AMBER

Window to the Past

AMBER
Window to the Past

David A. Grimaldi

Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, in association with

the American Museum of Natural History

TO THE LADIES IN MY LIFE:
KAREN, REBECCA, AND LITTLE EMILY

Page 2: True scorpion. Dominican amber, 3x4". Private collection Editor: Harriet Whelchel
Designer: Maria Learmonth Miller

Page 6: Chest. Replica of seventeenth-century German design, made Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
c. 1880 in Munich for Arnold Buffum by Fritz von Muller, director
Grimaldi, David A.
of the Academy of Art in Munich. Height 18 ". Courtesy, Museum of
Amber: window to the past / by David A. Grimaldi.
Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of William Arnold Buffum, 02.86
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
The body of the chest is of ebony and silver gilt, with "windows"
ISBN 0-8109-1966-4 (Abrams: doth) /0-8109-2652-0 (Mus. pbk)
of transparent amber medallions, cut in profiles and portraits,
1. Amber. 2. Amber art objects. I. Title.
inserted. The amber has been called Sicilian but is most likely Baltic.
QE391.A5G76 1996
553.2'9-dc20

Page 7: Man carrying a burden. China, eighteenth century or earlier.
Height 3.2". American Museum of Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.2584
The figure is carved from a single piece of clear yellow amber, the base
from another piece of similar color.
Copyright © 1996 American Museum of Natural History
Published in 1996 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York
A Times Mirror Company
No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced without
the written permission of the publisher
Printed and bound in Japan
 CONTENTS

Preface a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

AMBER IN NATURE I1

Origins and Properties 12

Resins 14
Copal 16
Deposits of the World 21
T h e Era o f t h e D i n o s a u r s : M e s o z o i c A m b e r 21
Tertiary Deposits 38
Baltic A m b e r 47
Dominican and Mexican A m b e r 62
F r o z e n in t h e Act 79
A n c i e n t C o m m u n i t i e s : R e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e A n c i e n t D o m i n i c a n A m b e r Forest 98
Intricate P r e s e r v a t i o n 117
Ancient DNA, Evolution, and Suspended Animation 126
P r o c e s s e d A m b e r , I m i t a t i o n s , a n d Forgeries 133

AMBER IN ART 143

Mesolithic P e r i o d t o t h e B r o n z e A g e 145
Amber a m o n g the Ancients 149
Medieval a n d R e n a i s s a n c e A m b e r 160
Seventeenth-Nineteenth-Century European Amber 166
The Amber Room 186
Asian A m b e r s 194

Selected B i b l i o g r a p h y 209
Index 211
Photograph/Illustration Credits 216
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

e i n g a scientist h a d b e e n a g o a l of m i n e ever since I w a s a child, b u t it was

JD n o t until I w a s an u n d e r g r a d u a t e t h a t I realized o n e c o u l d actually do science
for a living (albeit t h e m a i n r e w a r d b e i n g p e r s o n a l , n o t at all m o n e t a r y ) . I was
i n t e r e s t e d in all a s p e c t s of n a t u r a l history, a n d d e e p l y so in fossils a n d insects.
In my first y e a r as a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t at C o r n e l l , I m e t J a k e B r o d z i n s k y a n o t e d
d e a l e r o f insects fossilized i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , w h o s h o w e d m e t h e variety o f
life p r e s e r v e d in t h a t s u b s t a n c e . All o t h e r fossils j u s t s e e m e d r e n d e r e d flat in
r o c k s . T h e fascination h a s g r o w n ever since, a n d I have a r d e n t l y collected a m b e r
in various parts of N o r t h and Central America (including the Caribbean). As
I l e a r n e d m o r e a b o u t a m b e r , I g r a d u a l l y c a m e to realize h o w few specialists
t h e r e are a b o u t a m b e r i n g e n e r a l . A s a m u s e u m c u r a t o r , a n d s o m e w h a t o u t o f
necessity, I h a v e b e e n involved in s t u d i e s on t h e chemistry, paleontology, and
p r o v e n a n c e of a m b e r , a n d it h a s b e e n a delightfully eclectic p u r s u i t .

T h e i n s p i r a t i o n for this b o o k c a m e f r o m a desire to p r o d u c e a lavishly illus-

t r a t e d v o l u m e o n t h e e n t i r e s p e c t r u m o f a m b e r . T h e text, o f course, s h o u l d b e
a c c u r a t e a n d i n f o r m a t i v e , b u t t h e i m a g e s s h o u l d s p e a k for themselves. A h i g h
s t a n d a r d for p h o t o g r a p h s w a s set b y D i e t e r Schlee a t t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r -
k u n d e i n S t u t t g a r t . T h e s e b e a u t i f u l p h o t o g r a p h s , w h i c h w e r e published i n
t h e S t u t t g a r t e r B e i t r a g e series, are o f w o n d r o u s fossil a n d mineralogical pieces
o f a m b e r , b u t t h e b o o k l e t s are i n G e r m a n a n d n o t easily o b t a i n e d . W h e n t h e
A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y l a u n c h e d a n exhibit o n the n a t u r a l
h i s t o r y a n d artistry of a m b e r , o p e n i n g in M a r c h 1996, it w a s a p r i m e o p p o r t u n i t y
to p r o d u c e s u c h a b o o k , w h i c h w o u l d be a g u i d e for d e v e l o p i n g as well as
e n j o y i n g t h e exhibit.

Various b o o k s w r i t t e n o n a m b e r fulfill specific n e e d s . T h e g e n e r a l b o o k s b y

P a t t y Rice a n d H e l e n F r a q u e t have texts t h a t are well r e s e a r c h e d a n d informative.
Likewise, t h e r e are several a c a d e m i c b o o k s o n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g y o f a m b e r ,
s u c h as t h e o n e s by Sven L a r s s o n a n d G e o r g e Poinar. Yet, s o m e t h i n g w a s still
n e e d e d t o k i n d l e t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n vis-a-vis c a p t i v a t i n g i m a g e s . Several
scholarly w o r k s o n a m b e r i n a r t are i n f o r m a t i v e b u t are v e r y focused o n specific
collections, such as Marjorie Trusted's catalogue of the collection of E u r o p e a n
a m b e r s i n t h e Victoria a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , D . E . S t r o n g ' s c a t a l o g u e o f t h e
a n c i e n t a m b e r s i n t h e British M u s e u m , a n d Alfred R o h d e ' s g r e a t 1937 classic
o n t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n d e c o r a t i v e arts. P e r h a p s t h e closest
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e i s Gisela R e i n e k i n g v o n Bock's 1981 b o o k , b u t

8 • Preface
it has m o r e black-and-white t h a n color p h o t o g r a p h s , is mostly about E u r o p e a n
d e c o r a t i v e objects, a n d is available only in G e r m a n .
A s m e d i u m s b o t h f o r objets d ' a r t a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x t i n c t o r g a n i s m s
w i t h u n p a r a l l e l e d f i d e l i t y , a m b e r a n d resins fall i n t o t h e i r o w n c a t e g o r y o f
s u b s t a n c e s . Science c a n s o m e t i m e s r e d u c e t h e m y s t i q u e of a subject. In t h e case
o f a m b e r , c u r r e n t scientific i n q u i r y has actually a d d e d m o r e r o m a n c e t o a n
a l r e a d y mystical s u b s t a n c e .
A n A m e r i c a n fascination w i t h a m b e r h a s b e e n fueled b y v a r i o u s scientific
discoveries t h a t have b e e n w i d e l y p o p u l a r i z e d , m a n y o f t h e m h a v i n g b e e n m a d e
at the American M u s e u m of Natural History It is my hope that the present
b o o k a n d the exhibit will h e l p t o m a k e t h a t fascination g r o w .

A b o o k like this c a n n o t b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h o u t t h e h e l p a n d c o o p e r a t i o n o f
m a n y t a l e n t e d p e o p l e . It is a p l e a s u r e to t h a n k t h e following individuals for t h e i r
help, especially (at t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) D e n i s F i n n i n
a n d j a c k l y n Beckett i n t h e P h o t o g r a p h y S t u d i o a n d P r e s i d e n t a n d C h a i r m a n
E m e r i t u s o f t h e A M N H , R o b e r t G o e l e t , for his p e r s o n a l g e n e r o s i t y i n
sponsoring a m b e r research; and n u m e r o u s others w h o helped in a great variety
o f w a y s : Dr. H e r b e r t A x e l r o d , E d Bridges, J o e P e t e r s , S a r a h C o v i n g t o n , J o e l
Sweimler, D o n Clyde, B a r b a r a C o n k l i n , S a m Taylor, G e r a r d C a s e , J u l i a n Stark,
Linda K r a u s e , H a n k Silverstein, Lisa Stillman, D o n n a E n g l u n d , a n d Bea
Brewster. W i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f a n d t a l e n t a t t h e M u s e u m this w o r k w o u l d
have b e e n m u c h m o r e difficult. M u c h o f m y scientific r e s e a r c h o n a m b e r h a s
b e e n g e n e r o u s l y s p o n s o r e d b y a g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n .

I a m also i n d e b t e d t o p e o p l e a t o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d v a r i o u s p r i v a t e indi-
viduals, especially E t t o r e a n d R e m o M o r o n e , for t h e i r g r a c i o u s s u p p o r t a n d h e l p
i n s t u d y i n g t h e i r w o n d r o u s collection; D i e t e r S c h l e e - ( M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e ,
S t u t t g a r t ) ; S u s a n H e n d r i c k s o n ; A l e x a n d e r S h e d r i n s k y ( N e w York University
Institute o f Fine Arts); a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t o r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s a t t h e M u s e u m
o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n , w h o w o r k e d v e r y h a r d t o p r e p a r e t h e Buffum C o l l e c t i o n
for this b o o k a n d t h e e x h i b i t i o n . T h e s u p p o r t o f Dr. A n n e P o u l e t a n d Janis
Staggs at t h e M u s e u m of Fine A r t s is d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
T h e r e are n u m e r o u s o t h e r s w h o a r r a n g e d for l o a n s o r c o n t r i b u t e d i n f o r m a -
tion: Faya C a u s i ( W a s h i n g t o n D.C.); A n d r e w Ross, R i c h a r d Fortey, a n d A n d r e w
Clark ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; J o h n C o o p e r ( B o o t h M u s e u m ,
Brighton); Ivan S a u t o v ( E k a t e r i n i n s k y Palace M u s e u m , St. P e t e r s b u r g ) ; C r i s t i n a
Piacenti ( M u s e o degli A r g e n t i , F l o r e n c e ) ; M a r j o r i e T r u s t e d (Victoria a n d A l b e r t
M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; V l a d i m i r Z h e r i k h i n a n d Yuri P o p o v ( P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l
Institute, M o s c o w ) ; W i l l i a m C r e p e t a n d R u d o l f M e i e r ( C o r n e l l University);
J u d i t h a n d M i c h a e l S t e i n h a r d t ; J a m e s W a t t , J o a n M e r t e n s , a n d Claire V i n c e n t
( M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f Art); S u s a n a P a n c a l d o , Shelby W h i t e , a n d L e o n Levy; Overleaf: Portions of three contour or
and Laura Siegel ( R o b e r t H a b e r Gallery, N e w York). flight feathers. Length of amber 1.5".
Private collection
To all I o w e d e e p t h a n k s .

Preface • 9
AMBER

IN

NATURE
 ORIGINS AND PROPERTIES

T he w o r d amber can h a v e m a n y associations. It is n o t a m i n e r a l b u t is used

a s a n d called a s e m i p r e c i o u s s t o n e . T h e oldest a n d m o s t c o n t i n u o u s use o f
it, in fact, is for a d o r n m e n t . A l t h o u g h it is a n c i e n t t r e e resin, a m b e r is n o t exactly
fossilized. W e often t h i n k o f fossils a s b e i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f extinct o r g a n i s m s ,
like d i n o s a u r b o n e s , a n d i m p r e s s i o n s o f ferns, leaves, a n d insect w i n g s i n rocks.
U n l i k e t h e s e k i n d s o f fossils, w h i c h are usually m i n e r a l r e p l a c e m e n t s o f t h e
o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e , a m b e r i s e n t i r e l y o r g a n i c ; its c o m p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e original
resin h a s c h a n g e d little over m i l l i o n s o f years. E v e n t h e i n c l u s i o n s o f tiny
o r g a n i s m s i n a m b e r are strikingly intact. T h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s p o n s e from
p e o p l e w h o h a v e s e e n t h e i r first a m b e r fossil i s o n e a l m o s t o f disbelief t h a t
s o m e t h i n g so old c o u l d be so beautifully p r e s e r v e d . Exquisite p r e s e r v a t i o n is a
n a t u r a l p r o p e r t y o f c e r t a i n k i n d s o f resins, a l t h o u g h t h e p r o c e s s i s n o t
u n d e r s t o o d v e r y well.
H u n d r e d s of deposits of a m b e r occur a r o u n d the world, most of t h e m in
t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s . O n e w o u l d f i n d a m b e r i n a n y place w h e r e t h e h a r d e n e d resin
o f v a r i o u s extinct p l a n t s w o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d , b u t special c o n d i t i o n s are r e q u i r e d
t o p r e s e r v e this s u b s t a n c e over m i l l i o n s o f years, a n d only occasionally has
a m b e r s u r v i v e d i n q u a n t i t i e s large e n o u g h t o b e m i n e d . T h e r e exist o n l y a b o u t
t w e n t y s u c h rich d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e d e p o s i t s v a r y g r e a t l y
in a g e . It is a c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t a m b e r is exclusively t h e fossilized
resin of p i n e s ; in fact, a m b e r w a s f o r m e d by v a r i o u s conifer t r e e s (only a few of
t h e m a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o pines), a s well a s b y s o m e t r o p i c a l b r o a d - l e a v e d
trees. O r i g i n s o f specific a m b e r d e p o s i t s are p r e s e n t e d i n detail l a t e r i n this b o o k .

Most deposits of amber are in marine

sediments. Buoyant in water, resin
would have floated down rivers with
logs and fallen trees and eventually
become stranded and concentrated
on the shores. Sediments gradually
covered the hardened resin, logs, and
branches. Over thousands to millions
of years, the wood became lignite
and the resin turned to amber.

12 • Amber in Nature
 Geological time scale, showing the periods
relevant to the formation of amber

A m b e r i s a l m o s t always p r e s e r v e d i n a s e d i m e n t t h a t f o r m e d t h e b o t t o m
o f a n a n c i e n t l a g o o n o r river d e l t a a t t h e e d g e o f a n o c e a n o r sea. T h e specific
gravity o f solid a m b e r i s o n l y slightly h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f w a t e r ; a l t h o u g h i t d o e s
n o t float, it is b u o y a n t a n d easily c a r r i e d by w a t e r ( a m b e r w i t h air b u b b l e s is
even m o r e b u o y a n t ) . T h u s , a m b e r w o u l d b e c a r r i e d d o w n r i v e r w i t h logs f r o m
fallen a m b e r t r e e s a n d cast u p a s b e a c h drift o n t h e s h o r e s o r i n t h e s h a l l o w s o f
t h e delta i n t o w h i c h t h e river e m p t i e s . O v e r t i m e , s e d i m e n t s w o u l d g r a d u a l l y
b u r y t h e w o o d a n d resin. T h e resin w o u l d b e c o m e a m b e r , a n d t h e w o o d a
b l a c k e n e d , charcoal-like lignite.

A m b e r i s often p r e s e r v e d this w a y b e c a u s e , u n l e s s p r o t e c t e d , t h e surface o f

a m b e r reacts w i t h o x y g e n i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d , over m a n y years, d e v e l o p s a n
o p a q u e c r u s t . G i v e n e n o u g h t i m e , t h e e n t i r e p i e c e will c r u m b l e a w a y D e n s e ,
w e t s e d i m e n t s o f clay a n d s a n d are v i r t u a l l y d e v o i d o f o x y g e n a n d p r e s e r v e
a m b e r e x t r e m e l y well. Today, m o s t a m b e r i s f o u n d b y s e a r c h i n g for lignite i n
the s a n d s t o n e s , l o o s e shales, a n d m u d s t o n e r e m a i n s o f deltaic s e d i m e n t s . A rich
a m b e r d e p o s i t is t h u s a c o m b i n a t i o n of f o r t u i t o u s factors i n v o l v i n g c o n c e n -
t r a t i o n of t h e a m b e r , a p p r o p r i a t e burial, as w e l l as a forest n e a r b y t h a t p r o d u c e d
large q u a n t i t i e s of t h e right k i n d of resin.

Amber in Nature • 13
 Resins

It is ironic t h a t s u c h a b e a u t i f u l a n d mystical s u b s t a n c e as a m b e r is also o n e t h a t

is p r o b a b l y j u s t a b y - p r o d u c t of t r e e s d e f e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t insects a n d
disease. S o m e trees, like p o n d e r o s a p i n e , p r o d u c e massive flows o f resin w h e n
b a r k b e e t l e s c h e w galleries i n t o t h e w o o d . Living relatives o f t h e v a r i o u s a m b e r
t r e e s , especially f r o m t h e tropics, are c o p i o u s resin p r o d u c e r s . P e r h a p s this is
r e l a t e d t o m o r e intensive insect a t t a c k s i n t h e tropics, b u t insect a t t a c k s are n o t
t h e o n l y c a u s e s o f resin p r o d u c t i o n : h e a v y flows are also c a u s e d b y w o u n d s ,
s u c h as a s n a p p e d t r e e l i m b or g a s h e d t r u n k . As t h e resin wells to t h e surface,
i t covers t h e w o u n d a n d h a r d e n s , t h u s a c t i n g a s a seal a g a i n s t f u r t h e r d a m a g e
b y f u n g i a n d insects. B u t b e f o r e i t h a r d e n s , s m a l l insects, spiders, a n d even tiny
v e r t e b r a t e s m a y b e c o m e m i r e d i n t h e resin a n d , eventually, e n c a p s u l a t e d a n d
m u m m i f i e d . P r e s u m a b l y , t h e s a m e c h e m i c a l features o f t h e resin t h a t p r e s e r v e
it over m i l l i o n s of y e a r s are t h e o n e s t h a t p r e s e r v e t h e tiny o r g a n i s m s in it w i t h
such fidelity.
Resins v a r y t r e m e n d o u s l y i n c o m p o s i t i o n a n d have different f r a g r a n c e s a n d
c o l o r s , b u t t h e y all h a v e terpenes, w h i c h are t h e c o m p o u n d s t h a t b e c o m e l i n k e d
a s t h e resin h a r d e n s i n t o a m b e r . S o m e t e r p e n e s are very volatile a n d dissipate
q u i c k l y i n t o t h e air as t h e resin h a r d e n s ; o t h e r s r e m a i n as a virtually i n e r t p a r t
o f t h e a m b e r . I t i s t h e " b o u q u e t " o f v a r i o u s t e r p e n e s t h a t r e n d e r s t h e distinctive
a r o m a s o f resins a n d a m b e r s .
T h e special p r o p e r t i e s o f resins h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a n d e x p l o i t e d for
t h o u s a n d s of years. Ancient E g y p t i a n s u s e d s a n d a r a c (from Callitris a n d Tetradinus
trees) a n d m a s t i c (from Pistacea) as a b a s e for p i g m e n t s t h a t w e r e p a i n t e d o n t o
j a r s a n d t h e walls o f t o m b s . T h e g r e a t m a s t e r s h a r d e n e d t h e i r oil p a i n t s a n d
c o a t e d t h e i r p a i n t i n g s w i t h liquid d a m m a r (a g e n e r i c Malay w o r d for all resins
b u t g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o refer t o t h o s e f r o m S o u t h e a s t Asia). V a r n i s h e s a n d l a c q u e r s
w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m g r o u n d copal a n d a m b e r .
Resins a n d a m b e r w e r e also s u r r o u n d e d b y a rich m e d i c i n a l m y s t i q u e . S o m e
native N o r t h A m e r i c a n s u s e d resins f r o m c e d a r s , f i r s , a n d p i n e s for v a r i o u s ail-
m e n t s . T h e Maya even m e d i c i n a l l y u s e d resin f r o m Hymenaea trees, w h i c h w e
n o w k n o w i s very similar t o the a m b e r f r o m Mexico a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic.
J o h n C o o k , M.D., prescribes in his 1770 treatise, The Natural History of Lac, Amber,
and Myrrh:

Many are the excellent virtues of Amber, especially when taken inwardly, in a cold
state of the Brain, in Catarrhs, in the Headache, sleep and convulsive disorders,
in the suppression of the menses, hysterical and hypochondriacal disorders, and in
hemorrhages or bleedings.

C o o k ' s r e c o m m e n d e d d o s a g e w a s "60 o r 8 0 d r o p s for g r o w n p e r s o n s , t w o o r

t h r e e t i m e s a day, in a n y liquid." C a d a w a l l a d e r C o l d e n , a d i s t i n g u i s h e d colonial

14 • Amber in Nature
physician i n A m e r i c a , extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f a n unlikely c o n c o c t i o n o f g r o u n d
p i n e resin s t e e p e d i n w a t e r , called " T a r W a t e r . " Several s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
treatises w e r e w r i t t e n o n this o d d cordial a s a t r e a t m e n t a g a i n s t s m a l l p o x , u l c e r s ,
d i a r r h e a , a n d t h e "foulest d i s t e m p e r s " (syphilis). (In an age like o u r s , in w h i c h
folk m e d i c i n e is r e v e a l i n g a w e a l t h of m e d i c a l insights f r o m tropical p l a n t s , s u c h
r e m e d i e s s h o u l d n o t b e i m m e d i a t e l y dismissed.) F e w s u b s t a n c e s , t h o u g h , r i v a l
t h e m y s t i c a l p o w e r s o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s resins, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h .
F r a n k i n c e n s e is t h e resin f r o m Boswellia trees, especially t h e species carterii,
papyrifera, a n d thurifera. T h e finest f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d p e r h a p s t h e o l d e s t h a r v e s t s
are from s o u t h e r n Arabia. F r o m h e r e t h e H a d r a m i s w o u l d t r a n s p o r t t h e m a t e r i a l
via c a m e l caravans a c r o s s t h e A r a b i a n sands t o Palestine a n d E g y p t , a n d o t h e r
m e r c h a n t s w o u l d b r i n g i t t o G r e e c e a n d R o m e , w h e r e i t w a s especially p r i z e d .
I n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . , 3,000 t o n s p e r year w e r e s h i p p e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o s t o f i t t o t h e R o m a n s . Its v a l u e t o t h e p e o p l e o f P a l e s t i n e i s
reflected in its m e n t i o n in t h e Bible t w e n t y - t w o t i m e s . Its e x t r e m e l y rich, r e s i n o u s
a r o m a m a d e i t t h e f i n e s t i n c e n s e available, a n d i t w a s b u r n e d ( s o m e t i m e s
c o n t i n u o u s l y ) in t e m p l e s a n d e v e n u s e d as a base for p e r f u m e s . T h e v a l u e of
frankincense vied w i t h t h a t of gold; it w a s offered to t h e infant Christ by t h e M a g i
a l o n g w i t h g o l d a n d m y r r h ( M a t t h e w 2:11).
M y r r h is f r o m s h r u b b y Commiphora trees, w h i c h are f o u n d in t h e s a m e
r e g i o n s as are Boswellia. M y r r h , t o o , w a s u s e d as an i n c e n s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g
c r e m a t i o n , a n d as a b a s e for p e r f u m e s , e v e n as t h e a n o i n t i n g oil of t h e H e b r e w s
i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : "Your G o d h a s set y o u above y o u r c o m p a n i o n s , b y
a n o i n t i n g y o u w i t h t h e oil o f joy. All y o u r r o b e s are f r a g r a n t w i t h m y r r h a n d
aloes a n d cassia" ( P s a l m s 4 5 : 7 - 8 ) ; a n d , " M y lover is to me a s a c h e t of m y r r h
r e s t i n g b e t w e e n m y b r e a s t s " ( S o n g o f S o n g s 1:13). I t w a s u s e d b y virtually all
o f t h e a n c i e n t p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r i n a n o i n t i n g a n d e m b a l m i n g t h e d e a d ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d m o r t i c i a n s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t . I n his 1770 treatise, J o h n
C o o k offers a n a n e c d o t e o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f m y r r h :

A bird, or any other small animal, or an insect, to be dipped several times

successfully [sic] in the tincture of Myrrh it would soon be perfectly penetrated,
or embalmed thereby, and converted into a kind of Egyptian mummy, capable
of remaining entire for numerous ages.

A huge Agathis tree in New Zealand,
photographed in 1936. Trees such as
this were the source of kauri gum.
16 • Amier in Nature
Copal
It is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d t h a t h a r d e n e d resin t u r n s i n t o a m b e r at a specific age.
A c t u a l l y t h e p r o c e s s is a c o n t i n u u m , from freshly h a r d e n e d resins to t h o s e t h a t
are t r u l y fossilized, a n d n o single feature identifies a t w h a t age a l o n g t h a t
c o n t i n u u m t h e s u b s t a n c e b e c o m e s a m b e r . Generally, m a t e r i a l t h a t i s several
m i l l i o n y e a r s old a n d o l d e r is sufficiently cross-linked a n d p o l y m e r i z e d to be
classified as a m b e r . M a t e r i a l t h a t is only, say, several t h o u s a n d years o l d is often
r e f e r r e d to as copal, or subfossil resin. C o p a l s are so i n c o m p l e t e l y cross-linked
t h a t a d r o p o f a l c o h o l o r o t h e r s o l v e n t m a k e s t h e surface t a c k y P u t close t o a
h o t f l a m e , c o p a l will readily m e l t ; a m b e r will soften a n d b l a c k e n b u t n o t liquefy.
T h e o l d e s t c o p a l d e p o s i t , f r o m M i z u n a m i , J a p a n , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 33,000 years
old. A s e x p e c t e d , M i z u n a m i c o p a l displays c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e t w e e n t h o s e o f
a m b e r m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s old a n d c o p a l m e r e l y h u n d r e d s o f years old. C o p a l s will
t a k e a h i g h polish, b u t since t h e y r e t a i n volatiles from t h e original resin that
readily e v a p o r a t e , after a few y e a r s t h e surface b e c o m e s deeply c r a z e d , like a
d r i e d lake b e d . T h e e x t e n t o f c r a z i n g d e p e n d s o n e x p o s u r e t o h e a t a n d air.
A m b e r , t o o , will c r a z e , b u t n o t a s q u i c k l y o r d e e p l y a s copal. C o p a l c r a z e s s o
deeply, in fact, t h a t this is a reliable w a y to distinguish m a t e r i a l in old c o l l e c t i o n s
t h a t is called a m b e r b u t in fact is c o p a l .
C o n f u s i o n s u r r o u n d s t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m copal, since s o m e scientists also
u s e i t t o refer t o fossil resins o f c e r t a i n b o t a n i c a l origins. T h e m a j o r d e p o s i t s
o f subfossil resins, o r copal, w e r e f o r m e d b y tropical l e g u m e t r e e s a n d t h e
a r a u c a r i a n s (any o f a g e n u s o f conifer t r e e s i n d i g e n o u s t o S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d
Australia), w h i c h are t h e t r u e " c o p a l t r e e s " o f c h e m i s t s . Resins f r o m t h e s e trees
h a r d e n r a p i d l y u p o n e x p o s u r e to air, are distinctively h a r d , a n d have a h i g h e r
m e l t i n g p o i n t t h a n o t h e r resins ( b u t n o t m o r e t h a n a m b e r ) . Yet a n o t h e r t e r m ,
resinite, w h i c h i s m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l a n d i n u s e p r i m a r i l y b y g e o l o g i s t s , refers t o
any h a r d e n e d resin, w h e t h e r a m b e r o r c o p a l .
M o s t c o p a l o c c u r s i n t h e t r o p i c s o r v e r y w e t t e m p e r a t e areas, g e n e r a l l y
w h e r e t h e t r e e s t h a t f o r m e d t h e c o p a l still live. Since t h e t r e e species are e x t a n t ,
t h e s o u r c e o f t h e copals i s q u i t e c e r t a i n . T h e m o s t f a m o u s d e p o s i t s are t h o s e
t h a t have b e e n c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t e d i n t h e p a s t for v a r n i s h e s ( n o w a l m o s t
entirely r e p l a c e d b y s y n t h e t i c resins), o n t h e N o r t h Island o f N e w Z e a l a n d a n d
i n East Africa. C o p a l s f r o m t h e s e r e g i o n s w e r e also t h e s o u r c e o f n u m e r o u s
forgeries in " a m b e r . "
O n t h e N o r t h Island o f N e w Z e a l a n d live h u g e k a u r i t r e e s , t h e " s e q u o i a s "
of N e w Z e a l a n d : Agathis australis a n d Dammara australis. M a s s e s of resin f r o m
t h e s e trees o o z e o n a n d u n d e r b a r k (called kauri gum) a n d a c c u m u l a t e o n t h e
forest floor. B u r i e d b y h u n d r e d s o r t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s o f fallen n e e d l e s , t w i g s ,
and branches, the subterranean kauri g u m is sometimes found w h e r e the kauri
forests n o l o n g e r exist. A t t h e p e a k o f t h e k a u r i - g u m industry, p r i o r t o t h e t u r n
o f t h e century, t r e e s w o u l d e v e n b e t a p p e d , a l t h o u g h this w a s d i s c o u r a g e d i n
o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e b e h e m o t h s . T h o u s a n d s o f i t i n e r a n t " g u m d i g g e r s " traveled
a m o n g the various "gumfields." Most of t h e m were Austrian immigrants, s o m e
of t h e m poorer N e w Zealanders, and an occasional Maori. Export began a b o u t
1850; in 1856, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,440 t o n s w e r e e x p o r t e d , a n d by 1906, e x p o r t s
r e a c h e d 275,319 t o n s . L u m p s o f k a u r i g u m t e n t o t w e l v e p o u n d s w e r e n o t
u n c o m m o n , a n d t h e largest o n e r e p o r t e d w e i g h e d n e a r l y o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s .
M o s t copals derive f r o m l e g u m e t r e e s i n t h e C a e s a l p i n i o i d e a g r o u p o f
families, especially t h e g e n u s Hymenaea. A r e l a t e d g e n u s of trees, w i t h t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e n a m e Copaifera, i s t h e s o u r c e o f copals f r o m G h a n a , G u i n e a , a n d Opposite: Large piece of copal from
Sierra L e o n e in w e s t e r n Africa. Hymenaea copals o c c u r in Minais G e r a i s , Brazil; Santander, Colombia, containing
beetles. Two surfaces are polished flat.
e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic; C o l o m b i a ; a n d East Africa. D e p o s i t s f r o m Santander,
Height 4.5". American Museum of
C o l o m b i a , are h a r v e s t e d for s o m e especially large pieces ( o t h e r s i n C o l o m b i a Natural History (Entomology)
o c c u r n e a r Medellin a n d a l o n g t h e M a g d a l e n a River i n M a r i q u i t a P r o v i n c e ) .
M a n y o f t h e s e impressive p i e c e s c o n t a i n t e r m i t e s w a r m s a n d o t h e r insect
inclusions a n d are sold t o a m a t e u r c o l l e c t o r s a s " P l i o c e n e a m b e r " ( a b o u t t w o Section of a copal tree (Hymenaea
million years old), even t h o u g h c a r b o n - 1 4 d a t i n g indicates it is o n l y several verrucosa)/rom Zanzibar, off the
coast of Tanzania. Between the bark
h u n d r e d years old, like all t h e o t h e r Hymenaea copal d e p o s i t s . Similarly, a clear
and the heartwood is almost pure
Hymenaea copal f r o m e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic is sold as D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ; resin. The heartwood contains beetle
t r u e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r c o m e s f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n m o u n t a i n s a n d i s light y e l l o w galleries impregnated with resin.
Diameter 4.8". American Museum
t o d e e p red. W h e n t h e p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r w e r e t a p p i n g f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d
of Natural History (Entomology)
m y r r h t r e e s for i n c e n s e , c o p a l a n d freshly h a r d e n e d Hymenaea resin w e r e b u r n e d
a s a n i n c e n s e b y native p e o p l e s o f C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a .
T h e M a y a b u r n e d i t i n special i n c e n s e p o t s , a n d t h e
Y a n o m a m o s o f s o u t h e r n V e n e z u e l a still collect
t h e resin for i n c e n s e .
T h e only African species of Hymenaea, H. verm
cosa (previously g i v e n its o w n g e n u s , Trachy-
lobium), o c c u r s f r o m S o m a l i a to T a n z a n i a ,
Z a n z i b a r Island, M a d a g a s c a r , a n d t h e islands
of t h e Seychelles a n d M a u r i t i u s , s o m e 1,000
miles off t h e East African coast. A r o u n d t h e
t u r n of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , H. verrucosa
copal w a s t h e basis for a very lucrative industry:
I n 1898, s o m e 512,600 p o u n d s w e r e e x p o r t e d
t o G e r m a n y for h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h e s . Fresh
pieces of t h e copal are a v e r y p a l e , clear yellow,
just like t h e N e w W o r l d Hymenaea copals. T h e
American M u s e u m of Natural History has a
large collection o f copal f r o m Z a n z i b a r , rich w i t h
insect inclusions. I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e o f
the East African c o p a l m a y b e u p t o t w o m i l l i o n y e a r s
old, b u t this is v e r y unlikely.

Amber in Nature • 19
 DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD

The Era of the Dinosaurs: Mesozoic Amber

T h e oldest " a m b e r , " p e r h a p s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y called a fossil resin, w a s h a r d l y

r e c o g n i z e d a s s u c h w h e n i t w a s first discovered. Occasionally f o u n d lining s o m e
fine vessels from t h e t r u n k s of Myeloxylon or o t h e r c a r b o n i f e r o u s p t e r i d o s p e r m s
(tree or s e e d ferns) are m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y fine, black hairlike fibers t h a t are actually
resins s o m e 320 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, a l t h o u g h t h e y are physically a n d c h e m i c a l l y
unlike a n y o t h e r fossil resin k n o w n , e v e n t h e a m b e r s . T h e s e c o n d - o l d e s t fossil
resin exists in m i c r o s c o p i c q u a n t i t i e s in 260-million-year-old P e r m i a n l i m e s t o n e
n e a r t h e C h e k a r d a River, i n t h e w e s t e r n p i e d m o n t o f t h e Ural M o u n t a i n s .
F r o m t h e Triassic p e r i o d o f E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a derive d a r k red,
highly brittle a m b e r s , f o r m e d p e r h a p s from extinct cycads like Pterophyllum.
T h e s e Triassic resins, a l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r e d t r u e a m b e r s , are also c h e m i c a l l y
u n l i k e t h e y o u n g e r a m b e r s f o r m e d f r o m conifers a n d f l o w e r i n g t r e e s . O n e o f
t h e Triassic d e p o s i t s is f r o m N i e d e r o s t e r r e i c h , Austria, a b o u t 60 m i l e s s o u t h w e s t
of V i e n n a . A n o t h e r , t h e R a i b l e r S a n d s t o n e F o r m a t i o n in Schliersee, Bavaria, is
a b o u t 220 t o 230 million y e a r s old. B y this t i m e , large v e r t e b r a t e s a n d m o s t o f
t h e m o d e r n o r d e r s o f flying insects h a d a p p e a r e d . N o t surprisingly, m i c r o s c o p i c
r e m a i n s o f o r g a n i s m s are f o u n d i n t h e Schliersee a m b e r , b u t t h e y are o f primitive
o r g a n i s m s , s u c h a s b a c t e r i a , p r o t o z o a , fungal spores, a n d u n i d e n t i f i e d p l a n t
spores. A n insect i n a m b e r this o l d w o u l d b e s e n s a t i o n a l .
O n e o f t h e biologically m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g c h a p t e r s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f E a r t h
is t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d , 140 to 65 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . It w a s at t h e e n d of t h e
Cretaceous that the dinosaurs died out. More important, it was during the
Fossil cone from the Upper Jurassic or
C r e t a c e o u s t h a t t h e r e o c c u r r e d explosive r a d i a t i o n s o f t h e f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s , Lower Cretaceous (c.140 million years
o r a n g i o s p e r m s , a n d m a n y m o d e r n families o f insects. Today, t h e insects a n d old), studded with amber. It was found
in the Karzhantav Range, Chimkent
f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s are s u p r e m e r u l e r s o n l a n d : t h e y c o m p r i s e t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f
region of southern Kazakhstan.
all life f o r m s , a s well a s m o r e b i o m a s s a n d m o r e a n a t o m i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l The original cone must have been
novelties t h a n all o t h e r o r g a n i s m s c o m b i n e d . W i t h o u t t h e m , t h e w o r l d w o u l d filled with resin. Length of cone .9".
Paleontological Institute, Moscow
b e u n r e c o g n i z a b l e . A f u n d a m e n t a l belief a m o n g b i o l o g i s t s h a s b e e n t h a t t h e
evolution o f f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s a n d insects closely affected e a c h o t h e r . A l t h o u g h
t h e r e i s s o m e r e c e n t s k e p t i c i s m ( t h a t m o d e r n g r o u p s o f insects evolved b e f o r e
Opposite: Major amber deposits of
flowering plants), m o s t e v i d e n c e indicates t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a t least c e r t a i n
the world
kinds o f insects—like s o m e b e e t l e s , flies, a n d c e r t a i n l y t h e b e e s , m o t h s , a n d

Amber in Nature • 21

A small stud of amber above the branch
of an extinct Metasequoia tree that
may have produced it. This fossil, from
the Jurassic period of Russia, is about
160 million years old. Length 2.6".
Paleontological Institute, Moscow
Opposite: Plate from O. Warburg,
Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vegeta-
tion des Siid und Ostasiatischen
Monsungebietes, 1900, showing
leaves, cones, and cone scales of the
conifer Agathis. Araucarian trees such
as Agathis are considered important
sources of the ambers from the
Mesozoic Era.
22 ' Amber in Nature
b u t t e r f l i e s — w a s linked w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a n g i o s p e r m p l a n t s , a n d vice versa,
a n d t h a t this t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . Fossils i n C r e t a c e o u s
a m b e r h a v e b e e n a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a l i n g w i n d o w for u n d e r s t a n d i n g this
relationship.
E v e n t h o u g h a n g i o s p e r m s w e r e diversifying d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s , t h e
l a n d s c a p e a t this t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y d o m i n a t e d b y cycads a n d conifers. All o f
t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s are c e r t a i n l y c o n i f e r o u s , for a r b o r e s c e n t (treelike)
a n g i o s p e r m s p r o b a b l y h a d n o t evolved u n t i l t h e late C r e t a c e o u s ; p r i o r t o this,
t h e y w e r e h e r b s a n d b u s h e s . I n fact, for m o s t o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s t h a t
have b e e n c h e m i c a l l y s t u d i e d , t h e a m b e r i s t h o u g h t t o have b e e n f o r m e d b y a n
a r a u c a r i a n or a r a u c a r i a n l i k e t r e e . T h e A r a u c a r i a c e a e is o n e of six families in t h e
C o n i f e r a e (three o t h e r , large families b e i n g t h e Pinaceae [pines, larches, s p r u c e s ,
a n d h e m l o c k s ] , C u p r e s s a c e a e [cedars, cypresses, j u n i p e r s ] , a n d T a x o d i a c e a e
[sequoias a n d b a l d cypresses]). T h e r e are o n l y t w o g e n e r a o f a r a u c a r i a n s living
today, c o m p r i s i n g t h i r t y - o n e species, t h r e e o f t h e species b e i n g a m o n g t h e t e n
tallest t r e e s in t h e w o r l d ( b e t w e e n 70 a n d 90 feet tall). T h e family is relict,
confined n o w t o p o r t i o n s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . Fossils o f Araucaria
f r o m t h e J u r a s s i c t o t h e Tertiary, h o w e v e r , are s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e
family is a g o o d c a n d i d a t e for t h e b o t a n i c a l o r i g i n s of m a n y C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s
since, today, a r a u c a r i a n s p r o d u c e c o p i o u s a m o u n t s o f resin t h a t b e c o m e s
s t r o n g l y h a r d e n e d s o o n after e x p o s u r e t o air, w h i c h p r e s e r v e s i t well.

