain computation are probability would be:
presented: 0.1391 (15)

P(low) P(medium) P(high) Similarly, for complexity of “medium” and “high” the
probability would be as following, respectively:
.3 .6 .1
=.o6496 (16)

Data 0.0721 (17)

Communi
cation Comple
xity
Distributed 7. Conclusion and future Work
Functions This paper extends function point analysis and it provides a
method for estimating the weights of functions. We use
Metropolis-Hasting algorithm in Markov Chain Monte
Carlo method to estimate the effort of the software projects
P(low) P(medium) P(high) by optimizing the weight of the FPA. Moreover, by using a
0.5 0.3 0.2 Bayesian belief network the complexity of system would be
determined. Based on our proposed method (PFPA) and
Figure 1. Bayesian network of system survey data gathered from experts in an organization, a real
time decision making system can be developed.
Table 2. Complexity
DC DF Complexity
P(Low) P(Medium) P(high) References
Low Low 0.7 0.2 0.1
Low Medium 0.8 0.1 0.1 [1] Abran, A., and Robillard, Function point analysis: an
Low High 0.6 0.2 0.2 empirical study of its measurement processes. IEEE,
Medium Low 0.4 0.5 0.1 1996. 22.
Medium Medium 0.2 0.7 0.1 [2] Halstead, M.H., Elements of Software 1997: Elsevier
Medium High 0.1 0.5 0.4 Science Inc.
High Low 0.2 0.3 0.5 [3] Boehm, B., A spiral model of software development
High Medium 0.1 0.4 0.5 and enhancement. 1988. 21(5).
High High 0.1 0.2 0.7 [4] Albrecht, A., Measuring Application Development
Productivity. SHARE/GUIDE/IBM Application
The probability of each state will be computed by Bayesian Development Symposium, 1979.
Formula according to which: [5] Symons, C.R., Function Point Analysis: Difficulties
and Improvements. IEEE Transactions on Software
(11)
Engineering.
[6] Desharnaise, J.S.-P.D.M., M. Abran,A, Full Function
Points: counting practices manual procedure and
counting rules. universiti du Quebec a Montereal.,
1997.
[7] Symons, C.R., Function point analysis: Difficulties and
improvements. IEEE Trans. Software Eng, 1988. 14.
(12) [8] Abran, A., Maya, M., St-Pierre D., and and J.-M.
Desharnais, Adapting Function Points
206 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
to Real Time Software. Universite du Quebec a
Montreal, 1997.
[9] Junior, F.a.B., Fuzzy Modeling for Function Points
Analysis. Software Quality Journal, 2003.
[10] Smith, L., Function Point Analysis and Its Uses.
Predicate Logic, INC, 1997.
[11] Desharnais, J.M., Adjustment model for function point
scope factors. In Proceedings of IFPUG Spring
Conference, 1990.
[12] Besag, J., P. J. Green, D. Higdon, and K. L. M.
Mengersen, Bayesian computation
[13] and stochastic systems. Statistical Science, 1995.
Geman, S.a.D.G., Stochastic relaxation, Gibbs
distribution and Bayesian restoration of images. IEE
Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, 1984.
[14] Marzoughi Foad. Farhangian Mohammad mehdi.
Marzoughi, Ali.Alex.sim. A Decision Model for
Estimating the Effort of Software Projects using
Bayesian Theory. in ICSTE. 2010. USA.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 207
Modeling a Balanced Score Card systems in IT
departments using a fuzzy AHP and non linear
regression approach regarding to mindset of
evaluators
Mohammad Mehdi Farhangian 1* , Foad Marzoughi2*, and Alex Tze Hiang Sim3
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia,
Mfmohammad2@live.utm.my1, Mfoad4@live.utm.my 2, 3alex.utm@gmail.com
Abstract: Nowadays, the key role of Balanced Score cards in
performance management and performance measurement is
undeniable. The current BSC systems are not able to deal with
vagueness and imprecision of evaluators’ mental. In order to
overcome these constraints a general framework is proposed for
Balanced Score Cards. This model provides a quantitative BSC
that decrease impreciseness of evaluations and the evaluation
process will be integrated by regarding the proportion of each
indicator and each group of indicators in BSC. Regarding this
issue, a comprehensive model is developed by a fuzzy logic and
Fuzzy AHP approach for weighting of items in each perspective
and weight of each perspective for achieving the goals a. also, a
non linear regression approach is selected for determining fuzzy
membership function of mental pattern of evaluators. In
addition, proposed model is applied in IT department of
governmental organization in Iran as a case study.
Keywords: Balanced Score Card, Fuzzy logic, performance
measurement, Fuzzy AHP, non linear regression
1. Introduction and Background
In recent decades, performance measurement is taken
into consideration by both researchers and practitioners.
One of the importance of performance measurement is
driving organization actions. It is always emphasized that
metrics should be aligned with strategy (Kaplan and Norton,
1992; Kaplan and Norton, 2000).besides, it provides a
framework to drive decision making[1]. For example,
shortest processing time policy appears to be the policy of
choice when considering time in system or waiting time
measures. However, an earliest due date policy is more
favorable when considering order lateness as the measure of
interest (Chan et. al. 2003). Another advantage of
performance measurement is providing close loop control
that is feedback of any process.
Kaplan and Norton (1992) propose four basic
perspectives that managers should monitor: financial
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
perspective, costumer perspective, internal perspective and
innovation and learning[1]. Despite of its popularity, many
researchers and practitioners criticize Balances Score Card
because of its weakness. For example, Kanji, 2000 and
Malina and Selto, 2001critisize that it is a top down
approach[2]. Nørreklit (2003) suggested that the balanced
scorecard is a result of persuasive rhetoric and not a
convincing theory[3]. Lohman et al. (2004) find that BSC
does not provide any chance to develop in organizations[4].
DeBusk et. al (2003) analyzed survey response data and
estimated relative performance .[5]
Analytical Hierarchal Process is widely used to identify
weights for performance measurement. Current methods are
highly influenced by managerial judgment. In this paper, a
model for BCS system is proposed to overcome the problems
of behavior memory of evaluators. This framework, not only
consider indicators measurement but also three important
characteristics will be handled.
2. Methodology
For handling traditional Balanced Score System two steps
should be taken up. In first step, the indicators of each
perspective will be identified and these indicators will be
prioritized. The importance of each indicator is determined
by a fuzzy AHP method.
In this study the steps of Fuzzy AHP proposed by Change
(1996) [6].
After determining the weights of indicators, calculating
the numerical value of each indicator is the next step. In this
step, two marks will be indicated by evaluators that are Real
Performance (RP) and Expected Performance (EP)
Based previous research, three models are common for
evaluators in term of determining the value of real
performance and expected performance. These models are
the optimistic, the neutral and the pessimistic.
208 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

3. Case study

The proposed model is applied for IT department of

governmental organization in Iran. The current balanced
score card not satisfy managers expectation. For modifying
this form following procedure is proposed.

