MECH215

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN 1

The subject providing you with a context

within which to practice designing mechanical systems
©R.Dwight August 2018

LECTURE 5
‘Strength under variable
loading’-
[Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading]

Richard Dwight

©R.Dwight August 2018

MECH215 L5 2018 (c) R. Dwight 1

 Text readings
Budynas, R.G, and Nisbett, J.K., Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design (in SI units).
10th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Part 2 Failure Prevention
Week 4:
Chapter 6 Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading. Sections 6-1; 6-
2; 6-3 (all great overviews and background); 6-4; 6-7; 6-8; 6-9; 6-10;
Chapter 3 Load and Stress Analysis – Section 3-13 Stress Concentration
Chapter 5 Failures Resulting from Static Loading – Sections 5-2 Stress
Concentration
Week 5:
Chapter 6 Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading. Sections 6-11;
6-12; 6-13; 6-14
Chapter 5 Failures Resulting from Static Loading – Sections 5-12
Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

©R.Dwight August 2018

Tutorial Questions
Budynas, R.G, and Nisbett, J.K., Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design (in SI units).
10th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Questions to be confirmed.

©R.Dwight August 2018

MECH215 L5 2018 (c) R. Dwight 2

 To cover
• Basic nature of failure under varying loads
• Fatigue life and endurance limits under
completely reversing stress situations
• Modifying factors and stress concentration
• Stress concentration, notch sensitivity somehow.
• Fluctuating loads - Analogies for mean and
alternating stress situations
• Dealing with combined stress
©R.Dwight August 2018

Recap
• Theories of failure relate known failure
data to a specific situation: esp. stress at
failure of a test specimen under uniaxial
tension to the stress state existing at a
specific point within a structure.

©R.Dwight August 2018

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 Where are we? 2. Critical X-sections

v 3. Loads on X-section
T

1. External loads M V
M

+y
T

RAx A
+x
50°

72.97°
B
Loads >>Loads on Sections
RAy
9.2m 3.2m

W= 1471.5N
4. Stress by each load

Deflection x y
x

z
x
xy x
z
z

5. Combine stresses
y
7. Compare to
material strength
x
2
6. Find principal stresses x
2 1 xy

Ne
Y
1

w
Syc (y,yx)

x FA
Sy
z

CE
X

3 1 

+ve  (x,xy) 7 of 42
max

Why did these components fail?

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 DE Theory Compared to Experimental Data

 Plot von Mises stress on

principal stress axes to
compare to experimental
data (and to other failure
theories)
 DE curve is typical of data
 Note that typical equates to
a 50% reliability from a
design perspective
 Commonly used for
analysis situations
 MSS theory useful for
design situations where Fig. 5–15
higher reliability is desired
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Brittle Failure Experimental Data

 Coulomb-Mohr is
conservative in 4th quadrant
 Modified Mohr criteria
adjusts to better fit the data
in the 4th quadrant

Fig. 5−19

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Fluctuating Stresses

General
Fluctuating

Repeated

Completely
Reversed

Fig. 6–23 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Semi-Random loading

General Loading Case

Ship or Off-Shore Platform

Commercial Aircraft

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 Stages of Fatigue Failure

 Stage I – Initiation of micro-

crack due to cyclic plastic
deformation
 Stage II – Progresses to
macro-crack that repeatedly
opens and closes, creating
bands called beach marks
 Stage III – Crack has
propagated far enough that
remaining material is
insufficient to carry the load,
and fails by simple ultimate
failure

Fig. 6–1
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Schematics of Fatigue Fracture

Surfaces

Fig. 6–2 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design

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 Rotating‐Beam Test

W
FBD
W/2 W/2 W/2 W/2

Ref.: R.R. Moore, Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing System,

Instron Catalogue, pod_RRMoore_REV6_0807, 2007
Ref.: Mott, Figs. 5-2 and 5-3

S-N Diagram for Steel

 Stress levels below Se predict infinite life
 Between 103 and 106 cycles, finite life is predicted
 Below 103 cycles is known as low cycle, and is often considered
quasi-static. Yielding usually occurs before fatigue in this zone.