A forest in New Zealand. With the
exception of the Maori native in
the forest, this is what a Cretaceous
forest might have looked like some
90 million years ago, with tree ferns,
cycads, and araucarian trees.
24 • Amber in Nature
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n conifer resins, h o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d n o t
b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t a n y C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t i s definitely o f a r a u c a r i a n
o r i g i n . For e x a m p l e , t h e 75-million-year-old a m b e r f r o m t h e F r u i t l a n d F o r m a t i o n
i n t h e San J u a n Basin, N e w M e x i c o , i s o n e o f t h e r a r e cases w h e r e t h e a m b e r has
a definitive o r i g i n , since it is f o u n d a m o n g a n d e m b e d d e d in logs a n d s t u m p s
of the a m b e r tree, and it is Taxodiaceae.
T h e r e is a w o e f u l lack of p l a n t megafossils a c c o m p a n y i n g m o s t a m b e r
d e p o s i t s , i n c l u d i n g C r e t a c e o u s o n e s . I n c l u s i o n s o f p l a n t f r a g m e n t s i n a m b e r can
p r o v i d e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l o r c o n f i r m i n g e v i d e n c e o f t h e t r e e o f its o r i g i n , b u t s u c h
i n c l u s i o n s are m u c h r a r e r i n C r e t a c e o u s t h a n t h e y are i n T e r t i a r y a m b e r s . For
e x a m p l e , t h e r e are n o c o n e s o r conifer flowers k n o w n for any C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r ,
a l t h o u g h w o o d fragments and portions of needles and twigs occur in s o m e .
All o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s are v e r y brittle a n d highly fractured. Special
p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s are usually r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to g r i n d a n d polish a piece
for a c e r t a i n v i e w o f a n i n c l u s i o n , o r e v e n t o k e e p t h e piece from d i s i n t e g r a t i n g .
C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r i s n o t o r i o u s for b e c o m i n g c r u m b l y w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e
a t m o s p h e r e for several years. It is b e s t p r e s e r v e d a n d p r e p a r e d by e m b e d d i n g it
in a s y n t h e t i c resin.
Europe a l t h o u g h Cretaceous a m b e r is found near Vienna and in Salzburg,
Austria, it is t h e 100-million-year-old a m b e r of F r a n c e t h a t is b e t t e r
k n o w n a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e a b u n d a n t . O c c u r r i n g i n t h e Paris a n d A q u i t a n i a n
basins of n o r t h w e s t e r n France, near Bezonnais, Durtal, and Fouras, it resembles
i n b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n a n d k i n d s o f i n c l u s i o n s t h e 90-to-94-million-year-old
a m b e r from c e r t a i n d e p o s i t s i n N e w Jersey. C l o u d i n e s s o f t h e a m b e r i s d u e t o
m i c r o s c o p i c b u b b l e s , a n d p y r i t e ("fool's g o l d " ) has i n t r u d e d i n t o c r a c k s a n d e v e n
s o m e o f t h e insect inclusions. T h e p y r i t e h a s a l l o w e d h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n X-raying
o f s o m e insects, since i t i s m u c h d e n s e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r a n d h a s
r e p l a c e d the original insect i n faithful detail. A s i n m o s t C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s , t h e
fossilized insects w i t h i n are tiny, less t h a n o n e - t e n t h o f a n i n c h l o n g o n a v e r a g e ,
a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o n e s , like t h e t e r m i t e s a n d l a c e w i n g s ,
are q u i t e large. T h e insects are n o t plentiful. I n t h e F r e n c h a m b e r , for e x a m p l e ,
o n e p o u n d o f r a w a m b e r yields a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y insects a n d insect p a r t s .
C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r f r o m C a n a d a , b y c o n t r a s t , yields a b o u t t w i c e this n u m b e r
of inclusions.

.T A T h e m o s t abundant sources of Cretaceous a m b e r in N o r t h

North America
A m e r i c a a r e Alaska, several localities i n C a n a d a , a n d N e w Jersey.
In 1955, a g r o u p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y of California, Berkeley, c o l l e c t e d a m b e r
f r o m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Kuk, O m a l i k , a n d several o t h e r rivers o n t h e n o r t h e r n
A l a s k a n C o a s t a l Plain. T h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l value o f t h e A l a s k a n m a t e r i a l i s
l i m i t e d b e c a u s e it is s t r a n d e d on river s h o r e s ; as a result, t h e pieces are small a n d
heavily w e a t h e r e d , a n d a specific age is i n d e t e r m i n a t e .
T h e largest d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r f r o m C a n a d a have y i e l d e d a n exciting a r r a y
o f insects a n d o t h e r i n c l u s i o n s . T h e f i r s t d e p o s i t t o b e intensively s t u d i e d , a s
early a s 1891, w a s a t C e d a r L a k e , M a n i t o b a . T h e a m b e r w a s s o a b u n d a n t (for a
C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t ) t h a t in t h e early 1900s n e a r l y a t o n w a s c o l l e c t e d for v a r n i s h .
I n t h e 1930s, F r a n k C a r p e n t e r , t h e g r e a t p a l e o e n t o m o l o g i s t f r o m H a r v a r d ,
collected several h u n d r e d p o u n d s a t C e d a r Lake. A n o t h e r large c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e
a m b e r , m u c h m o r e closely s t u d i e d t h a n H a r v a r d ' s , i s i n O t t a w a . Since t h o s e
collections w e r e m a d e , C e d a r L a k e h a s b e e n d a m m e d , i n u n d a t i n g t h e d e p o s i t s .
I t h a s always b e e n s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e C e d a r Lake a m b e r w a s r e d e p o s i t e d f r o m
a distant s o u r c e . A m b e r d e p o s i t s f r o m M e d i c i n e H a t , A l b e r t a , i n t h e F o r e m o s t
F o r m a t i o n ( a b o u t 7 5 t o 7 8 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) are c h e m i c a l l y v e r y similar t o
the C e d a r Lake a m b e r . T h o u g h p r e s u m a b l y n o t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e C e d a r L a k e
amber, t h e M e d i c i n e H a t a m b e r m a y b e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a n d o f t h e s a m e
botanical o r i g i n . M o s t recently, rich d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n G r a s s y L a k e , A l b e r t a ,
have yielded n u m e r o u s tiny fossils, i n c l u d i n g a b i r d f e a t h e r in o n e p i e c e . Aphids
are the m o s t c o m m o n insects i n this a m b e r , a n d a m o n g t h e m o s t interesting are
a pseudoscorpion, a praying mantis, and the oldest k n o w n m o s q u i t o .
T h e U n i t e d States h a s several C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s , a l t h o u g h o n l y i n N e w
Jersey i s a m b e r f o u n d i n a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t i e s . T h e f i r s t insect d i s c o v e r e d f r o m
N o r t h A m e r i c a n a m b e r , a caddis fly, Dolophilus praemissus C o c k e r e l l , w a s
Opposite: Crude amber embedded in
identified in 1916 in a m b e r f r o m Coffee Sand, T e n n e s s e e ; ironically, no r e c e n t marcasite, a form of pyrite,from New
collections h a v e b e e n m a d e o f this a m b e r . A significant a m b e r d e p o s i t also Jersey. Length of largest piece 5.1".
American Museum of Natural History
o c c u r s i n t h e Black C r e e k F o r m a t i o n ( a b o u t 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s old) n e a r (Entomology)
Goldsboro, N o r t h Carolina. A m b e r from near Paden (Tishomingo County),
Mississippi, i n t h e U p p e r M c S h a n F o r m a t i o n o f t h e E u t a w G r o u p ( a b o u t 9 0
million y e a r s old), is f o u n d in s m a l l p i e c e s s o m e t i m e s up to 1.5 i n c h e s l o n g .
Above: Variations in New Jersey amber:
T h i s a m b e r i s associated w i t h fossilized w o o d o f C u p r e s s a c e a e , P i n a c e a e , a n d a large drop-shaped piece; opaque and
T a x o d i a c e a e , so it is p r o b a b l y n o t d e r i v e d from an a r a u c a r i a n t r e e . T h e a m b e r is oxidized pieces (center of top row and
left column); and various transparent
yellow t o d a r k b r o w n , m o s t l y cloudy, a n d h a s b e e n f o u n d t o c o n t a i n a h o s t o f
pieces. Length of largest piece 3.6".
fungal s p o r e s a n d h y p h a e b u t n o insect a s o f yet. American Museum of Natural History
A m b e r f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c C o a s t a l Plain o f t h e e a s t e r n U n i t e d States h a s (Entomology)

b e e n k n o w n for m o r e t h a n 150 years, t h e first r e p o r t o f i t b e i n g i n 1821. T h a t

r e p o r t d e s c r i b e d a p i e c e f o u n d in clay n e a r t h e s h o r e of C a p e Sable, M a r y l a n d ,
containing w h a t w a s believed t o b e a gall m a d e b y scale insects. A m b e r h a s also
b e e n f o u n d o n C a p e C o d , L o n g Island, a n d S t a t e n Island. Historically, l a r g e
deposits on Staten Island w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in o p e n pits m i n e d for clay in b r i c k

Amber in Nature • 27

Wood found with amber from New
Jersey, presumably of the amber trees
themselves. Length of longest piece
10". American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)
The oldest known bee, Trigona prisca,
fossilized in New Jersey amber.
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
28 • Amber in Nature
m a n u f a c t u r e . T h e s e h u g e pits are n o w e r o d e d i n a n d c o v e r e d w i t h w o o d l a n d .
T h e a m b e r w a s p u r p o r t e d l y s o plentiful t h a t w o r k e r s w o u l d pile i t i n barrels
during the winter and b u r n it to keep warm!
A m b e r o c c u r s i n similar a b a n d o n e d clay pits i n C r e t a c e o u s e x p o s u r e s o f N e w
Jersey, w h e r e t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t s are f o u n d . C h e m i c a l
analysis identifies t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r a s a r a u c a r i a n ; h o w e v e r ,
t w i g s i n t h e a m b e r a n d t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f lignite found w i t h t h e a m b e r
( s o m e t i m e s t h e a m b e r i s f o u n d i n t h e fossilized w o o d ) indicate C u p r e s s a c e a e .
A m b e r d e p o s i t s v a r y f r o m 6 5 m i l l i o n t o n e a r l y 9 5 m i l l i o n years old, a l t h o u g h a n
u n u s u a l T e r t i a r y fossil "resin," w i t h a c o n s i s t e n c y like solid, h a r d plastic, is
k n o w n f r o m N e w Jersey. D e r i v e d f r o m t h e w i t c h - h a z e l a n d s w e e t - g u m family
( H a m a m e l i d a c e a e ) , it is c o m p o s e d of a m a t e r i a l like p o l y s t y r e n e a n d is similar to
siegburgite, k n o w n f r o m E u r o p e since t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century.
T h e t r u e , r e s i n o u s C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r f r o m N e w Jersey i s clear r e d t o yellow.
In s o m e deposits, 70 percent of the material is turbid, being clouded with small
b u b b l e s a n d p a r t i c l e s o f debris s w e p t off t h e b a r k a s t h e resin s t r e a m e d d o w n
the tree trunk.
A m b e r a n d o t h e r fossils f r o m t h e N e w J e r s e y C r e t a c e o u s are r e v e a l i n g n e w
i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e flowering, literally, o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . T w o o f t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t insect fossils are k n o w n f r o m t h e N e w Jersey a m b e r . O n e i s a v e r y
p r i m i t i v e ant, Sphecomyrmafreyi ("Frey's w a s p a n t " ) , d e s c r i b e d in 1966 by
H a r v a r d e n t o m o l o g i s t s . A l t h o u g h o l d e r fossil ants have b e e n d e s c r i b e d since
t h e n , this is still t h e o l d e s t definitive a n t . T h e ants are a successful g r o u p today,
w i t h a b o u t 14,000 living species, a n d t h e y are pivotal c o m p o n e n t s o f s o m e
e c o s y s t e m s , s u c h a s t r o p i c a l r a i n forests.
T h e o t h e r fossil is a b e e , Trigona prisca, w h i c h , incredibly, b e l o n g s to an
e v o l u t i o n a r i l y r e c e n t g r o u p , t h e stingless b e e s , o r m e l i p o n i n e s . T h i s b e e fossil
w a s u n e a r t h e d i n a n old M u s e u m collection; c h e m i c a l analyses c o n f i r m e d i t w a s
a u t h e n t i c N e w Jersey a m b e r , a s t h e label i n d i c a t e d (specifically, f r o m Kinkora,
N e w J e r s e y ) . Since t h e p i e c e w a s n o t precisely d o c u m e n t e d , however, a d a t i n g
m o r e exact t h a n 6 5 t o 8 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s o l d h a s n o t b e e n possible. N o n e t h e l e s s ,
s u c h a n a n o m a l o u s l y a d v a n c e d insect o f this a g e raised controversy, especially
since it h a d s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e e v o l u t i o n of f l o w e r i n g plants. Since all
b e e s f o r a g e o n p o l l e n a n d nectar, s u c h a n a d v a n c e d b e e i n t h e C r e t a c e o u s w o u l d
i n d i c a t e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n t i q u i t y for t h e a n g i o s p e r m s . D e s p i t e t h e c h e m i c a l
analyses, s o m e scientists r e m a i n skeptical a b o u t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s p e c i m e n .
I n t h e 1990s, n e w e x c a v a t i o n s i n N e w Jersey, f r o m t h e s a m e C r e t a c e o u s
d e p o s i t s t h a t yield m u c h o f t h e a m b e r , have revealed a s t u n n i n g a r r a y o f
90-million-year-old flowers. T h e y are p r e s e r v e d , n o t i n a m b e r , b u t i n clay. T h e
flowers are tiny a n d m a d e e n t i r e l y o f c a r b o n , p r o b a b l y t r a n s f o r m e d this w a y
w h e n forest fires "charcoalified" w h a t lay b e n e a t h t h e forest leaf litter. Preser- '
v a t i o n is perfect: s t a m e n s , a n t h e r s , p o l l e n , s t i g m a s , petals, g l a n d s , a n d t h e cells
t h a t m a k e t h e m u p are all visible. I n m a n y cases t h e s e flowers are b e t t e r p r e s e r v e d
These tiny carbonized flowers and a beetle head (lengths of each
about. 1"), preserved in clays with the New Jersey amber, were Right, above: Detrusandra, a relative of magnolias, is much simpler
photographed with a scanning electron microscope. L. H. Bailey and was perhaps wind pollinated.
Hortorium, Cornell University
Right, below: Head of a cupedoid beetle revealing intricate sculpturing.
Left: Ericalean flower shown intact (above) and "dissected " (below). This mode of fossilization is the closest equivalent to preservation in
It has petals, round sepal glands along the petals, and nectaries at amber. These and similar fossils complement those preserved in the
the bases of the stamens, which were presumably used for attracting New Jersey amber, which is of similar age.
insect pollinators, such as bees.

Amber in Nature • 29

Famous ant, Sphecomyrma freyi,
fossilized in New Jersey amber. It is one
of the most primitive of known ants.
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University
Opposite, above: Tiny bird feather in
New Jersey amber. The oldest known
birds are about 50 million years older
than the one that dropped this feather.
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
Opposite, below: The oldest known mush-
room, in New Jersey amber. American
Museum of Natural History (Entomology)
30 • Amber in Nature
t h a n e x a m p l e s i n T e r t i a r y a m b e r s . M a n y o f t h e flowers are f r o m plants surpris-
ingly a d v a n c e d evolutionarily, b e l o n g i n g t o t r o p i c a l families a n d o t h e r g r o u p s ,
w h i c h m a y explain s u c h a n a d v a n c e d b e e i n N e w Jersey a m b e r . For e x a m p l e ,
t h e r e are flowers o f laurels ( L a u r a c e a e ) , C h l o r a n t h a c e a e , tiny magnolia-like
flowers, a n d f r o m p l a n t s r e l a t e d t o t h e h e a t h s (family Ericaceae) a n d t h e witch-
h a z e l family, H a m a m e l i d a c e a e . Pollen i n t h e ericalean flowers w a s h e l d t o g e t h e r
in c l u m p s by t h r e a d s of a v i s c o u s s u b s t a n c e . T h i s is strictly a feature of flowers
t h a t are p o l l i n a t e d b y insects, w h i c h s e r v e t o m a k e t h e c l u m p s o f p o l l e n a d h e r e
to t h e h a i r s of an insect like Trigona. O t h e r s have g l a n d s t h a t s e c r e t e scents to
a t t r a c t insects. T h e h a m a m e l i d a c e o u s fossil flowers have n e c t a r i e s n e a r t h e
petals, w h i c h are o t h e r h a l l m a r k s o f flowers p o l l i n a t e d b y insects.
Besides a v a r i e t y of small o r g a n i s m s in t h e a m b e r , t h e n e w excavations
o f a m b e r i n N e w Jersey have f o u n d o t h e r insects t h a t b e l o n g t o living g e n e r a .
A t least s o m e species o f insects h a d close relatives t h a t e x t e n d e d b a c k nearly
100 m i l l i o n years. W e are g r a d u a l l y l e a r n i n g t h a t t h e N e w Jersey b e e i s n o t
a n o m a l o u s l y old: t h e C r e t a c e o u s i s a n o m a l o u s l y y o u n g .
 m o n s e a s n
Japan ^ S o r e d e p o s i t s i n Kuji, J a p a n , c a n b e f o u n d 85-million-year-
old a m b e r , f r o m t h e T a n e i c h i a n d K u n i t a n F o r m a t i o n s . T h e a m b e r
o c c u r s w i t h m a r i n e fossils like m o s a s a u r t e e t h a n d a m m o n i t e s (extinct relatives
o f t h e n a u t i l u s ) a n d c o m e s i n a r e m a r k a b l e v a r i e t y o f colors a n d opacity, m u c h
of it an a p p e a l i n g c a r a m e l color. It is t h e oldest a m b e r in t h e w o r l d f r o m w h i c h
objects h a v e b e e n c a r v e d , o n e r e a s o n b e i n g t h e large size o f s o m e pieces. O n e
p i e c e , f o u n d in 1927 n e a r Kuji, w e i g h s 44 p o u n d s ; a n o t h e r , f o u n d in 1941 ( a n d
n o w i n t h e N a t i o n a l Science M u s e u m i n T o k y o ) , w e i g h s 3 5 p o u n d s . B o t h o f
t h e s e large pieces are o p a q u e y e l l o w i s h o r a n g e . E v e n o l d e r a m b e r ( a b o u t 120
m i l l i o n y e a r s old) h a s b e e n f o u n d i n C h o s h i , J a p a n . All t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s
h a v e s o m e insects; o n e p i e c e f r o m Kuji h a s p o r t i o n s of a bird feather.

32 • Amber in Nature
 Variations in the 85-million-year-old Kuji amber
from Japan. Length of largest piece 3 ". American
Museum of Natural History (Entomology),
courtesy of Kuji Amber Museum

Opposite: Collecting late Cretaceous amber from

Kuji, Japan

Amber in Nature • 33
Collecting Cretaceous amber from the
Taimyr Peninsula, northern Siberia

Above: En route to Romanikha, eastern

Taimyr. Larches here are the northern-
most forests.

Middle: Baikura-neru Bay, on the edge

of Lake Taimyr in the center of the
peninsula. This site has yielded most
of the fossiliferous amber.

Below: Yantardakh (Amber Mountain),

eastern Taimyr. Digging amberiferous
lignite out of a "lens" embedded in a
wall of sand and clay

Opposite: Screening and washing

the amber at Yantardakh. The person
on the left is examining pieces for
inclusions with a hand lens.

34 • Amber in Nature
 r o r j a D r
Siberia P y t h e largest d e p o s i t o f C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o m e s
f r o m t h e T a i m y r P e n i n s u l a i n n o r t h e r n Russia. T h e o l d e s t r e p o r t o f
this a m b e r w a s m a d e a s early a s 1730. O f t h e four m a i n d e p o s i t s o n o r n e a r
t h e T a i m y r Peninsula, o n e , a b o u t 8 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, i s f r o m t h e K h a t a n g a
D e p r e s s i o n , also t h e site o f t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t forests (larches). I n b o t h w e s t e r n
a n d c e n t r a l T a i m y r are 100-million-year-old d e p o s i t s f r o m t h e C e n o m a n i a n -
e p o c h , D o l g a n i a n a n d B e g i c h e v F o r m a t i o n s . A n o t h e r i s f r o m t h e Arctic I n s t i t u t e
Island, j u s t off t h e w e s t c o a s t of T a i m y r . Scientists at t h e P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l
I n s t i t u t e i n M o s c o w h a v e s p e n t d e c a d e s e x c a v a t i n g a n d s c r e e n i n g this a m b e r
for t h e c o u n t l e s s tiny o r g a n i s m s fossilized in it.

„, „ T h e o l d e s t a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o n t a i n i n g insects a n d o t h e r
The Middle East °
l a r g e r o r g a n i s m s c o m e s f r o m t h e M i d d l e East, specifically
L e b a n o n , a l t h o u g h s i m i l a r a m b e r o c c u r s i n Israel a n d J o r d a n . T h e a m b e r i s
chemically similar in all of t h e s e a r e a s a n d is from t h e N e o c o m i a n age ( L o w e r
C r e t a c e o u s , a b o u t 120 t o 130 m i l l i o n y e a r s old). T h e largest a m o u n t s o f a m b e r
are f o u n d a t D a h r al-Baidha, b e t w e e n B e i r u t a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d a r o u n d
Jezzine. O n l y t w o c o l l e c t i o n s o f L e b a n e s e a m b e r exist, o n e a t t h e M u s e u m fur
N a t u r k u n d e , Stuttgart, the o t h e r being the Acra Collection, part of w h i c h is
a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History.
Screening and preparing inclusions in Cretaceous a m b e r s is extremely
tedious b e c a u s e o f t h e m a n y fractures. T h e A c r a s s p e n t several d e c a d e s
processing a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 p o u n d s o f r a w a m b e r a n d a c c u m u l a t e d a
w o n d e r f u l collection o f m o r e t h a n a t h o u s a n d fossiliferous pieces. I n t h a t
collection are m a n y exciting earliest g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s o f v a r i o u s a r t h r o p o d s ,
such as t e r m i t e s a n d t h e oldest definitive m o t h s ( i n c l u d i n g a caterpillar).
 These fossilized organisms in Lebanese
amber, 125 to 130 million years old,
represent the oldest amber in the world
containing insects and other macroscopic
forms of life. Most are less than . 1" long.
Acra Collection

Above: Polyxenid millipede

Right: Mites and pseudoscorpion
Below: The oldest known caterpillar
Opposite, above: Male sandfly
Opposite, below: Small cockroach

W e are c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m o t h s are t r u e l e p i d o p t e r a n s b e c a u s e t h e a m b e r h a s
p r e s e r v e d e v e n t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e tiny scales o n t h e w i n g s .
T h e c a t e r p i l l a r h a s t h e tiny spiggotlike s p i n n e r e t a t t h e tip o f its h e a d ,
w h i c h a l m o s t certainly w o u l d n o t be p r e s e r v e d in a fossilized i m p r e s s i o n in
rock. M o s t c o m m o n i n L e b a n e s e a m b e r are m a l e scale insects, m i d g e s ,
parasitic w a s p s , a n d p s o c o p t e r a n b a r k lice. Rarities i n c l u d e p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s ,
m i l l i p e d e s , a n d s t i n g i n g w a s p s . T h e o l d e s t D N A ever r e c o v e r e d w a s from a
w e e v i l in this collection.

36 ' Amber in Nature

 Tertiary Deposits

A m o n g the dozens of major a m b e r deposits scattered around the world, most

are f r o m t h e T e r t i a r y p e r i o d , w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m 6 5 million y e a r s a g o t o t h e
p r e s e n t . E v e n w i t h i n this p e r i o d , m o s t d e p o s i t s derive from t h e E o c e n e , a few
f r o m t h e O l i g o c e n e a n d M i o c e n e ages, a n d even fewer from t h e o t h e r ages i n
t h e Tertiary. T h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s , c o l o r s , a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e a m b e r s are
e x t r e m e l y varied, unlike t h e earlier C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s , which are m o s t l y a brittle,
t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w t o r e d ( p e r h a p s reflecting m o r e u n i f o r m b o t a n i c a l o r i g i n s ) .

Above: Excavating the largest piece

of amber in the world, in Sarawak. It
is now on display at the Museum fur
Naturkunde, Stuttgart.

Chunk of amber from Sarawak. Very

opaque and blackish, it is from the
same locality as the piece of amber
above. Height 4.4". American Museum
of Natural History (courtesy of
Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart)

38 • Amber in Nature
Left: Giant Shorea curtisii tree on
Brunei. Note two men in the tree, about
midway up on the left. Burmese legend
holds that Gaudama died and perhaps
was even born in a grove of Shoreas:

Leaves, flowers, and fruit of Shorea aptera.

Extinct species of Shorea or some other
dipterocarp tree apparently gave rise to
the amber from Sarawak in Malaysia and
Arkansas in the United States.

Amber in Nature • 39
 ^ T h e largest p i e c e o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e l o w e r t o mid-
M i o c e n e N y a l a u F o r m a t i o n o f S a r a w a k , Malaysia, w a s discovered o n
D e c e m b e r 3 , 1991. I t w e i g h s m o r e t h a n 150 p o u n d s a n d , t o t r a n s p o r t i t t o t h e
M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e i n S t u t t g a r t , G e r m a n y , w h e r e i t i s n o w o n display, i t
h a d t o b e s a w e d i n t o several s e c t i o n s . T h e a m b e r itself i s similar t o d e n s e coal,
i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h t h e fossil resin. U p o n p o l i s h i n g , v a r i o u s c o l o r s o f t h e S a r a w a k
a m b e r b e c o m e a p p a r e n t : w h i t e , pink, o r a n g e , g r e e n , even violet, a l t h o u g h a
clear y e l l o w i s r a r e . M i c r o s c o p i c r e d d i s h - b r o w n d r o p l e t s i m p a r t t h e p i n k i s h
opacity. T h e M e r i t - P e r l a area, w h e r e t h e p i e c e w a s recovered, i s m i n e d for coal,
a n d a m b e r i s f o u n d a m o n g s o m e o f t h e coal s e a m s . Bright, yellowish a m b e r
o c c u r s i n s o m e s e a m s , i n pieces 1 t o 4 0 c e n t i m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r . T h e a m b e r
f o u n d s o far h a s c o n t a i n e d c e n t i p e d e s , spiders, beetles, ants a n d w a s p s , a n d
v a r i o u s flies. T h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e family i s t h e a p p a r e n t tree s o u r c e o f this
a m b e r . M a n y species o f d i p t e r o c a r p s g r o w i n Asia, w h e r e they-are v a l u a b l e
Amber mines in northern Burma,
t i m b e r trees because of their girth, straight trunks, and resinous w o o d , which
c. 1930
h e l p s p r e v e n t t e r m i t e infestation.

40 • Amber in Nature
 Historically, t h e b e s t k n o w n Asian a m b e r i s burmite, f r o m t h e H u k a w n g
The largest piece of transparent
valley o f n o r t h e r n B u r m a ( n o w M y a n m a r ) . I t w a s r e p o r t e d i n E u r o p e a n scientific amber, which is very deep red, from
l i t e r a t u r e as early as 1836, a l t h o u g h m i n i n g h a d b e e n d o n e h e r e for at least a Burma (Myanmar). It weighs 33.5
pounds and is 19.5" long. Natural
m i l l e n n i u m . B y t h e 1930s, m a n y o f t h e a m b e r m i n e s , a t least n e a r M a i n g k w a n
History Museum, London
a n d t h e village o f S h i n g b a n i n t h e H u k a w n g valley, c o n s i s t e d o f h u n d r e d s o f
a b a n d o n e d pits o v e r g r o w n b y d e n s e j u n g l e . A t t h a t t i m e , t h e largest w o r k i n g s
w e r e a t K h a n j a m a w , w h e r e 150 K a c h i n s , Shans, a n d S h a n - C h i n e s e w e r e d i g g i n g
500 to 600 pits. M o s t of t h e pits w e r e 30 to 40 feet d e e p , occasionally 50 feet,
d e p t h b e i n g c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a d e e p s a n d layer a n d w a t e r ,
w h i c h seeps in at 40 feet. To k e e p pit walls f r o m collapsing, e l a b o r a t e s c r e e n s
of b a m b o o poles supported by w o o d e n posts were needed.

Today, b u r m i t e h a s a l m o s t l e g e n d a r y a p p e a l , i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e d e p o s i t s are
no longer m i n e d and the supply is generally unavailable. (This m a y be because
the m i n e s are e x h a u s t e d ; i n f o r m a t i o n o n C h i n e s e a m b e r m i n i n g i s sketchy.) T h e
appeal i s also d u e t o b u r m i t e ' s p r o p e r t i e s . F r o m t h e few scientific c o l l e c t i o n s
o f i t existing (the b e s t b e i n g a t t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) , w e k n o w

Amber in Nature • 41
 t h a t i t w a s h i g h l y f o s s i l i f e r o u s . F o u r t e e n local varieties w e r e r e c o g n i z e d , m o s t o f
t h e m a r i c h , t r a n s p a r e n t r e d w i t h s t r o n g u l t r a v i o l e t f l u o r e s c e n c e . B u r m i t e i s also
h a r d e r t h a n m o s t o t h e r a m b e r s a n d i s excellent for c a r v i n g . I n fact, m u c h o f i t
w a s e x p o r t e d t o Y u n n a n , i n s o u t h e r n C h i n a , t h e n t o Beijing, for c a r v i n g v a r i o u s
objets d ' a r t . T h e largest s p e c i m e n of t r a n s p a r e n t a m b e r in t h e w o r l d is a deep-red
p i e c e o f b u r m i t e w e i g h i n g 33.5 p o u n d s , i n t h e m i n e r a l o g y d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n . D i s c o v e r e d i n 1860, i t w a s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e
m u s e u m i n 1940.
Interestingly, t h e r e i s n o historical m e n t i o n o f a m b e r from L i a o n i n g Province,
C h i n a , for u s e i n c a r v i n g o r n a m e n t a l objects. A m b e r h e r e o c c u r s w i t h coal i n
t h e G u c h e n z g i F o r m a t i o n o f F u S h u n . I t t o o exists i n large pieces a n d i s highly
fossiliferous. B u r m i t e a n d F u S h u n a m b e r w e r e b o t h f o r m e d i n t h e E o c e n e ,
a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s are u n k n o w n .

c a s w e
Africa ^ ^ * ^ k n o w n for its p r o d u c t i o n o f copal, b u t t h e o n l y T e r t i a r y
d e p o s i t o n t h e c o n t i n e n t w i t h t r u e a m b e r c o m e s from s o u t h e a s t e r n
Nigeria near Umuahia, in the A m e k i Formation of the Eocene. T h e a m b e r is
d a r k r e d , t r a n s p a r e n t t o o p a q u e . N o b i o l o g i c a l inclusions are k n o w n , n o r i s t h e
plant source.

e s t e t n e
Europe ^ P' o v e r w h e l m i n g size o f t h e Baltic d e p o s i t s , Sicilian a m b e r h a s
its o w n allure. A m b e r f r o m t h e S i m e t o River o f Sicily, n e a r C a t a n i a , a n d
t h e Salso River (called simetite) is r e n o w n e d for its varied, d e e p c o l o r s : red, b l u e ,
a n d s m o k y g r e e n . A r n o l d Buffum, w h o extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f Sicilian a m b e r i n
his b o o k The Tears of the Heliades, a m a s s e d a w o n d e r f u l c o l l e c t i o n of E u r o p e a n
a m b e r o b j e t s d ' a r t i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century, w h i c h are i n t h e M u s e u m o f
Fine Arts, B o s t o n . O t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f s i m e t i t e , b u t o f m i n e r a l o g i c a l s p e c i m e n s ,
are a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. A l t h o u g h s o m e pieces are
i n d e e d t h e d e e p r e d t h a t Buffum described, t h e r e are n o pieces w i t h distinctive
g r e e n a n d b l u e h u e s i n t h e B o s t o n c o l l e c t i o n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e these colors h a v e
faded. Sicilian a m b e r i s y o u n g e r ( O l i g o c e n e t o M i o c e n e ) t h a n the Baltic a m b e r ,
a n d t h e d e p o s i t s are m u c h smaller. S i m e t i t e is c o l l e c t e d only rarely today,
a l t h o u g h it is h a r d to i m a g i n e t h a t an e x h a u s t e d supply is t h e r e a s o n , for t h e r e
n e v e r w a s o r g a n i z e d o r m e c h a n i z e d m i n i n g o f i t like t h a t d o n e for a m b e r o n
t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a o f t h e Baltic Sea.

O b s c u r e b y E u r o p e a n a m b e r s t a n d a r d s i s rumanite, f r o m t h e C a r p a t h i a n
Mountains of Romania. Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of Romanian a m b e r
h a v e b e e n f o u n d . T h e t r u e T e r t i a r y r u m a n i t e has p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o l o r s similar t o
s i m e t i t e a n d c o m e s largely f r o m a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g Colti, i n B u z a u District. Else-
w h e r e in the Carpathians, in the Lvov and Ivano-Frankovsk regions, near the
t o w n o f V e r k h n i i Sinevidnyi, are E o c e n e d e p o s i t s o f succinite. S i m e t i t e a n d m o s t
r u m a n i t e lack succinic acid, a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s i s u n c e r t a i n .

42 ' Amber in Nature

.. , . A l t h o u g h o v e r s h a d o w e d by t h e vast d e p o s i t s of t h e Baltic
b } r
North America
region, N o r t h American deposits from b o t h the Cretaceous and
t h e T e r t i a r y p e r i o d s are still q u i t e varied. S o m e d e p o s i t s are s u r p r i s i n g l y rich.
T h e n o r t h e r n m o s t a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d o c c u r s i n early E o c e n e d e p o s i t s o f Axel
H e i b u r g a n d E l l e s m e r e islands, i n t h e C a n a d i a n Arctic. T h e a m b e r f o r m e d i n
the permafrost and can include remarkably well-preserved tree stumps, cones,
a n d o t h e r plant fossils, as w e l l as t h e fossils of extinct catfish, s n a p p i n g t u r t l e s , a n d
p l a g i o m e r i d m a m m a l s r e l a t e d t o early p r i m a t e s , e v i d e n c e o f t h e s u b t r o p i c a l

Cones and branches of the relict, living

pine Pseudolarix kempferi. Forty-
million-year-old cones of an extinct
Pseudolarix from the northernmost
islands of Axel Heiburg and Ellesmere
have amber with large amounts of
succinic acid. Thus, Pseudolarix may
be the kind of tree that gave rise to
Baltic amber, whose botanical origins
have been controversial.