A fuzzy AHP approach is selected for determining the

weights of each item.
Customer (1) = (7.66, 9, 10.5) ⊗ (1/22.32,
1/19.58,1/11.32)=(.343,.429,.927) (1) Figure 1. S shape fuzzy membership function fitted with
Customer(2)= (3.18,3.58,4.56)⊗( 1/22.32,
1/19.58,1/11.32)=(.142,.182,.402) (2) data set
Customer(3)=(2.46,3,3.82) ⊗(1/22.32, The following equation is obtained for optimistic model
1/19.58,1/11.32)=(.110,.153,.337) (3)
Customer(4)=(3.12,3.75,4.44) ⊗(1/22.32, With
1/19.58,1/11.32)=(.139,.191,.392) (4) (14)
The fuzzy value will be evaluated as follows: As a result, following equation is suggested for neutral
V(customer1 customer2)= .192 V(customer1 model
customer3)= 0 V(customer1 customer4)= .17 (5)
V(customer2 customer1)=.807 V(customer2 With
customer3)=.770 V(customer2 customer4)=.912 (6) (15)
V(customer3 customer1)= 1 V(customer3 Estimation of parameters for pessimistic model is presented
customer2)= 1 V(customer3 customer4)=1 (7) in following model.
V(customer4 customer1)=1 V(customer4
customer2)=.9 V(customer4 customer3)=.838
The priority weight will be calculated as follows:
(customer1)= min (.192,0,.17)=0 (8)
(customer2)=min (.807, .770, .912) =.770 (9) (16)
(customer3)=min (1, 1, 1) =1 (10)
(customer4)=min (1,.9,.838)=.838 (11)
The weight factor is calculated as follows:
(Customer)= (0, .770, 1, .838) (12)
After normalization, values priority weights will be
calculated as follows:
(13)

The same procedure will be iterated for weighing

calculation of other perspectives.
From evaluation of all the perspectives, final results of
weights are evaluated that presented in table

The next step, after evaluation weights is finding mental
pattern of evaluators. A non linear regression approach is
used for calculating the mental pattern of evaluators. That is
explained for best, fitting and exceeding pattern. This
behavior is usually represented by an S-shaped curve.
Regarding this assumption the procedure of determining
function for all the mental pattern of evaluators including
best pattern, fitted pattern and exceed pattern are explained
respectively.
Parameter estimation of best model is presented in table 9
Figure 2. Logistic fuzzy membership function fitted with
data set
Regarding The pattern used by evaluators, the value
assigned to each performance will be converted from a scale
of 1 to 5 to a scale from 0 to 1.[8] The final step is
integrating the scores for each perspectives that is calculated
by following formula:
(17)
In this case study, 14 indicators are evaluated. Then, these
indicators in 4 different perspectives are integrated.
The following form show the procedures that evaluators are
suggested to follow and performance of organization based
proposed procedure
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 209
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
dashboard measurement systems like the Balanced
Table12. Final performance results form Scorecard. The British Accounting Review, 2003.
[6] D., C., Application of the extent analysis method on
fuzzy AHP. European Journal of
Operational Research, 1996.
[7] Alexandroz papalexandris, G.I., Gregory Prastacos,
Klas eric and soderquist, An integrated
methodology for putting the balanced scorecard
intoaction. European management journal, 2005.
[8] Azar.A, A.D.Z., improving the balanced Scorecard
systems based fuzzy approach. The third national
conference on performance management, 2007.

Regarding to evaluators’ score for each perspective, the final

score according to formula (14) is equal to 2.8518.
4. Conclusion
In this paper, a quantitative model for evaluating
Balanced Score Card system is proposed. In this model,
mental pattern of evaluators will be considered by a non
linear regression approach. By involving behavior memory
in balanced score cards, accuracy and validation of
evaluation system will be improved. In addition, as
evaluation terms are linguistic ,a fuzzy AHP model selected
for estimating the weights of each perspectives and the
weight of each perspective for reaching the goals .BSC is
not only a model for evolution, but also it is a model for
determining the strategic goals of organization. Regarding
this issue, this model bridges the evaluation system to
strategic management. Although this model is applied in a
case study but there is need for more evaluation in other
organizations.

References

[1] Kaplan, R.S.a.D.P.N., The balanced scorecard:

