This era of American history was the beginning of my birth on Earth.

The 1980's saw an explosion of cultural

excellence, creativity, and unadulterated individuality. Likewise, massive poverty, economic inequality, and
the HIV/AIDS illness grew during this time period as well. It was a time of duality in the sense that while the
rich prospered, the poor and the oppressed suffered a great deal. That is why activists and progressives
throughout that era fought back against racism, apartheid, poverty, the scapegoating of people with
HIV/AIDS, sexism, xenophobia, and environmental degradation. The beginning of this period saw the
ascendance of the conservative revolution with Reagan, and it ended with the ultimate end of the Cold War.
After almost five decades, the Cold War resulted in the end of the Soviet Union, and the United States of
America being the sole superpower on Earth. That wasn't the end of history. It was the start of a new era
with disperse, multifaceted entities causing conflicts globally. From technological changes to fashion
developments, we witnessed America experience a multiplicity of developments.
 LOS ANGELES - CIRCA 1985: R and B singer Miki Public Enemy was the powerful, conscious hip hop group of
Howard attends an event circa 1985 in Los Angeles, the 1980’s.
California. (Photo by Michael Ochs Archives/Getty
Images)

Contents
1 2 3 4
Prologue The Reagan 1984 Cold War
Revolution Developments

5 6
Scandals and President George
Immigration H. W. Bush
Issues

7 8 9 10
The Persian Gulf The End of the
th e The New World Appendix A: The
War Cold War Order? Music and
Culture of the
1980’s
 Prologue
Now, this era of time saw the end of the Carter Presidency (which consisted of his great
contributions and intense problems like inflation, the Iran hostage crisis, and domestic
opposition), the growth of the Reagan Revolution, and the end of the Cold War while George H.
W. Bush was President. It was a time of massive cultural and social developments like the mass
production of computers and the explosion of pop culture with Michael Jackson, Prince, U2, New
Edition, REM, Shalamar, Rick James, the Bangles, etc. Hip hop was in the start of its Golden era
with artists like Rakim, Run DMC, Big Daddy Kane, LL Cool J, Kurtis Blow, Anita Baker, Sade,
Salt N Pepa, YoY o, Supersonic, Melle Mel, and other artists. The 1980’s saw some of the greatest
music among all genres in world history. Fashion was eclectic, a new renaissance of black culture
grew massively, and it was the decade of my birth. Commercial profits exploded while the War on
Drugs ravished many black communities and other poor communities nationwide. The existence of
HIV/AIDS during this era first received widespread coverage, and we express empathy towards
those who experience HIV/AIDS today. Reagan promoted deregulation and massive tax cuts which
never helped poor and working people collectively. The recession of 1981-1983 almost made Reagan
lose the 1984 election, but he won it.

21 Jump Street Miami Vice The Sledge Sisters

1984 saw leaders like Jesse Jackson running for President which was a prelude to the campaign of
Barack Obama. Reagan at first advanced massive anti-Soviet rhetoric, and he called the Soviet
Union an evil empire. Ironically, Mikhail Gorbachev negotiated with Reagan in order for both of
them to deal with the Cold War. Gorbachev wasn’t a hardliner like previous Soviet leaders, and
both leaders worked together as time went on. Eastern European nations left Stalinism by the end
of the 1980’s, and the Cold War was ended by 1991. The Reagan administration had many scandals
like the Iran Contra affair and other situations. The Savings and Loan scandal was a prelude to the
future Wall Street banking crisis. George H. W. Bush was a conservative, but he was less
conservative than Reagan while he was President. Bush Sr. made mistakes and made just policies in
promoting the unification of Germany and signing the Americans with Disabilities Act. He
promoted the Persian Gulf War, and the American victory caused his popularity to soar. The
economic recession and the uncertainty of his economic views contributed to his political defeat in
1992. His vision of the new world order has been debated and researched since his famous new
world order speech back in September 11, 1990. This epoch of American history was a combination
of cultural excellence and cultural decadence at the same time. It both outlined the compassion of
fellow human beings and the massive greed found among numerous oligarchs. It showed the lesson
that it is fine to have a high standard of living, but we need to help the poor and the oppressed too.
It made us aware of our duty of altruism and solidarity with fellow people.

The Reagan Revolution

Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980. Many conservatives celebrated, and many progressives knew
what would happen next. Many Hollywood celebrities voted for Reagan and celebrated his victory like
Frank Sinatra (who was once a liberal Democrat back in 1968). His 1981 inauguration was large. Ronald
Reagan was the 40th American President, and he was an honorary 33rd Degree Freemason. Ronald Reagan
was definitely an ally of the establishment. Many people supported him when he enacted some of the
cruelest policies against working class and poor people in American history. There is no other way to put it.
The chief Justice Warren Earl Burger administered the oath to Ronald Reagan. On that day, the hostages
held in Iran were released, which was good news. Later, celebrations came about in America. Reagan
promoted the Registration program. Immediately on January 21, 1981, the Reagan administration made it
clear what they wanted to do economically. Reagan promoted Reaganomics which is nothing more than
supply side economics. Supply side economics is a philosophy that believes that if taxes are reduced on the
super wealthy, then that wealth would trickle down to everyone else including the poor. Today, we know
that supply side economic doesn’t work to end income inequality or poverty, but back then that supply side
economic doctrine was popular. Congress passed the Economic Recovery Act of 1981. It reduced taxes by
25 percent over three years. The richest Americans had the largest tax cuts. Reagan allowed massive cuts to
 social programs in cutting $40 billion. Reagan further deregulated other industries in airline,
telecommunications, and banking institutions. Historically, government investments have increased
demands for people to buy goods and services (which grew economic output in factories and factories. This
has increased employment, reduced unemployment, increase consumer demands, grew services, and
formed an economic recovery which existed from 1945-1975). March 30, 1981 was when Ronald Reagan
survived an attempted assassination attempt. One man was responsible, and he is John Hinckley Jr. (he
wanted to gain the favor of actress Jodie Foster. To this day, Hinckley is in prison since he almost killed one
U.S. President). Reagan survived and keep on going on with his Presidency. Hate crimes in the 1980’s saw a
resurgence along with some of the law enforcement's harassment of black activists.

Reagan reduced affirmative action regulations. Reagan reduced investments in food stamps. Reagan
opened consulates of apartheid South Africa in Seattle, Denver, and Cleveland. He massively expanded the
military budget. Ronald Reagan’s policies caused civil rights federal investigations to be reduced. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture reduced the amount of food services to children in schools. Reagan's first term
was horrible and he caused more than 4,000,000 people to be removed from federal and state welfare
protections. By 1981, 23.4 Americans or one fifth of all workers were unemployed. Reaganism was an
attack on social programs, and racists exploited conservativism to promote their evil agendas. Reaganism is
an affront to democracy. The recession lasted from 1980 to 1982. Inflation declined by 1983. More people
came into America. The rich got richer. His Presidency saw the increase of the budget deficit and the
national debt. Later, the 1984 election came about. It was an unsung election since it had historic
significance and the end result was Reagan winning re-election. While this was going on, tons of black
people in America rose up in the anti-apartheid movement and people worldwide fought out for freedom
worldwide too. In 1981, Ronald Reagan nominated Sandra Day O’Connor to the Supreme Court. She was
the first Supreme Court Justice in the court that was a woman. The irony is that Reagan wanted O'Connor
to be conservative, but Sandra Day O'Connor was centrist in her jurisprudence on the Supreme Court. The
Equal Access Act was passed to allow any group equal access to public facilities at schools. Conservative
Christians love the law since it allowed religious groups to meet on school property. The Supreme Court
ruled the law constitutional in the Board of Education of Westside Community Schools v. Mergens.

The Anti-Apartheid The Solidarity of The Nuclear freeze People from Act Up During the 1980’s,
Movement was movement wanted movement wanted to wanted AIDS research Operation Rescue
international in scope from peace in Central stop the growth of made public, the end grew into new heights
boycotts, protests, and America without nuclear weapons in of scapegoating of the as a powerful anti-
other uses of solidarity that violent wars and the world, especially victims of HIV/AIDS, abortion group. Since
helped to end apartheid in without the during the Reagan and the end of the its inception, it has
South Africa once and for oppression from the Presidency. silence from many. been filled with
all. Contras. confrontations and
debates.
The early Reagan administration had to deal with many issues. One was when Air Traffic Controllers strike.
Thousands of workers heroically protested. Reagan refused to negotiate with the Professional Air Traffic
Controllers (PATCO). He fired the striking workers, since he said that the striking workers violated federal
law. Like Dr. King has said, not all laws are just and opposing an unjust law is righteous. Social Security had
rising costs during the 1980’s. So, Reagan supported the compromise of the Social Security Reform Act that
increased the minimum retirement age and increased payroll taxes in order to fund Social Security.
Conservatives promoted wanted vouchers to pay parents to send students into private schools, so
competing against public school would grow. Liberals said that vouchers just stripped money from public
schools. AIDS or the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome first was discovered by mainstream scientists in
1981 (yet, AIDS existed long before 1980). It attacked tons of communities back then including the
LGBTQIA+ community and drug users. Back then, many people had ignorance about HIV/AIDS and some
scapegoated gay people for the disease. Reagan was silent on HIV/AIDS until later on in his Presidency
(especially after Rock Hudson passed away).