Amber in Nature • 43
Right: Landscape on Axel Heiburg
Island in the Arctic Circle, where 50-
million-year-old forests are preserved
in the permafrost with amber

Amber from Axel Heiburg Island, with

a fossilized cone in the center, perhaps
from the kind of tree that produced the
amber. Most of the amber is heavily
weathered. Length of cone .8".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

44 • Amber in Nature
Variety in the 40-million-year-old amber from
central Arkansas. Some pieces have been
polished, revealing transparency; others are
completely opaque. Length of largest piece 1.7".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 45
 r e m a i n s b e n e a t h t h e f r o z e n d e s o l a t i o n . T h e a m b e r itself i s n o t s o well preserved,
m u c h of it h a v i n g an oxidized, p o w d e r y , d e e p crust, w i t h a small c o r e of
t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w a m b e r . A m b e r f r o m fossilized Pseudolarix t r e e s f o u n d h e r e
c o n t a i n s succinic acid i n a m o u n t s similar t o t h a t f o u n d i n Baltic a m b e r , w h i c h
m a y r e l a t e t h e s e t r e e s t o t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s o f Baltic a m b e r .
T h e largest N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t o f a m b e r i s f r o m t h e E o c e n e C l a i b o r n e
Formation of Malvern County, Arkansas. T h e a m b e r is in t w o locations, one
a n expansive pit m i n e d for clay t o m a n u f a c t u r e bricks, t h e o t h e r a n a b a n d o n e d
clay pit. I n t h e active m i n e , pieces u p t o t h r e e i n c h e s l o n g can b e f o u n d o n t h e
surface of a d a r k clay i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h lignite. If t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t u m is
e x p o s e d , it is possible to collect several p o u n d s off t h e surface in o n e day. T h i s
a m b e r is v e r y distinctive for its w e a t h e r e d r i n d a n d d e n s e i n t e r n a l flow lines,
w h i c h are also w e a t h e r e d . I n t a c t a m b e r i n t h e c o r e o f a piece can b e r e d t o
yellow; t h e y e l l o w a m b e r i s m o r e often m a d e slightly cloudy b y m i c r o s c o p i c
b u b b l e s . M y r i a d a r t h r o p o d s are p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r , b u t finding t h e m
r e q u i r e s diligence b e c a u s e o f t h e o p a c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . C h e m i s t r y s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e i s i n t h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e , w h i c h i s i n t r i g u i n g since n o
t r e e s i n t h e family g r o w n o w i n N o r t h A m e r i c a .
A m u c h s m a l l e r b u t i n t e r e s t i n g d e p o s i t of Tertiary a m b e r is f o u n d in t h e
m i d - E o c e n e T i g e r M o u n t a i n F o r m a t i o n n e a r Seattle, W a s h i n g t o n , i n a small,
s t e e p e x p o s u r e i n heavily w o o d e d s t a t e p r o p e r t y . T h e a m b e r , a d a r k , t r a n s p a r e n t
red, is e x t r e m e l y brittle a n d fractures easily w h e n extracted from t h e clay substrate.
A l t h o u g h n o insects have b e e n f o u n d i n it, t h e m a n y plant fibers i n t h e a m b e r
are s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o n t h e b a r k o f c e d a r s i n t h e C u p r e s s a c e a e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m a t r e e i n t h e s a m e family.

46 • Amber in Nature
Baltic Amber

T h e largest d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e o n e s e x p l o i t e d t h e l o n g e s t ,
derive f r o m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Baltic Sea i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . A m b e r also
w a s h e s u p o n t h e s h o r e s o f e a s t e r n E n g l a n d a n d Scotland. Baltic a m b e r h a s
a n exceptionally rich h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t t r a d e , s u p p o r t e d b y guilds o f a m b e r
c r a f t s m e n a n d s t u n n i n g w o r k s o f art. I t e v e n f i g u r e s i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y .

. _ . T h e t r u e Baltic a m b e r is f o u n d on or n e a r t h e s h o r e s
Location and Geology
o f t h e e a s t e r n Baltic Sea, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e S a m l a n d
Peninsula. T h e p e n i n s u l a , a m e r e 400 s q u a r e m i l e s in size, h a s p r o d u c e d 90
p e r c e n t o f all t h e a m b e r i n E u r o p e . B o t h its n o r t h e r n b a y (Kurisches Haff)
a n d s o u t h e r n bay (Frisches Haff) are nearly entirely closed off to t h e Baltic Sea.
Beaches o n the side o f t h e p e n i n s u l a facing t h e sea are n a r r o w , w i t h s t e e p ,
vertical cliffs. A m b e r w a s h e d u p o n t h e b e a c h e s , especially after s t o r m s , h a s
b e e n h a r v e s t e d for at least t e n m i l l e n n i a . A few h u g e pieces h a v e b e e n f o u n d ;

Samland Peninsula, Baltic coast

Amber in Nature • 47
Opposite: Section of Baltic
amber encrusted with barnacles,
with one end cut and polished.
Pieces like this demonstrate that
Baltic amber was in marine
water after being eroded from
sediment. Length 3.4". American
Museum of Natural History
(Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Plate from Nathanael Sendelio's

1742 monograph on Baltic amber,
Historia Succinorum Corpora
aliena involventium et Naturae
Opere. ...He depicts plant,
wood, and insect inclusions, as
well as several pieces with sea-
weed. Marine organisms became
attached to some pieces of amber
that were deposited by seawater.

Amber in Nature * 49

Large piece of Baltic amber, left un-
polished to show the natural fissures,
with a necklace of polished amber
beads. Length 9.8". American
Museum of Natural History (Earth
and Planetary Sciences)
Such a large piece of amber would
have been prized by artisans for sculpt-
ing a figure or other decorative piece.
50 • Amber in Nature
o n e , w e i g h i n g 21.5 p o u n d s ( n o w i n t h e H u m b o l d t M u s e u m , Berlin), w a s
d i s c o v e r e d i n 1890 a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e O d e r River. A m b e r i s s t r a n d e d o n o t h e r
Baltic s h o r e s as well a n d , occasionally, e v e n t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s of E n g l a n d . In
N o r t h J u t l a n d , D e n m a r k , for i n s t a n c e , 3,000 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d this w a y
in 1800, a n d , after several s t o r m y y e a r s b e t w e e n 1822 a n d 1825, o n e D a n i s h
m e r c h a n t c o l l e c t e d 686 p o u n d s a t R i n g k j o b i n g ( o n e piece p u r p o r t e d l y w e i g h e d
2 7 p o u n d s ) . T h e r e c o r d , t h o u g h , g o e s t o t h e S a m l a n d Peninsula; d u r i n g o n e day
i n 1862, 4,400 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d off b e a c h e s i n t h e t o w n o f P a l m n i c k e n
(now Yantarny). It is n o t coincidental that the m o s t productive a m b e r mine in
h i s t o r y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h a t t o w n a b o u t t e n y e a r s later.
A m b e r h a d b e e n collected largely f r o m t h e S a m l a n d b e a c h e s u p u n t i l t h e mid-
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n t w o p e o p l e m a d e a m a j o r i m p a c t o n massive-scale
m i n i n g o f a m b e r . I n 1850, K o n i g s b e r g ' s Society for Physical E c o n o m y h i r e d
geologist George Zaddach, w h o described h o w the amber was concentrated in
layers of t h e blau Erde ("blue e a r t h , " actually g r e e n i s h a n d f o r m e d by g l a u c o n i t e )
Two pieces of Baltic amber with
surfaces polished. One piece is a
mottled, opaque yellow-orange with
deep pits. The other is mostly
transparent with milky swirls on the
interior. Length of larger piece 4.4".
American Museum of Natural History
(Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Amber in Nature • SI
The Palmnicken amber mine, c. 1985

d a t i n g b a c k to t h e E o c e n e e p o c h , 40 m i l l i o n years ago. T h e blau Erde e v e r y w h e r e

w a s 16 feet b e l o w sea level, a n d s o m e 130 to 150 feet b e l o w t h e topsoil. M o r e
i m p o r t a n t , this layer w a s s u b m e r g e d o n t h e floor o f t h e Baltic Sea a n d r e a c h e d
t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a a t o n l y a few l o c a t i o n s , o n e b e i n g P a l m n i c k e n . W h a t w a s
w a s h e d u p o n t h e s h o r e s w a s m e r e l y cast off from the b e d o f t h e sea; a m u c h
r i c h e r s o u r c e r e m a i n e d t o b e t a p p e d . I n 1854, e n g i n e e r W i l h e l m S t a n t i e n f r o m
M e m e l b e g a n d r e d g i n g o p e r a t i o n s for t h e a m b e r , 3 5 feet d o w n f r o m t h e floors
o f t h e Haffs. B y 1865, t h e m i n i n g firm o f Stantien a n d Becker w a s o p e r a t i n g
t w e n t y - t w o s t e a m b a r g e s a n d e m p l o y i n g a b o u t o n e t h o u s a n d p e o p l e . I n 1868,
t h e y c o l l e c t e d a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d a m o u n t o f a m b e r : 185,000 p o u n d s . B y 1870,
Stantien and Becker b e g a n open-pit mining, and the famous Palmnicken m i n e
w a s o p e n e d in 1875. In its first year, P a l m n i c k e n g e n e r a t e d 450,000 p o u n d s of
a m b e r , a n d its yield i m p r o v e d steadily until 1895, w h e n t h e u n b e l i e v a b l e a m o u n t
o f 1.2 m i l l i o n p o u n d s w a s e x t r a c t e d . O n e Felix D a h n d e s c r i b e d P a l m n i c k e n ,
w h e r e t h e r e w o r k e d " h u n d r e d s o f m e n , w o m e n , a n d children, i n all i m a g i n a b l e
c o s t u m e s , i n t h e o d d e s t o f attires, s h i e l d i n g t h e m s e l v e s against t h e s h a r p ,
w h i s t l i n g w i n d s , d i g g i n g v i g o r o u s l y a n d s w i n g i n g t h e i r shovels t o t h e l a n g u i d
strain of s o m e s o m b r e melody."

52 • Amber in Nature
 B y 1930, a m b e r e x t r a c t i o n a t P a l m n i c k e n w a s largely m e c h a n i z e d . H u g e
c o n v e y e r s d u m p e d b u c k e t s o f blau Erde i n t o o p e n freight cars. T h e t r a i n s t h e n
c a r r i e d t h e e a r t h over t o g r a t e s , w h e r e i t w a s spilled t o t h e s p r a y h o u s e b e l o w
a n d b l a s t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e h o s e s ; s m a l l p i e c e s floated o u t of a slurry, l a r g e r
pieces w e r e collected b y h a n d . O u t o f t h e h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p o u n d s
e x t r a c t e d yearly, n e a r l y 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s o f p o o r quality a n d s u i t a b l e o n l y for
c h e m i c a l processing; t h e r e m a i n d e r w a s u s e d for c a r v i n g s a n d j e w e l r y o r
c o n t a i n e d fossilized i n c l u s i o n s . T h a t 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s d r y distilled i n h u g e i r o n
r e t o r t s , w h i c h yielded 6 0 t o 6 5 p e r c e n t a m b e r c o l o p h o n y ( a h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h ) ,
1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t a m b e r oil ( u s e d i n m e d i c i n e s , casting, a n d t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e
varnishes), a n d 2 p e r c e n t distilled acids (used for m e d i c i n e s a n d dyes). P a l m n i c k e n
i s still t h e m o s t prolific a m b e r m i n e i n t h e w o r l d .

~ A b o u t 90 p e r c e n t of Baltic a m b e r has a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of succinic

r
Features °
acid ( u p to 8 p e r c e n t ) , f r o m w h i c h t h e n a m e succinite is derived.
Agricola ( G e o r g B a u e r ) i s said t o h a v e b e e n t h e f i r s t t o isolate succinic acid f r o m
Baltic a m b e r , a r o u n d 1546. S o m e Baltic a m b e r , a yellow, friable a m b e r called
Miirber Bernstein, lacks succinic acid a n d h a s alternatively b e e n n a m e d Gedanite.
O t h e r , r a r e r Baltic a m b e r s , also l a c k i n g succinic acid, are stantienite a n d beckerite,
b o t h o f w h i c h are o p a q u e , dull b r o w n , o r black. Glessite, t h e r a r e s t f o r m , i s
yellow a n d softer t h a n succinite. E v e n w i t h i n succinite t h e r e exist v a r i o u s classes,
d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e size of n u m e r o u s b u b b l e s in t h e a m b e r . Foamy a m b e r is
c a u s e d by a froth of l a r g e r b u b b l e s , w h i l e bone a m b e r is m a r k e d by m i c r o s c o p i c
b u b b l e s . B o n e a m b e r i s w h i t e t o yellowish o p a q u e , like ivory, a n d w a s e a g e r l y
s o u g h t for p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n s o f c a r v i n g s , s u c h a s inlays. Pieces h a v i n g b u b b l e
sizes b e t w e e n t h o s e o f f o a m y a n d b o n e a m b e r are called f l o m , o r g o o s e - g r e a s e ,
a n d bastard a m b e r . Bastard a m b e r is c l o u d e d by milky swirls a n d is t h e m o s t
c o m m o n o f t h e o p a q u e varieties. W h y s o m e a m b e r s are o p a q u e a n d o t h e r s
are n o t i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . T h e fact t h a t s o m e Baltic a m b e r lacks succinic
acid s u g g e s t s t h a t several different k i n d s o f t r e e s m a y h a v e g i v e n rise t o t h e
Baltic a m b e r .

Exactly w h a t t r e e o r t r e e s gave rise t o t h e a m b e r f r o m t h e

1
Botanical Origins °
Baltic r e g i o n h a s l o n g b e e n a m a t t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y a n d
confusion (possibly r e s o l v e d j u s t r e c e n t l y ) , a n d s t u d y o f b o t a n i c a l i n c l u s i o n s
in Baltic a m b e r h a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d history. In 1836, t h e G e r m a n b o t a n i s t
H. R. G o e p p e r t d e s c r i b e d t h e Baltic a m b e r t r e e as Pittites succinifer. T h e t r e e
was identified f r o m m i c r o s c o p i c features o f w o o d f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e
amber, w h i c h , G o e p p e r t believed, also s h o w e d similarities t o p i n e s . I n fact,
a n o t h e r b o t a n i s t l a t e r a s s i g n e d t h e Baltic a m b e r t r e e t o t h e g e n u s o f t r u e p i n e s ,
Pinits. O t h e r e v i d e n c e in favor of a p i n e or pinelike o r i g i n are t h e m a n y c o n e s
and n e e d l e s in t h e a m b e r . Baltic a m b e r , h o w e v e r , lacks abietic acid, w h i c h
chemically distinguishes p i n e resin. T h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s s t a t e s t h a t Baltic

A cone in Baltic amber. Length of
cone .6". Private collection
Opposite: A small flower (diameter
.6") in a much larger piece of Baltic
amber. Private collection
54 • Amber in Nature
a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m a n a r a u c a r i a n o r a t r e e like o n e , b u t a r a u c a r i a n resin
d o e s n o t have t h e succinic acid t h a t is so distinctive of m o s t Baltic a m b e r . In
a d d i t i o n , t h e r e are few a r a u c a r i a n fossils i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , a n d
a p p a r e n t l y n o n e i n Baltic a m b e r .
A r e c e n t discovery t h a t s h e d s c o n s i d e r a b l e light on t h e o r i g i n s of Baltic
a m b e r i s t h a t s o m e living t r e e s i n t h e p i n e family, w h i c h b e l o n g t o t h e g e n e r a
Keteleeria a n d Pseudolarix, do i n d e e d p r o d u c e succinic acid. T h e latter is of
p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t since resin in 40-million-year-old Pseudolarix c o n e s f r o m Axel
H e i b u r g Island in t h e C a n a d i a n Arctic also c o n t a i n s succinic acid. Pseudolarix
t o d a y is f o u n d in Asia, a n d o n e species, Pseudolarix amabilis, is very n a r r o w l y
r e s t r i c t e d t o s o m e m o u n t a i n s i n e a s t e r n C h i n a (the o t h e r t w o species h a v e
h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f succinic acid). T h e fact t h a t 40-million-year-old trees
t h a t p r o d u c e d succinic acid existed o n ( w h a t are n o w ) t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t islands
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t Pseudolarix c o u l d h a v e b e e n in Scandinavia at t h e s a m e
t i m e , a n d t h e n c e in t h e Baltic r e g i o n . T h e Pseudolarix h y p o t h e s i s is also b o l s t e r e d
b y t h e fact t h a t m a n y o f t h e o t h e r p l a n t a n d insect species fossilized i n t h e Baltic
a m b e r are closely r e l a t e d t o species n o w living i n Asia, Australia, a n d e v e n Chile.

~ " Given t h e m o u n t a i n s of Baltic a m b e r e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e P a l m n i c k e n

Inclusions
mine alone, one can only imagine the thousands of pieces that
w e r e found containing interesting inclusions. T h e a m b e r collection of Albertus
Universitat i n K o n i g s b e r g a b s o r b e d t h e a m b e r collection o f t h e S t a n t i e n a n d
Becker firm, w h i c h i n 1914 t o t a l e d s o m e 70,000 pieces. H a r v a r d ' s M u s e u m o f
C o m p a r a t i v e Z o o l o g y h a s a s u p e r b collection of 16,000 fossiliferous pieces, m a n y
b r o u g h t over from E u r o p e i n 1867 b y H e r m a n n H a g e n , a brilliant e n t o m o l o g i s t
f r o m K o n i g s b e r g w h o b e c a m e a p r o f e s s o r a t t h e H a r v a r d m u s e u m . T h e Konigs-
b e r g collection w a s b y far t h e largest i n existence a n d , b y all a c c o u n t s , w a s

Amber in Nature • 55
A famous specimen: larva of the owl
"fly," Neadelphus protae, in Baltic
amber, in which all of the intricate
processes and hairs are preserved.
Like the related ant lions, these
larvae impale their prey with their
huge mandibles and then suck them
dry. Hagen Collection, Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University

56 ' Amber in Nature

d e s t r o y e d by fire in W o r l d W a r II. Actually, o n l y p o r t i o n s of it w e r e lost, b e c a u s e
d u r i n g t h e w a r the collection w a s divided a m o n g v a r i o u s localities for safekeeping,
o n e place b e i n g t h e Institut fur P a l a o n t o l o g i e i n G o t t i n g e n , w h e r e p a r t o f t h e
collection still resides.
G e r m a n scientists d e v e l o p e d t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f a m b e r fossils for
several r e a s o n s . O n e , o f c o u r s e , w a s t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e richest a m b e r d e p o s i t s
in t h e w o r l d . T h e o t h e r w a s t h e i r p e r f e c t i o n of optics, specifically in m i c r o s c o p e s .
Since 1800, h u n d r e d s o f specialized scientific p a p e r s have d e s c r i b e d m y r i a d
o r g a n i s m s i n t h e Baltic a m b e r . S o m e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o n o g r a p h s ,
particularly t h e b o t a n i c a l o n e s , are i l l u s t r a t e d i n lavish detail w i t h c o p p e r p l a t e
e t c h i n g s , h a n d p a i n t e d w i t h w a t e r c o l o r s . For G . C . B e r e n d t ' s lovely 1830
m o n o g r a p h o n t h e flora o f t h e Baltic a m b e r , h e h a d s t u d i e d m o r e t h a n 2,000
pieces w i t h plant inclusions. H u g o C o n w e n t z ' s botanical m o n o g r a p h s o f 1886 a n d
1890 are t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e , w i t h a s t u n n i n g delicacy t h a t m o d e r n scientific
illustration c o u l d n e v e r h o p e t o a c c o m p l i s h . C o n t i n u i n g t h e p r e s t i g i o u s G e r m a n
t r a d i t i o n i s D i e t e r Schlee a t t h e M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e , S t u t t g a r t , h o m e t o
the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e collection o f a m b e r s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a n d a h u g e collec-
t i o n o f fossiliferous p i e c e s , f r o m t h e Baltic, D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , a n d L e b a n o n .
Sven L a r s s o n ' s 1978 b o o k , The Paleobiology of Baltic Amber, s u m m a r i z e s
nearly 150 y e a r s o f scientific w o r k o n Baltic a m b e r . D a t i n g m e t h o d s are far t o o
i m p r e c i s e t o c o n f i r m i f all Baltic a m b e r i s 4 0 million y e a r s old, b u t w e k n o w t h a t
succinite can b e a s y o u n g a s 2 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, w h i c h i s t h e age o f t h e h u g e
d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r f r o m c o a l m i n e s i n Bitterfeld, G e r m a n y ( t h e s e m i n e s are
n o l o n g e r active, b u t t h e y did yield extensive collections o f fossils, n o w a t t h e
H u m b o l d t M u s e u m in Berlin). If t h e fossilized o r g a n i s m s did exist all at t h e
s a m e t i m e , t h e g r e a t diversity o f tiny a n i m a l s , plants, a n d f u n g i a l l o w s a v e r y
t h o r o u g h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r forest. S u c h a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
i s p r e s e n t e d l a t e r for t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest, w h i c h c o n t a i n s tropical
species n o t u n l i k e o n e s living on H i s p a n i o l a t o d a y (see p a g e 101). P e r h a p s a
result of b e i n g 10 m i l l i o n s y e a r s older, w h e n sea levels a n d c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s
h a d m o r e effect, t h e Baltic a m b e r b i o t a w a s distinctively s u b t r o p i c a l .
T h e g a m u t o f diversity i n t h e Baltic a m b e r i n c l u d e s b a c t e r i a , slime m o l d s
(actually, t h e y are c o l o n i a l p r o t o z o a ) , t r u e m o l d s , parasitic fungi, h i g h e r f u n g i
(like m u s h r o o m s ) , lichens, m o s s e s , ferns, cycads, conifer c o n e s , flowers of
nearly a h u n d r e d species o f p l a n t s , a n d h u n d r e d s o f species o f a r t h r o p o d s .
Stellate p l a n t h a i r s ( t r i c h o m e s ) are m o r e c o m m o n i n t h e Baltic t h a n i n m o s t
o t h e r a m b e r s . Since o a k f l o w e r s o c c u r i n t h e a m b e r , t h e s e t r i c h o m e s are often
a t t r i b u t e d t o o a k s , even t h o u g h t r i c h o m e s are w i d e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s . N o t surprisingly, m a n y o f t h e insects are f o r m s w h o s e living
relatives are f o u n d o n d e a d a n d d e c a y i n g t r e e t r u n k s a n d u n d e r b a r k . S w a r m s
o f insects infested i n j u r e d a n d r o t t i n g w o o d , p e r h a p s t h e result o f " s u c c i n o s i s , "
C o n w e n t z ' s h y p o t h e t i c a l disease t h a t led t o t h e d e m i s e o f t h e forest a n d t h e
f o r m a t i o n o f s u c h p r o d i g i o u s a m o u n t s o f resin. Besides stellate p l a n t hairs,
Piles of crude amber being bagged at
the Bitterfeld amber mine. Now closed,
it had yielded an exceptional amount
of amber.
58 • Amber in Nature
Opposite: A plate from Hugo
Conwentz's 1890 monograph on
Baltic amber flora, Monographic
der baltischen Bernsteinbaume,
showing flower inclusions and leaf
impressions in the amber
a n o t h e r distinctive feature o f Baltic a m b e r i n c l u s i o n s i s t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n . Insects
i n Baltic a m b e r , m u c h m o r e t h a n i n a n y o t h e r a m b e r , have a m i l k y c o v e r i n g
(Schimmel) over at least a p a r t of t h e body. T h i s m i l k i n e s s is an e m u l s i o n of
microscopic bubbles caused by decomposition.
C o l l e c t o r s o f Baltic a m b e r are n o t i m m u n e f r o m t h e o b s e s s i o n for v e r t e b r a t e
r e m a i n s typical of m o s t a m b e r d e p o s i t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is also a v e n e r a b l e
h i s t o r y o f forgeries i n E u r o p e (see p a g e s 140-41). T h e o n l y w h o l e , possibly
a u t h e n t i c v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i m e n in Baltic a m b e r w a s a Nucras succinea, a s m a l l
lizard r e l a t e d t o o n e s living n o w i n Africa, w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y w a s lost w i t h s o m e
of t h e K o n i g s b e r g collection. S m a l l tufts of m a m m a l h a i r a n d a few small single
feathers o c c u r in Baltic a m b e r , a n d r e c e n t l y t h e tails of a lizard a n d a r o d e n t
w e r e found.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o e v o l u t i o n t h a t t h e s t u d y o f Baltic
a m b e r fossils has m a d e c o n c e r n s e x t i n c t i o n s . For m a n y o f t h e n o w e x t i n c t p l a n t s
a n d insects in this a m b e r , t h e closest living relatives are f o u n d in t r o p i c a l or
s u b t r o p i c a l Asia, Australia, o r s o u t h e r n S o u t h A m e r i c a . For e x a m p l e , t h e small
parasitic plant Trigonobalanus t o d a y g r o w s in S o u t h e a s t Asia. T h e p l a n t Trianthera
in Baltic a m b e r is closely r e l a t e d to Eusideroxylon f r o m B o r n e o a n d S u m a t r a .
A r c h a e i d spiders a n d m a n y c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s have t h e i r closest living relatives
i n N e w Z e a l a n d , Australia, o r C h i l e . W h y s o m e g r o u p s o f o r g a n i s m s w e r e o n c e
widespread and b e c a m e extinct t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of their range is uncertain.

A plate from H. R. Goeppert and

G.C. Berendt's 1845 monograph
on the flora of the Baltic amber,
Die Bernstein und die in ihm
befindlichen Pflanzenreste der
Vorwelt, depicting details of cones
and flowers, with the actual size
of the specimen by comparison

An unusually large piece of Mexican
amber, with one surface unpolished
and showing deep natural grooves.
Length 6.5". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)
62 • Amber in Nature
Dominican and Mexican Amber
S u p p l a n t i n g t h e p o p u l a r i t y of Baltic a m b e r , at least in N o r t h A m e r i c a , is t h e
a m b e r f r o m C h i a p a s , M e x i c o , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. T h i s m a y b e d u e t o
its p r o x i m i t y t o t h e U n i t e d States a n d t h e availability o f r a r e fossiliferous pieces,
b u t a m a j o r factor c e r t a i n l y is t h e exquisite p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n c l u s i o n s , p r o b a b l y
t h e b e s t o f a n y a m b e r . I n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c a n d M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s well
k n o w n t o t h e native p e o p l e s . C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s a p p a r e n t l y received gifts
of a m b e r from the Taino people w h e n he landed on the n o r t h e r n shore of the
D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . I n M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s c a r v e d a n d u s e d for i n c e n s e b y
t h e Maya, a n d s o m e i n d i g e n o u s u s e o f i t still exists. Mexican a m b e r h a s b e e n
k n o w n t o N o r t h A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n scientists since a b o u t 1890, w h e r e a s
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w a s n o t scientifically k n o w n until a b o u t t h e m i d - 1 9 4 0 s .
Clear yellow Mexican amber containing
dark bubbles and two small amblypygids,
a kind of arachnid. Length of amber 3.1".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 63
 M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s w e r e b o t h f o r m e d f r o m extinct species
o f Hymenaea trees, a l t h o u g h t h e o n l y o n e yet d e s c r i b e d (definitively n a m e d )
is Hymenaea protera f r o m t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. Well b e f o r e it w a s n a m e d ,
scientists h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t this D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e i s m o r e closely related
to t h e o n e African m e m b e r of t h e living species in this g e n u s (H. verrucosa,
a s o u r c e o f African c o p a l ) t h a n t o a n y N e w W o r l d species. T h e M e x i c a n a m b e r
t r e e is a p p a r e n t l y m o s t closely r e l a t e d to t h e living H. courbaril, w h i c h is w i d e -
s p r e a d i n s o u t h e r n M e x i c o a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , all t h e w a y d o w n t h r o u g h S o u t h
A m e r i c a . Identifications o f t h e s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s are b a s e d o n c h e m i s t r y
a n d o n t h e w h o l e a n d p a r t i a l flowers a n d leaves i n t h e a m b e r . D o m i n i c a n a n d
M e x i c a n d e p o s i t s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , h a v i n g b e e n f o r m e d
f r o m a r o u n d t h e m i d - O l i g o c e n e ( a b o u t 3 0 m i l l i o n years ago) t o t h e early

Hymenaea courbaril leaves, flowers,

and seedpod. This is a living relative
of the extinct trees that gave rise to
Mexican and Dominican ambers.

Opposite: Hymenaea courbaril tree,

Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands

64 • Amber in Nature
Detail of the small crab in the amber
piece at right. Width of crab .2"

Right: Section of amber from Chiapas,

Mexico, with a small crab, possibly
of the family Grapsidae, in it. An
exceptionally rare fossil, this is the
only known crab preserved in amber.
Private collection

Opposite, above: Large centipede in

Mexican amber. Length of amber 2 ".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Opposite, below: Male ant in a piece

of Dominican amber. Length of amber
.6". The ant has a metallic shine and
is deep red because the body cavity is
pyritized. Some amber pieces that
have inclusions exposed to the surface
are affected this way by dissolved
minerals in the surrounding matrix.
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

66 • Amber in Nature
Amber in Nature • 67

Amber mining in the Dominican
Republic
Opposite, clockwise from left: Miner in
an open pit at the Los Cacaos mines,
Dominican Republic
The famous La Toca group of mines,
near the ridge of a steep slope. Ramon
"Rubio" Martinez, a famous amber
dealer, is in the foreground.
Open pits and huts at the Los Cacaos
mines. These mines are acclaimed for
the blue amber they yield.
Three men working in a deep pit at
the Los Cacaos mines
68 • Amber in Nature
M i o c e n e ( a b o u t 20 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) . Very little basis exists for s o m e claims that
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r is 40 m i l l i o n y e a r s old.
F o u r t e e n species o f Hymenaea are f o u n d t o d a y t h r o u g h o u t t h e C a r i b b e a n ,
t r o p i c a l S o u t h A m e r i c a , a n d , curiously, t h e w e s t e r n half o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a
( s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e e a s t e r n half by a c e n t r a l spine of m o u n t a i n s ) . In t h e
D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , Hymenaea t r e e s are called algorrobo, a n d t h e resin is peruvia
(in C o s t a Rica, Hymenaea is guapinol, or s t i n k i n g t o e ) . Leaves a n d t h e large,
h a r d s e e d p o d s are s t u d d e d w i t h tiny p o c k e t s o f resin, w h i c h c h e m i c a l l y defend
t h e t r e e from caterpillars, weevils, a n d o t h e r h e r b i v o r o u s insects. Hymenaea
p r o d u c e s p r o d i g i o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f resin f r o m its t r u n k s and b r a n c h e s , s o m e t i m e s
a c c u m u l a t i n g i n large "stalactites." Very large pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are
s o m e t i m e s f o u n d : o n e p i e c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 17.5 p o u n d s is in a s h o p in S a n t o
D o m i n g o ; a n o t h e r , o f 15.8 p o u n d s , i s i n H a m b u r g , G e r m a n y .
B o t h M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r o c c u r i n similar settings a n d are m i n e d
in similar w a y s by locals. G e n e r a l l y t h e a m b e r is f o u n d b e c a u s e a l a n d s l i d e
a l o n g a s t e e p slope in t h e m o u n t a i n s e x p o s e s veins of black lignite. If t h e lignite
c o n t a i n s a m b e r , i t i s g r a d u a l l y e x t r a c t e d b y d i g g i n g along t h e vein w i t h picks a n d
shovels. In a rich s e a m , several p o u n d s of a m b e r can be e x t r a c t e d in a day. W h e n
t h e veins e x t e n d d e e p i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n , t h e diggings evolve i n t o t u n n e l s , s o m e -
t i m e s 100 to 200 feet l o n g . T h i s is especially t r u e in Mexico; in t h e D o m i n i c a n
R e p u b l i c , t u n n e l s are d u g o n l y i n t h e L a T o c a g r o u p o f m i n e s ( m o s t o t h e r
d i g g i n g s are b r o a d , d e e p pits). W a t e r a c c u m u l a t e s i n the t u n n e l s a n d m u s t b e
b a l e d o r p u m p e d o u t . E v e n so, t h e t u n n e l s s o m e t i m e s collapse, a s h a s h a p p e n e d
i n t h e D o m i n i c a n L a Toca m i n e s .
After d i g g i n g , t h e m i n e r t a k e s t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o bright s u n l i g h t , w a s h e s it,
a n d c h i p s a small p i e c e off o n e e n d to e x p o s e a clear w i n d o w . If t h e w i n d o w
reveals a n y special, large o r g a n i s m inside, it is reserved for special b a r g a i n i n g
w i t h a m b e r dealers. In t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic, the dealers c e n t e r e d in Santiago
and Santo D o m i n g o have corps of polishers, some of t h e m children, w h o
r e m o v e t h e r i n d f r o m t h e c r u d e a m b e r a n d polish it, g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w i n g t h e
n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s . T h o u s a n d s o f pieces are processed e a c h w e e k i n t h e larger
a m b e r s h o p s , all s o r t e d a c c o r d i n g t o size a n d w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e r a r e inclusions
o r n o t . Small, b a r r e n pieces are u s e d for necklaces, b r a c e l e t s , a n d e a r r i n g s . I n
M e x i c o , t h e g r i n d i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g i s m o r e o f a c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y , b u t even h e r e
t h e c h o i c e s t , r a r e s t fossil pieces m a k e t h e i r w a y t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t o f
a m a t e u r collectors and m u s e u m s .
Scientific s t u d y o f t h e o r g a n i s m s h a s revealed, p a r t i c u l a r l y for D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , a n e x c e e d i n g l y rich extinct b i o t a , o u r k n o w l e d g e o f w h i c h i s based o n
c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n fossils i n t h e M u s e u m fiir N a t u r k u n d e i n Stuttgart,
t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History.
T h e p a l e o n t o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t a t t h e University o f California, Berkeley, has a n
intensively s t u d i e d c o l l e c t i o n of M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils. T h e r e also exist several
s u p e r b p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils.
Overleaf, left: Chunk of Dominican amber in its siltstone
matrix. Length of amber 2.1". American Museum of
Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)

Overleaf, right: An unusual piece of Dominican amber

with the opaque, milky swirls more commonly seen
in Baltic amber. Length 4.6". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 69

Amber mining in the Dominican
Republic
Opposite: Two pieces of Dominican
amber with unusual inclusions. The
long piece contains wood (length 2.3 ");
the smaller one has opaque milky
clouds. American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)
72 • Amber in Nature
U n l i k e t h e Baltic a m b e r , M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r rarely o c c u r s i n
milky, o p a q u e f o r m s ; it is u s u a l l y v e r y t r a n s p a r e n t . Insect a n d o t h e r inclusions
in D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r also r a r e l y are o b s c u r e d by a milky s u b s t a n c e ,
a l t h o u g h o r g a n i s m s i n M e x i c a n a m b e r are frequently distorted b y c o m p r e s s i o n .
A m b e r f r o m M e x i c o i s c o n c e n t r a t e d a r o u n d t h e t o w n o f Simojovel, i n t h e
s o u t h e r n s t a t e o f C h i a p a s . D o m i n i c a n a m b e r c o m e s from o n e o f a b o u t t h i r t e e n
g r o u p s o f m i n e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m i l e s n o r t h w e s t o f Santiago, arising f r o m t h e
La T o c a F o r m a t i o n at least 1,500 feet h i g h in t h e Cordilleira S e p t e n t i o n a l , a n d
t w o o t h e r m i n e s c o n s i d e r a b l y n o r t h o f this g r o u p , n o t far from P u e r t o Plata.
S o m e m i n e s are r e n o w n e d for t h e i r distinctive colors, a l t h o u g h c o l o r i s h a r d l y
c o n s i s t e n t . S o m e a m b e r f r o m t h e L o s C a c a o s m i n e i s the b l u e s t o f p r o b a b l y a n y
k n o w n . A m b e r f r o m P a l o A l t o i s f a m e d for its clear yellow h u e a n d t h a t f r o m
t h e L a T o c a m i n e s for its d e e p r e d color, a l t h o u g h b o t h c o l o r s o c c u r i n b o t h
m i n e s . Occasionally, m i n e r s f i n d p i e c e s o f smoky, g r e e n i s h a m b e r . S u c h c o l o r s
are f o u n d i n M e x i c a n a m b e r a s well.
A light, a l m o s t clear fossil resin (copal) in the D o m i n i c a n Republic, often s o l d
a s a m b e r , c o m e s f r o m t h e e a s t e r n t o w n s o f Bayaguana, C o t u i , C o m a t i l l o , a n d
Sierra de A g u a . As in all copals, it b e c o m e s heavily c r a z e d in several years. O n e
scientific s t u d y e s t i m a t e d this c o p a l t o b e 1 5 million y e a r s old, b u t c a r b o n d a t i n g
h a s revealed t h a t at least s o m e of it is o n l y several h u n d r e d y e a r s old.
This page: A piece of Dominican
amber lighted completely from behind
(above), and with long-wave ultraviolet
and some reflected white light (below).
Under ultraviolet light, the fluorescing
amber appears very dense, and visible
are many more flow lines than are
seen in transmitted light. The piece
contains some termites. Length of
amber 2.9". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, above: A leaflike pattern

of pyrite, or "fool's gold," lying on a
fractured surface in Dominican amber.
Length of amber 1.3". Private collection

Opposite, below: A piece of deep red

Dominican amber, part of it highly
polished, the remainder with a
natural surface of deep fissures.
Length 3.8". Private collection

74 • Amber in Nature
Opposite and left (running in columns):
Reconstruction sketches showing how the
piece below was formed

Fern in 25-W-30 million-year-old Dominican

amber. The fern is curled up, and "stalactites"
of amber are hanging from it. Length of
amber 2.2 ". Private collection

Amber in Nature • 77
 FROZEN IN THE ACT

An a n t b e n e a t h a p o p l a r f o u n d ,
An a m b e r tear has covered r o u n d ;
so s h e t h a t w a s in life d e s p i s e d ,
in d e a t h p r e s e r v e d , is h i g h l y p r i z e d .