translating strategy into action. Harvard Business
School Press, 1996.
[2] Malina, M.A.a.F.H.S., Communicating and
controlling strategy: An empirical study of
the effectiveness of the balanced scorecard.
Journal of Management Accounting Research,
2001.
[3] Nørreklit, H., The balanced scorecard: what is the
score? A rhetorical analysis of the balanced
scorecard. Accounting, Organizations and Society,
2003.
[4] Lohman, C., Fortuin, L. & Wouters, M, Designing a
performance measurement system: A
case study. European Journal of Operational
Research, 2004.
[5] DeBusk, G.K., Brown, R. M., & Killough, L. N.,
Components and relative weights in utilization of
210
Comparison of Congestion Control Schemes in
Wireless LAN using Satellite link and ATM
Networks
Dr.R.Seshadri1 and Prof.N.Penchalaiah2
1
Prof.& Director of university computer center
S.V.University, Tirupati-517502,A.P.
E-mail:ravalaseshadri@gmail.com
2
Dept of CSE ASCET, Gudur-524101,A.P.
E-mail:pench_n@yahoo.com
Abstract: The number of wireless Internet service users that
use wireless LAN or satellite links has increased. The broadband
satellite Internet services have especially attracted attention
because of its characteristics such as global coverage and
robustness. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is used by
many typical applications over satellite Internet. However, a
typical TCP (such as TCP-New Reno) which has been developed
for wired networks performs poorly in wireless networks.TCP-
STAR tends to reduce throughput of the typical TCP and TCP-
Fusion is developed for wired high-speed links. In ATM
networks, The ATM Forum has chosen a rate-based scheme as
an approach to congestion control for Available Bit Rate (ABR)
services. We propose a new adaptive congestion control scheme
called the Self Detective Congestion Control (SDCC) scheme for
ATM networks. In this paper, we propose a TCP congestion
control method for improving friendliness over satellite links by
combining TCP-Fusion’s congestion control method and TCP-
STAR’s congestion control method. Also Self Detective
Congestion Control (SDCC) scheme for ATM networks. We
evaluate the performance of congestion control schemas in
various networks.
1. Introduction
The long propagation delay of satellite links
decreases performance of the typical TCP.TCP-STAR has
been proposed to solve these problems by modifying TCP
congestion control method. TCP-STAR achieves high-speed
communication by using the estimated bandwidth. However,
if TCP-STAR coexists with the typical TCP, TCP-STAR
tends to reduce throughput of the typical TCP.On the other
hand, TCP-Fusion has been proposed for wired high-speed
networks. TCP-Fusion which uses delay-based and loss-
based congestion control method achieves scalability and
friendliness to the typical TCP. However, TCP-Fusion
cannot obtain high performance over satellite Internet, since
TCP-Fusion is developed for wired high-speed links.TCP-
STAR [1][2][3] has been proposed to improve the
throughput over satellite Internet. TCP-STAR is the
congestion control method which consists of three
mechanisms; Congestion Window Setting (CWS) based on
available bandwidth, Lift Window Control (LWC), and
Acknowledgment Error Notification (AEN). In CWS and
LWC, TCP-STAR uses ABE (Available Bandwidth
Estimation) in TCP-J [4][5] as the available bandwidth
estimation method. In order to satisfy efficiency and
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
friendliness tradeoff of TCP, TCP-Fusion has an approach
combining a loss-based protocol and delay-based protocol.
The key concept of TCP-Fusion is that congestion window
sizes are increased aggressively whenever the network is
estimated underutilized. On the other hand, when the
network is fully utilized, TCP-Fusion tends to perform like
the typical TCP. Therefore, TCP-Fusion has a special
feature which tries to utilize the residual capacity effectively
without impacts on coexisting typical TCP flows.
The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is
recommended as a transfer mode for future B-ISDN. In
ATM networks, data from all types of communications
services is treated in the same way. That is, all data packets
are segmented into fixed length cells. Data from different
sources require different characteristics of transmission.
Therefore, two classes of traffic services, guaranteed and
ABR services, are required by ATM networks. To cope with
congestion control for the ABR services a rate-based scheme
is considered to be the best [8]. There are several rate-based
scheme proposed by the ATM Forum, such as FECN [9],
BECN [10], and PRCA [11]. The FECN scheme uses
Explicit Forward Congestion Indication (EFCI) as a single-
bit to indicate congestion in the forward direction of the VC.
In the BECN scheme, the notification cell is sent directly
from the congested points to the source. Both the FECN and
BECN scheme are based on a negative feedback rate control
paradigm. That is, a source will reduce the cell transmission
rate when it receives congestion notification cells. If, within
a predetermined period of time, the source does not receive
congestion notification cells, it will increase the current
transmission rate until it reaches the peak cell rate. But, if
the all notification cells in the backward direction will
experience extreme congestion, all the sources will increase
the rate to the peak cell rate, so the overall network
congestion collapse may occur. In order to deal with the
problem of network congestion collapse, the PRCA uses a
positive feedback rate control paradigm instead the negative
feedback. However, unfair distribution of available
bandwidth among VCs may occur because data cells from a
VC passing through more congested links will be marked
more often than those from VCs passing through fewer
congested links. Thus, VCs with more congested links in
their path will suffer from starvation, because their Allowed
Cell Rate (ACR) is lower than others. To resolve the
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 211
problems of the existing rate-based schemes, we propose a
new adaptive scheme, called SDCC scheme, based on the
following two basic concepts:
1. Positive feedback rate control which resolves the
problems of the FECN and BECN schemes.
2. Intelligent holding or selectively holding Resource
Management (RM) cells which resolves the problem of the
PRCA.
2. Congestion control in satellite internet
In order to overcome the problems of existing methods, we
propose a new TCP congestion control method which can
obtain good friendliness for the typical TCP. The proposed
method is obtained by combining TCP-Fusion and
CWS/LWC of TCP-STAR. It is assumed that the proposal
will be able to obtain good friendliness by using TCP-Fusion
and higher throughput by CWS and LWC over the satellite
Internet. Following subsections show the detail of the
proposed method.
2.1. Congestion Window Decrement
When the proposal detects packet losses, the congestion
window (cwnd) and slow start threshold (ssthresh) are set
by using CWS.
2.1.1 Detection of Packet Losses by Duplicate ACKs:
If the proposed method detects packet losses by duplicate
ACKs, it sets cwnd and ssthresh by Eq.(1).
packet_size indicate updated congestion window,
previous congestion window, estimated available bandwidth,
minimum round trip time, and packet size, respectively
BWRE is obtained by using Rate Estimation (RE) which is
one of the mechanism of TCP-Westwood[2][3].
4.1 2.1.2 Detection of Packet Losses by Retransmission
Timeout:
If the retransmission timeout occurs, the proposed method
sets cwnd and ssthresh by Eq.(2).
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
2.2. Congestion Window Increment
Original TCP-Fusion has three phases (increment phase,
decrement phase, and steady phase) in case of updating the
congestion window. In the proposed method, we apply LWC
of TCP-STAR in the increment phase of TCP-Fusion.
Window control of decrement phase and steady phase are
same as original TCP-Fusion. Eq.(3) shows the congestion
window behavior of the proposed method which uses LWC.
In Eq.(3)diff,target_win indicate the number of estimated
packets in bottleneck router queue, lower bound threshold to
switch three phases, and additional window size by LWC,
respectively target_win is calculated by Eq.(4).
In Eq. (4), BWABE shows the bottleneck bandwidth and it is
obtained by using ABE of TCP-STAR.
3. Congestion control in ATM networks (SDCC
Scheme)
In this section, we describe the basic operation of the SDCC
scheme.
3.1 Network Elements
The network elements of a VC, implementing a rate-based
end-to-end feedback loop control scheme, the Virtual
Connection Source (VCS), Virtual Connection Destination
(VCD) and ATM Switch (SW) are shown in Fig. 1. The
VCS and VCD generate and receive ATM cells. They are
the extreme points of a VC. The VC is a bidirectional
connection. The forward and backward connections have the
same virtual connection identifiers and pass through
identical transmission facilities. The VCS must have the
ability to transmit cells into the network at a variable and
controlled rate from a predetermined minimum cell rate to
peak cell rate. On the other hand, the VCD must return
every received RM cell to the VCS in the backward
connection in order to support the closed loop control
scheme.