George H. W. Bush’s President saw the massive rise of investments in fighting HIV/AIDS. In 1983, 241 U.S.
Marines were killed by suicide bomb in Lebanon. This further exposed to America the reality of terrorism
overseas. By 1984, the drug problem intensifies as crack (a smokable form of cocaine) is first introduced
into the Los Angeles area. The crack epidemic and the War on Drugs harmed black and poor communities
nationwide. In 1985, World awareness of famine in Third World countries spark "We Are the World" and
Live Aid. Also, awareness of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is raised with the death of actor
Rock Hudson. In the same year, Country music singer Willie Nelson and John Mellencamp organize the first
Farm Aid concert to raise money for family farmers facing financial crisis.
 The image on the right is from David Hume Kennerly/Getty.

1984
The 1984 election was long. It dealt with Ronald Reagan defeating the Democratic candidate Walter
Mondale (and Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate. Ferraro was the first woman to serve on
either major party’s national ticket). The election dealt with the economy, foreign policy matters, and other
issues. Reagan said that he had a strong economic recovery and a national revival of confidence and
prestige. The problem is that income inequality grew and poverty was still widespread in many
communities nationwide. Reagan used TV ads, speeches, and other methods in getting his victory. Mondale
opposed Reagan’s supply-side economic policies and budget deficits. Walter Mondale wanted a nuclear
freeze and ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. By 1984, Ben Fernandez and Harold Stassen had a
primary challenge against Reagan on the Republican side. Ronald Reagan won the Republican nomination
easily with him getting over 98 percent of the popular vote. Reagan was re-nominated by a vote of 2,233
delegates (two delegates abstained). For the only time in American history, the vice presidential roll call
was taken concurrently with the presidential roll call. Vice President George H. W. Bush was
overwhelmingly re-nominated. This was the last time in the 20th century that the vice presidential
candidate of either major party was nominated by roll call vote. The Democratic primary for the 1984
election was more competitive. Jesse Jackson ran for President in 1988 too. Other people who ran in the
Democratic primary were Reubin Askew (former Governor of Florida), Alan Cranston, John Glenn, Gary
Hart, Ernest Hollings, and George McGovern. The Democratic primary race was headed by votes among
Mondale, Jackson, and Hart. Mondale raised more money. Jesse Jackson and Gary Hart had massive
popularity too.

Jesse Jackson was the second African-American (after Shirley Chisholm) to mount a nationwide campaign
for the Presidency, and he was the first African-American candidate to be a serious contender. He got 3.5
million votes during the primaries, third behind Hart and Mondale. He won the primaries in Virginia, South
Carolina, and Louisiana, and split Mississippi, where there were two separate contests for Democratic
delegates. Through the primaries, Jackson helped confirm the black electorate's importance to the
Democratic Party in the South at the time. Also, Jesse Jackson made a remark about Jewish people that he
later apologized (since it was an anti-Semitic slur) and that event derailed his campaign for the nomination.
If that incident didn’t exist, Jackson would win much more support. Jackson ended up winning 21% of the
national primary vote but received only 8% of the delegates to the national convention, and he initially
charged that his campaign was hurt by the same party rules that allowed Mondale to win. He also criticized
Mondale, saying that Hubert Humphrey was the "last significant politician out of the St. Paul-Minneapolis"
area. Gary Hart was a prelude to Bill Clinton. Hart wanted to promote moderate Democratic Party policies
while condemning old fashioned New Deal (which saved millions of human lives. The New Deal is a whole
lot better than Hart’s centrism). Mondale defeated Hart since he said that Hart had no specific positions to
solve problems. At a roundtable debate between the three remaining Democratic candidates moderated by
Phil Donahue, Mondale and Hart got into such a heated argument over the issue of U.S. policy in Central
America that Jackson had to tap his water glass on the table to help get them to stop.

Jesse Jackson won many support among grassroots black people (including progressives and other
minorities) while some black people supported Mondale because they believed that Jackson wouldn’t win
or for other reasons. Hart won the California primary. By the time of the Democratic National Convention in
San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received the overwhelming support of the unelected super delegates
from the party establishment to win the nomination. This race for the Democratic Party presidential
nomination was the closest in two generations, and, as of 2017, it was the last occasion that a major party's
race for the presidential nomination went all the way to its convention. Jesse Jackson gave a stirring speech
at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. It was a historic speech that called for unity among Americans
like a rainbow to combat Reaganism. Also, Mondale said that he and Reagan will raise taxes. That was
taboo since Presidents do raise taxes, but Presidents rarely said such things in a convention speech. U.S.
Representative Geraldine A. Ferraro was the Vice Presidential running mate. Ferraro worked with New York
Governor Mario Cuomo. Reagan had his campaign. John Anderson was running in the National Unity Party.
The Citizens Party and the Libertarian Party plus the Communist Party (Angela Davis ran for President) ran
their candidates. Mondale ran a liberal campaign by supporting a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights
Amendment (ERA), and economic solutions to the unfairness of Reagan’s economic policies. Critics came
after Ferraro for her political views and allegations about her husband, John Zaccaro. The Reagan campaign
briefly used "Born in the U.S.A.", a song criticizing the treatment of Vietnam War veterans (which they
mistakenly thought was devoid of anti-war content), as a campaign song, without permission, until
Springsteen, a lifelong Democrat, insisted that they stop. Some people questioned Reagan’s age while being
President.
Results from the 1984
Presidential Election
*Reagan won 58.8% of
the popular vote.
*Reagan won 49 of the
50 states.
*Most liberals voted for
Mondale and most
moderates plus
conservatives voted for
Reagan.
*Reagan won 525
Electoral college votes.

His second debate ended that issue by his comments. Ronald Reagan was re-elected in 1984 by November
6, 1984. Reagan won in a landslide. He won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and
received 58.8% of the popular vote; despite Ferraro's selection, 55% of women who voted did so for
Reagan, and his 54 to 61% of the Catholic vote was the highest for a Republican candidate in history.
Mondale's 13 Electoral College votes (from his home state of Minnesota—which he won by 0.18%—and the
District of Columbia) marked the lowest total of any major presidential candidate since Alf Landon's 1936
loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Mondale's defeat was also the worst for any Democratic Party candidate in
American history in the Electoral College. Reagan Democrats helped to send Reagan to the White House
again. Many of them were made up of southern whites and northern blue collar workers. Some of them
believed in scapegoating poor and minority people for the problems of the middle class. They believed that
they had an economic recovery. Reagan lost Minnesota. By the second term of the Reagan administration,
tax reform laws were passed and other events came about.
 Cold War Developments
During the Reagan Presidency, the Cold War reached its zenith and it ended. Stalinism declined because of
many reasons. The Soviet Union extended its military aid so much in Afghanistan and in other places that
investments in domestic areas declined. Massive violations to civil liberties existed in the Soviet Union, and
protests in many Soviet areas grew up the movement to end the Soviet Union. A combination of factors
made it clear that the Soviet Union was dying. Yet, Ronald Reagan called the Soviet Union the evil empire
and claimed that the Soviets were the biggest threats on Earth. Reagan massively expanded the U.S.
military, since he wanted to combat the perception that America lost its way militarily after the Vietnam
War. He also wanted a military build up to combat the Soviets and end their existence. Reagan was overt in
wanting the Soviet Union to end starting in Eastern Europe. He always condemned Communism in his
speeches for decades. He supported covert actions to combat communism worldwide. So, Reagan sent
billions of dollars to fund B-1 bombers, B-2 bombers, MX missile systems, and SDI (Strategic Defense
Initiative using missiles to combat a nuclear attack). Reagan placed nuclear missiles in Europe which was
protested worldwide as some wanted a nuclear freeze. Reagan aided anti-Communists in Afghanistan,
Central America, etc. That is why Reagan backed the Contras. The problem with the Contras was that they
were brutal, vicious, and authoritarian.

A right wing regime in El Salvador was funded by Reagan’s people as well. El Salvador had such of a bad
human rights record that even Congress wanted funding to that nation dependent on its human rights
record. In October 25, 1983, U.S. forces invaded Grenada to stop a left wing movement from governing the
nation. The troops protected American medical students. There were controversial legal questions about
the invasion (in seeing whether it was legal or not), but most Americans supported the decision to invade
Grenada. By 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was the President of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev was a more
moderate Soviet leader and worked with Reagan to resolve Cold War issues. Gorbachev followed glasnost
and perestroika in order to have a less state ruled economy. He wanted reforms since the Soviet Union was
in economic chaos. Factories were down, and workers suffered economic tribulations. Reagan moderated
his stance on the Soviet Union. Both leaders talked about nuclear weapons in START I negotiations. Reagan
wanted the Berlin Wall to come down in his famous 1987 speech in Germany. In 1987, the Intermediate-
Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C. by President Reagan and Soviet Premier
Gorbachev. Reagan and Gorbachev toasted each other in Moscow.