I n t h e b r i g h t t e a r P h a e t h o n ' s sister s h e d
a b e e is seen, as in its n e c t a r , d e a d .
Its m a n y toils h a v e e a r n e d a g u e r d o n h i g h ,
in s u c h a t o m b a b e e m i g h t w i s h to die.
—Martial, Epigrams (Books vi.xv; iv.xxxii)

J n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e , a fossil is f o u n d t h a t reveals s o m e t h i n g of
its life h i s t o r y a n d h a b i t s . T h e f a b u l o u s i c h t h y o s a u r s f r o m W i i r t t e m b e r g ,
G e r m a n y , are p r e s e r v e d in a slate so fine t h a t o n e c a n see t h a t t h e y g a v e live
b i r t h t o t h e i r y o u n g a n d , s o m e t i m e s , can d i s c e r n w h a t t h e y a t e . Fish f r o m t h e
S a n t a n a l i m e s t o n e of Brazil ( a b o u t 110 m i l l i o n years old) are p r e s e r v e d in
r e m a r k a b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n c r e t i o n s , w i t h t h e m u s c l e b u n d l e s entirely
r e p l a c e d b y m i n e r a l s w i t h t h e i r s h a p e still intact. Occasionally o n e i s f o u n d
r e p l e t e w i t h t h e little b o d i e s o f t h e s h r i m p t h a t i t d i n e d u p o n . F o r o r g a n i s m s
as delicate as insects, " f r e e z i n g " a p r e h i s t o r i c m o m e n t r e q u i r e s e x c e p t i o n a l
p r e s e r v a t i o n , w h i c h a m b e r p r o v i d e s . A m b e r s have p r e s e r v e d t h e v a r i o u s
d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f s o m e insects, p r e y a n d p l a n t h o s t s , p a r a s i t e s ,
c o m m e n s a l s , as well as e x h i b i t i o n s of defensive a n d social b e h a v i o r . M o s t
o f t h e e x a m p l e s will b e t a k e n f r o m t h e 25-to-30-million-year-old D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r b e c a u s e t h e diversity o f its inclusions allows t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t forest.
Fossils in this section are preserved
D i s p e r s a l of a species is n e c e s s a r y if o p p o s i t e sexes are to m e e t a n d in 25-to-30-million-year-old amber
r e p r o d u c e . I n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e ability t o g e t a r o u n d i s l i m i t e d , a s w i t h from the Dominican Republic, unless
otherwise noted.
a n a r t h r o p o d t h a t lacks w i n g s , n o v e l s o l u t i o n s are r e q u i r e d . O n e o f t h e m o s t
interesting is phoresy, or h i t c h i n g a ride on a n o t h e r a n i m a l . P h o r e s y is c o m m o n
in m i t e s t h a t disperse f r o m , say, m u s h r o o m to m u s h r o o m on a fly P h o r e t i c
Opposite: A damselfly, slender relative
mites o n v a r i o u s flies are p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r , b u t p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s
to dragonflies. Length of amber 1.8".
are s o m e sweat b e e s (halictids) w i t h d o z e n s o f tiny m i t e s still l a t c h e d o n for Private collection
one last, fateful ride.

Amber in Nature • 79
Opposite, above: Membracid treehopper. The part of its body just behind
the head is prolonged into a spine with three thorns. Length of amber
1.4". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Opposite, below: Leaf beetle (family Chrysomelidae) that exuded a

stream of noxious bubbles in an attempt to defend itself from the resin.
American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)

Above: Stick insect, orphasmid. Length of amber 3.4". Private collection

Amber in Nature • SI
 T h e m o s t c u r i o u s e x a m p l e o f p h o r e s y i n a m b e r involves p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s ,
tiny r e n d i t i o n s o f s c o r p i o n s w i t h o u t t h e stinger. M a n y p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s live
u n d e r b a r k o r a m o n g c r a c k s i n b a r k , w h e r e t h e y feed o n m i t e s a n d o t h e r tiny
a r t h r o p o d s . S o m e t i m e s o n e is f o u n d w i t h a claw c l a m p e d o n t o a b r a c o n i d
w a s p o r tipulid flies, b u t i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e y are a t t a c h e d m o s t often t o
w o o d - b o r i n g platypodid (ambrosia) beetles. We k n o w today that s o m e pseudo
s c o r p i o n s live i n t h e galleries m a d e b y w o o d - b o r i n g beetles. W h e n t h e
p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s d i s p e r s e , t h e y l a t c h o n t o t h e first b e e t l e t h a t c o m e s a l o n g ,
w h i c h m a y t a k e t h e m t o a n o t h e r t r e e like t h e original.

Right: Wood-boring platypodid beetles,

with the sawdust plugs that they
pushed out of their tunnels in wood.
The beetles were probably attacking a
Dominican amber tree. American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Below: Wood-boring platypodid beetle,

with a pseudoscorpion latched onto
it with one of its claws. American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Opposite: Pseudoscorpion. Length

of amber A". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

82 • Amber in Nature
 Swarm of termites. The winged
termites were caught on the bottom
of a large flow of resin, which was
engulfed by an even larger flow. Length
of amber 3 ". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Insects have a p l e t h o r a of strategies for r e p r o d u c t i o n ; s o m e are even c a p t u r e d

Opposite: Swarm of tiny long-legged
i n a m b e r . A m o n g t h e s h o r t - l i v e d (usually a q u a t i c ) insects, s u c h a s m a n y g n a t s , flies (family Dolichopodidae). Length
m o s q u i t o e s , m i d g e s , a n d mayflies, t h e m a l e s a g g r e g a t e i n t o s o m e t i m e s h u g e of amber 2.2". Private collection

s w a r m s . T h o u s a n d s , o r m i l l i o n s , o f m a l e s fly a b o u t i n o n e s p o t , i n t o w h i c h
females fly t o b e c o m e m a t e d , t h u s i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e sexes r e n d e z v o u s d u r i n g
t h e i r brief life span. C o p u l a t i o n m a y take h o u r s , as in t h e case of a b i b i o n i d
m i d g e , Plecia nearctica, t h e "love b u g . " Male s w a r m s , or p o r t i o n s of t h e m , in
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are m o s t c o m m o n l y o f scatopsid m i d g e s , b u t e x a m p l e s o f
e m p i d i d flies, d o l i c h o p o d i d flies, m y c e t o p h i l i d m i d g e s , tipulid flies, a n d t e r m i t e s
also appear. T e r m i t e s w a r m s c a u g h t i n a m b e r usually have a j u m b l e o f w i n g s
a m o n g t h e b o d i e s , since t e r m i t e s easily s h e d t h e i r w i n g s after l a n d i n g . O c c a -
sionally a m a t i n g p a i r of m i d g e s is c a u g h t in t h e resin. O n e p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r
even c o n t a i n s a pair of m a t i n g spiders. T h e o l d e s t m a t i n g pair, of a n y k i n d of
animal, are sciarid m i d g e s in 125-million-year-old L e b a n e s e a m b e r .

Amber in Nature • 85
 From top to bottom: Mating crane
flies. Length of amber 1.2 ". Private
collection

Detail of coupled pair above

Midge trailing a string of her eggs.

American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

86 • Amber in Nature
 M a n y flies reflexively lay e g g s w h e n t h e y die, w h i c h explains w h y s o m e
female flies i n a m b e r h a v e eggs j u s t b e h i n d t h e m . T h i s i s s e e n i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r m o s t c o m m o n l y i n t h e little d r o s o p h i l i d fruit flies b u t also w i t h s o m e
m i d g e s , s u c h as t h e c h i r o n o m i d t r a i l i n g a s t r i n g of h e r eggs. O c c a s i o n a l l y a
d e c a y i n g insect o r o t h e r u n i d e n t i f i e d d e c a y i n g tissue h a s c l u m p s o f fly eggs o n
it, w h i c h n e v e r q u i t e h a t c h e d b e f o r e resin e n g u l f e d t h e m . O n e exquisite a s p e c t
o f insect eggs i n a m b e r i s t h a t t h e i n t r i c a t e g e o m e t r i c s c u l p t u r i n g o f t h e eggshell
is still a p p a r e n t . In o n e case, a y o u n g l a r v a w a s c a u g h t e m e r g i n g f r o m its egg.
In several o t h e r cases, loosely w o v e n silken c o c o o n s of spiders still h a v e t h e
e m b r y o s o r n e w l y h a t c h e d s p i d e r l i n g s w i t h i n . Various k i n d s o f l a r v a e o c c u r i n
a m b e r , b u t t h e choice s p e c i m e n s are o f a larva i n s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n ,
s u c h a s w i t h silken cases. B a g w o r m , o r psychid m o t h , caterpillars c a r r y a r o u n d
t h e m a b a g o f silk, t o w h i c h h a s b e e n s e w n m a n y bits o f leaves a n d t w i g s o f t h e
p l a n t t h e y w e r e feeding u p o n . I t c a m o u f l a g e s t h e m e x t r e m e l y well, b u t i t did n o t

Wood gnat emerging from its pupal

case. American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)

Overleaf, left: Metalmark butterfly

(family Riodinidae). Length of amber
2 ". Private collection

Overleaf, right: Large inchworm

moth (family Geometridae). Length
of amber 2.2". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 87

Opposite: Paper wasp. Length of amber
.8". American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)
Ants caught while attempting to carry
their larval brood to safety. Museum
fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart
90 • Amber in Nature
p r e v e n t a few f r o m b e i n g e n g u l f e d in resin m i l l i o n s of y e a r s a g o . T i n e i d m o t h
c a t e r p i l l a r s do a similar t h i n g on a s m a l l e r scale, a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e y u s e t h e i r
o w n frass (insect feces) for c o n c e a l m e n t . T h e o n e s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r w e r e
probably g r a z i n g u p o n the w o o d y polypore (bracket) fungi that g r e w on the
Dominican a m b e r tree.
Social insects h a v e c o l o n i e s o f h u n d r e d s t o h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f
individuals, divided i n t o castes for defense, egg-laying, a n d w o r k i n g . S o m e t i m e s
t h e w o r k e r s are s u b d i v i d e d i n t o n u r s e s a n d m a j o r a n d m i n o r w o r k e r s . O n e j u s t
n e e d s t o see t h e h u g e t e r m i t e m o u n d s o n a n African s a v a n n a , o r a n a r m y a n t
s w a r m i n a S o u t h A m e r i c a n j u n g l e , t o a p p r e c i a t e h o w social insects are a m o n g
t h e m o s t ecologically i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s , a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e m o s t
c o n s p i c u o u s insects. I n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e social insects are a n t s (the m o s t
c o m m o n o f all t h e inclusions), t e r m i t e s , stingless bees, a n d , rarely, p a p e r w a s p s .
V a r i o u s castes are p r e s e r v e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e b i z a r r e w o r k e r s of Zacryptocerus,
w h i c h p l u g t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c o l o n y w i t h t h e i r flat h e a d s . T o e n t e r , a n a n t
m u s t t a p p r o p e r l y w i t h its a n t e n n a e . A n o t h e r w e i r d caste i s t h e n a s u t e soldier
o f s o m e t e r m i t e s . N a s u t e s h a v e h e a d s s h a p e d like a b o t t l e , from w h i c h t h e y
s p r a y a sticky s u b s t a n c e at i n t r u d e r s . Of c o u r s e , p o r t i o n s of c o l o n i e s a r e

Portion of an Azteca ant colony. This
piece contains about two hundred
ants. Length of amber 1.5". American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
92 • Amber in Nature
o c c a s i o n a l l y e n g u l f e d b y resin, s o m e t i m e s w i t h h u n d r e d s o f a n t s ( o n e p i e c e i n
t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m c o n t a i n s a b o u t 2,000 ants). Very rarely a p i e c e is f o u n d
i n w h i c h t h e w o r k e r s w e r e c a u g h t t r y i n g t o c a r r y the b r o o d t o safety. T h e o n l y
p o r t i o n s o f t h e a c t u a l n e s t are several cells from the p a p e r w a s p s . H o w e v e r ,
t h e m i d d e n s a n d r e m a i n s o f t e r m i t e a n d a n t nests w i t h t h e i r original o w n e r s
a b o u n d in amber.
T h e m i d d e n s o f t h e a n t c o l o n i e s p r o v i d e excellent clues a s t o w h a t t h e c o l o n y
w a s f e e d i n g u p o n , s u c h a s a s s o r t e d b o d y p a r t s o f o t h e r insects. Every social
insect c o l o n y t o d a y h a s " g u e s t s , " s o m e w a n t e d , s o m e n o t . S o m e are parasites;
o t h e r s — t h e inquilines—merely live off t h e scraps in t h e n e s t . In D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , t h e r e are nicoletiid silverfish, c e r t a i n tiny staphylinid, l i m u l o d i d , a n d
p a u s s i n e b e e t l e s , all s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d for living u n d e t e c t e d a m o n g
(or a t least t o l e r a t e d b y ) a n t s i n t h e i r colony. A n d t h e r e are t h e
parasites of the ants, t o o , s u c h as t h e b i z a r r e t w i s t e d - w i n g e d parasites,
a n d v a r i o u s scuttleflies o f t h e P h o r i d a e family. T h e social insect
colony, t h e n as now, is a c o s m o s of e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
M a n y p r e d a t o r y b e e t l e s , l a c e w i n g s , r o b b e r flies, s u c k i n g b u g s ,
spiders, a n d even m a n t i s e s a n d damselflies have b e e n t r a p p e d i n
a m b e r , b u t a p r e d a t o r c a u g h t in t h e act w i t h its p r e y is r a r e . S o m e -
t i m e s a p i e c e c o n t a i n s s p i d e r w e b s w i t h t h e v i c t i m (generally a tiny,
frail g n a t ) s n a g g e d on a t h r e a d . N e v e r h a s a p i e c e b e e n f o u n d w i t h
t h e spider still r e s i d e n t . O n e p i e c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y h a s a j u m p i n g (salticid) s p i d e r g r a p p l i n g w i t h its
m i l l i p e d e prey. A f a m o u s p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r h a s a Ptilocerus
assassin (reduviid) b u g i n it, a l o n g w i t h t h e h u s k s o f t h e a n t p r e y
t h a t t h e b u g s u c k e d dry. Living relatives o f this b u g t o d a y lure a n t s
f r o m t h e i r nests w i t h t h e s c e n t f r o m a special g l a n d , t h e n t h e y

Top: A mantis look-alike: mantis-

pid lacewing in Dominican amber.
Length of specimen .9". Private
collection

Above: A rare adult praying

mantis in Dominican amber.
Private collection

Left: A praying mantis, attacked

by ants, carried them to its
resinous tomb. Length of amber
1.2". Private collection

Amber in Nature • 93
Opposite: Dominican amber
with two amblypygids (whip
scorpions) and various small
insects in it. Width of amber
3 ". Private collection

Detail of amblypygid in the

piece opposite (and on the
jacket front), showing insect
prey still caught in its spiny,
basketlike jaws

Jumping spider embracing its

millipede prey. American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 95
Above: Spider. Length of amber 1.6".
Private collection

Parasitic fly, Stylogaster, with a

rapier egg-laying appendage. Living
species of this genus today parasitize
cockroaches. Private collection

96 • Amber in Nature
i m p a l e t h e a n t w i t h t h e i r s h a r p b e a k s . A similar b u g i s f o u n d i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , b u t it p r o b a b l y fed on t h e stingless b e e s , Proplebeia dominicana, t h a t w e r e
v e r y c o m m o n i n t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest. T h e foreleg o f e a c h b u g h a s a
large d r o p l e t , w h i c h it m u s t h a v e u s e d as a sticky s n a g for t h e b e e .
T h e parasitic insects are, likewise, v e r y c o m m o n i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ,
especially t h e v a r i o u s m i n u t e w a s p s . ( E n t o m o l o g i s t s refer t o insects t h a t live o n
a n d eventually kill a n o t h e r , h o s t insect as a parasitoid, to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m
t r u e p a r a s i t e s , w h i c h d o n o t kill t h e i r h o s t s . ) F e w direct e v i d e n c e s o f p a r a s i t e s
a n d p a r a s i t o i d s exist i n a m b e r . M i t e s a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e o f p a r a s i t e
f o u n d o n insects. W a t e r m i t e s are f o u n d o n t h e a d u l t s o f s o m e a q u a t i c insects,
s u c h a s caddis flies a n d c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s . S o m e tiny m o t h s h a r b o r e r y t h r a e i d
m i t e s , a n d small d r o s o p h i l i d flies o c c a s i o n a l l y have large m a c r o c h e l i d m i t e s
( p r o p o r t i o n a l i n size t o a h u m a n w i t h a w a t e r m e l o n a t t a c h e d ) . T h e m o s t
Above: Tiny twisted-winged parasite
g r u e s o m e are t h e n e m a t o d e w o r m p a r a s i t e s ; i n o n e p i e c e o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r (order Strepsipteran) of ants. Only .5
from the Stuttgart m u s e u m , a h u g e m e r m i t h i d n e m a t o d e can be seen e m e r g i n g mm long, it is remarkably similar to a
present-day species. American Museum
f r o m its m i d g e h o s t ; t h e n e m a t o d e m u s t have t a k e n u p m o s t o f t h e h o s t ' s body.
of Natural History (Entomology)
Several pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r h a v e l e a f h o p p e r n y m p h s w i t h a large b l a c k
sac a t t a c h e d n e a r t h e a b d o m e n . T h i s i s a d r y i n i d w a s p larva (adult d r y i n i d w a s p s
also are in t h e a m b e r ) . A p e r s o n a l favorite is a D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s p e c i m e n
String of tiny cocoons suspended from
containing tangled strands of spider webbing. Dangling along the strands is a a spider web. The cocoons are from wasp
r o w o f seven tiny c o c o o n s ; t h e w a s p l a r v a e t h a t s p u n t h e s e c o c o o n s p a r a s i t i z e d larvae tHat parasitized the spider that
spun the web. American Museum of
t h e spider o n w h o s e w e b t h e c o c o o n s are n o w p r e s e r v e d . A d u l t w a s p s e m e r g e d
Natural History (Entomology)
f r o m all b u t t h r e e o f t h e c o c o o n s .

Amber in Nature • 97

Small menagerie of 217 insects, spiders,
and plants. The "spray" of tiny
insects is collembola, or springtaib.
The flowers and stems are from an
acacia. Length of amber 1.5". Private
collection
98 • Amber in Nature
Ancient Communities:
Reconstructing the Ancient Dominican Amber Forest
Pretty! in a m b e r to observe the forms
O f hairs, o r s t r a w s , o r dirt, o r g r u b s , o r w o r m s !
T h e t h i n g s , w e k n o w , are n e i t h e r rich n o r r a r e ,
B u t w o n d e r h o w t h e devil t h e y g o t t h e r e .
— Alexander Pope, Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
P r e s e r v a t i o n in a m b e r is as b i a s e d as a n y o t h e r k i n d of fossilization, particularly
w h e n it c o m e s to size. Large insects generally have the s t r e n g t h to free t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m sticky sap, so it is v e r y r a r e to find large beetles, dragonflies, g r a s s h o p p e r s ,
a n d t h e like i n a m b e r . I n fact, t h e l o n g e s t insects discovered i n a m b e r are d a m s e l -
flies ( a b o u t t w o - a n d - a - h a l f i n c h e s l o n g ) t h a t c o u l d n o t free t h e m s e l v e s f r o m
t h e resin b e c a u s e t h e y are s o delicate a n d t h i n . Likewise f o r p l a n t s : o n l y t h o s e
flowers a n d leaves small e n o u g h t o b e b l o w n a b o u t i n the w i n d a n d e n c a p s u l a t e d
by a s t r e a m of resin are t h e o n e s t h a t are p r e s e r v e d . This lilliputian bias in
fossilization i s m a d e u p for, t h o u g h , b y t h e lifelike detail p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r
a n d t h e s h e e r diversity of tiny o r g a n i s m s . It is well d o c u m e n t e d t h a t , at least for
insects, t h e n u m b e r of species i n c r e a s e s tenfold for a tenfold d e c r e a s e in b o d y
size. A n d t h e m o r e species t h a t are p r e s e r v e d , t h e m o r e c o m p l e t e i s a r e c o n -
s t r u c t i o n of t h e a m b e r forest. A fascinating insight is revealed by d i s c o v e r y of
a m b e r pieces w i t h a m e n a g e r i e p r e s e r v e d inside, f o r m i n g a t r u e s n a p s h o t of a
tiny p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S o m e o f t h e s e pieces display s t r i k i n g diversity. O n e
i n t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m , for e x a m p l e , h a s i n i t s o m e t w o h u n d r e d i n d i v i d u a l
a r t h r o p o d s b e l o n g i n g t o t w e n t y - t w o families.
T h e m o s t direct signs o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest are t h e a s s o r t m e n t o f
flowers, s t e m s , leaves, seeds, a n d e v e n t e n d r i l s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r . Living o n
t h e t r u n k s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r tree, a s h a p p e n s now, w e r e m o s s e s , Liverworts,
a n d t h e occasional m u s h r o o m . Living a m o n g t h e a m b e r t r e e s w e r e m i m o s o i d
trees like acacias. Flowers of t h e families B o m b a c a c e a e (balsa a n d b a o b a b family),
E u p h o r b i a c e a e ( e u p h o r b s , s u c h as cassava a n d poinsettia), H i p p o c r a t a c e a e , L e g u -
m i n o s a e (pea family), M e l i a c e a e ( m a h o g a n y family), M y r i s t i c a c e a e ( n u t m e g
family), a n d T h y m e l i a c e a e h a v e all b e e n identified i n t h e a m b e r .
Inference o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r forest c a n b e m a d e b a s e d o n t h e m y r i a d
insects p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r . A d u l t a n d i m m a t u r e insects o c c u p y v a r i o u s n i c h e s i n
f r e s h w a t e r (and, occasionally, in b r a c k i s h a n d salt w a t e r ) , soil, a n d d e c a y i n g ~
Map of the piece opposite
w o o d ; as parasites of o t h e r insects and of vertebrates; and feeding on the entire

Amber in Nature • 99

A menagerie piece, only 1.1" in
diameter, containing sixty-two whole
or partial insects representing five
orders and fourteen families. Some of
the inclusions are covered with mold.
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
Opposite: Reconstruction of the
ancient Dominican amber forest. The
numerous life-forms preserved in this
amber allow a detailed re-creation of
what the forest probably looked like,
including the inhabitants of the forest
floor, living under bark and in the
amber trees and on the plants growing
near the amber trees. Everything in the
reconstruction is either supported by
actual fossils in Dominican amber or
inferred on the basis of host plants
for plant-feeding forms of insects.
100 • Amber in Nature
a r r a y of f u n g i , flowers, a n d leaves. S o m e insects are d e d i c a t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r
k i n d o f p l a n t ; for e x a m p l e , m o n a r c h b u t t e r f l y caterpillars c o n c e n t r a t e o n
m i l k w e e d s , o t h e r s are g r e a t g e n e r a l i s t s . If an insect in a m b e r h a s living relatives
f e e d i n g exclusively on a p a r t i c u l a r g e n u s of t r e e , we c a n be fairly certain that t h e
e x t i n c t species fed on an e x t i n c t species of t h e t r e e . For e x a m p l e , we are fairly
c e r t a i n t h a t f i g t r e e s lived i n t h e a m b e r forest, even t h o u g h w e have n o direct
e v i d e n c e . T h e s e t r e e s are r e n o w n e d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , for the "flying
b u t t r e s s e s " t h a t h e l p s u p p o r t t h e i r g a r g a n t u a n p r o p o r t i o n s , i n contrast w i t h
t h e m i n u s c u l e insects t h a t p o l l i n a t e t h e m . Living i n t h e f i g s (which are a c t u a l l y
an u n u s u a l k i n d of inflorescence called a synconium) are agaonid w a s p s a b o u t
a m i l l i m e t e r l o n g . E a c h species of fig h a r b o r s a specific species of w a s p , a n d t h e
w a s p s are f o u n d n o w h e r e else. D o m i n i c a n a m b e r has fossilized several o f
these fig wasps.
A l t h o u g h w e h a v e n o direct fossil r e c o r d from the C a r i b b e a n , w e also k n o w
t h a t p a l m s w e r e i n t h e D o m i n i c a n forest, b a s e d o n the t h a u s m a s t o c o r i d p a l m
b u g s a n d certain k i n d s of weevils in t h e a m b e r . Ultimately, a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y
o f t h e a r r a y o f p l a n t b u g s , p l a n t h o p p e r s , leafhoppers, whiteflies, scale insects,
leaf b e e t l e s , a n d m o t h s i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r will reveal w h a t this 25-million-
year-old forest w a s like. A s o f n o w , w e k n o w that o p e n areas o c c u r r e d i n a t least
s o m e p a r t s of t h e forest, n o t o n l y b e c a u s e of a few g r a s s spikelets f o u n d in
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , b u t also since t h e r e are lygaeid b u g s in it as well. Bromeliads
Opposite: Hymenaea leaf, from
the amber tree. Length of amber
2.1". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Above: Hymenaea flower, from

the tree that formed the amber.
Length of amber 1.6". Private
collection

Below: Winged seed. Private

collection

Amber in Nature • 103

 Petal from a Hymenaea
flower, in Mexican
amber. Length of amber
1.3 ". American Museum
of Natural History

Small flower with a

thorny stem, its pollen
spreading into the once-
liquid resin. Length of
inclusion .9". Private
collection

104 •Amber in Nature

were nestled a m o n g the branches of the D o m i n i c a n a m b e r trees themselves.
A species of b u t t e r f l y in D o m i n i c a n a m b e r (a m e t a l m a r k ) a n d its caterpillars
p r o b a b l y fed u p o n t h e b r o m e l i a d s . Living i n t h e little p o n d s t h a t a c c u m u l a t e i n
the center of the bromeliads, no doubt, w e r e mosquitoes, predacious diving
b e e t l e s , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n t h e s m a l l frogs f o u n d p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r .
T h e w o o d o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e w a s infested w i t h v a r i o u s insects.
T h e m o s t c o m m o n sign of this is frass, or t h e tiny pellets of insect feces. Frass is
in all a m b e r t h a t c o n t a i n s insects, a n d , at least for D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , it is n o t at
all u n c o m m o n t o f i n d d o z e n s o f frass pellets, w h i c h p r o b a b l y r a i n e d d o w n i n t o
t h e resin f r o m an o p e n i n g in an a d j a c e n t insect n e s t , in a single p i e c e . M o s t frass
in Dominican a m b e r appears to have c o m e from termites. We can even surmise
t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest l a n d s c a p e w a s d o t t e d w i t h large c a r t o n n e s t s
o f Nasutiterm.es t e r m i t e s . C o l o n i e s o f t h e s e t e r m i t e s t o d a y b u i l d i n t r i c a t e o b l o n g
nests—attached to tree t r u n k s or h a n g i n g from b r a n c h e s — t h a t have a c o m p o -
sition like brittle p a p i e r - m a c h e . A s d o m o s t t e r m i t e s , t h e n a s u t e w o r k e r t e r m i t e s
c o n s t r u c t t h i n galleries, i n this case m e a n d e r i n g all over t h e t r e e t o t h e g r o u n d ,
t h r o u g h which they and the soldiers m a r c h unexposed.
C o l o n i e s a n d n e s t s t h a t w e r e less c o n s p i c u o u s , b u t w h i c h p r o b a b l y h a d a
m u c h g r e a t e r e c o l o g i c a l i m p a c t t h a n t h o s e o f any o t h e r social insects, w e r e
t h o s e o f t h e g i a n t Mastotermes t e r m i t e s . T h e extinct species f r o m D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , M . electrodominicus, h a d w i n g e d r e p r o d u c t i v e s n e a r l y a n i n c h - a n d - a - h a l f
l o n g . A similar extinct species, M. electromexicus, exists in M e x i c a n a m b e r . T h e
o n l y living species in this g e n u s is in Australia. T h e A u s t r a l i a n species c o n s t r u c t s
large s u b t e r r a n e a n c o l o n i e s , g e n e r a l l y a t t h e b a s e o f t h e t r e e s w h o s e w o o d
t h e y are c o n s u m i n g , a n d t h e y are v o r a c i o u s .
A n o t h e r e n e m y of the D o m i n i c a n a m b e r tree was a plethora of w o o d -
b o r i n g a n d b a r k b e e t l e s , also called a m b r o s i a b e e t l e s . N u m e r o u s species i n t h e
families P l a t y p o d i d a e a n d Scolytidae o c c u r i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r . T h e b e e t l e s
t o d a y excavate t u n n e l s a n d galleries t h r o u g h o u t h e a r t w o o d , o r i n t o t h e surface
o f t h e h e a r t w o o d j u s t u n d e r t h e b a r k (bark b e e t l e s ) . S a w d u s t p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e
t u n n e l excavations i s p u s h e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e t u n n e l e n t r a n c e a n d c o m p r e s s e d
i n t o c i g a r - s h a p e d p l u g s . S u c h p l u g s are p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r a l o n g w i t h t h e
beetles. T h e b e e t l e s a t t a c k a living o r injured t r e e b u t d o n o t actually kill i t b y
t h e i r b o r i n g . A f u n g u s specific to e a c h species of b e e t l e is i n o c u l a t e d i n t o t h e
w o o d , w h e r e i t g r o w s t o c a r p e t t h e galleries. T h e b e e t l e s feed o n this f u n g u s
(their " a m b r o s i a " ) , a n d i t i s t h e f u n g u s t h a t kills t h e t r e e . W e k n o w t h a t s o m e
trees t o d a y s e c r e t e excessive a m o u n t s o f resin t o t r a p b e e t l e s i n v a d i n g t h e i r
wood; t h e beetles in a m b e r are evidence that t h e s t r a t e g y w o r k s , at least s o m e w h a t .
Similarly, i t has b e e n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w a s p r o d u c e d i n s u c h
large a m o u n t s t o offset m a s s i v e o u t b r e a k s o f b a r k a n d w o o d - b o r i n g b e e t l e s .
J u d g i n g f r o m t h e i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y o f little b r o w n b e e t l e s , f u n g u s g n a t s ,
certain k i n d s o f r a r e l y c o l l e c t e d a c a l y p t r a t e flies, a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r k i n d s o f
termites, all associated t o d a y w i t h r o t t i n g w o o d a n d t h e f u n g i t h a t d e c o m p o s e
Stem and leaflets of an acacia plant.
Length of amber 2.2". American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Opposite, above: Liverwort. Length

of amber 2.3". Private collection

Opposite, below: Small mushroom.

Length of amber 1.5". Private
collection

106 •Amber in Nature


X-ray positive of the gecko lizard in
the piece at right and on page 110,
showing tiny bones in the legs and
feet. The vertebrae are jumbled;
the lizard broke its back in several
places, perhaps while struggling to
free itself from the resin. The leaf
is not detected by X rays.
10S • Amber in Nature
it, t h e a n c i e n t forest m u s t have b e e n littered w i t h d e a d a n d d y i n g trees, s t u m p s ,
a n d logs. T h e full a r r a y o f life f o r m s d w e l l i n g u n d e r t h e loose b a r k o f d e a d
and dying a m b e r trees included mites, predatory beetles, aradid bugs, earwigs,
bristletails a n d silverfish, c e n t i p e d e s , p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s a n d t r u e s c o r p i o n s ,
a n d f e a r s o m e - l o o k i n g a m b l y p y g i d s . Resin s t r e a m i n g o u t o f t h e t r e e s m u s t
h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d i n s u c h m a s s e s t h a t g l o b s d r o p p e d t o t h e g r o u n d , engulfing
o r g a n i s m s living a m o n g t h e leaves a n d soil, s u c h a s springtails ( C o l l e m b o l a ) ,
pill b u g s (isopods), v a r i o u s m i l l i p e d e s , b u r r o w i n g b u g s ( C y d n i d a e ) , a n d a n
a s s o r t m e n t o f tiny snails. E v e n e a r t h w o r m s a n d a m o l e cricket h a v e b e e n
discovered preserved in the amber.
W e f i n d e v i d e n c e o f f r e s h w a t e r a d j a c e n t t o t h e forest: p e r h a p s s t r e a m s
f l o w e d t h r o u g h , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e damselflies (Anisoptera) in a m b e r , as well as
several species of mayflies ( E p h e m e r i d a ) , a s t o n e fly ( P l e c o p t e r a ) , p o n d s k a t e r s
( G e r r i d a e ) , a n d a n a s s o r t m e n t o f a d u l t caddis flies ( T r i c h o p t e r a ) a n d m i d g e s
w h o s e l a r v a e are a q u a t i c . O f t h e d o z e n s o f b e e t l e families i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ,
f o u r are a q u a t i c , a n d for o n e o f t h e s e (the H e l o d i d a e ) , even t h e a q u a t i c l a r v a
is p r e s e r v e d .
T h e m o s t highly p r i z e d s p e c i m e n s i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are t h e s m a l l a n o l e
a n d s p h a e r o d a c t y l g e c k o lizards a n d small Eleuthrodactylus frogs. T o d a y in t h e
C a r i b b e a n are h u n d r e d s o f species o f t h e s e k i n d s o f lizards a n d frogs, m o r e t h a n
all o t h e r k i n d s of land v e r t e b r a t e s . T r a c e s of vertebrates such as feathers, hair, a n d
s l o u g h e d reptilian skin also o c c u r i n t h e a m b e r . O n e o f t h e f e a t h e r s h a s b e e n
identified on t h e basis of its m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e as definitely from a w o o d p e c k e r ,
Small anolis lizard, partially
skeletonized. The piece was cracked
and glued back together by workers
in the Dominican Republic. The light
section is a substitute piece. Length
of amber 2.2 ". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)

Amber in Nature • 109

Opposite: Small gecko lizard,
Sphaerodactylus, near a leaf section
that has been chewed, probably by a
leaf cutter bee. Length of amber 1.7".
Private collection

A complete frog and, above it, a

decayingfrog, Eleuthrodacrylus, part
of whose backbone is easily visible.
Surrounding the decayingfrog are
dozens of fly larvae. How such a piece
was formed is perplexing, although
one thought is that a predator dropped
its frog prey into resin. Length of
amber 2.3 ". Private collection

Reptilian skin shed by a snake or large

lizard. Length of amber .8". Private
collection

Amber in Nature '111

 Tiny fly, Meonura, which probably
parasitized birds in the Dominican
amber forest

q u i t e similar t o t h e A n t i l l e a n piculet. S o m e h a i r h a s b e e n identified a s p e r h a p s

Opposite: Detail of small feather (length
from a sloth, a l t h o u g h few d i a g n o s t i c features exist to s u p p o r t t h a t c o n c l u s i o n . .25") in amber, showing barbs and
O t h e r t h a n a fragment of a g r o u n d sloth skull from C u b a , a n d a few o t h e r frag- barbules. American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)
m e n t s f r o m P u e r t o Rico, n o o t h e r O l i g o - M i o c e n e l a n d v e r t e b r a t e s f r o m t h e
islands are k n o w n . All t h e o t h e r s are fossils o f m o n k e y s , sloths, r o d e n t s , a n d t h e
like f r o m c e r t a i n p e r i o d s i n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , s o m e 20,000 y e a r s old a n d y o u n g e r .
Yet D o m i n i c a n a m b e r reveals t h a t v e r t e b r a t e s did r o a m t h e a m b e r forests, a n d
i t w a s a f a u n a n o t unlike w h a t o c c u r s t h e r e today. A s w i t h t h e flora, w e h a v e
b o t h direct a n d indirect signs o f its p r e s e n c e .
M o r e varieties o f b l o o d s u c k i n g a r t h r o p o d s a p p e a r i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h a n
t h e r e are k i n d s o f v e r t e b r a t e s , w h i c h a t t e s t s t o a v e r y diverse v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a .
In a few cases, we c a n even m a k e s o m e specific inferences as to w h o s e b l o o d
the a r t h r o p o d s fed u p o n . T h e m i n u t e Forcipomyia a n d Culicoides n o - s e e - u m s fed

Amber in Nature • 113

Above: Detail of a remarkable piece
of amber containing a small swarm of
phlebotomine sandflies with mamma-
lian hairs and debris, perhaps from
the nest of the mammal. The females
are bloated, probably with the blood
of the mammal whose hairs are in the
amber. Museum fur Naturkunde,
Stuttgart

Right: Tick. American Museum of

Natural History (Entomology)

114 • Amber in Nature

Left: Female mosquito. American
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)

Below: An exceptionally rare flea.

Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart

Amber in Nature '115

 o n m a m m a l s a n d birds, a s did t h e m o s q u i t o e s a n d p h l e b o t o m i n e s a n d flies.
A u n i q u e p i e c e i n t h e S t u t t g a r t c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n s n u m e r o u s f i n e hairs, debris
( p e r h a p s f r o m t h e m a m m a l ' s n e s t ) , a n d a small s w a r m o f p h l e b o t o m i n e m i d g e s .
M o s t o f t h e p h l e b o t o m i n e s are females, a n d s o m e are b l o a t e d . T h e y p r o b a b l y
are r e p l e t e w i t h t h e b l o o d o f t h e m a m m a l w h o s e h a i r i s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r .
S o m e m o s q u i t o e s a n d p h l e b o t o m i n e s m a y have fed o n l a r g e r reptiles a n d
a m p h i b i a n s . A species of c o r e t h r e l l i d b i t i n g m i d g e in t h e a m b e r p r o b a b l y fed on
t h e Eleuthrodactylus frogs also p r e s e r v e d in t h e a m b e r . Similar m i d g e s today, in
fact, are c o l l e c t e d b y a t t r a c t i n g t h e m t o r e c o r d i n g s o f frog calls. T h e species o f
Stenotabanus horseflies a n d Amblyomma ticks m o s t likely fed on m a m m a l s . For at
least o n e r a r e s p e c i m e n , a tick is p r e s e r v e d in a piece w i t h t w o hairs, i n d i c a t i n g
t h a t t h e tick a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y fed o n a m a m m a l . T h e few fleas i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r m a y h a v e fed on birds. O n e tiny little fly in t h e a m b e r , Meonura, m a y have
fed o n birds, p e r h a p s t h e s a m e w o o d p e c k e r species w h o s e f e a t h e r s w e r e identi-
fied, since living species of Camus flies (their close relatives) h a v e a p r e d i l e c t i o n
for w o o d p e c k e r s .

126 • Amber in Nature

Intricate Preservation

T h e Spider, Flye, a n d a n t , b e i n g t e n d e r , dissipable s u b s t a n c e s , falling i n t o a m b e r ,

are t h e r e i n b u r y e d , f i n d i n g t h e r e i n b o t h a D e a t h , a n d T o m b e , p r e s e r v i n g t h e m
b e t t e r f r o m C o r r u p t i o n t h a n a Royall M o n u m e n t .
—Francis Bacon

A 1982 s t u d y p u b l i s h e d in t h e j o u r n a l Science r e p o r t e d on o r g a n e l l e s a n d o t h e r
s u b c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e s f r o m a bit of tissue in a 40-million-year-old f u n g u s g n a t
i n Baltic a m b e r , e x a m i n e d w i t h a n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e . I t w a s w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d
a s o p e n i n g t h e d o o r for f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a m b e r fossils,
i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t D N A . Incredibly, s u c h a result h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d a l m o s t e i g h t y
years earlier, u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l light m i c r o s c o p y a n d histology. T h a t 1903 r e p o r t ,
by Nicolai K o r n i l o w i t c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y w a s p u b l i s h e d in a local j o u r n a l , a n d in
Russian, s o i t r e m a i n e d a l m o s t totally o b s c u r e . K o r n i l o w i t c h r e p o r t e d t h a t d r i e d
tissue t a k e n f r o m insects i n Baltic a m b e r p o s s e s s e d b a n d i n g p a t t e r n s typical o f
m o d e r n m u s c l e tissue. T r u l y g r e a t ideas a n d results i n science are often t o o far
a h e a d o f t h e i r t i m e . N o o n e k n e w o f t h e existence o f D N A i n K o r n i l o w i t c h ' s
t i m e , b u t t h e 1982 s t u d y a t least p r o m p t e d t h e q u e s t i o n , I f i n t r a c e l l u l a r
m e m b r a n e s and organelles could be preserved, why not chromatin, and even
D N A ? (As will be discussed later, t h a t s t u d y did slowly s t i m u l a t e i n t e r e s t in
e x t r a c t i n g a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a m b e r fossils, b u t i t w a s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r e a k -
t h r o u g h t h a t s e r v e d as t h e real d r i v i n g force.) Since 1982, several c o m p r e h e n s i v e
studies h a v e revealed even m o r e c o n s i s t e n t a n d u n e x p e c t e d l y lifelike p r e s e r v a t i o n
of soft i n t e r n a l tissues of insects a n d p l a n t s in a m b e r .
A n insect s p e c i m e n c a n n o t b e " e x h u m e d " f r o m a m b e r b y m e l t i n g a w a y
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r , since a m b e r will m e l t o n l y u n d e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d
p r e s s u r e s s o h i g h t h a t t h e y d e s t r o y t h e i n c l u s i o n s (in a n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r e
a m b e r b u r n s a n d s o f t e n s b u t d o e s n o t liquefy). E x h u m a t i o n i s d o n e b y u s i n g a
very fine saw, v i e w e d u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , to c i r c u m s c r i b e a g r o o v e a r o u n d t h e
s p e c i m e n s . W h e n t h e g r o o v e i s close e n o u g h t o t h e inclusion, t h e t w o h a l v e s are
carefully p r i e d a p a r t , g e n e r a l l y s e p a r a t i n g a l o n g t h e b o d y w a l l o f t h e insect o r
plant p a r t . A l t h o u g h o n l y t h e m o s t c o m m o n inclusions i n a m b e r are u s e d for
this w o r k , o p e n i n g a c o m m o n stingless b e e i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r b r i n g s a s e n s e
o f mystery, n o t u n l i k e t h e u n w r a p p i n g o f a n E g y p t i a n m u m m y . I n t h e case o f
the b e e , h o w e v e r , w e c a n p e e r i n t o r e m a i n s t h a t are 2 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, n o t
6,000 years, a n d t h e d e g r e e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n w o u l d h a v e inspired e v e n E g y p t i a n
morticians.
Ancient E g y p t i a n s h a d t o e v i s c e r a t e a n d " d e b r a i n " cadavers for m u m m i f i c a -
tion, since t h e s e o r g a n s w o u l d b l o a t a n d o t h e r w i s e d e c o m p o s e ( t h e v i s c e r a a n d
vital o r g a n s w e r e p r e s e r v e d in special c a n o p i c j a r s w i t h spirit fluids like w i n e ) .

Amber in Nature • 117

Stingless bee, Proplebeia
dominicana, the pollen baskets on
its hind legs filled with pollen and
resin that it harvested. These bees
are common in Dominican amber.
American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)

Insects in a m b e r , h o w e v e r , often h a v e t h e digestive t r a c t a n d b r a i n lying neatly in

p l a c e ; e v e n t h e m e m b r a n o u s t r a c h e o l e s , w h i c h are t h e f i n e t u b e s that m e a n d e r
t h r o u g h o u t t h e o r g a n s delivering o x y g e n , r e m a i n intact. Insects have n o l u n g s ,
b u t s t r o n g fliers (like b e e s ) h a v e air sacs for residual s t o r a g e of air. T h e delicate
air-sac m e m b r a n e s i n s o m e a m b e r b e e s lie c r u m p l e d , like a n o p e n e d s h e e t t h a t
slowly fell to t h e floor.
A p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e lesson in a n c i e n t a n a t o m y c o m e s from t h e m u s c l e s
o f insects i n a m b e r . Insects, i n fact, have a m o n g t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d m u s c u -
l a t u r e o f a n y a n i m a l s , w i t h m i n u s c u l e m u s c l e s p o w e r i n g , for e x a m p l e , t h e
m o v e m e n t o f t h e n e c k , t h e t o u c h o f a n a n t e n n a , o r the flick o f a tiny t o n g u e .
I n s o m e cases, t h e s e m u s c l e s are f r o z e n i n t h e i r original positions. T h e f i n e
s t r i a t i o n s t h a t K o r n i l o w i t c h d e s c r i b e d s o l o n g ago are t h e r e , t o o . W h e n m u s c l e s
c o n t r a c t , f i l a m e n t s o f actin a n d m y o s i n p r o t e i n s slide past e a c h o t h e r . W h e r e
t h e e n d s o f t h e f i l a m e n t s align, b a n d s are f o r m e d . U n d e r 20,000 t i m e s m a g n i -
f i c a t i o n , t h e b a n d s are o b v i o u s . B e t w e e n t h e f i n e b u n d l e s o f m u s c l e tissue, t h e
myofibrils, c a n be s e e n fingerprint p a t t e r n s : t h e s e are t h e mitochondria, t o o tiny
for K o r n i l o w i t c h t o h a v e s e e n . M i t o c h o n d r i a are t h e " p o w e r h o u s e s " o f t h e cell,
g e n e r a t i n g m o s t o f its e n e r g y . Internally, t h e m i t o c h o n d r i a h a v e a n intricate

118 • Amber in Nature

Scanning electronmicrographs of fossils "exhumed" from Dominican amber

Above left: Right half of a stingless bee. Note the sheets of intact muscle in the thorax.
Above right: Left half of bee at left
Below left: Detail from bee above, of the head, showing scales on the tongue, muscles in the head, and the brain
Below right: Detail from bee above, of the thorax, showing crumpled air-sac membranes

Amber in Nature • 119

These two pages: Scanning electronmicrographs of fossils "exhumed "from
Dominican amber, featuring detaibfrom the bee shown on pages 118-19,
of a clump of pollen (opposite) and an individual grain (above). The pollen
was ingested by the bee.

Amber in Nature -121

 m a z e of m e m b r a n e s , which is the fingerprint pattern. Because the muscles in
insects m u s t p o w e r t h e w i n g s t o b e a t h u n d r e d s o f t i m e s p e r s e c o n d , insect
flight-muscle tissue, t h e n a s n o w , h a s m o r e m i t o c h o n d r i a t h a n any o t h e r k i n d
o f tissue k n o w n .
Insects are n o t t h e o n l y o r g a n i s m s to be p r e s e r v e d so well in a m b e r . Anthers
are t h e c l u b at t h e a p e x of a l o n g filament, w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e p o l l e n in a flower.
A n t h e r s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e n o d o u b t littered t h e g r o u n d , p r o b a b l y
t h e w a y t h o s e o f living Hymenaea t r e e s d o today, a n d m a n y o f t h e m b e c a m e
s t u c k a n d i m m e r s e d i n resin. E x h u m e d f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , a n t h e r s s h o w
a few p o l l e n g r a i n s a n d a c u r i o u s c a r p e t of s h o r t , fine cells: a p o l l e n g r a i n
d e v e l o p e d a t t h e e n d o f e a c h o n e o f t h e s e cells. T h e o u t e r c o a t o f p o l l e n (exine)
is intricately a n d g e o m e t r i c a l l y s c u l p t u r e d , w i t h a different p a t t e r n for m a n y
g r o u p s o f p l a n t s . Exine i s also v e r y resistant t o decay, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t exines
fossilized i n s e d i m e n t s are c o m m o n l y u s e d t o s t u d y t h o u s a n d s o r e v e n millions
o f y e a r s o f c h a n g e . Oddly, exines o f p o l l e n i n a m b e r are n o t well p r e s e r v e d .
In at least a few cases, t h o u g h , c l u m p s of p o l l e n a t t a c h e d to stingless b e e s in
Dominican amber were preserved with remarkable fidelity. They were so
c o m p l e t e l y p r e s e r v e d , i n fact, t h a t t w o t y p e s o f p o l l e n f r o m o n e b e e w e r e
d i s c e r n i b l e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e b e e fed f r o m t w o k i n d s o f flowers.
P l a n t tissues p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r h a v e n o t b e e n extensively s t u d i e d , b u t i n
several cases, small leaves i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w e r e e x h u m e d . T o t h e n a k e d
eye, t h e surface of t h e e x h u m e d leaf is c r a c k e d a n d c r u m b l y , like a d r y riverbed.
U n d e r h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n , t h o u g h , t h e c o l u m n a r cells o f t h e e p i t h e l i u m are
still n e a t l y s t a c k e d . N o d o u b t , i f t h e cells w e r e s e c t i o n e d i n t o m i c r o n - t h i c k slices
for c l o s e r study, o r g a n e l l e s like c h l o r o p l a s t s (the m i t o c h o n d r i a l equivalent in
plants) w o u l d b e f o u n d .
O n e o f t h e m o s t c u r i o u s i n s t a n c e s o f a m b e r p r e s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n s the
p l a t y p o d i d a n d scolytid b a r k b e e t l e s . As d i s c u s s e d earlier, t h e s e beetles are also
called a m b r o s i a b e e t l e s b e c a u s e t h e y i n o c u l a t e i n t o t h e i r w o o d e n galleries a
f u n g u s t h a t t h e y feed u p o n . T h e f u n g u s i s f o u n d n o w h e r e else except i n t h e s e
galleries a n d in specialized p o c k e t s in t h e b o d y of t h e beetle (called mycangia).
T h e species o f f u n g u s i s specific t o t h e species o f b e e t l e . Bark beetles e x h u m e d
f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s h o w m y c a n g i a , r e p l e t e w i t h spores and f i l a m e n t s o f
their symbiotic fungus.
An aspect of a m b e r p r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t is j u s t as intriguing as what is p r e s e r v e d ,
is how s o m e t h i n g is p r e s e r v e d . T h e r e is often virtually no s h r i n k a g e of soft
tissues a n d n o t r a c e s o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n , a t least i n D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n
a m b e r s . (Baltic a m b e r , i t h a s b e e n r e c e n t l y discovered, d o e s n o t p r e s e r v e i n t e r n a l
tissues as well as D o m i n i c a n or M e x i c a n a m b e r does, a n d this is u n d o u b t e d l y
d u e t o its u n i q u e c h e m i s t r y . Baltic a m b e r d o e s s h o w s o m e d e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
s h r i n k a g e , b u t n o t always. C h e m i c a l l y a n d botanically similar fossil a n d subfossil
resins, like copal f r o m East Africa a n d C o l o m b i a , t h e o r e t i c a l l y s h o u l d s h o w at
least similar p r e s e r v a t i o n a l f i d e l i t y , a l t h o u g h this h a s n o t yet b e e n tested.)

21 • Amber in Nature
 Pages 123-25: Scanning electron-
micrographs of fossib "exhumed'
from Dominican amber

Above: Small leaf its surface

appearing dried and cracked like
a parched lake bed

Below: Epithelial cells of the leaf

above, perfectly stacked

Amber in Nature • 123


Above: Wood-boring ambrosia beetle,
showing the special pocket for
transporting its symbiotic fungus
Opposite: Detail of pocket from above,
still containing the symbiotic fungus
124 • Amber in Nature
P r e s e r v a t i o n of a tiny o r g a n i s m by t h e o r i g i n a l , fluid resin m u s t have b e e n v e r y
q u i c k t o a c c o u n t for t h e v i r t u a l lack o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e favored h y p o t h e s i s i s
t h a t a v e r y volatile fluid in t h e resin, p e r h a p s a t e r p e n e , s e e p e d rapidly t h r o u g h
t h e b o d y walls a n d i n t o t h e tissues, f i x i n g t h e m . W a t e r m u s t have b e e n e x t r a c t e d
i n this p r o c e s s , since D N A can b e n a t u r a l l y p r e s e r v e d only b y d e h y d r a t i o n .
P e r h a p s t h e r e d d i s h o r c l o u d y h a l o often f o u n d a r o u n d inclusions i n a m b e r a r e
a q u e o u s r e m a i n s , s e q u e s t e r e d b y t h e s u r r o u n d i n g resin. But m e r e d e h y d r a t i o n
w o u l d leave t h e tissues l o o k i n g s h r u n k e n a n d shriveled: t h e y m u s t have b e e n
fixed, as in e m b a l m i n g .
A n t i b i o t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e resin i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p r e s e r v a t i o n a l factor.
W h e n a small o r g a n i s m b e c o m e s e n c a p s u l a t e d b y f l o w i n g resin, p r o c e s s e s o f
fixation, d e h y d r a t i o n , a n d sterilization b e g i n immediately. Since t h e resins h a r d e n
quickly, a h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d t o m b is s o o n formed. In a p i e c e of a m b e r in t h e
S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m , t h e b r a n c h e s o f a l i v e r w o r t are p r e s e r v e d w i t h b u b b l e s o f
liquid. T h e l i v e r w o r t e x t e n d s i n t o a large b u b b l e , w h e r e bits o f its s t e m a n d
leaves float f r e e ( n o t unlike t h e " s n o w " i n o n e o f t h o s e s n o w s t o r m p a p e r w e i g h t s ) .
I f t h e w a t e r i n t h e b u b b l e w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y sterile, t h e bits o f p l a n t w o u l d
be at least partially d e c o m p o s e d .
W h a t e v e r t h e exact m e c h a n i s m o f p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a m b e r , a t least s o m e resins
preserve m u c h f i n e r details a n d m o r e c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a n a n y o t h e r k i n d o f fossil.
In o r d e r to s h o w c a s e s u c h a u n i q u e m o d e of p r e s e r v a t i o n , a special t e r m —
"ambalming"—can be coined.

Amber in Nature • 125


Extinct termite, Mastotermes
electrodominicus, in Dominican
amber. Length of amber 1.8".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
A specimen similar to the one above
yielded one of the first DNA sequences
recovered from an amber fossil.
126 • Amber in Nature
Ancient DNA, Evolution, and Suspended Animation
I f t h o u c o u l d s t b u t speak, little fly, h o w m u c h m o r e
w o u l d w e k n o w a b o u t t h e past!
—Immanuel Kant
Biologists w h o discover, n a m e , describe, a n d classify v a r i o u s o r g a n i s m s are called
s y s t e m a t i s t s , o r t a x o n o m i s t s . P e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e science p r e c e d e d virtually
all o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f biology, o r b e c a u s e Victorian t a x o n o m i s t s m e r e l y p i g e o n -
h o l e d species, s y s t e m a t i c s h a s often b e e n p e r c e i v e d as a science o u t p a c e d by
b i o c h e m i s t r y , physiology, a n d t h e like. T h i s w a s m o s t t r u e o f p a l e o n t o l o g y ,
w h e r e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f o r m s i n r o c k r e q u i r e d , a t best, a m i c r o s c o p e . H o w
t e c h n i c a l a field is s e e m s to r e l a t e directly to h o w scientific t h a t field is believed
t o b e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a s e s b e h i n d it. Systematics i s h a r d l y s h o r t i n
c o n c e p t s , for i t s e e k s t o e x a m i n e e v o l u t i o n a r y relationships a m o n g species, a n d
this is at t h e h e a r t of all biology. Traditionally, it has b e e n d o n e by a n a l y z i n g t h e
a n a t o m y , o r m o r p h o l o g y , o f a n o r g a n i s m , s o a s t o define features t h a t link
species, s u c h as six legs defining (in p a r t ) t h e insects.
T e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e s in t h e 1980s a n d 1990s t h e n allowed t h e s e q u e n c i n g of
a m i n o acids i n p r o t e i n s a n d t h e n u c l e o t i d e s i n D N A . D N A i s o f s u c h i n t e r e s t
b e c a u s e it is t h e m o l e c u l a r basis of i n h e r i t a n c e . If a species a c q u i r e d a m u t a t i o n ,
a n d its d e s c e n d a n t s i n h e r i t e d t h e m u t a t i o n , t h e n all the c h a n g e s in a s e g m e n t
o f D N A c o u l d b e u s e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y history o f t h a t l i n e a g e .
T h e m i l l i o n s o f f u n g i , w o r m s , m i t e s , insects, a n d plants are still s t u d i e d m o r -
phologically, b u t t h e s t u d y o f t h e i r D N A h a s b e c o m e a fervent t o p i c . T h a t
p a l e o n t o l o g y , t h e b a s t i o n o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l study, w o u l d b e c o m e m o l e c u l a r
w a s inconceivable years ago.
Fossils in a m b e r did a g r e a t deal to r e v o l u t i o n i z e the study of a n c i e n t D N A .
After 1982, w h e n h i g h - m a g n i f i c a t i o n , e l e c t r o n - m i c r o s c o p i c s t u d y of tissue in an
a m b e r fossil revealed n e w detail, scientists b e g a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e possibility
o f e x t r a c t i n g D N A f r o m it. Early a t t e m p t s a t extracting and s e q u e n c i n g D N A
from a m b e r fossils w e r e c o m p l i c a t e d by a c u m b e r s o m e p r o c e s s of " c l o n i n g " :
t a k i n g a s e g m e n t of D N A , i n s e r t i n g it i n t o t h e g e n o m e of a bacterial colony, a n d
literally g r o w i n g lots o f t h e D N A , w h i c h c o u l d t h e n b e s e q u e n c e d . B u t t o s t a r t ,
o n e n e e d e d m u c h m o r e D N A t h a n exists i n t h e pinhead-size p i e c e o f tissue o n e
often g e t s from an insect in a m b e r . It w a s n o t until early in 1992 t h a t s e r i o u s
efforts r e s u m e d t o o b t a i n D N A f r o m fossils i n amber.
P r o b a b l y t h e e v e n t t h a t m o s t s p a r k e d interest i n a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a m b e r
w a s t h e r e p o r t i n 1990 o f i n t a c t D N A f r o m 17-million-year-old fossil leaves, n o t
i n a m b e r b u t f r o m clay s e d i m e n t s o f Clarkia, Idaho. I t h a d actually b e e n r e p o r t e d
y e a r s earlier t h a t leaves fossilized at this site c o n t a i n e d v a r i o u s p r e s e r v e d c o m p l e x
 b i o m o l e c u l e s like c h l o r o p h y l l ( w h i c h m a k e s p l a n t s g r e e n ) a n d o t h e r p i g m e n t s .
E v e n c h l o r o p l a s t s i n t h e cell ( w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e c h l o r o p h y l l ) w e r e p r e s e r v e d .
B u t t h e p i g m e n t s d e g r a d e d rapidly u p o n e x p o s u r e t o air; s o m e leaves l o o k i n g
originally like colorful fall foliage q u i c k l y b l a c k e n e d . Still, t h e s e w e r e no
o r d i n a r y l e a f - c o m p r e s s i o n fossils. T w o l a b o r a t o r i e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y p u b l i s h e d
s h o r t s e q u e n c e s o f D N A f r o m t h e s a m e c h l o r o p l a s t g e n e , o n e for a n extinct
m a g n o l i a , t h e o t h e r for a n extinct b a l d cypress. T h e m a g n o l i a D N A w a s v e r y
different f r o m living m a g n o l i a D N A ; i n c o n t r a s t , t h e b a l d c y p r e s s w a s v e r y
s i m i l a r t o living relatives. D e s p i t e t h e r e m a r k a b l e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s e fossil
leaves, h u n d r e d s o f a t t e m p t s w e r e r e q u i r e d for t h e few successful e x t r a c t i o n s .
A p o r t a b l e e x t r a c t i o n l a b o r a t o r y h a d t o b e set u p a t t h e site t o p r o c e s s t h e
specimens before they degraded.
S e r e n d i p i t o u s p r e s e r v a t i o n i s o n e p a r t o f t h e Clarkia fossil success; t h e o t h e r
part is the technique that was used, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). This
t e c h n i q u e u s e s an e n z y m e f r o m t h e Thermophilics aquaticus b a c t e r i u m , w h i c h
lives i n h o t springs. T h e e n z y m e i s h e a t e d w i t h s e g m e n t s o f D N A called primers
t h a t are specific for a c e r t a i n g e n e , t h e f o u r building-block n u c l e o t i d e s of D N A
(A, T , C , a n d G), a n d e x t r a c t e d a n c i e n t D N A ; t h e m i x t u r e i s t h e n c o o l e d . T h e
r e s u l t i s large q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a b s o l u t e l y m i c r o s c o p i c
a m o u n t s , e v e n f r o m a single s t r a n d o f D N A . S c r u p u l o u s l y c l e a n c o n d i t i o n s are
r e q u i r e d , for t h e t e c h n i q u e is so sensitive t h a t c o n t a m i n a n t D N A is also easily
amplified. (This caveat i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d t o claim t h a t r e p o r t s o f D N A from
fossils are n o t a n c i e n t D N A a t all, b u t m o d e r n c o n t a m i n a n t D N A . T h e r e are
w a y s t o a d d r e s s this p r o b l e m ; s e e , for e x a m p l e , p a g e 130.) T h e P C R t e c h n i q u e
h a s r e v o l u t i o n i z e d b i o l o g y a n d e v e n forensics. I t w a s this t e c h n i q u e that allowed
t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e o l d e s t i n t a c t D N A yet k n o w n , from a m b e r .
L a t e r i n 1992, t w o i n d e p e n d e n t p a p e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p u b l i s h e d DNA
f r o m a t e r m i t e a n d a b e e in t h e 25-million-year-old a m b e r f r o m the D o m i n i c a n
R e p u b l i c . G i v e n t h e c o n s i s t e n t l y f i n e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f this a m b e r and availability
o f i n c l u s i o n s , t h e s e w e r e g o o d f i r s t c h o i c e s . A g r o u p f r o m the A m e r i c a n
M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y r e p o r t e d o n t h e D N A f r o m the large primitive
t e r m i t e Mastotermes electrodominicus. A g r o u p f r o m t w o universities in California
r e p o r t e d t h e D N A s e q u e n c e s from t h e c o m m o n stingless bee Proplebia dominicana.
(The American M u s e u m of Natural History study had been completed and
s u b m i t t e d for p u b l i c a t i o n t w o m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e California
study, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y w a s p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h earlier.) In b o t h cases, o n l y a few
f r a g m e n t s o f D N A , o f 200 t o 300 n u c l e o t i d e s long, w e r e recovered. T h e s a m e
g e n e in b o t h cases (called 18s r D N A ) w a s e x a m i n e d , b u t it w a s a m e r e fraction of
t h e e n t i r e g e n e . S o m e g e n e s m a y h a v e , say, 10,000 n u c l e o t i d e s , a n d t h e e n t i r e t y
o f D N A i n m a n y c o m p l e x o r g a n i s m s i s h o u s e d i n 10,000 o r m o r e g e n e s . E v e n
t h o u g h t h e y w e r e s u c h m i n u t e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e g e n o m e s , t h e fact t h a t D N A
c o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d this l o n g w a s i n s t a n t n e w s , particularly since t h e r e p o r t s
c a m e i n t h e w a k e o f t h e b o o k Jurassic Park a n d j u s t p r i o r t o t h e f i l m . W h a t w a s

128 - Amber in Nature

n o t s o w i d e l y p o p u l a r i z e d w a s t h e scientific r e a s o n w h y a t least t h e t e r m i t e ' s
D N A was of such interest.
Mastotermes electrodominicus is a large, m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y p r i m i t i v e t e r m i t e
w h o s e o n l y close living relative, M. darwiniensis ( n a m e d for t h e n a t u r a l i s t ) , thrives
in Australia. A similar extinct species is f o u n d in Mexican a m b e r , a n d c o m p r e s s i o n -
fossil Mastotermes o c c u r i n r o c k s f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e . T h e large
t e r m i t e s r e s e m b l e c o c k r o a c h e s n o t o n l y i n size b u t also i n v a r i o u s features: t h e y
have a large p r o n o t a l p l a t e t h a t p a r t i a l l y shields t h e h e a d (the h e a d s o f r o a c h e s Evolutionary relationships of
are entirely o r a l m o s t entirely c o n c e a l e d ) ; t h e eggs o f t h e living species are laid termites, cockroaches, and praying
mantises, based on DNA from living
i n c l u m p s , like a r u d i m e n t a r y c o c k r o a c h e g g sac; a n d t h e w i n g s h a v e n u m e r o u s
species and from the amber fossil
veins (in m o s t t e r m i t e s , t h e r e are v e r y few veins, a n d t h e s e are v e r y faint). termite. The extinct Mastotermes
So, a t least d u r i n g E o c e n e t o M i o c e n e t i m e s ( a b o u t 4 0 t o 2 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) , retains features of its roach ancestry,
but it and its living relative are
t h e g e n u s w a s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d . N o w i t i s relict, b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e n o r t h e r n ,
genetically all termite.
tropical areas of Australia a n d a few s p o t s in N e w G u i n e a (oddly, M. darwiniensis

Amber in Nature • 129

 is a s e r i o u s pest, so w h y its close relatives b e c a m e extinct a r o u n d t h e w o r l d is an
e n i g m a ) . Mastoterm.es c o u l d o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d a relict if all of t h e fossil a n d t h e
o n e living species w e r e closely related. S y s t e m a t i s t s t r a d i t i o n a l l y g r o u p e d t h o s e
species o n t h e basis o f features t h a t also are s e e n i n c o c k r o a c h e s , w h i c h evolved
well b e f o r e t e r m i t e s evolved. T h i s w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l e t o defining h u m a n s
b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f hair, w h i c h evolved i n t h e earliest m a m m a l s , well before
h u m a n s . T h u s , o n e q u e s t i o n w a s , A r e t h e living a n d fossil Mastotermes i n d e e d
closely related, o r d o t h e y j u s t s h a r e a p r i m i t i v e m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e s e m b l a n c e ?
T h e study of D N A would circumvent the morphological problem. Answering
this q u e s t i o n h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s for e v o l u t i o n , specifically a b o u t e x t i n c t i o n s .
T h e o t h e r q u e s t i o n involved t h e w i d e r evolutionary relationships of Mastotermes
t o o t h e r k i n d s o f t e r m i t e s a n d t o r o a c h e s . B e c a u s e t h e y r e t a i n s o m a n y roachlike
features, Mastotermes h a d often b e e n t h o u g h t o f a s " m i s s i n g l i n k s " b e t w e e n t h e
t w o o r d e r s . I n this light, t e r m i t e s w e r e s e e n a s highly r e d u c e d , m y o p i c , w o o d -
e a t i n g , social c o c k r o a c h e s .
D N A f r o m t h e extinct t e r m i t e r e v e a l e d t h a t i t a n d t h e living species are
definitely all t e r m i t e , n o t at all " m i s s i n g links" w i t h c o c k r o a c h e s . An e v o l u t i o n a r y
t r e e d r a w n o n l y w i t h t h e D N A f r o m t h e living t e r m i t e s a n d r o a c h e s gave o n e
a r r a n g e m e n t . W i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f D N A f r o m t h e fossil t e r m i t e , a slightly
different a r r a n g e m e n t r e s u l t e d . Apparently, a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e b a s e d o n living
D N A a l o n e c a n give a n i n c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e , b u t h e r e w a s t h e f i r s t g l i m p s e a s
t o h o w i n c o m p l e t e t h a t p i c t u r e c o u l d b e . O t h e r u n e x p e c t e d results a p p e a r e d i n
t h e D N A o f t h e extinct Mastotermes, b u t e n o u g h similarities b e t w e e n i t and the
living species existed t o s h o w clearly t h a t t h e t w o species t r u l y w e r e closely
r e l a t e d . T h e y did n o t j u s t s h a r e a p r i m i t i v e r e s e m b l a n c e . T h u s , p e r h a p s all fossil
Mastotermes are closely r e l a t e d . If t h a t is t h e case, D a r w i n ' s Mastotermes in
Australia, albeit a s e r i o u s p e s t , is i n d e e d an e v o l u t i o n a r y relict. (Further, t h e w a y
this D N A m a t c h e s w i t h its close living relative is a g o o d test t h a t the D N A is
authentically ancient.)
I n J u n e 1993, n e w s p a p e r h e a d l i n e s d e c l a r e d , " D N A from the t i m e o f
d i n o s a u r s discovered." T h e y w e r e b a s e d o n a r e p o r t , published i n t h e scientific
j o u r n a l Nature, of D N A s e q u e n c e s f r o m a w e e v i l in 120-to-130-million-year-old
a m b e r f r o m L e b a n o n . T h e r e p o r t w a s f r o m virtually the s a m e California g r o u p
t h a t e a r l i e r h a d a n n o u n c e d D N A f r o m D o m i n i c a n a m b e r bees. Curiously, t h e
scientific s t u d y w a s p u b l i s h e d on t h e day t h e film version of Jurassic Park
o p e n e d . T h e D N A h a d b e e n t a k e n f r o m a single, small n e m o n y c h i d w e e v i l
i n t h e a m b e r . Today, n e m o n y c h i d s feed m o s t l y o n conifers, even o n a r a u c a r i a n s ,
s o i t w a s p r o b a b l y feeding o n t h e t r e e t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e L e b a n e s e a m b e r . T h e
scientists e x a m i n e d t w o f r a g m e n t s o f t h e s a m e g e n e (18s r D N A ) t h a t w a s
s t u d i e d earlier for t h e t e r m i t e . A s e x p e c t e d , t h e fossil D N A w a s q u i t e p r i m i t i v e .
W h a t fueled publicity w a s t h a t D N A this ancient, f r o m t h e age o f d i n o s a u r s ,
c o u l d exist. Of c o u r s e , t h e Jurassic Park p r e m i s e , of c l o n i n g extinct c r e a t u r e s
f r o m t h e s e s n i p p e t s o f D N A , s e e m e d all t h e m o r e c o m p e l l i n g .

130 • Amber in Nature

 Since t h e n , D N A h a s b e e n r e c o v e r e d , i n f i v e different l a b o r a t o r i e s , f r o m
leaves, fruit flies, w o o d g n a t s , a lizard, leaf b e e t l e s , a n d a f u n g u s g n a t , all in
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r . A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e i n every t h r e e a t t e m p t s i s successful.
S u c h incredible c o n s i s t e n c y o f D N A p r e s e r v a t i o n m u s t b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e
desiccating p r o p e r t i e s o f resin. N o d o u b t , m a n y m o r e D N A e x t r a c t i o n s will
b e m a d e f r o m a m b e r fossils, w h i c h h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s n o t o n l y for e v o l u t i o n a r y
studies b u t also for scientific ethics.