212
Figure1. Network elements of a VC
ATM switches route ATM cells from the VCS to the
VCD, and each ATM switch has an identifier in the form of
an address number. We assume that an ATM switch has
output buffers divided into two parts: one for data cell use
and the other one for RM cell use. Each part of the buffer
implements FIFO cell queuing discipline. The buffer service
algorithm always serves the RM cells in preference to the
data cells. That is, RM cells have a higher service priority
than data cells.
3.2 Basic Operation
The model of the basic SDCC scheme, in which every VC
has one RM cell for congestion control purpose, is
illustrated in Fig. 2.We refer to this scheme as the self
detective congestion control scheme because the VCS itself
generates and sends out the RM cell to detect congestion
which may occur at its bottleneck switch. The bottleneck
switch is the switch which has the narrowest bandwidth
between the switches in a VC. The bottleneck switch is
considered to be known from the initial routine and its
address is written in the SWI field of the RM cell. The VCS
starts a timer every time it transmits a RM cell. The timer
starts to count down from a predetermined value, CD_Time
(Congestion Detection Time), until it reaches 0. The
CD_Time is a variable of the VCS, which is determined
before the RM cell is sent out for the first time.
The VCD returns the received RM cell to
the VCS in backward connection. If the output buffer of the
bottleneck switch is congested, the bottleneck switch will
hold RM cells flowing in the backward direction until it
recovers from the congestion state. The bottleneck switch
will pass all received RM cells without considerable delay if
no congestion is detected, since the RM cells have higher
priority.
Figure 2. VCs with their RM cells
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
When the timer expires and the RM cell has not returned
back yet, the VCS considers its bottleneck switch to be
congested, and decreases the cell rate at regular
predetermined intervals, until it receives the RM cell. On
receiving the RM cell, the VCS considers its bottleneck
switch decongested if the timer is still on, or if its bottleneck
switch has been recovered from congestion state. The VCS
will then increase its cell rate proportional to the current
rate. The RM cell will be sent out to the network again if the
VCS has transmitted a Number of Cell (NC) or more data
cells since the RM cell was sent out during the previous
round.This procedure reduces the amount of RM cell traffic
when the cell rate of the VC is low or when the VC enters
an idle state. The VCS is considered idle if at the current
rate it isn’t transmitted any data cell in an interval of length
corresponding to NC interval.
By implementing intelligent holding, the VCs having the
same bottleneck link will share the available bandwidth
fairly. The intelligent holding means, all RM cells
belonging to the VCs are not selected by each congested
switch, but they are selected only by the bottleneck switch
when it is congested. The fair sharing occurs because in the
equilibrium state the VCs will increase and decrease their
rate to approximately the same level.
4. Comparisons between satellite internet and
ATM network
Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through
satellites.The service can be provided to users world-wide
through Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. Geostationary
satellites can offer higher data speeds, but their signals can
not reach some polar regions of the world. Different types of
satellite systems have a wide range of different features and
technical limitations, which can greatly affect their
usefulness and performance in specific applications.Satellite
internet customers range from individual home users with
one PC to large remote business sites with several hundred
PCs.Home users tend to make use of shared satellite
capacity, to reduce the cost, while still allowing high peak
bit rates when congestion is absent. There are usually
restrictive time based bandwidth allowances so that each
user gets their fair share, according to their payment. When
a user exceeds their Mbytes allowances, the company may
slow down their access; deprioritise their traffic or charge
for the excess bandwidth used.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode is a cell-based switching
technique that uses asynchronous time division
multiplexing. It encodes data into small fixed-sized cells
(cell relay) and provides data link layer services that run
over OSI Layer 1 physical links. This differs from other
technologies based on packet-switched networks (such as the
Internet Protocol or Ethernet) in which variable sized
packets (known as frames when referencing Layer 2) are
used. ATM exposes properties from both circuit switched
and small packet switched networking, making it suitable
for wide area data networking as well as real-time media
transport.ATM uses a connection-oriented model and
establishes a virtual circuit between two endpoints before the
actual data exchange begins. ATM is a core protocol used
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 213
over the SONET/SDH backbone of the Integrated Services
Digital Network
Table1: Comparison between Satellite network and
ATM network
Satellite ATM network
internet
Packet size Variable Fixed length
length
Connection wireless Connection
oriented
Mechanism Traffic Traffic
shaping shaping
Bandwidth High Low
5. Conclusion
This paper proposed a new TCP congestion control method
for improving TCP friendliness over the satellite Internet.
We proposed a new adaptive rate-based scheme, called
SDCC, for coping with congestion control in ATM
networks. The SDCC scheme uses the positive feedback rate
control and intelligent holding in each switch in order to
resolve the problems which happen in FECN, BECN and
PRCA.Finally the proposed methods are good at respective
networks. And congestion control in satellite internet is
done effectively than ATM networks when traffic conditions
are good.
References
[1] H. Obata, S. Takeuchi, and K. Ishida, “A New TCP
Congestion Control Method Considering Adaptability
over Satellite Internet,” Proc. 4th International
Workshop on Assurance in Distributed Systems and
Networks, pp. 75-81, 2005.
[2] H. Obata, K. Ishida, S. Takeuchi, and S. Hanasaki,
“TCP-STAR: TCP Congestion Control Method for
Satellite Internet, ” IEICE Transactions on
Communications, Vol.E89-B, No.6, pp. 1766-1773,
2006.
[3] H. Obata and K. Ishida, “Performance Evaluation of
TCP Variants over High Speed Satellite Links,” Proc.
25th AIAA International Communications Satellite
Systems Conference, no.AIAA2007-3156 (14page),
2007.
[4] N. Sato, M. Kunishi, and F. Teraoka, “TCP-J: New
Transport Protocol for Wireless Network Enviroments,”
IPSJ Journal, Vol.43, No.12, pp.3848-3858, 2002 (in
Japanese).
[5] S. Saito and F. Teraoka, “Implementation, Analysis and
Evaluation of TCP-J: A New Version of TCP for
Wireless Networks,” IEICE Transactions on
Communications, Vol.J87-D-1, No.5, pp.508-515, 2004
(in Japanese).
[6] C. Casetti, M. Gerla, S. Mascolo, M. Y. Sanadidi, and R.
Wang, “TCP Westwood: Bandwidth Estimation for
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Enhanced Transport over Wireless Links,” Proc. ACM
Mobicom 2001, pp.287-297, 2001.
[7] R. Wang, M. Valla, M. Y. Sanadidi, B. K. F. Ng, and
M. Gerla, “Efficiency/Friendliness Tradeoffs in TCP
Westwood,” Proc. IEEE SCC 2002, pp.304-311, 2002.
[8] H. T. Kung and R. Morris, "Credit-based Flow Control
for ATM Networks", IEEE Network, pp. 40-48,
March/April 1995.
[9] M. Hluchyj and N. Yin, "On Closed-loop Rate Control
for ATM Networks", Proc. INFOCOM’94, pp. 99-108,
1994.
[10] P. Newman, "Backward Explicit Congestion
Notification for ATM Local Area Networks", Proc.
IEEE GLOBECOM’93, Vol. 2, pp. 719-723, December
1993.
[11] K. Y. Siu and H. Y. Tzeng, "Adaptive Proportional
Rate Control for ABR Service in ATM Networks",
Proc. INFOCOM’95, pp. 529-535, 1995.
[12] ATM Forum, "ATM User-Network Interface
Specification", Ver. 3.0, Prentice Hall, 1993.
[13] H. T. Kung and R. Morris, "Credit-based Flow Control
for ATM Networks", IEEE Network, pp. 40-48,
March/April 1995.
[14] P. Newman, "Traffic Management for ATM Local Area
Networks", IEEE Commun. Mag., Vol. 32, No. 8, pp.
44-50, August 1994.
Author’s Profile
Dr.R.Seshadri working as Professor &
Director, University Computer Centre, Sri
Venkateswara University, Tirupati. He was
completed his PhD in S.V.University in 1998
in the field of “ Simulation Modeling &
Compression of E.C.G. Data Signals (Data
compression Techniques) Electronics &
Communication Egg.”. He has richest of
knowledge in Research field, he is guiding 10
PhD in Fulltime as well as Part time. He has vast experience in
teaching of 26 years. He published 10 national and international
conferences and 8 papers published different Journals.
Prof.N.Penchalaiah Research Scholar in
SV University, Tirupati and Working as
Professor in CSE Dept,ASCET,Gudur.
He was completed his M.Tech in
Sathyabama University in 2006. He has
10 years of teaching experience. He
guided PG & UG Projects. He published
2 Inter National journals and 2 national
Conferences.
214 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Efficient Coverage and Connectivity with