By the end of the 1980’s, Eastern Europe became free from Stalinism. Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary
had democratic elections. The Berlin Wall came down in 1989. Communism soon ended in Romania and
Bulgaria by 1989. The beginning of the end of the Cold War was unexpected, quick, and it wasn’t bloodless
though. Romania was a nation with massive bloodshed involving them leaving the Soviet Union. Poland had
bloodshed too. It is no secret that the CIA and the Vatican worked together to promote the Solidarity
movement in Poland in order for Communism to end in Poland. Stalinism is antithetical to socialism since
Stalinism sought authoritarianism (i.e. workers were denied to collectively bargain, Stalin destroyed
religious buildings, and Stalin murdered independent socialist leaders) at the expense of political and social
freedoms. The Cold War finally over sent a new sense of change to people worldwide. The Cold War made
it known that the emancipation of the working class and all oppressed people must be enacted. Challenger
broke apart after launch in 1986, killing all crew on board. Drunk driving awareness raised after a drunk
driver's car crashes into a church bus near Carrollton, Kentucky, killing 27 in 1988. 1988 was the year
when Discovery launched as first post-Challenger Space Shuttle flight. In 1988, Intermediate-Range Nuclear
Forces Treaty went into effect.
 The Solidarity Day movement took
place on September 19, 1981. It
was about labor unions, civil rights
groups, and other progressives
marching for civil rights, economic
sanctions against South Africa, and
make sure that black people,
labor, and women are united in the
fight for justice. The NAACP and
the Congressional Black Caucus
plus labor officials (in about
300,000 people total) were
involved.
The 20th anniversary of the
March on Washington was
historic. It included people
among many backgrounds to
demand jobs sand freedom. It
took place on August 27, 1983.
More than 250,000 people were
at the march. To this very day, we
stare still fighting for peace,
freedom, and justice.
On August 26, 1989, The
NAACP, the United Auto
Workers, and other civil
rights plus labor rights
groups demonstrated at
Washington, D.C. to fight
the GOP’s anti-civil rights
policies. This was called the
Silent March. Reagan
especially was hostile to civil
rights policies.

Examples of Ronald Reagan’s Hostility towards Civil Rights and Social Services
1. Once, Reagan no longer let the IRS 2. U.S. Attorney General William 3. Reagan opposed the Civil Rights
to deny tax exempt status to private French Smith on May 23, 1981 said Restoration Act. Congress had
schools that discriminated on the that the Justice Department will not overridden his veto. In 1980, Reagan
basis of race. The Supreme Court pursue mandatory busing or advocate said the Voting Rights Act was
stopped this policy in 1983. affirmative action plans. "humiliating to the South.”
4. He closed many government 5. He gutted the Equal Employment 6. During the 1960’s, he opposed both
agencies, like the Office on Domestic Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting
Violence. Rights Act of 1965.
7. He or Reagan ordered the 8. The Reagan administration cut food
reduction of federal enforcement of stamps, child nutrition, and other
affirmative action policies. social services in a massive level.
 Scandals and Immigration Issues
Scandal has been a part of the lives of so many Presidents. Reagan is no exception. By the 1980’s, America
clashed with Libya. Muammar al-Qaddafi was the leader of Libya back then. Reagan accused Qaddafi of
backing terrorists worldwide. In 1986, there was a Berlin terrorist attack in a nightclub. Reagan blamed the
attack on Qaddafi, so later U.S. warplanes bombed Libya. The air raid killed one of Qaddafi’s daughters.
Qaddafi survived, and his criticism of America decreased until the future (with the Libyan vs. NATO war by
the 2010’s). Reagan was criticized in 1985 when he was accused of honoring Nazi war criminals at a
cemetery in West Germany. Reagan by February of 1985 visited a Germany military cemetery in Bitburg
and to place a wreath alongside West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Deaver was given assurances by a
German head of protocol that no war criminals were buried there. It was later determined that the
cemetery held the graves of 49 members of the Waffen-SS. What neither Deaver nor other administration
officials initially realized was that many Germans drew a distinction between the regular SS, who typically
were composed of Nazi true believers, and the Waffen-SS which were attached to military units and
composed of conscripted soldiers. That is silly since both types of troops are still Nazis. As the controversy
brewed in April 1985, Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as
themselves "victims," a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to
victims of the Holocaust. These Nazi soldiers were never victims. They were criminals period. The victims of
the Holocaust are the actual victims. Strident conservative, Roman Catholic, and Knight of Malta Pat
Buchanan (who is known to have made racist and anti-Semitic comments for decades), who was Reagan's
Director of Communications, argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual
Holocaust, but as victims of the ideology of Nazism. That is a bunch of nonsense from Buchanan, since
there were many Germans (who never joined the SS) who resisted Nazi ideology.
Now strongly urged to cancel the visit, the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a
promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl. On May 5, 1985, President Reagan and Chancellor Kohl first
visited the site of the former Nazi Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and then the Bitburg cemetery
where, along with two military generals, they did place a wreath. One of the worst parts of the Reagan
administration was their expansion of the War on Drugs. There was a crack epidemic in America. Reagan
advanced law enforcement power to jail and imprison even nonviolent drug offenders. While Reagan
wanted drug free zones, authoritarian policies followed. In 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill
that budgeted $1.7 billion (equivalent to $3.9 billion in 2018) to fund the War on Drugs and specified a
mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses. Nancy said Just Say No in dealing with drugs. The mass
incarceration state grew and militarized police occupied communities (both black and non-black
neighborhoods alike).

The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population, and critics also
charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street, while resulting in a great
financial burden for America. As the years came about, more people were imprisoned and adolescent drug
use declined. Poor communities suffered. The problems with the War on Drugs are that it harmed civil
liberties, it advanced injustices in the criminal justice system, and it lacked alternatives to help nonviolent
people with drug addiction. The Iran Contra scandal was one of the biggest scandals of the 1980’s, and it
almost ended the Reagan Presidency. The Iran Contra affair was about when the United States sold
weapons to Iran in 1985. This was done in exchange for Iran’s promise to pressure a terrorist group in
Lebanon to release some American hostages. The plan didn’t work. It was against the administration’s
policy of refusing to negotiate with terrorists. Also, the Reagan administration used the money from the
sale to fund the Contras in Nicaragua despite the fact that in 1983, Congress banned sending funds to the
Contras. The Contras were known as far right authoritarians who brutalized people in Central America. In
1986, the deals came out to the public. President Ronald Reagan admitted responsibility for the actions of
the administration, but he never admitted to directly ordering his aides to support the Contras. He opened
his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat, John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and
Edmund Muskie, respectively, to investigate the scandal. The commission could not find direct evidence
that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from
managing his staff, making the diversion of funds possible. Iran Contra almost ended Reagan’s Presidency.
Many leading administration officials and a top aide, Oliver North, were convicted on charges from the
scandal. Many of the convictions were overturned on technical grounds. Still, Reagan left office with high
approval ratings. Ronald Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. It criminalized
employers who knowingly hire or recruit undocumented immigrants while giving amnesty to about 3
million undocumented immigrants who came into the United States before January 1, 1982 and had lived in
America continuously.
Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The
legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide
in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these
men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become
Americans." Reagan also said, "The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element. It will
remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens
here." Obviously, the term of "illegal aliens" is inappropriate since undocumented immigrant is the proper
name to call human beings who are undocumented here. The economic situation by the end of Reagan’s
second term was great for the wealthy and upper middle class. Yet, the debt increased, the deficit grew,
and income inequality flourished. The second term of Ronald Reagan started on January 20, 1985 when he
was sworn into office for the second time. Staff members on his team were Chief of Staff James Baker, and
Peggy Noonan. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren E. Burger as
Chief Justice, and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert
Bork to the high court in 1987. Senator Ted Kennedy, a Democrat of Massachusetts, strongly condemned
Bork, and great controversy ensued. Bork's nomination was rejected 58–42. Reagan then nominated
Douglas Ginsburg, but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his
cannabis use. Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place. Along with his three Supreme Court
appointments, Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States courts of appeals, and 290 judges to the
United States district courts.

Early in his tenure, Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton Jr., of San Diego as the first African American
to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a
conservative direction in line with Reagan's views on social and civil rights policy during his tenure from
1981 until his sudden death in 1988. Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and
feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being "Looney Tunes.” Ronald Reagan’s
legacy has been debated to this day. He gave a voice to many conservatives, and he was a formidable
adversary towards progressive thinking. One part of Ronald Reagan's legacy would deal with economics.
The real value of the minimum wage in inflation adjusted dollars declined in 44 percent between 1981 and
1989. 32 million Americans lived beneath the poverty line by the end of the Reagan Presidency. 31.6
percent of African Americans, 26.8 percent of Latinos, and 10.1 percent of white people lived in poverty by
the end of his second term. Federal resources of minorities involving health care declined. The reactionary,
cruel legacy of the Presidency of Reagan taught us that life shouldn't revolve around the rich alone. It
revolves around the concerns of all of the people, and the government should have an active role in helping
humanity.