T h e D N A t h a t i s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r fossils i s s o h o p e -
Suspended Animation?
lessly j u m b l e d i n t o tiny f r a g m e n t s t h a t , g i v e n p r e s e n t
t e c h n o l o g y , i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e n t i r e g e n o m e of, say,
a n extinct t e r m i t e . T h e t a s k h a s b e e n l i k e n e d t o t h e scale o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
Tolstoy's War and Peace o u t of t h e a l p h a b e t n o o d l e s in s o u p , w i t h o u t ever h a v i n g
r e a d t h e b o o k . E v e n w i t h a n a l m o s t limitless s u p p l y o f tissue a n d fully i n t a c t
D N A , t h e h u m a n g e n o m e p r o j e c t i s still r e q u i r i n g d e c a d e s o f w o r k b y h u n d r e d s
of r e s e a r c h e r s . If, in fifty years, t h e t e c h n o l o g y exists to r e a d a n d a s s e m b l e t h e
g e n o m e o f o u r extinct t e r m i t e , c o u l d t h e t e r m i t e t h e n b e r e s u r r e c t e d ? T h i s i s Bubbles in Dominican amber, harbor
of quiescent, ancient bacteria? Length
actually t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d p a r t , since s o m a n y c o m p l e x levels o f o r g a n i -
of amber 1.8". Private collection
z a t i o n lie b e t w e e n t h e D N A s e q u e n c e a n d t h e w h o l e o r g a n i s m . H o w t h e D N A

Amber in Nature • 131

 lies in a scaffolding of p r o t e i n s on t h e c h r o m o s o m e s ; h o w t h e t h o u s a n d s of g e n e s
t u r n off a n d o n , a n d w h e n , are j u s t s o m e o f t h e q u e s t i o n s . Even i f all this w e r e
possible, h u n d r e d s of years f r o m now, t h e u l t i m a t e q u e s t i o n is, S h o u l d it be done?
P r e s u m a b l y b y t h e n , t h e c o n c e r n w o u l d n o t b e s o m u c h w i t h r e s u r r e c t i n g extinct
c r e a t u r e s b u t w i t h h u m a n immortality. I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e r e are o t h e r c o n c e r n s .
T h e r e m a r k a b l e p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a m b e r h a s g i v e n a t least o n e scientist a
vision of "life in a m b e r . " If D N A is p r e s e r v e d , w h y c o u l d n ' t s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s
like v i r u s e s , b a c t e r i a , p r o t o z o a , a n d f u n g i also b e p r e s e r v e d ? A t least s o m e f o r m s
o f t h e s e h a v e s p o r e s a n d cysts t h a t r e m a i n d o r m a n t a n d e x t r e m e l y long-lived
u n d e r the desiccated conditions a m b e r provides.
In M a y 1995, t h e a p p a r e n t revival of a Bacillus b a c t e r i u m w a s r e p o r t e d to
h a v e b e e n e x t r a c t e d a n d c u l t u r e d f r o m t h e c o m m o n stingless b e e i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r . Excellent p r e c a u t i o n s w e r e t a k e n t o i n s u r e against c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a n d
t h e D N A o f t h e b a c t e r i u m w a s v e r y similar, b u t n o t identical, t o a n o t h e r k i n d o f
Bacillus k n o w n t o live t o d a y i n b e e s . I f t h e results p r o v e t r u e , h o w w e v i e w t h e
m o r t a l i t y o f o r g a n i s m s n e e d s t o b e revised. W i d e s p r e a d s k e p t i c i s m exists i n t h e
scientific c o m m u n i t y , t h o u g h , a s t o w h e t h e r this b a c t e r i u m i s i n d e e d a n c i e n t .
O n e p r o b l e m w i t h t r y i n g t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e b a c t e r i a a p p a r e n t l y revived
f r o m a m b e r are a u t h e n t i c i s t h a t t h e living flora o f b a c t e r i a i s s o p o o r l y k n o w n
t h a t o n e m a y n e v e r b e s u r e i f a positive result i s simply d u e t o s o m e u n k n o w n
m o d e r n species c o n t a m i n a t i n g t h e c u l t u r e . In a t e a s p o o n of forest soil thrive
t h o u s a n d s o f species o f b a c t e r i a , m o s t n e w t o science. W h a t a s s u r a n c e i s there,
g i v e n t h e m o s t sterile a n d careful c o n d i t i o n s o f isolation, t h a t a w e i r d b a c t e r i u m
is a u t h e n t i c a l l y ancient? Also, all of t h e D N A e x t r a c t e d t h u s far from o r g a n i s m s
t r a p p e d in a m b e r is e x t r e m e l y fragmented. G i v e n this, h o w is it posssible that an
e n t i r e g e n o m e (the D N A c h a i n i n a n o r g a n i s m ) c a n r e m a i n entirely u n b r o k e n ?
A b a c t e r i u m w i t h a fragmented g e n o m e w o u l d n e v e r be viable. This w o r k raises
q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e ethics o f c u l t u r i n g e x t i n c t m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . S o m e labora-
t o r i e s a r e e v e n t r y i n g t o i n s e r t f r a g m e n t s o f t h e ( p r e s u m a b l y ) extinct b a c t e r i a l
D N A i n t o close living relatives. T h i s raises e v e n m o r e c o n c e r n than t h e c u r r e n t
o n e o v e r r e c o m b i n a n t - D N A r e s e a r c h , since i t involves c o n s t r u c t e d m i c r o b e s
whose pathogenic potential is u n k n o w n .
Less e s o t e r i c a n d m o r e g e r m a n e t o t h e lover o f a m b e r i s the responsibility
of scientists as s t e w a r d s of g r e a t c o l l e c t i o n s . If t h e extraction of tissues from
amber, DNA, microbes, or whatever, b e c o m e s commonplace, what guidelines
a n d safeguards are t h e r e t o p r e v e n t u n i q u e a n d rare pieces f r o m b e i n g h a r m e d
o r e v e n d e s t r o y e d ? T h i s c o n c e r n b e c a m e m o s t p e r t i n e n t a s a result o f t h e s t u d y
o n t h e L e b a n e s e a m b e r weevil. E x t r a c t i o n o f the tissues largely d e s t r o y e d t h e
s p e c i m e n ( t h e pieces w e r e t h e n g l u e d b a c k t o g e t h e r ) , w h i c h i s all t h e m o r e
u n f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e i t w a s u n i q u e . E x p e r i m e n t s like this, regardless o f h o w
p r o m i s i n g t h e result m a y b e , s h o u l d b e d o n e only o n fossils t h a t a r e c o m m o n .
If a n y a s p e c t of a fossil is to r e m a i n available for study, it s h o u l d be t h e
m o r p h o l o g y — a l l of it.

132 • Amber in Nature

 PROCESSED AMBER, IMITATIONS, AND FORGERIES

T h e v i r t u e s o f a m b e r are many, b u t t w o m a i n l i m i t a t i o n s are t h a t i t g r a d u a l l y

d e t e r i o r a t e s w h e n e x p o s e d t o h e a t a n d air, a n d forgeries are easily a n d
s o m e t i m e s convincingly m a d e . Various substances have b e e n used to imitate
a m b e r i n d e c o r a t i v e objects, b u t t h e s e are n o t usually sold w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f
d e c e p t i o n . Generally, t h e i m i t a t i o n m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o c e s s e d a m b e r are q u i t e easy
t o distinguish f r o m t r u e , u n a d u l t e r a t e d a m b e r . S o m e o f t h e i m i t a t i o n s u b s t a n c e s
i n c l u d e cellulose a c e t a t e a n d n i t r a t e , acrylic resins, Bakelites ( t h e first s y n t h e t i c s
u s e d ) , a n d n o w m o s t c o m m o n l y , p o l y e s t e r resin. Even h o r n a n d h a r d e n e d casein
(the p r o t e i n i n milk) h a v e b e e n u s e d a s a m b e r i m i t a t i o n s . T h e i m i t a t i o n s are
usually d i s c e r n e d b y t h e i r u n n a t u r a l c o l o r o r c o m p o s i t i o n , o r w i t h a h o t n e e d l e .
W h e n a h o t n e e d l e i s t o u c h e d t o a m b e r o r copal, t h e smell i s r e s i n o u s ; i m i t a t i o n s
will smell acrid, like b u r n i n g plastic or b u r n e d fruit (for t h e celluloids).
A c o m m o n p r o c e s s for a m b e r j e w e l r y i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f " s u n s p a n g l e s , "
w h i c h are disks a t different a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e disks are m a d e b y h e a t i n g
a p i e c e o f a m b e r w i t h n u m e r o u s air b u b b l e s b u r i e d i n cans o f h o t s a n d . P o p p i n g
h e a r d f r o m t h e h e a t e d c a n indicates t h a t t h e b u b b l e s have e x p a n d e d , c r e a t i n g a
discoidal f r a c t u r e a r o u n d t h e m like t h e r i n g s a r o u n d t h e p l a n e t S a t u r n . All o f t h e
s u b s t a n c e i s n a t u r a l , b u t i t h a s b e e n p r o c e s s e d t o give t h e d e s i r e d effect o f t h e s e
highly reflective disks. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is closely r e l a t e d to clarification. M o s t
a m b e r p i e c e s u s e d for d e c o r a t i v e objects, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y for t h e flat pieces
g l u e d i n t o m o s a i c s a n d o n t o chests, w e r e clarified. B y h e a t i n g a m b e r i n oil v e r y
gradually, t h e m i n u t e b u b b l e s n e a r t h e surface b e c o m e filled w i t h t h e oil, a n d
the a m b e r b e c o m e s s o m e w h a t transparent, even in bony and bastard amber.
D e s p i t e w h a t s o m e m a y c l a i m , this t e c h n i q u e c a n n o t m a k e a p i e c e o f b o n y o r
b a s t a r d a m b e r c o m p l e t e l y clear, b u t it d o e s give a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a n s p a r e n c y to
t h e surface. I n t h e t i m e o f Pliny t h e Elder, t h e oil t h a t w a s u s e d for clarification
w a s t h e r e n d e r e d fat of a s u c k l i n g pig. N o w r a p e s e e d oil is u s e d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e
its refractive index closely m a t c h e s t h a t of a m b e r .
A n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i q u e for p r o c e s s i n g a m b e r h a s b e e n t h e
pressing o f a m b e r t o c r e a t e ambroid. H e r e , t h e m a s s e s o f small, u n u s a b l e chips
from a m b e r m i n i n g are fused in a v a c u u m w i t h s t e a m of at least 400° E T h e
softened a m b e r i s t h e n p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a sieve, m i x e d t o g e t h e r , a n d h a r d e n e d
into blocks. It can be dyed, u s u a l l y a d a r k red. A m b r o i d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by its
flow lines, w h i c h b e c o m e m o r e a p p a r e n t w i t h age. T h e t e c h n i q u e w a s
particularly useful for t h e m a s s p r o d u c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d small objects, s u c h a s

Amber in Nature • 133

Brooch made with a cabochon of amber having "sun spangles,"
set in silver. This modern piece from Poland exemplifies a
typical use for this kind of amber. The amber is produced by
careful heating, which causes internal bubbles to expand,
creating the disks. Height 1.5". Private collection

Below: Ambroid, or "pressed " amber, made from Baltic amber.

These pieces were intended for use in buttons and as mouth-
pieces for pipes. Length of longest piece 1.4". American Museum
of Natural History

Opposite, above: Forgery with a lizard, made from cast kauri-

gum resin. Length of amber 6.7". Private collection

Opposite, below: Forgery with a paper wasp in polyester resin,

sold in the Dominican Republic. Length of amber 1.3". Private
collection

134 • Amber in Nature

Plate from Naihanael
Sendelio's Historia
Succinorum Corpora
aliena involventium et
Naturae O p e r e 1 7 4 2 .
Several illustrations depict
obvious forgeries; see, for
example, the lizard marked
6 and numbers 19-22.

136 ' Amber in Nature

b u t t o n s a n d m o u t h p i e c e s for p i p e s . A t t h e t u r n o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e
u s e o f p r e s s e d a m b e r for s m o k i n g i m p l e m e n t s w a s v e r y p o p u l a r , b e c a u s e a m b e r
w a s c o n s i d e r e d h e a l t h i e r t h a n h o r n , b o n e , o r ivory, a n d i t w a s s m o o t h e r . Small
inclusions, s u c h a s insects a n d p l a n t p a r t s , c a n b e e m b e d d e d i n t h e p r e s s e d
a m b r o i d w h i l e i t i s soft, b u t t h e h e a t a n d p r e s s u r e g r e a t l y d i s t o r t t h e m , a n d t h e
flow lines are always a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n s are u n n a t u r a l .
T h e real interest i n a m b e r forgeries involves t h e inclusions o f small o r g a n i s m s
p u r p o s e l y e m b e d d e d i n a n i m i t a t i o n s u b s t a n c e o r i n a cavity o f n a t u r a l a m b e r .
Currently, a n d p r e s u m a b l y h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s ago, t h e m o s t s o u g h t a n d t h e r e f o r e
m o s t expensive a m b e r objects c o n t a i n e d large insects a n d small v e r t e b r a t e s .
Forgeries of t h e s e h a v e b e e n m a d e for at least six h u n d r e d years. P r o b a b l y all
forgers deceive t h e i r b u y e r s s i m p l y for t h e m o n e y . For t h e few cases i n w h i c h
scientists have b e e n fooled b y faked inclusions, t h e forger a l m o s t certainly did n o t
intend to be misleading scientifically: t h e fake j u s t e n d e d up in a m u s e u m collection.
Since i t i s n o t feasible t o m e l t a u t h e n t i c a m b e r t o insert inclusions, s o m e
c o n v i n c i n g s u b s t i t u t e s m u s t b e u s e d . T h e first forgeries w e r e m a d e f r o m m e l t e d
copal, a p r a c t i c e c o m m o n u p t o t h e early t w e n t i e t h century. E v e n Pliny d o u b t e d
t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f lizards i n Baltic a m b e r ; h e believed t h e m t o b e c o p a l forgeries.
East African c o p a l ( t h e k i n d o r i g i n a l l y u s e d ) w o u l d b e p u l v e r i z e d a n d m i x e d
w i t h spirits, s u c h a s t u r p e n t i n e o r a l c o h o l , a n d t h e n h e a t e d u n t i l t h e c o p a l w a s
dissolved. A s t h e s o l v e n t e v a p o r a t e d a n d t h e m i x t u r e b e c a m e thicker, i t c o u l d
t h e n be p o u r e d i n t o a m o l d , i n t o w h i c h w a s placed, say, a large b e e t l e , s c o r p i o n ,
o r lizard. A t t h e p e a k o f t h e k a u r i - g u m t r a d e i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a
p o p u l a r sideline w a s t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f fossil forgeries, m a n y still i n p r i v a t e
c o l l e c t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e s e forgeries are v e r y u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , c o n s i s t i n g o f
u n n a t u r a l l y large a r t h r o p o d s a n d lizards, a n d u s u a l l y w i t h t h e i r a p p e n d a g e s far
t o o n e a t l y a r r a n g e d . A t t h e v e r y least, c o p a l forgeries are easily s p o t t e d .
T h e caveat is t h a t n o t all inclusions in c o p a l , i n c l u d i n g lizards, are forgeries.
S o m e , s u c h a s o n e s i n t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m i n L o n d o n , m i s l e d a few
Victorian t a x o n o m i s t s w h o t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e i n t r u e a m b e r . T h e A m e r i c a n
M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y h a s a n extensive c o l l e c t i o n o f insects n a t u r a l l y
p r e s e r v e d i n East African c o p a l . T h e B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m h a s a
r e c t a n g u l a r b l o c k o f c o p a l c o n t a i n i n g a small g e c k o lizard. T h e i m m e d i a t e
a s s u m p t i o n w a s t h a t it is a fake, b u t close e x a m i n a t i o n revealed m i c r o s c o p i c
p l a n t h a i r s a n d frail m i d g e s t h a t a forger w o u l d n e v e r have t h o u g h t t o i n c l u d e ;
or, i f h e h a d , h e a t i n g t h e c o p a l m i x t u r e w o u l d have g r e a t l y d i s t o r t e d t h e m .
T h e piece was probably cut a n d t r i m m e d from a large c h u n k of kauri g u m , in
w h i c h a lizard h a d b e e n n a t u r a l l y t r a p p e d (or p u s h e d ! ) . O n e i r o n c l a d t e c h n i q u e
of d i s c e r n i n g a c o p a l forgery relies on s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d c h e m i s t r y . C o p a l
forgeries, even o n e m a d e a h u n d r e d y e a r s ago, c o n t a i n t r a c e s o f s o l v e n t t h a t
have n o t e v a p o r a t e d , b u t t o d e t e c t this r e q u i r e s expensive i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .
Forgeries in p o l y e s t e r resin h a v e largely r e p l a c e d copal forgeries, p e r h a p s
because t h e t e c h n i q u e i s easier a n d , t o t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d eye, m o r e c o n v i n c i n g .

Amber in Nature • 137

 Opposite: Forgery showing a small
anole lizard set in a niche carved from
Dominican amber. The niche was then
filled with polyester casting resin.
Note the curled hair and the pen
outline around the lizard; otherwise,
it would have been a very convincing
forgery. Private collection

Two skillful forgeries in Baltic amber,

both made by inserting an inclusion in
a cavity in natural Baltic amber

Above: Small frog and scallop shell

embedded in a central hole bored into
the piece. Length of amber 1.9".
American Museum of Natural
History (Entomology)

Below: "Piltdown Fly, "forgery with

the common latrine fly, Fannia
scalaris, studied by the eminent
entomologist Willi Hennig. The
Natural History Museum, London

Amber in Nature • 139

 Since a b o u t 1980, p o l y e s t e r forgeries have b e c o m e v e r y p o p u l a r i n t h e D o m i n i c a n
R e p u b l i c a n d M e x i c o . U n l i k e forgeries in c o p a l , d e t e c t i n g fakes in p o l y e s t e r resin
is u n e q u i v o c a l . But, like c o p a l forgeries, t h e i n c l u s i o n s in p o l y e s t e r forgeries,
g e n e r a l l y lizards, are u s u a l l y v e r y u n n a t u r a l . T h i s is c o n v e n i e n t , since small
v e r t e b r a t e s a n d t h e like d r a w i m m e d i a t e s c r u t i n y b y d e a l e r s a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d
b u y e r s ; it is t h e t h o u s a n d s of small inclusions t h a t do n o t . Forgers also unwittingly
u s e large, c o m m o n insects (like m o d e r n h o n e y b e e s ) t h a t e n t o m o l o g i s t s easily
s p o t a s fakes, b u t w h i c h a l a y p e r s o n m a y n o t .
O n e c a n n o t rely o n d e t e c t i n g a forgery b a s e d o n t h e e x t r e m e clarity o f t h e
s u b s t a n c e , for s o m e a m b e r , especially M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r , c a n b e
r e m a r k a b l y free o f debris. I n fact, forgers o f D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n " a m b e r "
g e n e r a l l y s p r i n k l e d i r t i n t o t h e resin, b u t t o a n a m b e r specialist even t h e dirt i s
s u s p i c i o u s l y u n n a t u r a l . Like a n e x p e r i e n c e d b a n k teller w h o c a n d e t e c t c o u n t e r -
feit c u r r e n c y b y t h e t e x t u r e o f t h e p a p e r , a n e x p e r i e n c e d a m b e r e x p e r t can also
d e t e c t a p o l y e s t e r forgery b y t h e feel ( a n d c o l o r ) o f t h e p i e c e . T h e easiest a n d
s u r e s t m e t h o d of d e t e c t i n g p o l y e s t e r forgeries for l a y p e o p l e is t h e h o t - n e e d l e test.
T h e m o s t clever t e c h n i q u e i n amber-fossil forgeries i s o n e o f t h e o l d e s t a s
well. F o r a t least four h u n d r e d years, E u r o p e a n s have b e e n m a k i n g fossil forgeries
f r o m Baltic a m b e r , a n d t h e m a n y n a t u r a l flow lines a n d c r a c k s i n i t l e n d
t h e m s e l v e s w o n d e r f u l l y to a special t e c h n i q u e . A p i e c e is split a l o n g t h e p l a n e
of a c r a c k or fissure r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e a m b e r . A small cavity is c a r v e d o u t
of a split surface, filled w i t h t h e forged i n c l u s i o n a n d w i t h resin, b a l s a m , or
m e l t e d c o p a l , a n d t h e s a m e i s u s e d for fusing t h e t w o halves b a c k t o g e t h e r . T h e
difference b e t w e e n t h e resin a n d a m b e r is generally so slight as to be undetectable,
especially if o t h e r flow lines a n d fissures h e l p to c o n c e a l t h e e d g e s of the cavity.
All o f t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d c h e m i c a l tests w o u l d reveal t h e piece t o b e
authentic amber.
T h e t e c h n i q u e is so clever t h a t it easily m i s l e a d s e v e n e x p e r t s . O n e case
i n v o l v e d a p i e c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. I t was a b o u t t w o
i n c h e s l o n g , d a r k red, a n d w i t h a c r a z e d surface typical of old Baltic a m b e r
pieces. Inside w a s a s t r e a m of resin, a n d inside of t h a t w a s a tiny frog a n d w h a t
a p p e a r e d t o b e t w o large b u b b l e s . T h e p i e c e c a m e f r o m o n e o f t h e m o s t
v e n e r a b l e p r i v a t e collections o f m i n e r a l s ever a s s e m b l e d (by C l a r e n c e B e m e n t ) ,
a n d t h e w h o l e lot w a s p u r c h a s e d for t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y
by J. P. M o r g a n in 1900, for $100,000. E l a t i o n at t h e rediscovery of " B e m e n t ' s
frog" q u i c k l y s u b s i d e d w h e n t h e p i e c e w a s e x a m i n e d closely: o n e o f t h e s m a l l
" b u b b l e s " w a s actually a small scallop, w h i c h could n o t possibly have b e e n c a u g h t
i n a m b e r . I t w a s t h e n discovered t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e a m o f resin w a s a c t u a l l y a
b o r e h o l e f i l l e d w i t h m o d e r n resin a n d t h a t a slice h a d b e e n t a k e n off o n e e n d
t o m a k e t h e h o l e a n d t h e n v e r y carefully fused b a c k o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l p i e c e .
O n e surface o f t h e piece w a s left n a t u r a l l y r o u g h t o h e l p conceal t r a c e s o f t h e
forgery. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e p i e c e w a s d e t e c t e d before t h e r e c o u l d be a scientifically
e m b a r r a s s i n g r e p o r t o n it.

140 • Amber in Nature

 A n o t h e r case w a s n o t s o f o r t u n a t e . I n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n , w a s a small p i e c e o f a m b e r c o n t a i n i n g w h a t
l o o k s like a small housefly. It h a d b e e n a c q u i r e d by t h e m u s e u m in t h e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y f r o m a d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n scientist. M o r e t h a n s e v e n t y y e a r s later,
a n o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n scientist, Willi H e n n i g , s t u d i e d i t a n d r e p o r t e d
t h a t t h e s p e c i m e n w a s a fly i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e c o m m o n s e w e r fly, Fannia
scalaris ( t h e r e are at least a h u n d r e d o t h e r species of Fannia, b u t n o n e are as
c o m m o n ) . H e c o n s i d e r e d t h e possibility t h a t t h e s p e c i m e n w a s a forgery, b u t
t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o signs o f it, a n d s o h e d w e l l e d , i n his o r i g i n a l p a p e r , o n
h o w an insect species can persist in e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e . It b e c a m e a c i t e d e x a m p l e
of e v o l u t i o n a r y stasis, u n t i l 1993, w h e n a r e s e a r c h e r at t h e British M u s e u m
discovered it w a s a forgery. W e r e it n o t for t h e h e a t of a m i c r o s c o p e l a m p , w h i c h
c a u s e d t h e piece t o c r a c k i n a c e r t a i n way, t h e s p e c i m e n m i g h t n e v e r h a v e c o m e
u n d e r suspicion. It w a s s u c h a g o o d f o r g e r y t h a t it h a d s t u m p e d e v e n a scientist
like H e n n i g , w h o w a s r e n o w n e d for his w o r k o n insects, i n c l u d i n g f l i e s i n a m b e r .
It w a s m a d e in a w a y similar to t h a t of B e m e n t ' s frog, by e m b e d d i n g a fly
( p r o b a b l y f r o m a w i n d o w s i l l ) i n t o a cavity in n a t u r a l Baltic a m b e r . In a l l u s i o n to
a f a m o u s h u m a n - f o s s i l forgery, t h e fake f l y h a s b e e n e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y d u b b e d
" P i l t d o w n Fly"; i n this case, h o w e v e r , t h e forger a l m o s t certainly n e v e r i n t e n d e d
to mislead a scientist.

Amber in Nature • 141

AMBER

IN

ART
The objects in this section are of
Baltic amber, with the exception
of the Asian pieces, most of which
were crafted from burmite, or
Burmese amber.
Page 142: Chessboard. Probably
Danzig, late seventeenth-early
eighteenth century. 14.5x14.5x1.6".
Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold
Buffum, 02.205
The playing squares are made of
alternating thin pieces of transparent
and opaque amber mounted to a wooden
frame; the perimeter has twelve trans-
parent amber "windows" and a mosaic
of opaque ambers. The underside is
lined with red velvet, and a small
round, carved foot of amber marks
each corner. The transparent squares
have a scene inscribed in fine detail on
the reverse side, each with a phrase in
French. The scenes and phrases show
against a gold foil backing onto which
each transparent piece is mounted.
The board is accompanied by thirty-
two chess pieces of relatively simple
design, all with some turning and each
made from several pieces of amber.
144 - Amber in Art
T h e u s e o f a m b e r a s a n artistic m e d i u m i s a n a t u r a l o n e b e c a u s e i t can b e
c a r v e d relatively easily, a n d it c o m e s in a v a r i e t y of w a r m colors. H o w e v e r ,
i t s p l i n t e r s a n d b r e a k s m o r e easily t h a n ivory, o n e s u b s t a n c e u s e d often w i t h
a m b e r , w h i c h is w h y t h e detail in a m b e r c a r v i n g s is n o t as i n t r i c a t e as t h a t in
ivories. T h e s m o o t h feel o f h i g h l y p o l i s h e d a m b e r a n d its w a r m t h m a k e i t
especially p r i z e d for objects t h a t are h a n d l e d o r w o r n a g a i n s t t h e skin, s u c h a s
c h e s s pieces, r o s a r y b e a d s , a n d n e c k l a c e s . T h e pianist Frederic C h o p i n c a r r i e d
a m b e r pieces w i t h h i m , t o relax his f i n g e r s over t h e m before a p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d
t h e c o n d u c t o r L e o n a r d B e r n s t e i n ( w h o s e last n a m e m e a n s " a m b e r " i n G e r m a n )
had a conducting baton with an a m b e r handle. So cherished was a m b e r a m o n g
t h e C h i n e s e a n d a n c i e n t Italic-speaking p e o p l e s t h a t t h e i r c a r v i n g s w o u l d
follow t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s o f t h e piece. T h e y c o n s i d e r e d i t w a s t e f u l t o t r i m
off excess a m b e r simply for t h e sake of m a k i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l c a r v i n g . In s o m e
cases, this t e c h n i q u e w o u l d distort a b u s t or figure, while in o t h e r s t h e t o p o g r a p h y
of t h e p i e c e dictated t h e actual subject, often yielding a v e r y p l e a s i n g asymmetry.
T h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e fitting of a c a r v e d subject to t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s of a
p i e c e w a s c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r a c t i c e s i n s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d eighteenth-
c e n t u r y a m b e r w o r k s h o p s o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , w h e r e s y m m e t r y w a s the
e s s e n c e . L a r g e , e l a b o r a t e a r t w o r k s w e r e crafted b y u s i n g m a n y smaller a m b e r
p i e c e s in m o s a i c s or as small tiles, often a t t a c h e d to a w o o d e n frame. T h e s t e m s
o f s o m e chalices a n d candlesticks w e r e m a d e f r o m t e n o r m o r e pieces o f a m b e r ,
all intricately t u r n e d a n d h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a c e n t r a l , i n t e r n a l rod. T h e m o s t
o r n a t e a n d c o n t r i v e d artistic a p p l i c a t i o n o f a m b e r can b e seen i n the small a l t a r s
a n d c h e s t s m a d e i n a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l motif. I n m a n y cases, a m o s a i c o f a m b e r
p i e c e s w o u l d b e a t t a c h e d a s a t h i n v e n e e r t o t h e w o o d e n frame. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
o x i d a t i o n is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h w a f e r - t h i n pieces, and such s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y objects are g e n e r a l l y i n w o r s e condition t h a n m u c h o l d e r
p i e c e s m a d e o f solid a m b e r . W i t h m a n y o f t h e ancient a m b e r s , t o o , t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n , i n d a m p , c o o l t o m b s , w a s ideal.
 MESOLITHIC PERIOD TO THE BRONZE AGE

F o r a t least t e n m i l l e n n i a , E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s h a v e a d o r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h
Baltic a m b e r . T h e o l d e s t artifacts are b e a d s a n d a m u l e t s f o u n d close t o
w h e r e t h e m o s t extensive a m b e r d e p o s i t s o c c u r even today. O n e c a n i m a g i n e
t h a t i n a n area w h e r e t h e r e are l o n g w i n t e r n i g h t s , t h e s u n w a s a focal p o i n t o f
existence a n d w o r s h i p . A s u b s t a n c e o f s u c h w a r m c o l o r a n d feel, like a m b e r ,
p r o b a b l y h a d special significance t o t h e early Baltic p e o p l e s . A m b e r w a s s u c h
a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m o d i t y w i t h w h i c h t o t r a d e for c o p p e r a n d i r o n t h a t i t h a d a
f u n d a m e n t a l influence o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s .
T h e oldest a m b e r artifacts, h o w e v e r , are f r o m E n g l a n d , n o t t h e Baltic. R o u g h
b e a d s f r o m G o u g h ' s Cave i n C h e d d a r a n d Cresswell C r a g s , S t a r r Carr, d a t e d
from 11,000 t o 9000 B.C. (Paleolithic), w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y crafted f r o m p i e c e s o f
Baltic a m b e r t h a t w a s h e d o n t o t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f Britain. ( T h i s w a s a t i m e
d e e p into t h e last Ice A g e , w h e n t h e British Isles w e r e still largely c o n n e c t e d t o
t h e E u r o p e a n m a i n l a n d . ) Similar artifacts m u s t h a v e b e e n m a d e b y p e o p l e living Pendants from the Mesolithic period
of western Jutland, Denmark. Oval
n e a r t h e Baltic Sea a t t h e s a m e t i m e . M e s o l i t h i c (c. 4000 B.C.) a m u l e t s a n d b e a d s
pendant decorated with lines of drilled
are k n o w n f r o m s o u t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a b u t are c o n s i d e r a b l y r a r e r f r o m t h e holes, Maglemose Culture, c. 7000 B.C.
e a s t e r n Baltic r e g i o n . Large-scale p r o d u c t i o n o f a m b e r artifacts w a s n o t e v i d e n t Height 2.1". Stylized bear, probably
Ertebolle Culture, c. 4500 B.C. Length
u n t i l t h e Early N e o l i t h i c (3400-3100 B.C.) N a r v a C u l t u r e . A find n e a r S a r n a t e in
2.6". Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen,
t h e e a s t e r n Baltic u n c o v e r e d a m b e r pieces w i t h flint a n d b o n e t o o l s , w h i c h w e r e A52125 (oval), A520&9 (bear)
p r o b a b l y u s e d t o w o r k t h e a m b e r . By t h e M i d d l e N e o l i t h i c ( 3 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 B.C.),

a m b e r w o r k i n g a n d t r a d e h a d b u r g e o n e d , especially i n t h e e a s t e r n Baltic. I n
Sventoji, L i t h u a n i a , 850 a m b e r o r n a m e n t s f r o m this p e r i o d w e r e f o u n d , s o m e
o f t h e m V-shaped b u t t o n s o f b o n e , jet, a n d a m b e r . A t W o l d e n b e r g , n e a r Berlin,
t h e e l e g a n t a m b e r c a r v i n g o f a highly stylized h o r s e f r o m this p e r i o d w a s f o u n d .
T h e Lake L u b a n a s r e g i o n , Latvia, r e p r e s e n t s t h e richest s o u r c e o f M i d d l e
N e o l i t h i c a m b e r w o r k i n g s . E n o u g h pieces w e r e crafted for w i d e s p r e a d t r a d i n g
t h r o u g h o u t Europe. Beads are k n o w n from the Middle Neolithic of Charavines,
i n t h e alpine r e g i o n o f F r a n c e . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t distinctive t y p e o f artifact i n
a m b e r is the double-headed ax bead, m o s t c o m m o n from s o u t h e r n Scandinavia
and Mecklenberg.
T h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d o f all N e o l i t h i c a m b e r finds w a s m a d e i n t h e 1850s n e a r
Juodkrante (then Schwarzort), Samland Peninsula. D r e d g e d from the Kurisches
Haff w e r e 434 artifacts, i n c l u d i n g b e a d s , b u t t o n s , small h u m a n "idols," a n i m a l s ,
and ax-shaped b e a d s w i t h h o l e s for s u s p e n d i n g a s p e n d a n t s . T h e y w e r e d e p o s i t e d
in the collection of A l b e r t u s Universitat, K o n i g s b e r g , b u t , like t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s

Amber in Art • 145

 Horse, from Woldenberg (present-day
Dobiegniew, Poland), c. 2000 B.C.
Length approximately 4 ". Human
figures, from Juodkrante (old Schwarzort),
Lithuania, c.2000 B.C. Heights 2.6",
5.6". Collection Palanga Museum,
Lithuania

Among the earliest artifacts in amber,

from the Mesolithic of northern Europe,
these pieces were probably sewn onto a
garment through the holes.

h u g e c o l l e c t i o n o f fossiliferous a m b e r , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e
d i s p e r s e d t o o t h e r areas o f G e r m a n y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. Similar artifacts have
b e e n f o u n d i n P a l a n g a , L i t h u a n i a , i n situ i n p e a t b o g s o r g r a v e sites. T h o s e pieces
are n o w i n t h e P a l a n g a M u s e u m , w h i c h i s largely d e d i c a t e d t o a m b e r .
D u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d a n d t h e m u c h l a t e r Iron A g e , t h e British Isles are
r a t h e r p e r i p h e r a l t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a m b e r i n its a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t .
T h i s is n o t t r u e , h o w e v e r , for t h e B r o n z e A g e ( 3 0 0 0 - 7 0 0 B.C.), of w h i c h m o r e is
k n o w n i n G r e a t Britain t h a n i n c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . D o c u m e n t a t i o n exists from

Reconstruction of an Upper Paleolithic

homesite in the Ukraine. American
Museum of Natural History (Hall of
Human Biology and Evolution)

Similar peoples crafted the earliest

known artifacts from Baltic amber, or
even from amber collected more locally,
from the Dnieper Basin. The warm
color and feel of amber must have
given it a very special significance.

146 'Amber in Art

a b o u t A . D . 1500 o f a m b e r p i e c e s s t r a n d e d o n t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f E n g l a n d a n d
S c o t l a n d . J u d g i n g f r o m its succinic-acid c o n t e n t , t h e m a t e r i a l o r i g i n a t e s f r o m
t h e Baltic Sea. O n e e s t i m a t e i s t h a t n i n e t o t w e l v e p o u n d s o f a m b e r are s t r a n d e d
e a c h year i n t h e British Isles; t h e r e are e v e n r e p o r t s o f pieces w e i g h i n g t w o
p o u n d s . T h u s , t h e r a w m a t e r i a l for B r o n z e A g e a m b e r artifacts w a s available
locally; C o n t i n e n t a l t r a d e w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y b u t p r o b a b l y o c c u r r e d . T h e early
B r o n z e A g e (Bell B e a k e r p h a s e , o r W e s s e x C u l t u r e ) saw s o m e r e m a r k a b l e
d e v e l o p m e n t s , w i t h a m b e r s p r e s e r v e d i n s i t u a t i o n s o f special social significance.
C o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e t o b e t h e g r e a t e s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s o f a m b e r are t w o
early B r o n z e A g e a m b e r c u p s , o n e f r o m C l a n d o n Barrow, t h e o t h e r f r o m H o v e .
T h e latter, d a t e d at 1285-1193 B . C . , w a s f o u n d in 1821 in t h e g r a v e of a t u m u l u s
m o u n d f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y feet h i g h a n d forty feet l o n g a t H o v e , n e a r B r i g h t o n ,
E n g l a n d . T h e c u p w a s b u r i e d w i t h t h e partially c r e m a t e d r e m a i n s o f a m a n laid
in a h e w n l o g coffin. W i t h t h e c u p w a s a "celt" (battle-ax), w h e t s t o n e p e n d a n t ,
a n d a b r o n z e dagger. T h e c u p h a s a c r a z e d surface b u t o t h e r w i s e is in excellent
c o n d i t i o n . M a d e f r o m a p i e c e o f clear r e d a m b e r , i t w a s c a r v e d a n d p o l i s h e d
w i t h u n e x p e c t e d l y fine a r t i s a n s h i p a n d s y m m e t r y . It is small ( t h r e e a n d a half
inches i n d i a m e t e r ) , w i t h a h a n d l e a n d e i g h t f i n e , c a r v e d rings e n c i r c l i n g t h e t o p .
T h e Hove t u m u l u s cup may have b e e n used in ceremonies, perhaps by the ruler
with w h o m it was buried.
T h e Wessex C u l t u r e w a s a h i e r a r c h i c a l , m a l e - d o m i n a t e d society i n w h i c h
a m b e r w a s particularly c h e r i s h e d . W o m e n w e r e b u r i e d w i t h n e c k l a c e s o f a m b e r

Hove tumulus cup. Diameter 3 J".

Booth Museum, Brighton, England

Amber in Art • 147

Field sketch and written notes of the
Bronze Age Hove tumulus mound,
where the famous amber cup, perhaps
the finest archaeological artifact of
amber, was unearthed

b e a d s , a n d i m p o r t a n t m e n w i t h special artifacts o f a m b e r . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s have

u n c o v e r e d a m b e r artifacts e v e n a m o n g t h e r u i n s o f S t o n e h e n g e .
W e s s e x C u l t u r e a m b e r b e a d s m a y b e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n revealing a link
b e t w e e n t h e British Isles a n d M y c e n a e d u r i n g t h e B r o n z e A g e . I n particular,
s p a c e r plates, u s e d to k e e p several s t r a n d s s e p a r a t e d in necklaces, w i t h a distinctive
p a t t e r n o f b o r i n g s h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n b o t h M y c e n a e a n a n d W e s s e x burials. Did
t h e M y c e n a e a n s actually i m p o r t a m b e r b e a d s f r o m t h e W e s s e x Culture?
A similar e x c h a n g e t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e ' s I r o n Age. This
w a s especially t h e case d u r i n g t h e H a l l s t a t t p e r i o d , 7 0 0 - 4 0 0 B . C . , w h e n the
H a l l s t a t t C u l t u r e t r a d e d m o s t extensively w i t h t h e E t r u s c a n s . S o m e E t r u s c a n
a m b e r artifacts f o u n d t h e i r w a y b a c k n o r t h , i n fact, i n burials o f ruling m e n f r o m
w h a t i s n o w t h e b o r d e r o f Yugoslavia a n d Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . H u n d r e d s
o f a m b e r b e a d s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n m a n y b u r i a l s o f t h e t i m e , particularly t h o s e o f
w o m e n . I t w a s d u r i n g this p e r i o d t h a t t h e f a m o u s a n c i e n t a m b e r r o u t e s w e r e
e s t a b l i s h e d , c r e a t i n g a m a j o r n o r t h - s o u t h axis in a m b e r trade t h a t linked t h e
Baltic w i t h t h e n o r t h e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e r o u t e s b e g a n a t t h e J u t l a n d c o a s t
o r t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a , m o v e d d o w n t h e Elbe River n e a r H a m b u r g , d o w n t h e
D a n u b e , t h r o u g h t h e B r e n n e r Pass o v e r t h e Alps, t o Aquileia a n d c e n t e r s a t
t h e m o u t h o f t h e P o Valley. F r o m h e r e , a m b e r m a d e its w a y t o v a r i o u s c e n t e r s
i n c e n t r a l a n d s o u t h e r n Italy a n d a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

148 • Amber in Art

 AMBER AMONG THE ANCIENTS

H i m the thunderer hurled

F r o m the e m p y r e a n h e a d l o n g to the gulf
O f t h e half-parched E r i d a n u s , w h e r e w e e p
E v e n n o w t h e sister t r e e s t h e i r a m b e r t e a r s
O'er Phaethon, untimely dead.
—John Milton

5 u c h is Milton's brief version of o n e G r e e k legend on the origin of amber.