Minimized Power Consumption in Wireless Sensor
Networks
A.Balamurugan 1 T.Purushothaman 2 S.UmaMaheswari3
1
Department of Information Technology , V.L.B.Janakiammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

2
Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
3
Department of Information Technology , V.L.B.Janakiammal College of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

Abstact: The Wireless Sensor Networks use sensor nodes to

sense the data from the specified region of interest and collect it
at a centralized location for further processing and decision-
making. Due to their extremely small dimension, sensor nodes
have very limited energy supply. Further, it is hard to recharge
the battery after deployment, either because the number of
sensor nodes is too large, or because the deployment area is
hostile. Therefore, conserving energy resource and prolonging
system lifetime is an important challenge in Wireless Sensor
Networks. Maintaining coverage and connectivity also becomes
an important requirement in Wireless Sensor Networks so that
the network can guarantee the quality of monitoring service.
This paper addresses the problem of minimizing power
consumption in each sensor node locally while ensuring two
global properties: (i) connectivity, and (ii) coverage. A sensor
node saves energy by suspending its sensing and communication
activities according to a Markovian stochastic process. This Figure 1: The Structure of Wireless Sensor Networks
paper presents a Markov model and its solution for steady state
distributions to determine the operation of a single node. Given The basic structure of a wireless sensor network is shown in
the steady state probabilities, a non-linear optimization problem Figure 1. A sensor network consists of a sink node, which
is constructed to minimize the power consumption. Increasing subscribes to specific data streams by expressing interests or
the lifetime of the network by minimizing the power consumed queries. The sensors in the network act as “sources” which
in each node is achieved through the scheduling of nodes
detect environmental events and push relevant data to the
according to the Markov Model.
appropriate subscriber sinks [2]. Because of the requirement
of unattended operation in remote or even potentially hostile
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, Coverage,
locations, sensor networks are extremely power-limited.
Connectivity, Markov model, ns-2
However since various sensor nodes often detect common
phenomena, there is likely to be some redundancy in the
data the various sources communicate to a particular sink.
1. Introduction In-network filtering and processing techniques can help to
conserve the scarce power resources.
The Wireless Sensor Networks of the near future are
Power is a paramount concern in wireless sensor
envisioned to consist of hundreds to thousands of
network applications that need to operate for a long time on
inexpensive wireless nodes, each with some computational
battery power. For example, habitat monitoring may require
power and sensing capability, operating in an unattended
continuous operation for months, and monitoring civil
mode. They are intended for a broad range of environmental
structures (e.g., bridges) requires an operational lifetime of
sensing applications from vehicle tracking to habitat
several years. Recent developments have found that
monitoring. The hardware technologies for these networks –
significant power savings can be achieved by dynamic
low cost processors, miniature sensing and radio modules –
management of node duty cycles in sensor networks with
are available today, with further improvements in cost and
high node density [6]. In this approach, some nodes are
capabilities expected within the next decade. The
scheduled to sleep (or enter a power saving mode) while the
applications, networking principles and protocols for these
remaining active nodes provide continuous service. A
systems are just beginning to be developed.
fundamental problem is to minimize the number of nodes
that remain active, while still achieving acceptable quality
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 215
of service for applications. In particular, maintaining
sufficient sensing coverage and network connectivity with
the active nodes are critical requirements in sensor networks
[8, 10, 11].
To accomplish complete data collection, the sensor
nodes need to actively sense or cover all ‘points of interest’
in the region. The ‘Coverage’ requirement ensures that the
entire target points in the network are being covered by at
least one active sensor node at all times. Once the event has
been detected by one of the sensor nodes, the information
needs to be propagated to the base station [14, 15, and 16].
The ‘Connectivity’ requirement ensures that any active
sensor is able to transmit or communicate to the monitoring
station at all times [17].
Minimizing power consumption and prolonging
the system lifetime is an important issue for Wireless Sensor
Networks. Connectivity and Coverage also has an important
role in Wireless Sensor Networks. There are several ways to
achieve these.
Power aware routing protocols [7] are used most often
in sensor nodes. According to these protocols, nodes spend
their time in sense state, which consumes as much power as
reception. The nodes never go to off state. So, most of the
power is spent while sensing, and in order to decrease the
power consumption the node should be turned off.
There are two routing protocols BECA (Basic
Energy Conservation Algorithm) and AFECA (Adaptive
Fidelity Energy Conservation Algorithm) [9], which have a
Markov Model with sleeping, listening and active states. In
BECA the time spent by nodes in particular nodes are
deterministic. In AFECA they are adaptive, the sleeping
time being a random variable that depends on the number of
neighbors the node has. Using these protocols 55% of power
can be saved.
The GAF (Geographic Adaptive Fidelity) routing
protocol [5] aims to extend the lifetime of the network by
minimizing the power consumption and preserving
connectivity at the same time. It uses a 3-state transition
diagram. GAF simply imposes a virtual grid on the network.
If in any of the grid squares there are more than one node,
the redundant nodes are turned off. In addition, a protocol
called CEC (Cluster-based Energy Conservation) is used,
which further eliminates redundant nodes by clustering
them. About 40-60% of power can be saved.
There are some results relating the power level to
the connectivity. The results show that, using percolation
theory, that in order to have connectivity in a network with
randomly placed nodes, the ratio of the number of neighbors
to the total number of nodes should be
(log n + c) = n where c should go to infinity asymptotically.
Coverage problem can be overcome by using
Voronoi diagrams [12], generated with Delaunay
triangulation to calculate the coverage of the network.
Coverage and Connectivity are jointly considered
using a grid of sensors each of which can probabilistically
fail. Here, within the transmission radius the number of
active nodes should be a logarithm of the total number of
nodes, for the network to have connectivity and coverage.
The diameter of the network is of order n / log n . There
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
should be at least one active node for coverage and
connectivity.
This paper considers rigorous analysis and
optimization of local decisions for the operation of sensor
node. The objective is to ensure both connectivity and