President George H. W. Bush

As early as 1985, then Vice President George H. W. Bush planned to run for President in 1988. He came into
the Republican primaries for President by October 1987. He had his challengers of U.S. Senator Bob Dole of
Kansas, U.S. Representative Jack Kemp of New York, former Governor Pete du Pont of Delaware, and
conservative Christian televangelist Pat Robertson. John Ashcroft was allied with George H. W. Bush too.
Bush was considered the early front-runner for the nomination, but he came in third in the Iowa caucus,
behind winner Dole and runner-up Robertson. Reagan reorganized his staff to try to win the New
Hampshire primary later. Dole was ahead in New Hampshire. Then, Bush ran television commercials to
portray Dole as a tax raiser. Bush then on the state’s primary. Following the primary, Bush and Dole had a
joint media appearance; when the interviewer asked Dole if he had anything to say to Bush, Dole said, in
response to the ads, "yeah, stop lying about my record!" in an angry tone. This is thought to have hurt
Dole's campaign to Bush's benefit. Bush continued seeing victory, winning many Southern primaries as well.
Once the multiple-state primaries such as Super Tuesday began, Bush's organizational strength and
fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match, and the nomination was his. George H.
W. Bush decided to select U.S. Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. The Democratic Primary
of 1988 had Jesse Jackson with a stronger campaign than in 1984. He won many working class voters
including many states. Other Democratic candidates in the 1988 primary were Al Gore, Paul Simon, Joe
Biden, Pat Schroeder, Gary Hart, Dick Gephardt, and other people. Jesse Jackson in his 1988 campaign won
many state primaries. He appealed to black people, socialists, feminists, community activists, and other
working class people. Yet, the Democratic Party established mistreated him. Back in those days, it was
taboo for a progressive (especially a progressive black man) to run for office without apology. Dukakis
refused to select him as his running mate, but he picked the conservative Democrat Senator and
Freemason Lloyd Bentsen. Back then, Bush was trailing Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis (then
Governor of Massachusetts) in most polls.

Bush wasn’t as eloquent as Ronald Reagan, but he gave his famous thousand points of light speech at the
1988 Republican National Convention. Back in 1988, George H. W. Bush appealed to apple pie stereotypical
themes. He wanted to promote the Pledge of Allegiance, capital punishment, gun rights, and prayer in
schools plus he opposed abortion. He is famous for saying the famous pledge: “Read my lips: no new
taxes." The campaign among Bush and Dukakis are harsh and dirty. Dukakis didn't campaign much in the
African American community until late in his campaign. Jackson's constituents were ignored by Dukakis.
Then and now, some people would rather vote against their economic interests for a conservative than a
progressive. Bush accused Dukakis of polluting the Boston Harbor as governor of Massachusetts. Dukakis
didn’t agree with a law requiring all students to say the Pledge of Allegiance. Dukakis opposed the death
penalty even if his wife was raped. Back then, that was very controversial. That position is controversial
now. Bush said that Dukakis was soft on crime. Bentsen's retort to Vice President Dan Quayle during the
1988 vice presidential debate, "You're no Jack Kennedy," has entered the lexicon as a widely used phrase to
deflate politicians who are perceived as thinking too highly of themselves. The Bush campaign showed the
infamous, racist Willie Horton aid. Dukakis’s running mate Lloyd Bentsen would late become on architect of
President Bill Clinton's economic policies. Bush won the 1988 election with 426 to 111 in the Electoral
College.

In the nationwide popular vote, Bush took 53.4% of the ballots cast while Dukakis received 45.6%. Bush
became the first serving vice president to be elected president since Martin Van Buren in 1836, as well as
the first person to succeed someone from his own party to the presidency via election to the office in his
own right since Herbert Hoover in 1929. George H. W. Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989. He saw
many changes including the end of the Cold War. He had to deal with high deficits. Bush wanted to cut
down the deficit with a balanced budget proposal. He began an effort to persuade the Democratic
controlled Congress to act on the budget. Republicans believed that the best way was to cut government
spending, and Democrats convinced that the only way would be to raise taxes. So, Bush faced problems
when it came to consensus building. Later, Bush was forced by a Democratic majority to raise tax revenues.
Many Republicans felt betrayed as he gave his “no new taxes” speech in 1988. Perceiving a means of
revenge, Republican congressmen defeated Bush's proposal, which would enact spending cuts and tax
increases that would reduce the deficit by $500 billion over five years. Scrambling, Bush accepted the
Democrats' demands for higher taxes and more spending, which alienated him from Republicans and gave
way to a sharp decrease in popularity. Bush later said that he wished that he had never signed the bill. Near
the end of the 101st Congress, the president and congressional members reached a compromise on a
budget package that increased the marginal tax rate and phased out exemptions for high-income
taxpayers. Although he originally demanded a reduction in the capital gains tax, Bush relented on this issue
as well. This agreement with the Democratic leadership in Congress proved to be a turning point in the
Bush presidency; his popularity among Republicans never fully recovered. About the time of the budget
deal, America experienced a recession lasting six months. Unemployment grew and more people had to get
on welfare. Unemployment was very high by 1991.

Bush gave unemployed workers more benefits. By his second year in office, Bush was told by his economic
advisors to stop dealing with the economy, as they believed that he had done everything necessary to
ensure his reelection. By 1992, interest and inflation rates were the lowest in years, but by midyear the
unemployment rate reached 7.8%, the highest since 1984. In September 1992, the Census Bureau reported
that 14.2% of all Americans lived in poverty. There was the Savings and Loan crisis of 1989 as well. This was
about 1,000 Savings and Loan banks failing. Some of this was because some banks used bad behavior like
promoting risky loans. Some believed that Reagan’s deregulation policies for encouraging banks to invest in
riskier actions. The federal government spent up to $200 billion to bail out depositors at the failed banks. At
a press conference in 1990, Bush told reporters that he found foreign policy more enjoyable.

The truth is that you have to deal with both domestic and foreign policy matters. He proposed the
Educational Excellence Act of 1989 to advance educational reform. He wanted public and private
involvement in improving education. On July 23, 1992, Bush signed the Higher Education Amendments of
1992, a resumption of "many programs in the Higher Education Act of 1965." George H. W. Bush wanted to
promote a more moderate image than Reagan despite his controversies. That is why he praised Nelson
Mandela, invested in HBCUs, appointed African Americans in his cabinet, and increased the budget of the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (which fights workplace discrimination). Bush praised Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr. while ignoring his condemnation of the Vietnam War, domestic poverty, and
capitalism. Bush made the mistake of trying to get William Lucas to be head of the justice Department's
civil rights division when he had lax experience (and he was very malleable to police brutality incidents
against black people when he was Wayne Couty sheriff in Michigan). George H. W. Bush loved to support
black neoconservatives not black progressives.

Also, it is important that issues of race were abundantly debated during the 1980's. There is no question
that massive hate crimes existed during the 1980's and the early 1990's (plus beyond). By the 1980's, new
feminist black scholars promoted solutions like Angela Davis and Bell Hooks. They realize that race, class,
gender, and other factors must be discussed openly if we are to transform society in order to see the
emancipation of women. A police shooting of a black man and a long system of racial oppression in Miami
inspired the 1980 Miami rebellion. During the 1980's, many colleges (like Smith, Brown, and Colby) saw the
harassment of black students involving racist graffiti, violence, and intimidation. These racist incidents
didn't just occur in the South. Violence and racist attacks against black people existed in the North,
including in New York City. On October 29, 1984, 66-year-old Eleanor Bumpurs was shot and killed by police
as they tried to evict her from her Bronx apartment. Bumpurs, who was mentally ill, was wielding a knife
and had slashed one of the officers. The shooting provoked heated debate about police racism and
brutality. In 1987, officer Stephen Sullivan was acquitted on charges of manslaughter and criminally
negligent homicide stemming from the shooting. In 1986, a white mob in Howard Beach, Queens, attacked
three African-American men whose car had broken down in the largely white neighborhood. One of the
men, Michael Griffith is chased onto Shore Parkway where he is hit and killed by a passing car. The killing
prompted several important marches through the neighborhood led by Al Sharpton. On August 23, 1989,
Yusuf Hawkins was murdered by white racists in Bensonhurst, a predominantly Italian-American working-
class neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Hawkins and three friends were attacked by
a crowd of 10 to 30 white youths, with at least seven of them wielding baseball bats. One, armed with a
handgun, shot Hawkins twice in the chest, killing him. Shortly before that march was set to begin on
January 12, 1991, Al Sharpton was stabbed and seriously wounded by Michael Riccardi in a Bensonhurst
schoolyard. Sharpton later recovered from his wounds. So, the 1980's was a very serious decade. Also,
many great activists fighting for justice existed during that time too.
President George H. W. Bush promoted the reunification of Germany. He signed major bills like the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; this was one of the most pro-civil rights bills in decades. He was
also the only president to successfully veto a civil rights act, the job-discrimination protection Civil Rights
Act of 1990. He baited that bill as promoting “racial quotas” and signed a watered down Civil Rights Act of
1991. He worked to increase federal spending for education, childcare, and advanced technology research.
He also signed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act, which provides monetary compensation of
people who had contracted cancer and a number of other specified diseases as a direct result of their
exposure to atmospheric nuclear weapons testing undertaken by the United States during the Cold War. He
reauthorized the Clean Air Act to require cleaner burning fuels. He signed a bill to aid police work. He
signed a law in growing the nation’s highway system. He signed the Immigration Act of 1990 that increased
legal immigration into America by 40 percent. On November 21, 1989, Bush signed a measure that
guaranteed reparations to Japanese-Americans who were relocated into internment camps during World
War II. Congress authorized US$20,000 (equivalent to $40,424 in 2018) for each survivor. Bush was a
member of the NRA and signed a temporary ban on the import of some semiautomatic rifles. Bush resigned
after some NRA people called agents of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms as “jack-booted
thugs.” He called the NRA letter a "vicious slander on good people." He promoted volunteerism in his
Points of Light movement. One of his most controversial acts was appointing Clarence Thomas (who was
accused of sexual harassment by Anita Hill and other women) to the Supreme Court in 1991. He appointed
David Souter in 1990. Bush removed Noriega from power after he was accused of spying for Fidel Castro
and for Noriega drug trafficking to America. 24,000 U.S. troops were sent to Panama to end Noriega’s rule.
This act was controversial. Endara assumed the President and Noriega was imprisoned.
 The Persian Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War lasted for a short period of time, but its impact existed for years and decades. It
existed in phases. On August 2, 1990 invaded the oil rich nation of Kuwait. Saddam thought that Kuwait
belonged to Iraq. Saddam was once an ally of America as America plus other Western nations funded Iraq
during the 1980’s. Bush was concerned that Saddam could possibly invade Saudi Arabia. This could harm
the economy, so Bush wanted to act. Bush condemned Saddam’s invasion and rallied an opposition to
Saddam’s action among European, Asian, and Middle Eastern allies. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney
traveled to Saudi Arabia to meet with King Fahd, who requested United States military aid in the matter,
fearing a possible invasion of his country as well. The request was met initially with Air Force fighter jets.
Iraq made attempts to negotiate a deal that would have allowed the country to take control of half of
Kuwait. Bush rejected this proposal and insisted on a complete withdrawal of Iraqi forces. President George
H. W. Bush allowed General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. to led ground operation forces in the U.S.-led coalition
to invade Iraqi forces.