P h a e t h o n , s o n o f t h e s u n g o d H e l i o s a n d o f C l y m e n e , asked t o drive a c h a r i o t
across t h e sky. H e l i o s w a r n e d h i m n o t t o w h i p t h e fiery h o r s e s , b u t P h a e t h o n
did this anyway. T h e h o r s e s b o l t e d a n d c a m e t o o close t o E a r t h , r e s u l t i n g i n a
drought. Earth complained to Zeus, w h o struck Phaethon dead with a thunderbolt,
a n d his b o d y fell i n t o t h e E r i d a n u s . P h a e t h o n ' s sisters, t h e H e l i a d e s , a n d his
mother, Clymene, w e p t over the b o d y so m u c h that they b e c a m e r o o t e d w h e r e
they stood, their clothes t u r n e d to b a r k and their bodies t r a n s f o r m e d into poplar
t r e e s . T h e tears t h a t d r o p p e d i n t o t h e E r i d a n u s h a r d e n e d i n t o d r o p s o f a m b e r .
G a i u s Plinius S e c u n d u s , o r Pliny t h e Elder, t h e R o m a n s c h o l a r t o w h o m w e
owe m o s t of o u r knowledge about ancient views of the natural world, scorned
t h e "frivolities" o f a m b e r , b o t h its u s e i n R o m a n a d o r n m e n t a n d t h e a b s u r d
G r e e k l e g e n d s a b o u t its origin: H e d i s c o u n t e d S o p h o c l e s ' tale t h a t a m b e r w a s
p r o d u c e d i n c o u n t r i e s b e y o n d India, f r o m t h e t e a r s t h a t are s h e d for M e l e a g e r b y
t h e birds called m e l e a g r i d e s , a n d t h e l e g e n d o f P l u t a r c h , t h a t a m b e r w a s f o r m e d
f r o m t h e u r i n e o f t h e lynx, " l y n c u r i u m . " Ironically, Pliny h i m s e l f p r o p a g a t e d
several m y t h s a b o u t a m b e r , o n e b e i n g t h a t i t c a m e f r o m India a n d Syria, w h e r e
n o a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t i e s exist. H e m i g h t h a v e b e e n referring t o large d e p o s i t s
m i n e d i n B u r m a ( M y a n m a r ) since t h e first c e n t u r y A . D . , b u t his r e f e r e n c e t o
pieces w i t h lizards is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y of East African c o p a l . In c h a p t e r s 11 a n d
12 of B o o k 37 of his Natural History, he also s t a t e d t h a t " u n d o u b t e d l y [ a m b e r ] is
a p r o d u c t of t h e islands of t h e n o r t h e r n o c e a n , a s u b s t a n c e called glaesum by t h e
G e r m a n s . " (Glaesum derived from glaes, or "glass"; o n e island in this n o r t h e r n
o c e a n , t h e Baltic, t h e R o m a n s e v e n called Glaesaria.) Pliny c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t t h e
actual river r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e m y t h i c a l E r i d a n u s i n t h e l e g e n d o f P h a e t o n w a s
the P o i n n o r t h e r n Italy (called P a d u s i n Pliny's t i m e ) . B u t n o n a t u r a l a m b e r
deposits have ever b e e n f o u n d i n this r e g i o n , a n d c o n f u s i o n m a y s t e m f r o m t h e
g e o g r a p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f Spina, a t t h e h e a d o f t h e P o , w h i c h w a s a vital f i f t h -

AmberinArt • 149
 Winged female head. Etruscan, 5th
century B.C. Height 3.1". Private
collection

Carved from an amber piece that was

originally a deep, transparent red, the
surface of this, the largest and finest
ancient head sculpted from amber, is
now crazed and opaque but consol-
idated. The head exhibits hallmark
features of Etruscan portraits from
this period: large eyes with the upper
and lower lids well defined, but no
brow; straight nose and small mouth
and chin. The hair is rendered in
waves of parallel grooves across the
forehead, and the ears are small and
featureless. The wings, with eight
feathers in each, have a thin base along
the neck behind the ears. Between the
wings and above the hair is uncarved
(but polished) amber showing natural
contours and pitting. The piece is pre-
cisely depicted and probably represents
a divinity such as Demeter or Kore.

Opposite: Winged deity with a youth. Etruscan, c. fifth century B.C. Height 4.5". Private collection

This work was carved from a homogenously opaque, reddish-brown piece of amber; a consolidant
appears to have been used, making the surface slightly more shiny than it would be naturally.
The hair of the deity is pulled back with a band and falls in fine braids down the back. The right
wing is folded down under the right arm, with the right hand resting on the left thigh of the
youth and the left hand wrapped behind his neck. The youth is distinguished from the deity by
his relatively larger eyes, finer features, and smaller size. His right arm is raised, and the left arm
rests on his lap. The youth appears to be sitting on the lap of the deity. The group may represent
Eos (in Etruscan, Thesan), the Greek goddess of the dawn, carrying off one of her young lovers,
perhaps Tithonos (Etruscan, Tinthun).
The influence of the natural contours of the amber is evident, particularly in the margins
around the youth's raised hand and the right side of the piece, for which no actual structure is
rendered. The bulging chest of the deity and the depression in the breast of the youth reflect
deformities in the amber. The large hole between the figures was bored, perhaps for suspending as
a pendant, but the one in front of the deity's chest appears natural.

Amber in Art • 151

t o - s e c o n d - c e n t u r y B.C. E t r u s c a n t r a d i n g c e n t e r for a m b e r c o m i n g f r o m t h e
Opposite: Banqueting group. Etruscan
north. Others speculate that the mythical Eridanus was a n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n or Etrusco-Italic, c. 500 B.C. The
river, s u c h a s t h e Elbe, n e a r t h e Baltic coast, b u t t h e a n c i e n t s h a d v e r y little direct Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York. 17.190.2067
k n o w l e d g e o f this area u n t i l t h e first c e n t u r y A . D .
W h a t Pliny did n o t m e n t i o n w a s t h a t e v e n Aristotle r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e Perhaps the finest of all surviving
i n c l u s i o n s i n a m b e r i n d i c a t e d a liquid o r i g i n , t h a t a m b e r w a s "petrified p o p l a r ancient carved ambers in terms of
style, size, and preservation, the group
g u m . " M o r e d e t a i l e d a n c i e n t k n o w l e d g e a b o u t Baltic a m b e r c o m e s f r o m t h e
was sculpted to be viewed fiilly in
De Germania ( A . D . 98), w r i t t e n by t h e R o m a n h i s t o r i a n C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s . T a c i t u s the round. Fragments of a bronze pin
w a s t h e f i r s t t o w r i t e t h a t b e y o n d t h e l a n d o f t h e G o t h s lay t h e Aestii p e o p l e , w h o are within, indicating that the tiny
sculpture decorated a large brooch,
g a t h e r e d a m b e r (metallum sudaticum, o r " e x u d e d m e t a l " ) t h a t h a d b e e n w a s h e d
probably for a deceased person. The
u p b y t h e sea. T h e y sell it, h e said, b e c a u s e " R o m a n l u x u r y gives i t r e p u t e . " male figure is reclining in the tradi-
T a c i t u s w a s also t h e f i r s t t o c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e a m b e r forests w e r e r e m o t e f r o m tional pose of the banqueter, with a
prone woman (most likely his wife)
w h e r e t h e a m b e r w a s f o u n d , a l t h o u g h h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a m b e r a n d its t r e e s
before him holding a small vase of oil
were contemporaneous. in her right hand. At the foot of the
Of great interest is that D i o d o r u s , o n e of the m a n y Greeks w h o had settled couch is a small figure, probably a child.
Resting on the woman's shoulder is
i n Sicily, m a d e n o m e n t i o n o f Sicilian a m b e r : i t p r o b a b l y w a s n o t b e i n g a long-necked bird with its head
h a r v e s t e d d u r i n g a n c i e n t G r e e k , Italic, a n d R o m a n t i m e s . T h e Baltic c o a s t w a s reverted, a symbol of regeneration.
virtually t h e sole s o u r c e for t h e a m b e r u s e d for artifacts t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d In order to make maximum use of the
material and the natural swells and
even Asia M i n o r , e v i d e n c e d b y R o m a n artifacts a l o n g t h e a m b e r t r a d e r o u t e s a s shallows in it, the artisan has
well a s b y e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e distinctively h i g h succinic-acid c o n t e n t o f t h e distorted positions and proportions.
a n c i e n t a m b e r pieces.

Pendant in the form of a siren. Italic,

fifth century B.C. Length 4 ". Private
collection, New York

Mythical sirens, famous in antiquity

for their ability to lure sailors to their
death by the sweetness of their music,
were frequently carved in amber,
especially among the Italic peoples.
This female head in profile features a
long neck and hair that falls to the
shoulders; she wears large disk earrings.
Most of the flat surface is occupied by
the siren's right wing, of which the
primary and secondary feathers are
distinct. Folded underneath is a leg in
the form of a bird, with three curled
talons. There is no carving on the
back. A hole at the top suggests this is
how the piece was suspended and
worn, but no corresponding hole is on
the other side (it may have been
plugged). If worn in life, this pendant
would have served as an evil-averting
amulet; in death, it would be a
guardian accompanying the deceased
into the afterlife, doubtless in song.

Amber in Art • 153

 Pendant in the form of a sphinx.
Italic, 600-550B.C. Length2.8".
Private collection, New York

The head of the crouching sphinx is

folded back, showing a profile, and the
legs are folded beneath the body; a tail
is curled up over the back, the mane is
smooth, and the left wing is visible.
The piece originally was worn as a
pendant, with the body vertical and
the head horizontal. Sphinxes like this
one, the largest and finest Italic amber
sphinx surviving from antiquity,
would have served as an amulet to
ward off evil in this and the afterlife.

Pendant of amber and gold. Etruscan,

7th century B.C. Maximum width
2.25". Private collection

A small resting dog carved from amber

is incorporated into a pendant made
from a thin, gold setting that swivels
on an oval loop, with a small tube at
the top for suspending it. This pendant
is unique; all other similarly shaped
pendants are of silver and without
figured decoration. Without back-
lighting, the amber appears opaque
because of the surface oxidation
(above); its natural translucency is
revealed by strong backlighting (below).
Both bezel and loop are embellished
with granulation.

154 • Amber in Art

Pendant in the form of a monkey.
Etruscan, seventh century B.C. Height
1". Collection Mr. and Mrs. Robert
Haber, New York

As early as the Egyptian Old Kingdom,

monkey amulets were sexual charms
in this life and the next. For the
Etruscans, monkeys were a symbol
of love and sexual Julfillment in the
afterlife. This monkey was carved in
a typical pose, with elbows resting on
the knees and the long snout resting
in the hands. Shallow parallel grooves
were inscribed into the snout. It was
strung through holes representing the
ears. Monkey pendants of this type
have been found in Vetulonia, Narce,
and Veii.

Finger ring. Roman, second century

A.D. Largest diameter 1.4". Private
collection

The ring was carved from a single

piece of clear red amber; its surface is
extensively crazed. A small oval plaque
of carnelian inscribed with the profile
of an eagle (a popular intaglio device
from this period) is situated on the
widest part of the ring. Amber rings
were popular between the reigns of
Nero and Septimius Severus.

Amber in Art • U'5

 By t h e Middle B r o n z e Age, t h e "gold of t h e N o r t h " r e a c h e d t h e Mediterranean,
w h e r e it was an i m p o r t a n t burial item. It was w o r k e d into beads and into m o r e
e l a b o r a t e n e c k l a c e s ; o n e Shaft G r a v e t o m b a t M y c e n a e c o n t a i n e d h u n d r e d s o f
s u c h b e a d s . O t h e r f i n d s f r o m e l s e w h e r e i n G r e e c e , C r e t e , t h e I o n i a n islands,
Palestine, and Egypt indicate widespread trade of the material from the n o r t h
( a r e c e n t s t u d y e v e n s u g g e s t s t h a t a n u m b e r o f objects f r o m t h e t o m b o f T u t a n -
k h a m e n are o f a m b e r ) . B y t h e e n d o f t h e B r o n z e A g e , h o w e v e r , little a m b e r w a s
r e a c h i n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . I t w a s n o t u n t i l n e a r l y f i v e h u n d r e d y e a r s later t h a t
a m b e r w a s t o b e c o m e p o p u l a r o r o n c e a g a i n available i n large q u a n t i t i e s .
D u r i n g t h e I r o n A g e i n G r e e c e a n d Italy, a m b e r w a s u s e d extensively i n
j e w e l r y a n d d e c o r a t i v e objects. T h r o u g h o u t t h e Italian p e n i n s u l a , h u g e a m o u n t s
o f t h e m a t e r i a l w e r e c a r v e d i n t o small f i g u r e s a n d b e a d s a n d u s e d t o d e c o r a t e
p i n s . S o m e p i e c e s w e r e o f e n o r m o u s s i z e — o n e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y B.C. f i b u l a
decoration is d o c u m e n t e d as weighing m o r e than two pounds. A m o n g the
E t r u s c a n s a n d t h e early Latins, a m b e r w a s c a r v e d i n t o j e w e l r y e l e m e n t s a n d
i n t o a m u l e t i c i m a g e s , i n c l u d i n g m o n k e y s , h o r s e s , n u d e females, a n d h e r a l d i c
compositions of h u m a n s and animals.
M a n y o f t h e early Italic a m b e r s are E t r u s c a n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e a m b e r
p r e s e r v e d s o well i n dark, d a m p t o m b s , w h e r e i t a c c o m p a n i e d t h e d e a d a m o n g
t h e extensive E t r u s c a n n e c r o p o l i s e s . T h e civilization o f E t r u r i a f l o u r i s h e d
b e t w e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 900 a n d 200 B . C . , i n t h e area o f Italy c e n t e r e d a r o u n d
Tuscany. E t r u r i a w a s m o r e a l e a g u e of city-states t h a n a n a t i o n , b o u n d by
c o m m o n rituals a n d a distinctive, still largely u n d e c i p h e r e d l a n g u a g e . Etruscans
w e r e a p e o p l e o f c o n t r a s t s : p a s t o r a l b u t w i t h s o m e taste for b r u t a l sports and
h u m a n sacrifice; extensive t r a d e r s w h o also h a d a g r e a t l y d e v e l o p e d agriculture
and system of animal h u s b a n d r y T h e Etruscans exported iron and imported
slaves a n d furs f r o m t h e Celts; p o t t e r y f r o m C o r i n t h ; o s t r i c h eggs, gold, and
i v o r y f r o m C a r t h a g e ; a n d a m b e r f r o m t h e Baits. T h e t r a d i n g ship Giglio, w h i c h
s a n k off t h e w e s t c o a s t o f Italy a b o u t 600 B . C . , w a s c a r r y i n g metals, pottery,
flutes, a n d a m b e r . E t r u s c a n w o m e n h e l d u n u s u a l l y h i g h social status for t h e
p e r i o d , a n d t h e y w e r e t h e chief u s e r s o f a m b e r objects.
After a b o u t 600 B . C . , v e r y little a m b e r is d o c u m e n t e d in G r e e c e or Italy.
For t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e classical period i n G r e e c e , t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d i s n e a r l y b l a n k for b o t h t h e G r e e k s and t h e E t r u s c a n s . I n
c o n t r a s t , o u t s i d e of t h e E t r u s c a n a r e a s of Italy, particularly in t h e s o u t h of t h e
Italian p e n i n s u l a , objects e x c a v a t e d f r o m t o m b s s h o w t h a t a m b e r w a s a n
i m p o r t a n t g r a v e f u r n i s h i n g . T h e t h o u s a n d s o f beads, f i g u r e d p e n d a n t s , a n d p i n
d e c o r a t i o n s t h a t h a v e c o m e t o light i n m o d e r n t i m e s w e r e p r o d u c e d b y m a n y
o f t h e p e o p l e s i n Italy: s o m e b y t h e E t r u s c a n s , o t h e r s b y i n d i g e n o u s Italics
i n f l u e n c e d b y E t r u s c a n a n d G r e e k art, a n d still o t h e r s w e r e m a d e i n C a m p a n i a
a n d i n t h e G r e e k c o l o n i e s o f s o u t h e r n Italy. T h e m a j o r i t y a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n
w o r k e d b y t h e Italic p e o p l e s . Favorite subjects for t h e often massive p e n d a n t s a r e
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n c a n o n o f m a g i c a l subjects, i n c l u d i n g
female h e a d s , m y t h o l o g i c a l c r e a t u r e s s u c h a s satyrs, sirens, a n d s p h i n x e s , a n d
real c r e a t u r e s o f African g e n r e : s c a r a b s , m o n k e y s , lions, a n d g a z e l l e s .
T h e low-relief c a r v i n g t e c h n i q u e i s s t a n d a r d for t h e facial features o f t h e
h e a d s : large, a l m o n d - s h a p e d eyes, s m a l l n o s e a n d m o u t h , a n d h a i r r e n d e r e d b y
shallow, parallel g r o o v e s . E t r u s c a n s w e r e also a c c o m p l i s h e d g o l d s m i t h s ; t h e y
d e v e l o p e d a distinctive g r a n u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n t h e i r jewelry. T h e j e w e l r y
s h o w s a n influence o f t h e w e s t e r n G r e e k s b u t w i t h a m o r e o r n a t e style. I n
s o m e cases, small c a r v i n g s o f a m b e r w e r e set i n t o silver o r g o l d p e n d a n t s .
T w o n e c k l a c e s a n d p a i r s o f e a r r i n g s m a d e i n replica o f E t r u s c a n g o l d w o r k are Overleaf, left: Mask of Dionysus.
i n t h e A r n o l d Buffum c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e M u s e u m o f F i n e Arts, B o s t o n . E a c h Roman, first century A.D. Height 4.5".
Private collection
p e n d a n t a n d e a r r i n g is a c a b o c h o n of Sicilian a m b e r set in gold, a l t h o u g h t h e
pieces t h e m s e l v e s are n o t k n o w n t o b e m o d e l e d after a n o r i g i n a l object. The piece is similar to one figured in
D u r i n g the height of the R o m a n Empire, long-distance trading flourished. D. E. Strong's Catalogue of the
Carved Amber in the Department
P r i z e d s u b s t a n c e s i n c l u d e d ivory f r o m E t h i o p i a , f r a n k i n c e n s e f r o m s o u t h e r n of Greek and Roman Antiquities
Arabia, p e p p e r f r o m India, silk f r o m C h i n a , a n d flaxen-haired slaves a n d a m b e r (British Museum); both have the
backside with a large round plug that
f r o m t h e Baltic r e g i o n . A b o u t A . D . 5 4 t o 60, N e r o d i s p a t c h e d a R o m a n officer t o
was probably fitted into the mouth of
f i n d t h e s o u r c e o f a m b e r ; h e r e a c h e d t h e Baltic coast a n d r e t u r n e d w i t h h u n d r e d s a vase. This piece, however, is much
o f p o u n d s o f t h e s u b s t a n c e , s o m e p i e c e s w e i g h i n g several p o u n d s . R o m a n c o i n s larger, more elaborate, and its
additional bunches of grapes indicate
from A . D . 138 t o 180 s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e G u l f o f D a n z i g testify t o t h e
it is Dionysus.
Roman occupation of the A m b e r Coast. So c h a r m e d were the R o m a n s by a m b e r
t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to Pliny, t h e y s o m e t i m e s p r i z e d a figurine c a r v e d from a p i e c e
o f a m b e r m o r e t h a n a slave. O n e c a n o n l y i m a g i n e t h e cost o f t h e a m b e r
Overleaf, right: Small vase. Roman,
portrait, perhaps a bust, of Augustus at Olympia, which was reported by the second century A.D. Height 3.7".
t r a v e l e r Pausanias. Private collection
By t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y A.D., t h e R o m a n s c o n t r o l l e d a veritable i n d u s t r y
Carved from a single piece of amber
o f a m b e r c a r v i n g , w i t h p r o d u c t s r a n g i n g f r o m s m a l l N e w Year's t o k e n s o f that originally had some translucency
a c o r n s a n d fruits t o e l a b o r a t e vessels for t h e tables o f t h e wealthy. T h e p r i n c i p a l and perhaps was dark amber to red
in color, this vase now exhibits a
c e n t e r o f m a n u f a c t u r e w a s a t Aquileia. S u r v i v i n g objects, m o s t o f t h e m f r o m
slight ocher patina on the surface,
graves o f R o m a n w o m e n , i n c l u d e toilet articles, rings, p e n d a n t s , knife h a n d l e s , due to nearly two thousand years of
m i r r o r h a n d l e s , s m a l l f i g u r e s a n d f i g u r a l g r o u p s , a n d small, h i g h l y c a r v e d oxidation; otherwise, it is in superb
condition. Represented in low relief
c o n t a i n e r s a n d v a s e s . T h e l a t t e r are often d e c o r a t e d w i t h g r a p e v i n e s a n d p u t t i
are acanthus leaves and grapevines
i n D i o n y s i a n t h e m e s . T h e b e s t o f t h e s e s m a l l vessels p r o v i d e a n idea o f t h e and tendrils that wrap along both
famed, large l u x u r y r e c e p t a c l e s o f a m b e r t h a t h a v e all d i s a p p e a r e d . sides, a signature Dionysian motif.
A set of panpipes is carved in center
T h e R o m a n s m a d e m u c h m o r e extensive u s e o f c l o u d y a n d o p a q u e a m b e r
bottom on one side. This piece is also
t h a n did t h e G r e e k s o r early Italic c u l t u r e s , b u t i t w a s c a r v e d a s sparingly a s similar to the one in Strong's British
t h e t r a n s p a r e n t pieces w e r e . Still, t h e m o s t h i g h l y p r i z e d t y p e o f a m b e r w a s Museum catalogue, but that one has
a pair of putti on each side and was
t r a n s p a r e n t a n d o f t h e c o l o r t h a t Pliny d e s c r i b e d a s "like F a l e r n i a n w i n e . "
probably suspended. This one probably
P u r p o r t e d l y , R o m a n w o m e n often c a r r i e d w i t h t h e m small l u m p s o r stylized stood free and contained an oil-based
carvings o f p o l i s h e d a m b e r , s i m p l y for t h e e n j o y m e n t o f its t o u c h . B y t h e t h i r d perfume; it gives an idea of the famed
vesseb of imperial Rome described
c e n t u r y A.D., t h e a m b e r t r a d e t o Italy w a s drastically eclipsed d u e t o t h e d e c l i n e
in ancient sources.
of the R o m a n Empire and warring Goths.

Amber in Art • 157

MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE AMBER

T h e h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e i s reflected i n Baltic a m b e r , a n d p e r h a p s n o historical

Opposite and following pages: Early
views of amber and collecting on the
Samland Peninsula, Baltic Sea
Opposite, above: Woodcut from
Magnus, Historia de genitbus septen-
trionalibus earumque diversis, 1555
Opposite, below: EtchingfromJohanne
Amoc Comenii, Orbis Sensualium
pied, 1730
p e r i o d i n v o l v i n g a m b e r i n E u r o p e i m p a r t s m o r e m y s t i q u e t h a n t h a t asso-
ciated w i t h t h e o r d e r o f t h e T e u t o n i c K n i g h t s , o r Deutschen Ritter. T h e T e u t o n i c
K n i g h t s r e t u r n e d t o E u r o p e f r o m t h e C r u s a d e s i n 1211, a n d , i n 1225, C o n r a d ,
D u k e o f Masovia, m a d e a n a p p e a l t o t h e k n i g h t s for h e l p i n s u b d u i n g t h e Baits
a l o n g t h e Baltic coast. B y 1283, t h e k n i g h t s w e r e a b s o l u t e r u l e r s o f Prussia,
a n d Baltic a m b e r h a d b e c o m e a lucrative c o m m o d i t y for t r a d e w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g
l a n d s . It w a s extensively t r a d e d to t h e s o u t h , a n d , as early as 1302, s h i p m e n t s
of a m b e r w e r e sent to the newly formed guild of amber, P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r s
( M a k e r s o f L o r d ' s P r a y e r b e a d s ) , i n B r u g e s , w h e r e rosaries w e r e crafted. I n
1310, a n o t h e r a m b e r guild w a s established, i n Liibeck. B y 1312, t h e k n i g h t s h a d
a s s u m e d a m o n o p o l y o n t h e t r a d e i n Baltic a m b e r . A n d t r a d e b u r g e o n e d : i n
1420, s e v e n t y guild m a s t e r s a n d t h r e e h u n d r e d a p p r e n t i c e s w e r e listed i n Bruges
a l o n e . Interestingly, a m a j o r s t r o n g h o l d of t h e T e u t o n i c K n i g h t s at this t i m e
w a s i n M a r i e n b u r g . Today, t h e T e u t o n i c castle i n M a r i e n b u r g ( n o w Malbork,
P o l a n d ) is a m u s e u m c o n t a i n i n g a c o l l e c t i o n of m e d i e v a l a m b e r objects.
T h e o r d e r strictly f o r b a d e t h e c o l l e c t i n g o f a m b e r s t r a n d e d o n the beaches,
e x c e p t u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e B e a c h Master. P u n i s h m e n t w a s harsh
a n d s o m e t i m e s i n c l u d e d h a n g i n g . O l d w o o d c u t s a n d e n g r a v i n g s s h o w licensed
c o l l e c t o r s h a r v e s t i n g t h e a m b e r , w i t h g a l l o w s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . (Especially
n o t o r i o u s for instantly h a n g i n g a n y o n e w h o pilfered a m b e r w a s A n s e l m u s o f
L o z e n s t e i n , j u d g e o f S a m l a n d . H i s spirit i s said, b y local legend, t o w a n d e r t h e
s h o r e of S a m l a n d c r y i n g in p e n a n c e : Oh, um Gott, Bernstein frei, Bernstein frei
[ O h , b y G o d , free a m b e r , free a m b e r ] ) .
B y t h e l a t t e r half o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e influence o f t h e T e u t o n i c
Olaus Knights h a d w e a k e n e d , b e g i n n i n g in p a r t w i t h t h e i r defeat in 1410 at T a n n e n b e r g
b y t h e P o l e s a n d t h e L i t h u a n i a n s . B y 1466, t h e m a j o r Prussian cities w e r e allied
w i t h P o l a n d , a n d , i n 1480, t h e k i n g o f P o l a n d g r a n t e d D a n z i g t h e r i g h t t o its
o w n P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r guild, w h i c h w o u l d eventually b e c o m e t h e largest g u i l d
of amber workers.
I n 1525, A l b e r t o f B r a n d e n b u r g , t h e H o h e n z o l l e r n r u l e r a n d g r a n d m a s t e r
o f t h e T e u t o n i c Knights, s e c u l a r i z e d t h e o r d e r u n d e r t h e d u c h y o f Prussia.
H i s successor, J o a c h i m II, c o n v e r t e d t o L u t h e r a n i s m , a n d , i n t h e n e x t century,
a n o t h e r H o h e n z o l l e r n ruler, J o h n S i g i s m u n d , c o n v e r t e d t o C a l v i n i s m , w h i l e h i s
subjects r e m a i n e d L u t h e r a n . A l t h o u g h L u t h e r a n s d o n o t u s e r o s a r i e s , t h e

160 • Amber in Art

 uccini Prusfici
yfi ca <5c Civilis Hi/ton
Fhitippo Iaco baH^rtm

Etching from P. J. Hartmann,

Succini Prussici physica et
civilis historia, 2677

J 62 'Amber in Art
 Etching from P. Abraham, Etwas fur
Alle d. eine kurze Beschreibung, 1711

T e u t o n i c o r d e r s t r u g g l e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o n t r o l over a m b e r b y e s t a b l i s h i n g
t h e i r o w n P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r guild i n K o n i g s b e r g , w h i c h w a s t o evolve l a t e r
i n t o t h e Royal A m b e r W o r k s . T h e guild p r o m o t e d s e c u l a r i t e m s , s u c h a s g a m e
b o a r d s , g o b l e t s , c u p s , t a n k a r d s , a n d caskets, a n d , especially i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d
fifteenth c e n t u r i e s , e x p o r t e d carvings o f r e l i g i o u s figures, c u t l e r y w i t h a m b e r
h a n d l e s , crucifixes, a n d s m a l l b o t t l e s t o F r e n c h a n d Italian royalty. But t h e
w i d e s p r e a d decline i n t h e u s e o f rosaries after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y led
t o t h e collapse o f t h e o r d e r ' s a m b e r guild.
F r o m 1533 t o 1642, t h e k n i g h t s t r a n s f e r r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e a m b e r m o n o p o l y
t o t h e w e a l t h y D a n z i g m e r c h a n t family o f Paul K o e h n v o n Jaski. I t w a s d u r i n g
t h e Jaski family's r u l e t h a t t h e f a m o u s t e c h n i q u e s o f Bernsteinstechen ( p o k i n g )
and Kdscher (catching) w i t h l o n g n e t s c a m e i n t o w i d e s p r e a d use. Several old w o o d -
cuts a n d e n g r a v i n g s , for e x a m p l e , s h o w m e n i n h e a v y l e a t h e r cuirasses fighting
the surf w i t h t h e i r nets. S o m e d r a w i n g s s h o w fires s u s p e n d e d f r o m p o l e s o n s h o r e ,
supposedly used to t h a w the gatherers' leather g a r m e n t s in very cold weather.
A brisk t r a d e t o t h e Far East for M u h a m m a d a n r o s a r i e s k e p t t h e a m b e r b u s i n e s s

Amber in Art • 163


Rosary of amber and silver filigree
beads with pendants and cross of
silver filigree. German, seventeenth
century. Length 25.8". Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum, 02.224
afloat, but barely. By 1642, amber was again Prussian property, and the strict rules
of the Teutonic Knights were again enforced.
Paternoster beads, whose export was still the mainstay of the amber economy,
have a rich history in themselves that deserves special attention. According to
historical record, Paternoster beads, threaded in symbolic sets of numbers, were
part of everyday life by the mid-thirteenth century. The decade of ten beads
is the most commonly used, although sets of five and seven beads are also seen.
Such sets, divided by marker beads (gauds), are used in repetitive prayers of
penance and devotion. One early version of Paternoster beads was worn by
men, who h u n g short sets of ten beads on a straight cord from the waist. Four
fine sets made of amber are in the Musee Cluny, Paris.
The most pious individuals would make Paternosters simply by knotting a
cord that h u n g from the waist; other versions for the humble were made of
wood and bone. Beads of coral, crystal, and amber were particularly sought by
royalty and the aristocracy. Guilds specializing in Paternosters of different
substances—of glass and crystal from Venice, jasper from the upper Rhineland,
coral from Paris and Barcelona, and amber from Liibeck and Bruges—formed
throughout Europe. So prized were amber Paternosters that some Dominican
and Augustinian friars in the thirteenth century spurned and even forbade
their use, as a luxury and an excess.
Paternoster sets evolved into the present-day rosary in the second half of
the fifteenth century. Valued Paternoster beads, including those of amber, were
usually sent first to goldsmiths (such as in Gmund), who fashioned the entire
rosary and produced distinctive spacer beads of silver and gold filigree, and

Fifty-five large, faceted amber beads

similar gauds in the form of medallions and crosses. Several fifteenth-century
and six beads of silver filigree are paintings of the Christ child depict the infant wearing rosaries of red beads,
separated by sixty-three smaller amber probably made of amber. In a 1510 edition of his p o e m "Le Triomphe des
beads that are irregular, some with a
few facets but most with a rounded
Dames," Olivier de la Marche wrote, "Moreover, my honoured lady must have
surface. All of the faceting is irregular. pater-nosters of jet or coral, or for even finer ornament of fine amber."
Only four decades are complete, and
a fifth decade has twelve beads.
Decades are separated by the silver
filigree beads, and the second and
fourth decades are interrupted by
medallions in their centers. The large
medallion suspended from the cross
has central figures worked in gold
showing the Coronation of the Virgin
on one side and the Infant Christ with
a Saint on the other. The medallion
has an octagonal insert comprising
small paintings of the Virgin on one
side and Saint Veronica's Napkin
(with the face of Christ) on the other,
both under crystal covers. The smallest
medallion contains side portraits,
perhaps of the owner of the piece.