coverage in the network while minimizing power usage at
each node. A randomized algorithm is run locally at a
sensor node to govern its operation. Each node conserves
energy by asynchronously and probabilistically turning itself
off. The probabilities for staying in off, sense/receive, and
transmit states ensure connectivity and coverage in the
network. The problem of finding probabilities to maximize
energy saving while ensuring both connectivity and
coverage is expressed as an optimization problem defined by
node parameters.
2. Principles and Design Issues OF Wireless
Sensor Networks
Sensing coverage characterizes the monitoring quality
provided by a sensor network in a designated region [6].
Different applications require different degrees of sensing
coverage. While some applications may only require that
every location in a region be monitored by one node, other
applications require significantly higher degrees of
coverage. For example, distributed event detection requires
every location be monitored by multiple nodes, and
distributed tracking and classification requires even higher
degrees of coverage. The coverage requirement also depends
on the number of faults that must be tolerated. The coverage
requirement may also change after a network has been
deployed due to changes in application modes or
environmental conditions. For example, a surveillance
sensor network may initially maintain a low degree of
coverage required for distributed detection. After an intruder
is detected, however, the region in the vicinity of the
intruder must reconfigure itself to achieve a higher degree of
coverage required for distributed tracking. Sensing is only
one responsibility of a sensor network.
To operate successfully a sensor network must also
provide satisfactory connectivity so that nodes can
communicate for data fusion and reporting to base stations.
The active nodes of a sensor network define a graph with
links between nodes that can communicate the event
information to the base station. Connectivity affects the
robustness and achievable throughput of communication in
a sensor network. Most sensor networks must remain
connected, i.e., the active nodes should not be partitioned by
dynamic scheduling of node states. However, single
connectivity is not sufficient for many sensor networks
because a single failure could disconnect the network. At a
minimum, redundant potential connectivity through the
inactive nodes can allow a sensor network to heal after a
fault that reduces its connectivity, by activating particular
inactive nodes. Greater connectivity may also be necessary
to maintain good throughput by avoiding communication
bottlenecks [13].
Although achieving power conservation by
scheduling nodes to sleep is not a new approach, none of the
216 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
existing protocols satisfy the complete set of requirements in Let p
E be the probability that there is an event.
sensor networks. Most existing solutions have treated the
problems of sensing coverage and network connectivity Then the state probabilities for the node at time t +1 are
separately. The combination of coverage and connectivity is given by
a special requirement introduced by Wireless Sensor
Networks. This paper explores the problem of power
p ( t + 1 )= p ( t )[ p E M + (1- p E )M
conservation while maintaining both coverage and …..(2)
connectivity in Wireless Sensor Networks.
Apart from the above said principles and concepts,
a Wireless Sensor Network design is influenced by many
factors, which include fault tolerance, scalability, production
costs, operating environment, sensor network topology,
hardware constraints and transmission media. These factors
are addressed by many of the previous works. However,
none of these have a full integrated view of all factors that
are driving the design of Wireless Sensor Networks and
Sensor Nodes. These factors are important because they
serve as a guideline to design a protocol or an algorithm for
Wireless Sensor Networks.
Although design of Wireless Sensor Networks is
influenced by various factors, power consumption attains the
highest priority. Along with power consumption, coverage
and connectivity also plays an important role.
α + β +γ =1
3. Introduction To Markov Model
Markov chain governs the behavior of an 0 ≤ α , β , γ ,δ , p ≤ 1
individual node. Using this Markov model [1] each sensor Figure 2 : Markov State Diagram and
node makes an independent decision regarding which state Transition Matrix
it has to be in at a given time. A node transitions between
states depending on the events that occur in its vicinity. The Since an event can be either sensing or receiving, the
transitions are governed by a set of parameters. The issue is
to determine optimal parameters governing the probabilistic probability of an event will depend on the probability
transitions of a sensor node so as to minimize power
consumption locally while ensuring connectivity and that a single neighbor is transmitting. Suppose that the
coverage globally.
system has equilibrated to a steady state, in which
3.1 The Markov Model. In the Markov Model each node is
considered to be a three-state Markov chain. The three states
are the off, O, the sense/receive, S, and the transmit, T,
p ( t + 1 )= p ( t )= p s …..(3)
states. Considering a particular node, its transition matrix 3.2 Determination Of Probability For An Event To Occur . A mean field
depends on the state of its environment. The environment of approximation [1] is made such that all the neighbors of the node are in
a node can be in one of two states: either a sense/receive the same steady state and can be treated as independent, in which case

event is occurring or no such event is occurring. Figure 2 p E, probability for an event to occur can be computed as follows.
shows Markov state diagram in each of these cases, along
with the Markov transition probability matrices, M when Let p SE be the probability of a sensing event and
there is an event and M when there is no event. Notice let p RE be the probability of a receiving event.
that when a sensing event occurs, the node will always
transition to the transmit state. This requirement can be Now, p E is given by the following equation.
relaxed. There is also an ambiguity if both sensing and
receiving events occur. In this case, it is always assumed
p [Sense or Receive]= p SE+ p
RE –
p p SE SE

that the node always attempts to transmit the sensed event ……(4)
rather than the received event. At time t, there is some Determination of p SE(Probability of the sensing event):
probability that the node is in each of its three states. Denote
p p p pSE will be related to the sensing radius and the
O, S, as the respective probabilities of finding
T
sensing event density.
the node in the off, sensing/receiving and transmit states,
Probability of a node to sense an event :
and collect these three probabilities into the vector
p (t)=[ p O ( t ), p S (t), p T (t)] π r s2 p s
…..(1)
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 217
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010
Probability of a node not to sense an event: 4.1 Coverage. Assume that n sensors are deployed in
area. Let rS be the sensing radius and rT be the
1 − π r s2 p s
transmission radius. A point x ∈ T will be covered if there
For m nodes, Probability for all nodes not to sense an event :
is a node in the sensing state within rS of x. In this case, an
event that occurs at x will be detected. Thus, the probability
(1 − πrs2 ps ) m that a given node is sensing and within rS of x is πrs ps .
2