Bush went into Congress to try to get Congressional authorization of air and land attacks. His objections
were the following: "Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait completely, immediately, and without condition.
Kuwait's legitimate government must be restored. The security and stability of the Persian Gulf must be
assured. And American citizens abroad must be protected." He then outlined a fifth, long-term objective:
"Out of these troubled times, our fifth objective — a new world order — can emerge: a new era — freer
from the threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace. An era
in which the nations of the world, East and West, North and South, can prosper and live in harmony ... A
world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle. A world in which nations recognize the shared
responsibility for freedom and justice. A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak." With the
United Nations Security Council opposed to Iraq's violence, Congress authorized the use of military force
with a set goal of returning control of Kuwait to the Kuwaiti government, and protecting America's interests
abroad.
On the morning of January 17, 1991, the Allied forces launched the attack. It involved more than 4,000
bombing runs by coalition aircraft. This pace would last for the next four
weeks. The ground invasion occurred on February 24, 1991. Allied forces The Aftermath of the
penetrated Iraqi lines and pushed toward Kuwait City, while on the west Persian Gulf War
side of the country, forces were intercepting the retreating Iraqi army.
Bush made the decision to stop the offensive after a mere 100 hours.
Critics labeled this decision premature, as hundreds of Iraqi forces were
able to escape; Bush responded by saying that he wanted to minimize U.S.
casualties.
Opponents further charged that Bush should have continued the attack,
pushing Hussein's army back to Baghdad, then removing him from power.
Bush explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi June 8, 1991 was the time of
the National Victory
government because it would have "incurred incalculable human and
Celebration at Washington,
political costs... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and, in D.C. to celebrate the end of the
effect, rule Iraq." That prediction would be fulfilled during the future 2003 Gulf War. In the picture above,
Iraqi invasion. The Persian Gulf War was an American victory. Bush’s President George H. W. Bush
approval ratings went into huge levels upwards. Additionally, President greets General Norman
Schwarzkopf Jr. on the parade
Bush and Secretary of State Baker felt the coalition victory had increased route.
U.S. prestige abroad and believed there was a window of opportunity to
use the political capital generated by the coalition victory to revitalize the
Arab-Israeli peace process. The administration immediately returned to
Arab-Israeli peacemaking following the end of the Gulf War; this resulted
in the Madrid Conference, later in 1991. Several Iraqi families living in
Belgium who lost loved ones in the Gulf War launched a lawsuit against
George H. W. Bush for committing what they claim are war crimes in the The Iraqi sanctions harmed
1991 Amiriyah shelter bombing in Baghdad, which killed more than 400 Iraqi men, women, and
civilians. The suit was brought under Belgium's universal jurisdiction children. Madeline Albright
made the disgraceful statement
guarantees in March 2003. According to the Human Rights Watch, the
at 60 Minutes about the Iraqi
Amiriyah shelter bombing was "a serious violation of the laws of war." sanctions being worth it when
President George H. W. Bush promoted his new world order. The political children died from them.
establishment of Republicans and Democrats during the late 1980's and
early 1990's saw a rightward trend. After the Cold War ended, George H. W. Bush's new world order vision
would be met with controversies and tests.
 The End of the Cold War
The end of the Cold War ended in a serious of surprising events. By the early 1990’s, President George H.W.
Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev had cordial conversations about foreign policy. Bush had experience in foreign
policy as being an ambassador before he was President. In August of 1991, many Communists wanted to
promote a coup to get rid of Gorbachev from power. They viewed Gorbachev as too moderate. Millions of
Russians, led by the capitalist Boris Yeltsin, defended Gorbachev and stopped the coup from taking place.
Soon, the Communist Party lost power. The Soviet Union separated into 15 independent republics. By the
end of 1991, the Soviet flag came down and the Russian flag came up. It was the end of the Soviet Union
and the birth of the Russian republic. Boris Yeltsin became the new leader of the Russian Federation. Russia
was the largest nation of the now created independent republics. Yeltsin's neoliberal capitalist policies
caused Russia to have economic problems during the 1990's. Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost inspired many
European people to rebel against Soviet control.

The policy of perestroika challenged communist rule in the Soviet Union too. The Cold War never ended by
one person alone. It ended by many factors. Reagan and Gorbachev contributed to the end of the Cold
War. Yet, ultimately the economic and political problems found in the Soviet Union caused the Soviet Union
to collapse. The Soviet Union ended from within. To many Americans, this was a miracle. Many Americans
lived their whole lives in the Cold War and now, America was the sole superpower on Earth. George H. W.
Bush signed agreements with Gorbachev and then with Boris Yeltsin. Both sides agreed to eliminate certain
nuclear weapons, and Bush plus Yeltsin issued a joint statement in 1992 to pledge friendship including
cooperation. The Cold War ended, but world problems never ceased to exist. Global problems after the
Cold War became more regional and more complexities about international affairs persisted.
 The New World Order?
For a long time, people have advocated a new world order. Mikhail Gorbachev promoted the new world
order concept via his December 7, 1988 speech to the United Nations General Assembly. We do know
many people want global government like the late Walter Cronkite. For the record, I don't believe in the
creation of a global government. The new world order in general is about the expansion of globalization
and governance in an international framework. On September 11, 1990, President George H. W. Bush gave
his famous “Toward a New World Order” speech to a joint session of Congress. This speech was never
ambiguous. It was overt in what he wanted. Bush’s new world order vision wanted: to promote U.S.
strength, cooperation among the Gorbachev plus Americans, the First World controlling the affairs of the
Third Word, Soviet integration into world economies, and a bipolar powerbase of America and the United
Nations (America acting as a global policeman and the United Nations being a global judge and jury).

His speech was very much a blueprint of neoliberalism (George H. W. Bush graduated from Yale, was a
Skulls and Bones member, he was part of the Navy during World War II, and he was the Director of the CIA.
So, he was a member of the establishment). It was basically George H. W. Bush’s view that the United
States of America must act as the unipolar force in the world as a superpower. The era of the end of the
Cold War and post-Cold War era presented new challenges in the world stage too. In Latin America, many
nations embraced democracy. Costa Rican leader Oscar Arias accepted a peace plan. There was the end of
the civil war in El Salvador. Chile had the military dictator Augusto Pinochet giving up power. Bush allowed
the capture and arrested of many drug traffickers like Eduardo Martinez Romero (he was part of the
Columbian drug trade). George H. W. Bush supported the War on Drugs, and we know how the War on
Drugs was executed in such a reactionary way that it harmed communities nationwide in America,
especially the black community. By the Spring of 1989, there were Chinese students staging pro-democracy
protests at Tiananmen Square in the heart of Beijing. The students wanted to end the government in China
to be replaced. On June 1, 1989, Chinese tanks came into Beijing. These tanks killed hundreds of protesters,
ended the demonstration, and imprisoned many pro-democracy activists.

George H. W. Bush condemned the action and ended arms sales in China. Yet, he didn’t want harsher
penalties against China. He wanted more economic and diplomatic ties instead of cutting off China
completely. During this era, the end of apartheid in South Africa started to end. The South African
government was controlled by racist whites who enacted a brutal apartheid system that exploited, harmed,
and murdered black South Africans. Apartheid is a form of rigid segregation. The anti-apartheid movement
was global by the 1980’s, and protests against apartheid grew worldwide. Many protesters divested money
from South Africa. Some Western firms did the same. Congress imposed economic sanctions against South
Africa instead of full divestment. Nelson Mandela (one major leader of the apartheid movement) was
released from jail in 1990. He was in jail since 1962. President George H. W. Bush met with Nelson Mandela
after he left jail. Bush endorsed bringing democracy in South Africa.