Fig. 6–10

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals
 Nonferrous metals often do not have an endurance limit.
 Fatigue strength Sf is reported at a specific number of cycles
 Figure 6–11 shows typical S-N diagram for aluminums

Fig. 6–11 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

The Endurance Limit

 The endurance limit for steels has been experimentally found to be

related to the ultimate strength

Fig. 6–17
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 The Endurance Limit

 Simplified estimate of endurance limit for steels for the rotating-

beam specimen, S'e

Fig. 6–17
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Fatigue Strength Fraction f

 Plot Eq. (6–10) for the fatigue strength fraction f of Sut at 103
cycles
 Use f from plot for S'f = f Sut at 103 cycles on S-N diagram
 Assumes Se = S'e= 0.5Sut at 106 cycles

Fig. 6–18

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Equations for S-N Diagram

 Write equation for S-N line

from 103 to 106 cycles
 Two known points
 At N =103 cycles,
Sf = f Sut
 At N =106 cycles,
Sf = Se Fig. 6–10
 Equations for line:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Equations for S-N Diagram

 If a completely reversed stress rev is given, setting Sf = rev

in
Eq. (6–13) and solving for N gives,

 Note that the typical S-N diagram is only applicable for

completely reversed stresses

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
 Endurance limit S'e is for carefully prepared and tested specimen
 If warranted, Se is obtained from testing of actual parts
 When testing of actual parts is not practical, a set of Marin
factors are used to adjust the endurance limit

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Surface Factor ka
 Stresses tend to be high at the surface
 Surface finish has an impact on initiation of cracks at localized
stress concentrations
 Surface factor is a function of ultimate strength. Higher strengths
are more sensitive to rough surfaces.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Size Factor kb
 Larger parts have greater surface area at high stress levels
 Likelihood of crack initiation is higher
 Size factor is obtained from experimental data with wide scatter
 For bending and torsion loads, the trend of the size factor data is
given by

 Applies only for round, rotating diameter

 For axial load, there is no size effect, so kb = 1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Loading Factor kc

 Accounts for changes in endurance limit for different types of

fatigue loading.
 Will look at combined loading later….

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Temperature Factor kd

 Endurance limit appears to maintain same relation to ultimate

strength for elevated temperatures as at room temperature
 This relation is summarized in Table 6–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Reliability Factor ke

 Simply obtain ke for desired reliability from Table 6–5.

Table 6–5

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

 Graphs available for

standard configurations
 See Appendix A–15 and
A–16 for common
examples
 Many more in Peterson’s
Stress-Concentration Fig. A–15–1
Factors
 Note the trend for higher
Kt at sharper discontinuity
radius, and at greater
disruption

Fig. A–15–9 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Stress Concentration for Static and Ductile Conditions

 With static loads and ductile materials

◦ Highest stressed fibers yield (cold work)
◦ Load is shared with next fibers
◦ Cold working is localized
◦ Overall part does not see damage unless ultimate strength is
exceeded
◦ Stress concentration effect is commonly ignored for static
loads on ductile materials

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration

 Increase radius
 Reduce disruption
 Allow “dead zones” to shape flowlines more gradually

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Stress Concentration

 Localized increase of stress near discontinuities

 Kt is Theoretical (Geometric) Stress Concentration Factor

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

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 Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

 Graphs available for

standard configurations
 See Appendix A–15 and
A–16 for common
examples
 Many more in Peterson’s
Stress-Concentration Fig. A–15–1
Factors
 Note the trend for higher
Kt at sharper discontinuity
radius, and at greater
disruption

Fig. A–15–9 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Nature of fatigue
Analysis is imprecise. A significant take-
home lesson is what features of a design
and an as-built component actually impact
on fatigue life.
Realise the nature of fatigue
analysis….don’t be surprised when things
fail anyway….

©R.Dwight August 2018

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 Lets look at some of those failed
components again?

Fatigue Fracture Examples

 Fatigue failure
initiating at
mismatched
grease holes
 Sharp corners (at
arrows) provided
stress
concentrations

Fig. 6–4
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design

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 Fatigue Fracture Examples

 Fatigue failure of
forged connecting rod
 Crack initiated at
flash line of the
forging at the left
edge of picture
 Beach marks show
crack propagation
halfway around the
hole before ultimate
fracture Fig. 6–5

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design

Fatigue Fracture Examples

 Fatigue failure of a
200-mm diameter
piston rod of an alloy
steel steam hammer
 Loaded axially
 Crack initiated at a
forging flake internal
to the part
 Internal crack grew
outward
symmetrically

Fig. 6–6
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design

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 Fatigue Fracture Examples
 Double-flange trailer wheel
 Cracks initiated at stamp marks

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design Fig. 6–7

Fatigue Fracture Examples

 Aluminum allow landing-gear torque-arm assembly redesign
to eliminate fatigue fracture at lubrication hole

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design Fig. 6–8

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 Tutorial Questions
Budynas, R.G, and Nisbett, J.K., Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design (in SI units).
10th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Questions to be confirmed.

©R.Dwight August 2018

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