Probability to sense an event : Under independence assumption, the probability that no

1 − (1 − πrs2 p s ) m node can sense an event at x is then given by
(1 − π r s2 p s ) n which is the probability that x is not
p SE = 1 − (1 − πrs2 p s ) m ……(5) covered. Coverage function is defined as follows,
Determination p RE of(Probability of the receiving
event):
p is the probability that exactly one of the
RE
……(9)
Now,
node's neighbors is transmitting. The assumption is that, to
a first order approximation, the state probabilities for the p [ f ( x ) = 1] = (1 − π r s2 p s ) n .….(10)
neighbors are independent. Note that if the transmit radius Let A be the area that is not covered.
is rT , then assuming that the disks are in the unit torus, the Then,
probability that a node is within transmitting range of our A = ∫ dxf (x) …...(11)
node is π r
2
T ,and K has a Binomial distribution Therefore,
p [ K ] = B ( K ; n − 1, π r ) 2
.....(6) E[ A] = ∫ dxp[ f ( x) = 1] = (1 − πrs2 p s ) n
T
where, …..(12)
N p Thus, the expected area covered is,
B( K; N , p ) =  k  p K (1 − p) N − K Multiplying by
1 − E[ A] = 1 − (1 − πrs2 p s ) n
RE
  …..(13)
p [K] and summing over K, the expression for p RE
then the expected coverage is given by
obtained as shown below.
p RE = ( n − 1)πrT2 pT (1 − πrT2 pT ) n−2 1 − (1 − πrs2 p s ) n ≥ 1 − e − nπrs ps
2
..…(14)

..…(7)
Substituting equations 5 and 7 in equation 4, p E
obtained as follows.
p E = p SE + ( n -1 ) ( 1- p SE ) c ( 1- c) n -2
..…(8)
c = πrT pT
2
where,
Using the value obtained using equation 8; the future
state of the node can be calculated using the equation 2.
4. Analysis and Optimization
One important issue in Wireless Sensor Networks is
optimizing power consumption which is done by making
only a subset of sensor nodes to operate in active mode,
while fulfilling the two requirements, coverage and
connectivity. The coverage characteristic ensures that the
area that can be monitored is not smaller than that which
can be monitored by a full set of sensors [14, 15, 16]. The
connectivity characteristic ensures that the sensor network
remains connected so that the information collected by
sensor node can be relayed to sink node [17].
Q πrs2 ps ≤ 1
can be 4.2 Connectivity. There are two possible notions of
connectivity for a sensor network. The first considers only
the topology of the connectivity graph that can be derived
from the sensor network. The second is a more stringent
condition that also considers contention issues in the
network. The existing results use the first x - Source
definition, which is the tradition that will be continued, to
explain most of the parts, however some heuristics for
addressing the second requirement of connectivity are also
presented. The goal of connectivity can be summarized as
follows. The situation is illustrated in Figure 3. Assume
that n sensors are deployed in area. Let rS be the sensing
radius and rT be the transmission radius. Suppose a
sensing event fires at some position x ∈ T and it is to be
transmitted to y ∈ T . It is very important to successfully
transmit the occurrence of an event with high probability
for any x, y.
218 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

5. Simulation Study and Results

The simulation is carried out for both stationary and mobile
events and it shows how the nodes are deployed and
scheduled, to sense and transmit the events to the base
station occurring at various time intervals. NS-2 [18] is
chosen as the simulation environment because it is the most
widely used network simulator.
Performance analysis can be done based on
percentage of power conserved (i.e., based on total power
consumption per node, Amount of power conserved per
node on increase in the number of nodes). The results
obtained from the analysis are represented in XGRAPH
[15].
s 0, s1 , s 2 , s 3 -sensor nodes
5.1 Results For Static Events. This section includes
determination and comparison percentage of energy
rT - Transmission Radius conserved in this work and previous work. Determination is
rS - Sensing Radius based on time spend by each node in the sense; transmit, off
y - Destination states [1].
A path exists from x to y if there is a sequence of nodes in Total power consumption per node, Amount of
the receiving state (which is the same as the sensing state) at power minimized per node, are represented and it is
locations for S 0, S 1,.. , S k such that the following compared with the previous two works (i.e. AFECA &
conditions are satisfied. BECA [9] and PAM [7]). Results will be discussed below.

p 1: ||x - s || ≤ r
0
Total number of nodes vs total power consumption per
FIGURE 3: Connectivity -S
(X can be sensed); node
Transmission of event information
from x to y.
p 2: || s i - s i −1 || ≤ rT for i=1…k Table 1 and Figure 4 shows the comparison of this work
Hence the event can be transmitted from si-1 to si, and it with previous two works. In PAM, the node is scheduled
will be received since si is in the receiving state, and only to sense state. Hence, even as the number of nodes
increases the total power per node is always 100 mW. In
p 3: || s K -y|| ≤ rT
case of AFECA and BECA, the node is scheduled to sense,
transmit, off state.
(s can transmit to y). Table 1: No of Sensor nodes vs Total Power
Consumption
4.3 Minimizing Power Consumption. Total Power (mW)
The main goal of this paper is to develop a Total no. Power AFECA
systematic approach for power conservation in sensor of Aware & Markov
networks. The idea is to select the available parameters Nodes Routing BECA
in the Markov model so as to minimize the power
Protocol
consumption, while at the same time guaranteeing
coverage and connectivity. The assumption is that the 10 100 67 50
power consumption in each of the three states is given 20 100 67 50
30 100 67 33.33
by λ0 , λT , λ S . These parameters are set to particular
40 100 50 25
values. These are externally supplied parameters, or 50 100 40 20
functional forms which are dependent on rT and rS . The 60 100 33.33 17
expected power consumption per node in steady state is 70 100 28.56 14
then given by 80 100 25 12
90 100 22.22 11
100 100 19.99 10
E = λ0 p 0 + λ S p S + λT pT ……(15)

Therefore, in order to minimize power consumption, the

value of E should be minimized.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 219
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Number of Sensor Nodes Vs Amount

of power Minimized per node

Total Power Minimized

5
Number of Sensor Nodes vs Total Power 4 PAM

Per Node(mW)
Consumption(mW) 3 AFECA &
2 BECA
120 Markov
1
C o n s u m p ti o n (m W )