It is also important to acknowledge many Brothers and Sisters who helped to defeat apartheid like Steve
Biko and other human beings. Apartheid was soon gone by the early 1990’s and Nelson Mandela was the
first black South African President in 1994 after free elections. After the Cold War ended, Yugoslavia split
apart into civil war (based on land, religion, and resources). Bush didn’t want to send troops there since he
believed that it could be another Vietnam. He promoted a peace plan in Bosnia in 1992. New republics
were carved out of Yugoslavia after more than 150,000 civilians died. George H. W. Bush also intervened in
Somalia. He wanted to use humanitarianism as part of Operation Restore Hope. American Marines came
into Somalia on December of 1992. They helped to form a cease fire among rival warlords and deliver foods
to thousands of starving people. This mission reinforced UN efforts at peacekeeping. Many Somalians
received relief. This act was praised by many quarters. As the early 1990’s existed, President George H. W.
Bush would experience a series of events that caused his Presidency to end and create a new Presidency for
a moderate from the state of Arkansas.

It is very fitting to acknowledge the supreme
courage and eloquent wisdom of the late Brother
Nelson Mandela. He lived to be 95 years, and his
homecoming into Paradise existed on 2013 (when
I was 30 years old). In the midst of empire,
xenophobia, racism, and other evils going on
currently, more 100 years after his birth shows us
that we are not completely free from oppression.
Yet, we carry forth in our audacious cause for
economic and social justice. Nelson Mandela was
born in the Motherland as a member of the Xhosa
ethnic group, and he had an everlasting love for
our people. He totally loved black people. As an
intellectual and a political activist, he loved
humanity in general too. Raised as a Methodist, he
understood fully the power of social justice. His
family encouraged him to pursue a vibrant,
vigorous education.
His Beginnings
Madiba traveled the world, and he was a lawyer in
defending the rights of the oppressed. He didn't
just work with people who lived in South Africa.
He worked with human beings internationally. His
friends & allies were black people, communists,
socialists, Indians, multiracial people, biracial
people, and others who desired total freedom in
South Africa. He opposed the Pass Laws (these
laws erroneously forced black South Africans to
carry a pass everywhere that they went. Without
one, a black person could be fined or jailed. The
Defiance movement of the 1950's resisted such
evil laws).
Also, he enthusiastically advanced the Freedom Charter
which advocated for a social democratic reality
wherefore apartheid was gone completely and a South
Africa filled with equality plus justice would flourish. He
suffered too. He was arrested many times. Back during
the 1960's, the CIA monitored him, and many in
Washington viewed him as an enemy. He was placed in
prison for over 2 decades from 1964 for opposing an
unjust, racist Afrikaner apartheid government.
Afterwards, the anti-apartheid movement commenced
further with tons of other leaders like the Soweto
students and Steve Biko.
His Later Life
When he was released in 1990, the world celebrated.
Winnie Mandela also inspired him, and she opposed
injustice as well. It is always important to recognize the
Sisters like Lillian Ngoyi, Miriam Makeba, and Maria
Nkomo who used their strength to fight evil. Nelson
Mandela advanced reconciliation and compassion. His
words motivated the public to vote for him as the first
black President of South Africa in 1994. Since 1994, we
see apartheid gone (which is great), but the old
problems of neoliberal capitalism and economic
inequality persist to this day. We witness other evils, but
new activists in our generation are fighting the good
fight as well in South Africa.
Legacy
Nelson Mandela was a revolutionary who opposed the
Iraq War, defended the human rights of the Palestinian
people, and wanted HIV/AIDS medicine to be given to
those who need it. Nelson Mandela totally rejected
bigotry and bequeathed the gifts of social activism &
human justice in our minds plus in our souls. His love and
his militant gentle spirit motivate us to fight empire,
militarism, poverty, racism, sexism, xenophobia, free
market fundamentalism, and all other forms of injustices.
That is why we permanently believe in democratic rights
and in the Dream emphatically. He was a magnificent
leader and a great black man.

(May 28, 2012 - Source: Alex Wong/Getty
Images North America)
A lot of
superlatives
accurately
describe her. For more than five
decades, she has outlined a
mastery of literary prose. She has
been a writer, an editor, a
teacher, and a winner of many
awards by her own merit. She is a
black woman who paved the way
for so many modern black
American writers, and she is
strong advocate for civil rights.
She is Sister Toni Morrison.
Right now, she is 88 years old.
She was born in Lorain, Ohio.
From an early age, she always
exhibited a powerful conscious
about important issues. From
Great American Author (1891-1960)
ZORA NEALE HURSTON
Toni Morrison
has always
praised Zora
Neale Hurston as
an innovative
black woman
author who
shined a light on
the experiences
of African
Americans.
reading African American
folktales to reading books from
Jane Austen and Leo Tolstoy,
she is truly well versed in the
diversity of books. She was in the
drama club, the debate team, and
the yearbook committee while
she was in Lorain High School.
She was educated in Howard
University, which is a famous
HBCU. Sula, Beloved, and her
other novels not only describe
the lives of black people. It
showed the diversity of the black
experience in honest, complex
details. It described the pain, the
joy, and the inspiring resiliency
of Toni’s strengths.
In 1993, Toni Morrison received
the Nobel Peace Prize in
“If there is a book
that you want to
read, but it hasn't
been written yet,
you must be the one
to write it.”
-Toni Morrison
Literature. She was
the first black
woman of any
nationality to receive the prize.
Many of her papers are at
Princeton. By 2012, she received
the Presidential Medal of
Freedom from President Barack
Obama.
Genius defines her legacy, and
the world is enriched with her
glorious contributions in
literature, politics, and the
essence of human living. Genius
and incredibly glorious insights
on many matters define her
ethos. We certainly appreciate
the wit, courage, and heroism of
Toni Morrison.
 Appendix A: The Music and the Culture of the
1980’s
The music of the 1980’s included some of the most diverse, creative, and exciting displays of music not only
in the 20th century but in the history of world. Every genre of music during the 1980’s was in top form from
hip hop to gospel. Artists expressed themselves and new artists reached into new heights of popularity. The
major themes of 1980’s music were the growth of dance music, new wave, pop music, and the quiet storm.
Music and fashion combined as many musicians wanted to have the best music possible and display the
most eclectic fashion possible at the same time. Rock music grew in diversity and harmonics plus
synthesizers were commonplace. Eurodance, house, techno, electric were invented. Hip hop and R&B also
exploded in popularity. Hip hop’s golden age originated in the 1980’s. Pop music became more
international with artists like Michael Jackson, Prince, Madonna, etc. Michael Jackson’s Thriller album was
the bestselling album in history. Whitney Houston was one of the most successful artists not only in the
1980’s but of all time. Whitney Houston had a one in a lifetime voice. This decade wasn’t without
controversy. Back in the day, MTV refused to show music videos from black artists because they wanted a
rock only policy and because of racist reasons. It took protests and criticism for MTV to allow videos from
Michael Jackson, Donna Summer, and other black musicians to show their music videos on that network.
Donna Summer’s song She Works Hard for the Money was an anthem. Madonna had songs like Like a Virgin
and Like a Prayer.

Famous Movies of the 1980’s

These films were either blockbusters, shown social commentaries on issues, or were enjoyed by a wide
spectrum of human beings. The films of the 1980’s were grand, very powerful, and at times very emotional.

The Empire Strikes Back Do the Right Thing (1989) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial The Raiders of the Lost Ark
(1980) (1982) (1982)

Blade Runner (1982) Platoon (1986) The Untouchables (1987) The Terminator (1984)

Back to the Future (1985) A Soldier’s Story (1984) Full Metal Jacket (1987) The Color Purple (1985)
Whitney Houston’s debut album of “Whitney” took everyone’s breath away with her amazing talent. Back
in the 1980's, Whitney Houston toured the world and inspired future generation of artists. Phyllis Linda
Hyman (July 6, 1949 – June 30, 1995) was a singer with an amazing voice too, and she was conscious to
promote the freedom of black people. Paula Abdul hit it big in 1988 with the album Forever Your Girl. Janet
Jackson, Tina Turner, Lionel Richie, and Diana Ross, and other artists expanded their legacies into new
heights. Another teen pop wave of music grown by the early to late 1980’s with artists like New Edition,
Stacey Q, Debbie Gibson, the Bangles, George Michael, Boy George, New Kids on the Block, Expose, Laura
Branigan, etc. Prince was full of energy during this decade too. Chaka Khan won awards during the 1980’s.
Classic songs came from Melissa Morgan, Sinead O’Connor, and Bruce Springsteen expanded boundaries
with their songs. Another British explosion of artists came on the scene during the 1980’s like David Bowie,
Phil Collins, John Lennon, Billy Ocean, Paul McCartney, and Sheena Easten. Groups like Culture Club, Duran
Durban, Wham!, The Human League, the Police, etc. were popular. From the Pointer Sisters, Kool and the
Gang, Kenny Rogers, and John Mellencamp, the diversity of 1980’s music was incredible. Rock music split
into many genres from soft rock, hard rock, glam metal, etc. Alternative rock grew because of independent
record labels and artists finding their own way. Groups like REM, etc. spread independent rock. U2 is a rock
group from Ireland that still sell music since the 1980's and their messages resonate to this day.
Independent artists like Tracy Chapman exposed the evils of poverty and discrimination going on in
everyday life.