100 PAM 0
T o ta l P o w e r

1 3 5 7 9 11 13
80 AFECA & BECA
Number of Sensor Nodes(X 10)
60 Markov
40
20 Figure 5 : Total number of nodes Vs
0 Power minimized per node
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Sensor Nodes (X10) 5.2 Results For Mobile Events. This section includes
determination and comparison of percentage of energy
conserved in this work as well as the previous work. Total
Figure 4: Total number of nodes
power consumption per node, Amount of power minimized
Vs Total power consumption per node per node, Coverage and connectivity are represented
Table 2: No of Sensor nodes Vs Total Power through XGRAPH and it is compared with the previous
Consumption works. (i.e. AFECA & BECA[9] and PAM[7]). Results will
be discussed below:
Power min. per node (mW)
Total TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS TOTAL POWER
Power CONSUMPTION PER NODE
no. of AFECA
Aware Markov
& Table 3 and Figure 6 shows the comparison of this work
nodes Routing
BECA with previous two works. In S1, the node is scheduled only
Protocol
to sense state. Hence, even as the number of nodes increases
10 0 0 0 the total power per node is always 100 mW. In case of
20 0 0 0 AFECA and BECA, the node is scheduled to sense,
transmit, off state.
30 0 0 1.6777 Table 3 : No. of Nodes Vs. Total Power Consumption
per node
40 0 1.7 2.5
Total Power (mW)
50 0 2.7 3.0 Total no. Power
AFECA
60 0 3.37 3.3 of nodes Aware Markov
&
Routing
70 0 3.84 3.6 BECA
Protocol
80 0 4.2 3.8 13 100 67 50
90 0 4.48 3.9 26 100 67 50
100 0 4.701 4.0 39 100 67 33.4
45 100 58 29
TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS
POWER MINIMIZED PER NODE: 52 100 50 25
65 100 40 20
Here, power minimized per node on increase in the
number of nodes is compared with the previous works. The 78 100 34 17
comparison is represented in tabular (Table 2) and graphical
form (Figure 5). 85 100 31 15
91 100 29 14
104 100 25 12
220 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

Number of Sensor nodes Vs Total

Power consumption TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS COVERAGE AND
W)

120
CONNECTIVITY:
ption(m

100
Total Power

80 P AM
60 A FM CA & B E CA
Consum

40 M ark ov
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Sensor
Nodes(x 10)
Figure 8 shows the coverage and connectivity on
increase in the number of nodes. At n=13, this
work provides 50% coverage and 100%
Figure 6 : Total number of nodes Vs Total power
consumption per node connectivity. On increase in the number of nodes,
Coverage and Connectivity percentage also grows
higher.
TOTAL NUMBER OF NODES VS POWER
MINIMIZED PER NODE:
Here, power minimized per node on increase in the number
of nodes is compared with the previous works. The
Number of Sensor Nodes Vs
comparison is represented in tabular and graphical form.
Coverage,Connectivity(in %)
Table 4 shows the comparison of this work with

Coverage,connectivity
previous two works. Figure 7 shows total number of nodes 120
Vs power minimized per node. 100
(in %) 80
Coverage
60
Table 4 : No. of Nodes vs. Power min. per node 40
connectivity

20
Power min. per node(mW) 0
1 3 5 7 9 11
Total no. Power Number of Sensor nodes(x
AFECA 10)
of nodes Aware Markov
&
Routing
BECA
Protocol
13 0 0 0
Figure 8: Total number of nodes Vs Coverage
26 0 0 0
and Connectivity
39 0 0 1.2769
52 0 1.3076 1.9230
65 0 2.0769 2.3076
From the above analysis and also from the (Figure
78 0 2.5384 2.5385
8), it is found that about 73% of power may be
91 0 2.9230 2.792
saved using this method.
104 0 3.2307 2.9230

Number of Sensor Nodes Vs Amount

6. Conclusion
of Power Minimized Per node
Preserving coverage and connectivity in a sensor
network has been a problem that has been addressed in the
Minimized per node

4
Amount of Power

3 PAM past. Moreover, sensors are envisioned to be small and light-

(mW)

2 AFECA&BECA weight devices and it may not be desirable to equip them

Markov
1 with additions like huge rechargeable batteries. This work
0 considers a scheme that ensures coverage and connectivity
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Sensor
in a sensor network, without the dependence on external
nodes(x 10) infrastructure or complex hardware. In addition, taking
advantage of the redundancy of nodes, the scheme can offer
energy savings by turning off nodes that may not be required
Figure 7 : Total number of nodes Vs Power minimized per to maintain coverage. It is very obvious that significant
node energy is saved along with uniform decay of battery life at
most of the nodes.
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 221
This work considered the Markov process, which runs
locally at each sensor node in order to govern its operation.
Each sensor node conserved its energy by switching between
Sense/Receive (or) off states only until it senses an event in
its proximity, after which it enters the transmit state to
transmit the event information.
This work shows that the power saved in each node
outperforms the power saved in any other previously known
protocols and this work also shows that it is possible to
minimize about 73% of the power and maintain 100%
coverage and connectivity. Further, simulation study also
proves that it is possible to increase the life time of each
sensor network by increasing the number of sensor nodes.
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Author’s Profile
A.Balamurugan received his B.E.,& M.E.,
degrees from Bharathiar University,
Tamilnadu, India in 1991,2001 respectively.
After working as a Lecturer(from 1991), in
the department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, an Assistant
Professor (from 2004) in the department of
Computer Science and Engineering , he has
been a professor in the department of
Information Technology at V.L.B. Janakiammal College of
Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India. He was
instrumental in organizing various government funded Seminars /
Workshops. He has traveled Jordan to present his work in a
International Conference at Jordan university of science and
technology. His research interest includes Mobile Computing,
Wireless Sensor Networks. He is a member of ACM (USA),
ISTE, CSI, ACS.
Dr.T.Purusothaman is Assistant Professor
in Department of Computer Science and
Information Technology, Government
College of Technology, Coimbatore, India.
He obtained his Ph.D from Anna University
chennai. Having 20 years of teaching
experience he has 6 Journal publications and
18 papers presented in International
Conferences. His research interests are Network Security and Grid
Computing. He was instrumental in completing a Department of
Information Technology, NewDelhi, India funded Cryptanalysis
project as an investigator.
222 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 10, 2010

S.UmaMaheswari is Senior Lecturer, in the

Department of Information Technology,
V.L.B. Janakiammal College of Engineering
and Technology, Coimbatore, India.
Previously she worked as a Lecturer in the
School of Creative Computing and
Engineering, Inti College Sarawak, Inti
International University, Malaysia. She
obtained her B.E. degree in Electronics and Communication
Engineering from Bharathidasan University, Tamilnadu, India and
M.E. in Computer Science and Engineering from Anna University
, Tamilnadu, India. Her research interests are Network Security
and Cloud Computing.