Rhythm and blues music had artists like Jermaine Jackson, James Ingram, the S.O.S. Band, Stevie Wonder,
Smokey Robinson, Jeffery Osborne, Evelyn King, Marvin Gaye, the Jets, DeBarge, Midnight Star, Stephanie
Mills, Jody Watley, and I can go down the list. The quiet storm genre included people like Anita Baker,
Teddy Pendergrass, Peabo Bryson, Sade, and other people. By the late 1980’s, Teddy Riley invented new
jack swing that merge hip hop and R&B influences together. This was in embraced by Bobby Brown, Keith
Sweat, MC Hammer, Guy, etc. Hip Hop branched out by the 1980’s. Whodini, Sugarhill Gang, Doug E. Fresh,
Biz Markie, the Furious Five, Grandmaster Flash, Melle Mel came about to show rhymes that moved the
crowds. Turntables, graffiti, and rhyming flourished. Melle Mel and Duke Boote’s “The Message” was social
conscious and it was hardcore. By the mid to late 1980’s, hip hop had more conscious content, more adult
language, and a more complex lyricism with artists like Rakim, Big Daddy Kane, MC Lyte, EPMD, Salt N Pepa,
Ice T, Schooly D, Slick Rick, NWA, and other artists. Dance music and country music dominated the charts
too. From heavy metal to pop, the music of the 1980’s had a smorgasbord of talent. Back then, you had to
have talent to get into the door.
The culture of the 1980’s was diverse too. TV shows became more about the lives of ordinary people not
just the rich. Steve Jobs and Bill Gates expanded the computer industry by hard work and collaborations.
1981 was the year when the IBM personal computer was released. The 1980’s had a high volume of
consumerism and unfortunately materialism. More people relied on credit cards to buy items. Back in the
day, very few people relied on credit cards for buying everything. Since the 1980’s, people use credit cards
to buy items constantly. Atari, Nintendo, and Genesis flourished during the 1980’s. Worldwide,
technological advances existed while income inequality grew. This time saw many nations embrace
neoliberalism or laissez faire capitalism. Many multinational corporations (that deals with the
manufacturing industry) relocated to Thailand, Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan, China, and other places. Gene
therapy was invented. Studio films dominated the 1980’s like Ordinary People (1980), Chariots of Fire
(1981), Gandhi (1982), Terms of Endearment (1983), Amadeus (1984), Out of Africa (1985), Platoon (1986),
The Last Emperor (1987), Rain Man (1988), and Driving Miss Daisy (1989). One of the most well-known
films was the Color Purple which starred Whoopi Goldberg, Danny Glover, and Oprah Winfrey. It was
released in 1985 and described life among African Americans in the Deep South. It showed taboos of early
20th century America on the issues of: domestic violence, incest, pedophilia, poverty, racism, and sexism.
Celie is transformed as she finds her self-worth through the help of two strong female companions. It was
directed by Steven Spielberg. ET, Return of the Jedi, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Batman, Rain Man,
Top Gun, and Beverly Hills Cops sold tons of money. Teenager movies were common.

Many films and television shows propelled the careers of modern celebrities such as Phylicia Rashad,
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Bruce Willis, Margaret Avery, Debbie Allen, Eddie Murphy, Mel Gibson, Sylvester
Stallone and Chuck Norris to international recognition. On the other side of the globe, Hong Kong action
cinema was being revolutionized by a new wave of inventive filmmakers that includes Jackie Chan, Tsui
Hark, and John Woo. Involving television, BET was born in the 1980’s. It was the first network whose shows
were geared to black people. It continues to this day. BET or Black Entertainment Television in 2019 has a
large comeback with movies and documentaries dealing with Soul Train, New Edition, criminal justice
issues, and other topics. MTV expanded music videos as well. The 1980’s in many cases carried over many
shows from the 1970’s like the Jeffersons, and Happy Days. Also, new shows were born during the 1980's
like Matlock, 227, Murder She Wrote, the Cosby Show, Designing Women, Roseanne, Full House, Family
Matters, The Simpsons, Amen, Head of the Class, Quantum Leap, etc. The 1980’s saw a transformation of
television too. The 1980’s brought cable television into the forefront of viewership.

BET being 40 is about Black Excellence,

Black Culture, and Black History.

Track and field legend
Carl Lewis won four
gold medals in the
1984 Summer
Olympics: the 100m,
200m, 4 X 100m relay,
and the long jump. His
65 consecutive
victories in the long
jump achieved over a
span of 10 years is one
of the sport's longest
undefeated streaks.
Jackie Joyner Kersee is one of the Evelyn Ashford (who was
greatest athletes in human history. born at Shreveport,
She won silver in the 1984 Louisiana) won gold in the
100m race at the 1984
Olympics for the heptathlon. She
Summer Olympics at the
would win gold in the heptathlon in
Memorial Coliseum. This
the 1988 Summer Olympics at image is made by John W.
Seoul. Her legendary track and field McDonough /Sports
career and her philanthropy are Illustrated/Getty Images.
inspiring. Evelyn Ashford would have a
great track and field career.
The historic 1984 Summer Olympics modernized a lot of the
culture of athletics. It had expert competitors, and it was hosted
in America. It was very successful culturally and financially. It
gave voice to many athletes who wanted to express their talent in
a grand fashion. 35 years later, we are still inspired by this
sacrosanct event.

Great athlete Rafer

Johnson lit the Olympic
flame at Los Angeles in
1984.
The gold medal winning 1984
Nawal El Moutawakel Legendary
USA basketball team included
Sister Valerie Brisco-Hooks from Morocco was the swimmer
some future Hall of Famers
won three gold medals at first Muslim from the Greg Louganis
and later Dream Team
the 1984 Summer continent of Africa to win won many
winners too in 1992.
Olympics in the 200m, the a gold medal in the 400m gold medals
400m, and the 4 X 400m hurdles during the 1984 involving
relay. Today, she is a Ulrike
Summer Olympics. Nasse- platform
great track and field
coach. Meyfarth diving.
won gold
Her gold medal was a at the The USA
historic win as Mary high team won 83
Lou Retton was the jump. gold medals
first-ever American during the
woman to win the all- 1984
Edwin Moses won gold in the 400m
around gold medal at Summer
the Olympics. hurdles and has a great career. Olympics.
Shows like HBO and Showtime including ESPN brought in tons of new viewers. Satellite services allowed
people in rural areas to have access to cable television. The 1980's also saw the debut of prime-time soap
operas such as Dallas, its spin-off Knots Landing, Dynasty, Falcon Crest, EastEnders and Neighbours. Phil
Donahue, Geraldo, Johnny Carson, Arsenio Hall, and David Letterman had their own talk shows. The Oprah
Winfrey Show started in the 1980’s and she expanded her wealth into a billion dollar empire (with the
OWN Network, etc.).

Connie Carpenter-Phinney is a retired The 4 X 100m USA women relay Florence Griffith
cyclist. She won the gold medal in team made great history in the Joyner was one of
individual road race during the 1984 1984 Summer Olympics. Their the greatest track
Summer Olympics at Los Angeles. names are Alice Brown, Jeanette athletes in human
Bolden, Chandra history. She won
Cheerseborough, and Evelyn silver in the 200m in
Ashford. They were a great team the 1984 Summer
made up of magnificent black Olympics at Los
women. Angeles. She won 3
gold medals in the
1988 Summer
Olympics at Seoul,
South Korea.
 Diana Ross has a New Edition inspired future Atlantic Starr was a great James Ingram had one Phyllis Hyman was a
great work ethic bands like Blackstreet and unit of talented human of the greatest male conscious,
from the Supremes NEXT. beings. voices in history. underrated singer
to her solo career. who loved black
people.

Whitney Houston Shalamar, with Jeffery Daniel, Miki Howard is from Mary Vesta Williams Lionel Richie was in
had a one in a Jody Watley and Howard Chicago, and her life had a sound that was the Commodores
lifetime voice. Hewitt, expressed classics. reflects courage. just magnificent. and has an excellent
career.

Janet Jackson’s Chaka Khan is a person with Peaches and Herb was a Melba Moore has Frankie Beverly &
songs and dancing great wisdom and with group whose legacy has talent in singing, Maze is a group with
defined a excellent classics as a spanned decades. theater, and other timeless music found
generation. performer. endeavors. in our lives

Midnight Star was Debarge is a family filled with Stephanie Mills is a loyal Soul II Soul had dance Anita Baker (of quiet
powerful with their outstanding artists. person with a clear vision music, soul music, and storm), has so many
songs. to show her music to the just excellent singing. exceptional songs.
world.
 In terms of sports, Americans won many games in the 1984 Olympics. Also, the 1980’s saw Michael Jordan
in the NBA to make records and amaze crowds. Michael Jordan came into the NBA by 1984 and the NBA
would never be the same again. Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul Jabbar, Dr. J, Larry Bird, and other athletes
won championships during the 1980’s. Michael Jordan contributed to the increase of the popularity of
basketball in the United States and worldwide. On November 26, 1986, Mike Tyson became the youngest
boxing Heavyweight Champion in history at age 20. In the NFL, the San Francisco 49ers became the dynasty
of the decade, winning four Super Bowls under the leadership of Joe Montana; the Chicago Bears won
Super Bowl XX in January 1986, in which the team has been widely remembered for their defense; the
Washington football team also enjoyed success throughout the decade, winning two of their three Super
Bowls under the leadership of head coach Joe Gibbs.

Magic Johnson and Larry Bird became the two most popular NBA players during the decade while even
facing against each other in three NBA Finals (1984, 1985, and 1987) continuing the storied Celtics-Lakers
rivalry. Jackie Joyner Kersee won track and field awards during the 1980's and beyond. Jackie Joyner Kersee
is one of the greatest athletes in human history. Flo Jo won Olympic medals too in the 1984 and 1988
Olympic Games in Los Angeles and Seoul respectively. Flo Jo was the greatest woman sprinter in history. As
for hair, there were the perm, the mullet, the Jheri curl, the hi-top fade, and big hair in the 1980’s. The
1980’s saw shoulder pads, jean jackets, leather pants, etc. The Rubik’s cube has been defined as a 1980’s
cultural icon. The 1980’s was the decade of my birth as I was born in 1983. I remember the 1980’s as a child
in elementary school, and it’s a decade with a lot of dynamic power and creative energy.

By Timothy

U2 is an Irish band with R.E.M. is an Aerosmith started in The all women group Duran Duran started
Larry Mullen Jr., the independent band Boston, and they were of the Bangles started at Birmingham, UK as
Edge, Bono, and Adam created in the South at part of the hard rock, out in Los Angeles, part of the English new
Clayton. They were Athens, Georgia. It was blues rock, and glam California. They were wave. Their style
formed in Dublin back in created by drummer metal of the 1980’s. created in 1981 with influences future
1976. Their music focuses Bill Gerry, guitarist They started in the year hits like “Walk Like an bands. Many of their
on philosophical and Peter Buck, of 1970. Perry and Egyptian”, “Manic videos were featured
spiritual themes. Their bassist/back vocalist Hamilton, originally in Monday,” and “Eternal on MTV as part of the
1987 album, “The Joshua Mike Mills, and lead a band together called Flame.” second British invasion
Tree” made them popular vocalist Michael Stipe. the Jam Band, met up of the U.S. during the
internationally. They are pioneers of with Tyler, Kramer, 1980’s.
alternative rock. and guitarist Ray
Tabano, and formed
Aerosmith. In 1971,
Tabano was replaced
by Whitford.
Throughout the 1980’s and
beyond, the rubric’s cube
was played by people from
across ages. It grew the
intellectual curiosities of so
many human beings in the
world.
The 1980’s saw massive
changes in involving how
the world transformed
itself. It was a time of
innovative and excellent
talent.
The boom box blasted The jerry curl was a very The fashion of the 1980’s
music from hip hop to jazz. common hair style of the was diverse and focused
It defined the culture of 1980’s. African Americans on creativity. Here, Salt N
Americans and other definitely utilized this Pepa are rocking their
humans from diverse style of hair fashion in clothing with style and
nationalities. everyday life. confidence.
Here are some parts of
the 1980’s that
The essence represented much of
that decade’s breadth
plus total cultural
of the 1980’s power.

Modern day video games
came out during the 1980’s
like Nintendo, Atari, and
Commodore.
Steve Jobs helped to The Adidas fashion style Anita Baker here is having
propel Appel to rise into from shoes to jackets. her great concert in 1987.
the next level. This Apple Fashion involving clothes The music of the 1980’s
PC in the 1980’s were heavily powerful was transcendent and
revolutionized computer during the 1980s. extremely talented. The
technology. It allowed concert has her playing
more people to have the piano too. Anita
better access to computer Baker’s voice and stage
technology. presence are incredible.

The Live Aid concert raised about $127 million in order to stop the famine in Ethiopia. The concert took
place in 1985. The event was organized by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure. The ceremony took place in the
UK and Philadelphia. 1.5 billion people watched the pop and rock acts in the Live Aid concert.
 Eric B and Rakim
expanded the power of hip
in sounds, lyricism, and the
essence of the harmony.
Rakim is one of the greatest
lyricists of all time too.
Native Tongues is a group
of hip hop artists who
promoted pro-black
Afrocentric themes, love of
hip hop, and other positive
themes. The members
include the Jungle
Brothers, De La Soul, and
A Tribe Called Quest.
Monie Love, Queen
Latifah, and Black Sheep
worked with them too.
Kool G Rap Queen Latifah is a
influenced artists woman who is a hip From 1986 to 1994, the Golden Age of hip hop
like Jay Z, Nas, hop artist, singer, and existed. It was a time where a diverse array of
and other people. actress. She created a music transpired. Many legendary artists from
He is another talk show, and her Arrested Development to EPMD used sampling,
innovator who songs deals with great content, and great sounds to get their
told stories about women empowerment points across. Slick Rick, KRS-One, Juice Crew,
urban life. and themes of Beastie Boys, Will Smith, MC Hammer, Kid N
promoting community. Play, and other artists were in this era of time.
Ice T has always NWA was one of the Public Enemy is a hip LL Cool J is one of
been an early most controversial hop group that talked the most versatile
promoter of groups in hip hop about conscious issues. hip hop artists of
hardcore hip hop. history. They used It was accepted by all time. He could
His lyrics describe language that exposed many communities. The rap with pop
about the streets police brutality and major members of the references, do
and the promoted self- group were Professor battle rap, do
consequences of expression. They were Griff, Flavor Flav, lyricism, and deal
what doing the right that police Terminator X, Chuck D, with songs that are
wrong thing can brutality is wrong and and Keith Shocklee. universally
lead into (which is confronting the evils in talented. He is
total destruction). the community is from Queens,
important. They were NYC.
wrong in their
language disrespecting
women and
glamorizing unjust
violence.
Monie Love is Run DMC is the
from the United greatest hip hop group
Kingdom and has of the 1980’s. They had
been a hip hop style, messages, and the
artist for years. inspiration to make
She is a radio history involving hip
Grandmaster Flash
commentator too. hop in many ways.
is a genius DJ. His
They broke down
actions represent
barriers too.
the essence of the
Golden Age of Hip
Hop.
Joan Collins with her shoulder
pads, silhouettes, and other
clothing represented much of
women’s fashion during the
1980’s.
Princess Diana is known for her
fashion style with long dresses,
hats, shoulder pads, and her own
unique style. Princess Diana was
more than being in the Royal’s
circles. She was a prominent
social activist.
Prince in 1985 had long hair,
wore eclectic clothing, and
played instruments constantly.
Purple Rain was an album from
him that defined his voice and
agenda.
The supermodel Beverly Johnson
helped future black models to
express themselves. She is on the
VOGUE cover in 1981 (above)
with elegant fashion from
earrings to great clothing.
Grace Jones redefined fashion in
many ways from her suits, her
hair cut, and her creative spirit.
She showed the world that
femininity is not monolithic, and
she is entitled to be free to
express herself.
Cyndi Lauper in the 1984
Grammys had long hair, beads,
and a hair band. She is famous
for her songs like, “Girls Want to
Have Fun” and her philanthropy.
Pat Cleveland is another
supermodel with winter type of
clothing. She has modeled since
the 1970’s with international
success.
Kid N Play (who was a great hip
hop group) promoted the high
top fade constantly. This was the
style in the 1980’s and the early
1990’s. Even to this day in 2019,
high top fades have made a large
comeback.
Air Jordan One (from 1985) was a
shoe that is filled with aesthetic
power, and it motivated sneaker
design creativity in many ways.
For over 50 years, Diahann
Carroll has been a genius of
fashion, acting, and social
activism. She is wearing this
elegant clothing, and she was
part of the Dynasty show during
the 1980’s.
The jeans, the necklaces, and the
rebellious mentality of Madonna
were common among many
young people. She became a
superstar by the 1980’s and
continues to be an artist filled
with accomplishments.
Patti Labelle is an icon of fashion
and music of the 1980’s. Her long
dresses, her long hair, and her
spirit have always been about
showing the gift of music to the
people.
 The Growth of the NBA
The 1980’s Era

Dynamic Events of the NBA

Michael Jordan in 1984 came The Lakers won the NBA

into the NBA and later Championship in 1987 being
became the Rookie of the one of the greatest NBA teams
Year. He would go on to be in history with leaders like
the GOAT. Magic and Kareem.

The Boston Celtics won their David Stern is probably the

title in 1984 after a long 7
games series. The Lakers-
Celtics rivalry was one of the
greatest rivalries in NBA
history.
greatest NBA commissioner in
NBA history. He helped to
accelerate the popularity of
the game of basketball
internationally.

Isaiah Thomas and the Michael Jordan won the 1988

Detroit Pistons won the 1989 slam dunk completion in
NBA Finals in a stirring Chicago. He amazed crowds
fashion. and inspired creativity.
Soon, the information from the end of the Cold War to the historic
election of President Barack Obama will be shown. The next part of
the United States series outlines the further technological
developments of the world, the ongoing war on terror, and the
revolutionary changes that existed during the late 20th and early 21st
centuries.