164 'Amber in Art

 SEVENTEENTH-NINETEENTH- CENTURY
EUROPEAN AMBER

D u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h centuries, n o r t h e r n E u r o p e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y P r u s s i a ( n o w G e r m a n y a n d t h e e a s t e r n Baltic c o u n t r i e s ) , w a s
f l o o d e d w i t h a m b e r w o r k s h o p s a n d artisans. T h i s i s t h e p e r i o d o f t h e w o r k s h o p s
h e a d e d b y t h e g r e a t a m b e r m a s t e r s , w h o b r o u g h t t o t h e craft a s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
n e v e r a c h i e v e d b e f o r e o r since. D e c o r a t i v e objects, b o t h secular a n d e c u m e n i c a l ,
b e c a m e g r a n d : chests, inlaid c a b i n e t s , altars, inlaid g a m e b o a r d s , g r o u p s o f
s c u l p t e d f i g u r e s , l i d d e d t a n k a r d s , e v e n several chandeliers, and, o f c o u r s e , t h e
f a m o u s Russian a m b e r r o o m . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f small s c u l p t u r e s a n d b o w l s
c a r v e d f r o m single pieces o f a m b e r , m o s t objects w e r e m a d e b y f i t t i n g p i e c e s o f
a m b e r t o g e t h e r i n t o a m o s a i c for an inlaid facade, or by j o i n i n g w i t h a c e n t r a l
r o d (in t h e case o f intricately t u r n e d j o i n t s for candlesticks, b o w l s t e m s , a n d t h e
like). N o n e o f this c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t vast supplies o f a m b e r ,
especially since pieces w e r e individually s e l e c t e d for their color, size, a n d s h a p e .
It is no coincidence that the great w o r k s h o p s developed in towns along or n e a r
t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t o f t h e Baltic Sea w h e r e a m b e r w a s plentiful: Kassel, L i i b e c k ,
D a n z i g , a n d especially K o n i g s b e r g .
T h e g r a n d e r a o f a m b e r w o r k also c o u l d n o t have developed w i t h o u t t h e
s p o n s o r s h i p o f a v e r y elite a r i s t o c r a c y o f t h e t i m e . D u r i n g the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d
eighteenth centuries, absolutism t r i u m p h e d in continental Europe, while E n g l a n d
w a s b e c o m i n g m o r e d e m o c r a t i c . I t w a s t h e e r a o f t h e czars o f Russia, w h i c h
b e g a n w i t h t h e r u l e o f Ivan t h e Terrible (1533-84) a n d flourished u n d e r P e t e r
t h e G r e a t (1682-1725) a n d C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t (1762-96). Prussia h a d b e c o m e
o n e o f t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s u n d e r t h e rule o f Frederick I
(1688-1713), Frederick William I (1713-40), a n d t h e "enlightened despot" Frederick
t h e G r e a t (1740-86). N o n e o f t h e E u r o p e a n r u l e r s , t h o u g h , b r o u g h t m o r e
o p u l e n c e t o n o b i l i t y t h a n did L o u i s XIV o f F r a n c e (1643-1715). His p a l a c e a t
Versailles t o o k t h i r t y t h o u s a n d m e n m o r e t h a n t w e n t y years t o c o m p l e t e .
A r c h i t e c t u r e , art, c l o t h i n g , a n d d e c o r a t i v e objects t h a t inspired w o n d e r a n d a
d i s r e g a r d for t h e n o r m a l w e r e t h e Z e i t g e i s t a m o n g all E u r o p e a n nobility, n o t j u s t
i n F r a n c e . Also, t h e r u l i n g levels o f t h e C a t h o l i c clergy w e r e advisers a n d
spiritual c o n f i d a n t s t o t h e nobility, a n d t h e y a d o p t e d a n equally rarified t a s t e .
T h e s p l e n d o r a n d o p u l e n c e o f t h e age w e r e c a p t u r e d i n a m b e r .
A m b e r was highly reworked in the Prussian workshops, so that various
effects c o u l d b e achieved. O n e o f t h e m o s t successful t e c h n i q u e s w a s t h e u s e o f

166 • Amber in Art

inlays o f i v o r y m e e r s c h a u m , a n d b o n y a m b e r , w h i c h w e r e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n
small tiles a n d panels of a m b e r or inlaid directly i n t o t h e c e n t e r of an a m b e r piece.
T h e c r e a m y opacity o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s beautifully c o n t r a s t s w i t h a m b e r , especially
d e e p - r e d t r a n s p a r e n t a m b e r . I n fact, b o n y a m b e r w a s often u s e d for t h e h a n d s
a n d faces of figures t h a t w e r e c a r v e d f r o m a single p i e c e of r e d a m b e r . For m a n y
chests, small, intricately c a r v e d i v o r y reliefs w e r e applied a m o n g t h e a m b e r
pieces. T h e s c e n e s i n t h e s e reliefs w e r e c o m m o n l y b o r r o w e d f r o m w e l l - k n o w n
scenes d e p i c t e d i n D u t c h e n g r a v i n g s .
In a n o t h e r successful t e c h n i q u e , similar to a g l a s s - d e c o r a t i n g t e c h n i q u e
called verre eglomise, a s m a l l p a n e l of t r a n s p a r e n t a m b e r w a s e n g r a v e d in fine
intaglio o n t h e b a c k side, t h e n i n s e r t e d i n t o a m o s a i c . T h e i n t a g l i o w a s
h i g h l i g h t e d by a b a c k i n g of b o n y a m b e r , ivory, p a i n t , or, m o r e often, foil or
mica. T h e effect t a k e s perfect a d v a n t a g e o f t h e n a t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a m b e r :
a small w i n d o w is p r o d u c e d , d i s p l a y i n g a s c e n e or p h r a s e , c r e a t i n g focal p o i n t s
i n w h a t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e a m o n o t o n o u s m o s a i c o f a m b e r pieces. T h e g r e a t e s t
use o f this t e c h n i q u e w a s i n g a m e b o a r d s , w h i c h c o u l d have a s m a n y a s o n e
h u n d r e d s u c h w i n d o w s . F r e n c h inscriptions m a d e this w a y indicate o r i g i n s f r o m
Danzig workshops.
T h e o t h e r m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n w a s encrustation, i n w h i c h s q u a r e d w a f e r s o f
amber were glued to a w o o d e n frame. This technique began in the mid-
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n D a n z i g , a n d i t s o o n s p r e a d for use i n c o n s t r u c t i n g
e l a b o r a t e chests, c a b i n e t s , a n d altars, s o m e o f i m p o s i n g size. P r i o r t o this, t h e
size o f chests w a s c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e size o f t h e a m b e r tiles t h a t w e r e dovetailed
t o f o r m t h e actual wall o f t h e c h e s t . W i t h a n y o f t h e chests, reliquaries, o r
altars, t h e facades w e r e always c o m p o s e d o f a m o s a i c o f a m b e r pieces v a r y i n g
g r e a t l y i n color, from c l o u d y t o fatty a m b e r , a n d t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w t o r e d .
B y t h e early e i g h t e e n t h century, e l a b o r a t e t u r n i n g o f a m b e r p i e c e s w a s also
d e v e l o p e d to c r e a t e a delicate a n d i n t r i c a t e s t r u c t u r e . By b o r i n g a h o l e t h r o u g h
t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s m a l l e r t u r n e d pieces a n d i n s e r t i n g a m e t a l r o d , a n a r t i s a n
could j o i n all t h e e l e m e n t s t o p r o d u c e a s t r o n g shaft b u t w i t h delicate p r o p o r -
tions a n d t r a n s l u c e n c y .
The most productive centers of amber w o r k were Danzig, where the a m b e r
guild w a s f o u n d e d in 1477 (it still exists), a n d t h e P r u s s i a n cities of Kassel a n d
K o n i g s b e r g , t h e l a t t e r o f w h i c h established a n a m b e r guild i n 1641 ( a n d w h i c h
lasted until 1811). E s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d e i g h t e e n t h -
century E u r o p e a n a m b e r pieces is greatly complicated by a rarity of signed and
d a t e d w o r k s , b u t , d e s p i t e t h e p r o x i m i t y o f D a n z i g t o K o n i g s b e r g (only 7 5 m i l e s ) ,
t h e p r o d u c t s w e r e q u i t e different. C a t h o l i c D a n z i g largely p r o d u c e d s m a l l h o u s e
altars, s h r i n e s , a n d reliquaries, saints a n d o t h e r r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e s , a n d p i e c e s
for t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e Mass, s u c h a s c r u e t s a n d chalices. P r o t e s t a n t P r u s s i a
p r o d u c e d m a i n l y s e c u l a r i t e m s : c a b i n e t s , small c h e s t s , f i g u r e s o f m y t h i c a l G r e e k
and R o m a n h e r o e s , g a m e b o a r d s , l i d d e d t a n k a r d s (Deckelhumpen), s t e m m e d
bowls, a n d snuffboxes. O n e can i m a g i n e t h e t a b l e o f a n a r i s t o c r a t i c P r u s s i a n

Amber in Art • 167

Arched wood panel with inserts
of transparent amber medallions
and buttons, comprising a total
of 521 amber pieces of various
colors and transparency. Italian,
nineteenth century (panel),
some pieces earlier. 26.5 xl7".
Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William
Arnold Buffum, 02.222

This devotional panel was

probably used in a household or
small church. The central figures
at the bottom, representing
Joseph (left) and Mary (right)
adoring the Christ Child held in
the arms of an angel, are carved
from an unusual opaque and
mottled brown amber, possibly a
composite, which is now friable
and broken. "Windows"of copal
panels (extensively crazed) lie
behind these figures and those in
the smaller arches to the sides.
In the medallion just above the
three figures is a man being
visited by an angel. Above that
one, in a niche, is presumably the
Christ Child, throwing off a cloak.
Above the figure in the niche is
an octagonal medallion with a
relief of two shepherds. Two
arched niches on each side have
(left) a female figure resembling
Liberty and (right) a woman with
a staff leading a child by the hand.
Above these figures in the pair of
niches is a small medallion with
a side portrait. Two octagonal
medallions below the side niches
have scenes inscribed on the back
of the amber, of towns near
bays. Beneath these octagonal
medallions are oval ones with
figures of men carved in relief
the left one, of a "musketeer," the
right one of a soldier. This work
is very similar to a square panel,
also in Boston; both are uncom-
mon pieces.

168 • Amber in Art

The Virgin. German, eighteenth
century. Height 3.9". Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Bujfum, 02.239

In this beautifully carved figure, the

Virgin, inflowing robes, with hands
folded over her breasts, looks upward
as if to receive a divine message. As
are all of the figures reproduced from
the Bujfum Collection, she was carved
from a single piece of clear Baltic
amber fastened to an ivory base with
a thin ivory peg fitted into the bottom
of the figure.

Amber in Art • 169

Figure of a woman. German,
eighteenth century. Height of figure
3.5". Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold
Buffum, 02.241

The woman carries a box in her

left hand.

170 • Amber in Art

Figure of a saint. German, eighteenth
century. Height of figure with base
3.3". Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold
Buffum, 02.243

The bearded man, holding a staff in

his right hand and the infant Christ
cradled in his left arm, perhaps
represents Saint Christopher. He is
wearing boots. The base was made
from a separate piece of reddish amber.

Amber in Art • 171

Altar. Danzig, c. 1775-1800. Height
47". Victoria and Albert Museum,
London

This imposing altar on four ivory feet

has scrollwork along its sides in a
distinctive Danzig style. The front
of the altar depicts in great detail
scenes from the New Testament, some
adopted from Dutch engravers. At the
base are twelve figures of the apostles.
The resurrected Christ is at the top.
In the back of the altar is a clock
calendar, made of delicate ivory
carvings, with some strips of amber
added. The back scenes depict the
zodiac, Adam and Eve, and additional
New Testament scenes. The only piece
comparable to this is one by Konigs-
berg amber master Georg Schreiber,
in the Museo degli Argenti, Florence.
Another, in Malbork Castle, is less
elaborate.

Opposite: Crucifix. Poland, late

seventeenth century. Height 32 ".
Russian State Museum, Saint
Petersburg

One of the few crucifixes made of

amber that is largely intact, this
piece is close in style to the work of
Prussian master Friedrich Schmidt.
Like most crucifixes of the period,
it is very intricate and fragile, with
delicately carved scenes depicting
Christian feasts. The bottom tier has
sliding panels that open to reveal
the Holy Sepulcher within. The
piece belongs to the collection of the
Russian State Museum but is housed
in Tsarskoye Selo, near Saint
Petersburg.

172-Amber in Art
Nine chess pieces. German, seventeenth century

174 'Amber in Art

Details from chessboard on page 142

Above: Amber playing square:

L'un et 1'autre la crou ("The one
and the other cross")

Below: Amber playing square:

A la guerre et a la paix ("To war
and peace")

Amber in Art • 175

Pair of cruets (alpha and omega) for
the Mass. German, eighteenth
century. Heights 5.1" each. Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum. 02.226
(alpha), 02.227 (omega)

Each cruet is made up of six pieces

of deep-red transparent amber: the
handle; the Greek letter; the neck with
spout; the central, ribbed section; the
piece just below, with parallel
engraved lines and the carved ball;
and the base with radiating carved
lines. Some crazing has occurred, and
the shape of the handle of the omega
cruet, which was badly damaged and
restored, has become distorted. The
omega letter itself was fashioned from
a new (opaque brown) piece of amber,
perhaps after acquisition of the
Buffum Collection in 1901. Despite the
damage, these delicate pieces are in
remarkably good condition and are
among the finest objects of their kind
made from amber.

Chest. Danzig, from the workshop of

Gottfried Turau, dated 1705. Length
16.2". Ekaterininsky Palace Museum,
Saint Petersburg, 60- VI

A beautifully symmetrical and intact

lidded chest made of a wooden frame
with amber mosaic carved in relief.
Acanthus leaves and transparent oval
medallions (with engraved designs)
decorate the front. The carved group
on top represents Venus and Cupid.
The inside is lined with velvet. During
restoration in 1983, the artist's
signature was found on the wooden
base: GOTTFRIED TURAU, INVENTOR ET
FECIT ANNO 1705 12JULIUS.

176 ' Amber in Art

Crouching male lion. German,
eighteenth century. Height 1.3".
Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold
Buffum, 02.204

Between his paws, the lion holds a

globe carved from a piece of transparent
yellow amber. The small figure probably
once rested on top of a lidded container;
a very similar one exists in Berlin.

Below: Snuffbox. German, eighteenth

century. Diameter 1.97". Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum, 02.202

Both bowl and lid were probably

fashioned from a single piece of deep-
red, transparent amber. Carved in high
relief on the lid is a winged cupid
sitting on rocks with a pastoral scene
in the background. Along the bottom
edge is a fleur-de-lis relief. Inside is
a smooth bowl of brass.
Above: Case for needles or toothpicks.
German, first half of eighteenth
century. Height 3J". Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum, 02.201

The base was carved from a single

piece of amber, the top two-thirds
opaque; the cap was made from a
separate piece of bastard amber;
the collars are of copper and brass.

Middle: Wedding knife and fork.

German, eighteenth century. Length
7.3" each. Courtesy, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston. Bequest of William
Arnold Buffum, 02.210 and 02.212,
respectively

The handles are made of clear red

amber, with a steel shaft through each,
the knife being a carved head of a man,
the fork a head of a woman.

Below: Small box with four counters.

German, nineteenth century. Diameter
1.4". Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold
Buffum, 02.209

The lid, bowl, and counters are made

of transparent, slightly cloudy yellow
amber. Carved out of the centers of
the wafer-thin counters are a heart,
diamond, spade, and club. Each
counter has a wreath of flowers and
buds carved on one side. The cover
displays a pattern of rays, at its center
a button of slightly clearer amber
containing a caddisfly inclusion; the
bottom of the base incorporates a
similar pattern of rays.

178 ' A m b e r in Art

obsessed with amber, serving a dinner to impress guests: The plates might have
had inlays of amber; the handles of the knives and forks might have been carved
from amber; passed around the table, perhaps, was a small bowl, made from
amber, containing sweets; one might have drunk from an elaborate tankard
crafted from amber, similar in color to the beer it contained; and light from the
table could have come from candles m o u n t e d in candlesticks of amber. After
dinner, toothpicks might come from an amber needle case, snuff from an amber
snuffbox, and a round of chess played with pieces carved from amber and a
board of intricately inlaid amber.
Perhaps the most famous amber master from the Danzig workshops was
Christoph Maucher (1642-after 1701), whose work embodies the Danzig style
but who chose not to become a m e m b e r of the Danzig amber guild. He received
many prestigious commissions from the Brandenburg court, and this, in turn,
inspired jealousy a m o n g his amber colleagues. He is particularly well known for
his subjects and style of carving amber. Several of his figures, whether completely
carved or in deep relief, depict, for instance, the Judgment of Paris. Although
they are part of classical scenes, the figures have appealing, earthy proportions
and gestures. Such works were generally carved from a single piece of opaque
amber, which originally must have been at least eight inches in diameter, and
they were used for the tops of cabinets encrusted with amber. Maucher had an
associate, Nicholas Turow, who was commissioned in 1677 by the Elector of
Brandenburg to craft a magnificent throne of inlaid amber for presentation to
Emperor Leopold I of Austria. Only fragments of it remain in Vienna.
Hallmarks of Danzig amber work are the small altars and tabernacles, built
in tiers with arabesque scrollwork on the sides, similar to tomb monuments in
the city. Michel Redlin, another Danzig amber master, was especially renowned
for his elaborate chests and altars. He is also one of the very few masters whose
drawn plans for several pieces still exist.
The history of amber work in Konigsberg and nearby Prussian towns is very
distinguished. A m o n g the earliest masters was Stenzel Schmidt, w h o worked
in the late sixteenth century, and of w h o m little is known. Perhaps the most
celebrated of any amber artisan was Georg Schreiber (active c. 1615-43 in Konigs-
berg), or, as he is known from the few works he signed, "Georgius Scriba." His
pieces represent the finest standards in amber work, from the architectural designs
of chests and altars to the inlays, intaglios, and reliefs carved into the amber
and ivory plaques of various decorative objects. A magnificent lidded tankard in
Darmstadt, Germany, is one of his rare signed pieces; a signed game board
(dated 1616) with a complete set of amber chess pieces sold in 1990 at Sotheby's
of London for £330,000. Among his masterpieces, and unusual for his genre, is
a signed altar with an imposing crucifix, dated 1619, in the Museo degli Argenti,
Florence. The elaborate composition and intricate delicacy of craftsmanship
are probably the finest of any amber decorative piece. Like most of the superb
items in the Museo degli Argenti, this masterpiece is in fine condition.
Pair of earrings. Sicilian, nineteenth
century. Length 2.9" each. Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum, 02.217,
02.218
Now crazed, the transparent yellow
amber used in these amber drops
mounted in mercury-amalgam gilded
silver may be from Sicily or the Baltic
region.
180 • Amber in Art
Opposite, left: Candlestick. German, Opposite, right: Perfume bottle. German,
seventeenth century. Height 10.8". nineteenth century. Height 5.7". Courtesy,
Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of
Bequest of William Arnold Buffum, 02.228 William Arnold Buffum, 02.229
The top portion, a dish with a central A highly polished object made from five
spike, is brass. The stem is made of six turned pieces of transparent amber, its base
turned pieces of reddish transparent and neck pieces are deep red, and the body,
amber, each with a hole bored through its cap, and top button are yellow amber. The
length into which a brass shaft has been interior is also highly polished.
inserted; the pieces are tightened by
screwing a small bolt at the end of the
shaft, beneath the base. The square base is
not a veneer of amber but is made entirely
of twenty-six panels of transparent amber
supported by a thin brass frame at the very
bottom. The base has four corner pillars;
between each is a panel with a small
arched window. The windows originally
displayed a gold-leaf design behind them,
which suggests that they were made of
transparent amber. They were replaced
with the opaque window pieces that
presently are in place.

Pendant. English, nineteenth century.
Height 1.8". The Natural History
Museum, London
Amber jewelry with insect inclusions
was rare in Victorian England, where
Baltic amber jewelry was in vogue.
This beautiful, clear piece of Baltic
amber surrounded by diamonds
contains a cricket and a spider.
182 • Amber in Art
A n o t h e r K o n i g s b e r g m a s t e r w a s J a c o b H e i s e (active 1654-63), w h o i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y well k n o w n for his b o w l s , c u p s , a n d lidded t a n k a r d s , o n e o f w h i c h i s
a t T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t , N e w York. H e also p e r f e c t e d t h e crafting
o f s t e m m e d b o w l s . T h e b o w l s a n d t a n k a r d s are m a d e i n a similar t e c h n i q u e .
T h e y are c o m p o s e d o f six t o t e n p a n e l s o f clear a m b e r t h a t are fused a l o n g t h e i r
e d g e s t o f o r m t h e b a r r e l o f t h e b o w l o r t a n k a r d (for t h e t a n k a r d s , t h e p a n e l s are
virtually flat; t h e y are v e r y c u r v e d for t h e b o w l s ) . T h e s t e m s o f t h e b o w l s are
m a d e o f several pieces o f t u r n e d a n d c a r v e d a m b e r s e c u r e d w i t h a r o d r u n n i n g
t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r . T h e t o p a n d b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k a r d s are m a d e o f clear
a m b e r a s well, s o m e t i m e s f r o m a single p i e c e . For b o t h t h e t a n k a r d s a n d t h e
b o w l s , laced g o l d t r i m a d o r n s t h e e d g e s , a n d t h e surfaces o f t h e p a n e l s are
c a r v e d i n i n t r i c a t e s h a l l o w relief. S o m e i t e m s have ivory o r b o n y a m b e r inlays.
J a c o b D o b b e r m a n (active 1716-45), a n a m b e r m a s t e r f r o m Kassel a n d c o u r t
a r t i s a n for Karl I of H e s s e , is r e n o w n e d for his c h a n d e l i e r of m a n y t u r n e d pieces
o f a m b e r . A n o t h e r , m u c h m o r e i n t r i c a t e c h a n d e l i e r , w i t h n u m e r o u s faceted
p e n d a n t s o f a m b e r , b y L o r e n z Spengler, i s i n R o s e n b o r g i n C o p e n h a g e n .
S p e n g l e r (1720-1807) w a s m a s t e r t o t h e D a n i s h royal c o u r t . Like m a n y a m b e r
m a s t e r s , h e w o r k e d i n b o t h ivory a n d a m b e r . I n fact, h e c a r v e d t w o identical pairs
o f p u t t i , n o w i n R o s e n b o r g , o n e o f ivory a n d t h e o t h e r o f a m b e r . A s i g n a t u r e
d e s i g n of his w o r k is a c r o w n on a pillow, w h i c h a d o r n e d t h e c h a n d e l i e r a n d
l a r g e r objects s u c h as chests.
M a j o r collections o f E u r o p e a n a m b e r s are a t R o s e n b o r g , C o p e n h a g e n ;
M u s e o degli A r g e n t i , F l o r e n c e ; t h e Victoria a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , L o n d o n ;
M a l b o r k Castle, P o l a n d ; R e s i d e n z m u s e u m , M u n i c h ; K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m ,
V i e n n a ; S k o k l o s t e r , n e a r S t o c k h o l m ; T s a r s k o y e Selo, Russia; a n d t h e M u s e u m
o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n . T h e m o s t impressively large a n d delicate pieces are i n
M u n i c h , V i e n n a , a n d , especially, F l o r e n c e . T h e B o s t o n collection, which i s
i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e , is u n e x p e c t e d l y rich for a N o r t h A m e r i c a n collection. It w a s
b e q u e a t h e d t o t h e M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s b y A r n o l d Buffum i n 1901 and consists
o f s i x t y - t w o pieces a n d sets o f m o s t l y Baltic a m b e r , s o m e p u r p o r t e d l y o f Sicilian
a n d R o m a n i a n a m b e r . Buffum w a s a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t a n d a m b e r c o n n o i s s e u r w h o
i s also k n o w n for his small, p o p u l a r b o o k t h a t r o m a n t i c i z e d the E u r o p e a n l o r e
a n d u s e of a m b e r , The Tears of the Heliades, or Amber as a Gem (1897). In t h e m i d -
t o late n i n e t e e n t h century, h e t r a v e l e d extensively a r o u n d Italy a n d o t h e r p a r t s
of E u r o p e c o l l e c t i n g t h e objects. Pieces f r o m t h e Buffum C o l l e c t i o n h a v e a g r e a t
m i x t u r e o f p r o v e n a n c e a n d d a t e s , m u c h o f w h i c h can only b e inferred, b u t this
a d d s to t h e collection's c h a r m : it is v e r y representative of t h e s p e c t r u m of
E u r o p e a n artistry in amber.
Opposite: Necklace, brooch, and
earrings. Italian, c. 1860-70. Courtesy,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest
of William Arnold Buffum, 02.91
(necklace), 02.92 (brooch), 02.93/94
(earrings)
These cabochons of highly polished
Sicilian amber set in gold pendants
reflect an embellishment of a classical
design. The set purportedly was made
by the Castellanifirm of Rome, or in
a manner very similar to Castellani's,
specifically for Arnold Buffum.
Castellani jewelry in the nineteenth
century reflected a revivalist movement
inspired by Etruscan designs. One
hallmark of this design is the
distinctive granulation in the gold.
Game board with crown on a pillow.
Probably Copenhagen, workshop of
Lorenz Spengler, mid-eighteenth
century. Length 3.2". Ekaterininsky
Palace Museum, Saint Petersburg, 7-VI
With the exception of the yellow cross
and orb on top (which is a modern
addition; the original was lost during
the evacuation of 1941), the crown is
carved from a single piece of opaque
amber, the pillow from a separate
piece. Of a subject and style distinctive
to Spengler, the piece is also significant
as the last acquisition made for the
Tsarskoye Selo amber collection,
acquired in 1912 by Czar Nicholas II.
Amber in Art • 185
THE AMBER ROOM

T he pinnacle of a m b e r creations is the famed eighteenth-century amber

r o o m f r o m Russia. I n s p i r a t i o n for i t p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e chests
(caskets) a n d h o u s e altars o f inlaid a m b e r , s o m e t i m e s o f e l a b o r a t e a r c h i t e c t u r a l
design, that w e r e in v o g u e in Konigsberg and Danzig in the seventeenth and
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o o m r e s i d e d i n Russia for m o r e t h a n t w o
h u n d r e d years, it w a s actually a P r u s s i a n c r e a t i o n . T h e s t o r y of its o r i g i n ,
r e m o d e l i n g , a n d e v e n t u a l loss i s a n i n t r i g u i n g o n e .
In 1701, King F r e d e r i c k I of P r u s s i a c o m m i s s i o n e d for t h e m a i n palace in
Berlin a b a n q u e t r o o m w i t h p a n e l s o f a m b e r . T h e original c o m m i s s i o n w e n t t o
t h e D a n i s h a m b e r " c u t t e r " G o t t f r i e d Wolffram, b u t i n 1707, t h e D a n z i g a m b e r
c u t t e r s E r n s t Schact a n d G o t t f r i e d T u r a u w e r e h i r e d t o r e p l a c e Wolffram,
w h o w a s p r o v i n g t o o e x p e n s i v e . P a n e l s ( w i t h a b a s e o f o a k ) w e r e said t o have
b e e n m a d e o f 100,000 p i e c e s o f a m b e r laid i n t o m o s a i c s o f floral design, royal
h e r a l d s , a n d profiles. E a c h p a n e l also h a d t h e P r u s s i a n c o a t o f a r m s ( a c r o w n e d
e a g l e i n profile). S o o n after its c o m p l e t i o n i n 1712, t h e r o o m w a s s e e n and
a d m i r e d by Czar Peter I (Peter the Great).
In 1716, F r e d e r i c k W i l l i a m I of P r u s s i a (son of F r e d e r i c k I) signed the Russo-
P r u s s i a n Alliance w i t h P e t e r I, a g a i n s t Karl XII of S w e d e n . As t h e Russian p o e t
A l e k s a n d r P u s h k i n w r o t e : " T h e h a u g h t y S w e d e h e r e w e ' l l c u r b a n d hold a t bay.
A n d h e r e , t o gall h i m , f o u n d a city [Saint P e t e r s b u r g ] . " T o c o m m e m o r a t e t h e
alliance, t h e a m b e r r o o m w a s p r e s e n t e d t o Russia i n 1717. (It w a s r u m o r e d
t h a t F r e d e r i c k W i l l i a m I h a d a distaste for s u c h o p u l e n c e , anyway, a n d he k n e w
that Peter I had admired the room.)
T h e first h o m e for t h e a m b e r r o o m i n Russia w a s i n t h e Old W i n t e r P a l a c e
in Saint P e t e r s b u r g , w h e r e t h e p a n e l s lined a study. T h e s e panels w e r e m o v e d in
1755 to t h e E k a t e r i n i n s k y Palace in T s a r s k o y e Selo (Czar's Village). E l i z a b e t h ,
d a u g h t e r of P e t e r I, h a d t h e a r c h i t e c t V a r f o l o m e i Rastrelli design a r o o m
especially for t h e a m b e r p a n e l s . O r i g i n a l l y t h e r o o m c o n t a i n e d t w e l v e w a l l
p a n e l s a n d t e n " p e d e s t a l fields." F o u r o f t h e pedestal f i e l d s w e r e i n s c r i b e d w i t h
F r e d e r i c k I's initials, four w i t h t h e P r u s s i a n eagle, a n d t w o w i t h e m b l e m s
r e p r e s e n t i n g a r m e d p e a c e . T h e n e w r o o m w a s m u c h larger t h a n t h e o n e i n
w h i c h t h e p a n e l s h a d first b e e n installed. For e x a m p l e , it h a d a thirty-foot ceiling,
i n s t e a d o f t h e o r i g i n a l ceiling o f sixteen feet. T h i s m u s t h a v e b e e n w h e n p a n e l s
e m b l a z o n e d w i t h t h e R o m a n o v crest w e r e a d d e d . Rastrelli f r a m e d e a c h p a n e l i n
an elaborately gilded cartouche and inserted twenty-four mirrors b e t w e e n

186 •Amber in Art

The amber room, photographed in the 1930s,
before the room was disassembled by the
Nazis. Where the panels are today is still
unknown, although the amber decorative
objects were saved by the Russians.

Amber in Art • 187

Above and opposite: Details of
replicated panels from the amber
room. Ekaterininsky Palace,
Saint Petersburg

1S8 • Amber in Art

t h e m . A ceiling m u r a l b y F r a n c e s c o S a l v a t o r e F o n t e b a s s o a n d a w o o d p a r q u e t
f l o o r w e r e also a d d e d .
Until a t least 1763, f i v e K o n i g s b e r g a m b e r m a s t e r s c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k o n t h e
a m b e r r o o m . T h e g r o u p w a s h e a d e d b y Friedrich R o g g e n b u c h a n d i n c l u d e d
J o h a n n R o g g e n b u c h , C l e m e n s a n d H e i n r i c h W i l h e l m Frick, a n d j o h a n n W e l p e n -
dorf. Like m a n y a r i s t o c r a t s of t h e day, P e t e r I o w n e d a Kunstkammer, or c a b i n e t
o f curiosities a n d w o n d e r s , w h i c h f e a t u r e d a m b e r artifacts. T h o s e artifacts
g r a c e d t h e a m b e r r o o m a l o n g w i t h o n e s c r e a t e d b y t h e s e artisans. B y 1765, t h e
n u m b e r o f objets d ' a r t m a d e o f a m b e r h a d g r o w n t o seventy, i n c l u d i n g small
c h e s t s , candlesticks, snuffboxes, s a u c e r s , knives a n d forks, crucifixes, a n d taber-
nacles. ( O n e o f t h e s e o r i g i n a l p i e c e s — a s p l e n d i d late s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
crucifix b y Polish a m b e r m a s t e r Friedrich S c h m i d t , d e p i c t i n g feasts i n intricate
relief—is in t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of t h e H e r m i t a g e . ) In 1780, a s m a l l c o r n e r table,
m a d e o f e n c r u s t e d a m b e r w i t h a large c a b o c h o n o f clear a m b e r j u s t above t h e
leg, w a s a d d e d . T h e last a m b e r accession w a s i n 1913, j u s t p r i o r t o t h e revolution.
I t w a s a n a m b e r c r o w n o n a pillow, s y m b o l o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a s t e r
L o r e n z Spengler. T h e p i e c e , w h i c h h a d f o r m e r l y a d o r n e d t h e lid o f a chest, w a s
p u r c h a s e d b y C z a r N i c h o l a s II.
T h e a m b e r p a n e l s r e q u i r e d r e s t o r a t i o n over t h e years, p r e s u m a b l y t o
r e p l a c e pieces t h a t h a d fallen f r o m t h e m o s a i c s o r h a d b e c o m e heavily oxidized.
R e s t o r a t i o n s w e r e d o n e i n 1810, 1830, a n d 1911. After t h e r e v o l u t i o n , t o u r s o f
t h e r o o m w e r e g i v e n t o p e o p l e w h o w e r e r e q u i r e d t o w e a r felt slippers. O n e o f
t h e last p e r s o n s t o have s e e n t h e i n t a c t a m b e r r o o m d e s c r i b e d i t a s " s t e p p i n g
i n t o a fairy t a l e . "
W h e n t h e N a z i s i n v a d e d L e n i n g r a d ( f o r m e r l y Saint P e t e r s b u r g ) i n 1941, the
Russians had already removed the small objects from the a m b e r r o o m to Novo-
sibirsk for s a f e k e e p i n g a n d q u i c k l y p a p e r e d o v e r t h e a m b e r panels in a d e s p e r a t e
a t t e m p t t o h i d e t h e m . A c c o r d i n g t o Alfred R o h d e ' s 1942 article o n the r o o m ,
t w o N a z i officers o n t h e Russian line, C o u n t z u S o l m s - L a u b a c h a n d C a p t a i n
P o e n s g e n , w e r e art h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e i r civilian lives. T h e y realized t h e value o f
t h e r o o m a n d k n e w t h a t , i n o r d e r t o save t h e m f r o m b o m b i n g , t h e p a n e l s w o u l d
h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d . I t t o o k six m e n thirty-six h o u r s t o d i s m a n t l e t h e r o o m .
T h e p a n e l s w e r e c r a t e d t o K a l i n i n g r a d (old K o n i g s b e r g ) b y train a n d installed i n
t h e m a i n castle a l o n g w i t h v a s t c o l l e c t i o n s o f o t h e r art. R o h d e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e
r o o m w a s " r e t u r n e d t o its t r u e h o m e [ G e r m a n y ] , t h e real place o f o r i g i n a t i o n
a n d sole p l a c e o f o r i g i n a t i o n o f t h e a m b e r [Prussia]. T h e a m b e r r o o m o f
F r e d e r i c k I is n e x t to t h e hall of L o u i s C o r i n t h . " It did n o t stay t h e r e l o n g .
P r e s u m a b l y , i n 1945, a s K a l i n i n g r a d w a s b e i n g b o m b e d b y t h e W e s t e r n Allies,
t h e p a n e l s w e r e a g a i n t a k e n d o w n a n d h i d d e n . A n S.S. c o m m a n d e r , E r i c h K o c h ,
w a s a p p a r e n t l y t h e only p e r s o n w h o k n e w o f their e x i s t e n c e , since h e h a d b e e n
i n c h a r g e o f t h e p a n e l s , b u t h e d i e d i n 1986 w i t h o u t r e v e a l i n g t h e i r l o c a t i o n .
I n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t r i g u e s u r r o u n d s t h e possible e x i s t e n c e a n d location(s) o f t h e
p a n e l s . M a n y believe t h e y w e r e d e s t r o y e d e i t h e r b y f i r e o r b o m b i n g . O n e
i m a g i n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d o n S e p t e m b e r 24, 1994, i n t h e E r f u r t - b a s e d
n e w s p a p e r Thiiringer Allgemeine, q u o t e d f o r m e r G e r m a n officer G e r t Sailer a n d a
Russian art h i s t o r i a n w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e p a n e l s w e r e s m a s h e d i n t h e b a s e -
m e n t o f t h e K o n i g s b e r g p a l a c e b y d r u n k e n Russian soldiers c e l e b r a t i n g t h e i r
reinvasion o f t h e city. W h y t h e soldiers w o u l d n o t h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e B a r o q u e
m a s t e r p i e c e i s u n e x p l a i n e d . V a r i o u s h y p o t h e s e s also exist a s t o w h e r e t h e p a n e l s
m a y still b e residing: i n b u n k e r s b e n e a t h L u b b e n a w o r W e i m a r , G e r m a n y ; i n a
lost s u b t e r r a n e a n ice r o o m o f t h e b r e w e r y t h a t K o c h f r e q u e n t e d ; o r i n m i n e
shafts in O h r d r u f .
Russian a r t i s a n s b e g a n r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a m b e r p a n e l s i n 1979, t h e p l a n
b e i n g t h a t r e p r o d u c t i o n s w o u l d b e exact d o w n t o e a c h p i e c e o f a m b e r . T h e
replicas b e i n g m a d e are b a s e d o n l a r g e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n
b e f o r e t h e N a z i invasion, w h i c h s h o w details o f inlaid m o s a i c . T h e c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n t h e bony, b a s t a r d , a n d clear a m b e r p i e c e s m a k e s o u t l i n e s o f e a c h p i e c e
discernible. Seventy pieces o f a m b e r f r o m t h e p a n e l s t h a t h a d b e e n left b e h i n d
in the G e r m a n s ' haste provided information to restorers as to h o w the original
a m b e r w a s p r e p a r e d b y "clarification" i n h o t oil a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n d y e d .
E a c h a m b e r p i e c e i s carefully c u t t o s h a p e a n d t h i c k n e s s , p o l i s h e d , a n d fit i n t o
t h e m o s a i c b y m a s t e r a m b e r crafters. W o o d c a r v e r s a n d g i l d e r s are w o r k i n g o n
t h e e l a b o r a t e c o r n i c e w o r k . D e s p i t e Boris Yeltsin's a n n o u n c e m e n t i n N o v e m b e r
1991 t h a t t h e a m b e r r o o m i s h i d d e n i n G e r m a n y ( n o e v i d e n c e w a s g i v e n ) , t h e
r e s t o r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s . T h e w o r k i s i m p e d e d b y t h e cost o f s o m u c h a m b e r ,
w h i c h still c o m e s f r o m t h e f a m o u s P a l m n i c k e n m i n e s .

Amber in Art • 191

 Right: Table chest of drawers. Danzig,
first half of eighteenth century. Length
21.7". Ekaterininsky Palace, Saint
Petersburg, 61-VI

Composed of a wooden frame with

an inlaid mosaic of amber, the chest
features seven drawers in two rows,
the large central one with two heraldic
lions and engraved scenes of Danzig.
On the lid is a composition made in
the pietre dure technique, showing a
bird perched on a branch. Received in
Tsarskoye Selo in 1765, it is the only
piece of furniture from the room to
have survived to the present time.

Below: Shaving basin with soap dish

and brush. Tsarskoye Selo amber
workshop, 1767. Length of basin 11.4";
height of dish 3.9"; length of brush
handle 4.3 ". Ekaterininsky Palace,
Saint Petersburg, 15-VI (basin), 127-VI
(dish), 43-VI (brush)

The deep oval basin was made from a

supporting frame of pounded sheet
metal to which panels of amber were
fixed. A relief is inscribed in the
bottom oval panel. The pineapple-
shaped soap dish features a scaled
relief and a detachable lid. The handle
of the shaving brush was turned from
a single piece of amber. These objects
were part of the so-called Knight's Set,
which originally included a case for
ointments, a snuffbox, two studs, a
flask, ajar, a toothbrush, and a clothes
brush, all made from amber.

Opposite: Dishes with figures in relief.

Kassel, workshop of Johann Christoph
Labhard, first half of eighteenth
century. Lengths 3.9-5.1". Ekaterin-
insky Palace, Saint Petersburg, 8-VI,
9-VI, 12-V1

A popular genre of the time, these

dishes often depict kissing couples or
female nudes with Satyrs. One, of
opaque yellow amber, is an allegorical
figure of Mercy with two putti.

192 'Amber in Art

ASIAN AMBERS
Opposite, above: Skull carved from
subfossilized wood impregnated with
resin. Possibly from Tibet, eighteenth
century. Height 1.7". American Museum
of Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.2700
The skull is mostly black; the lighter
areas are tan and resemble extremely
dense wood, with growth rings showing.
194 ' Amber in Art
esides E u r o p e , o n l y C h i n a a n d , to a lesser e x t e n t , J a p a n possess a rich h i s t o r y
JLJ o f t h e artistic u s e o f a m b e r . W h i l e E u r o p e a n folklore o n t h e o r i g i n s a n d
p r o p e r t i e s o f Baltic a m b e r w a s g r o w i n g , a n i n d e p e n d e n t lore a b o u t a m b e r
d e v e l o p e d i n C h i n a . T h e first m e n t i o n o f a m b e r i n C h i n e s e l i t e r a t u r e i s f r o m
t h e Ch'ien Han shu (Annals of the Former Han Dynasty), by P a n Ku, in A . D . 85.
T h e r e i s a m u c h l a t e r m e n t i o n o f " H s i " a m b e r , i n t h e fifth c e n t u r y A.D., b u t t h a t
actually refers t o j e t . T h e C h i n e s e , like t h e E u r o p e a n s , p u t forth a c c u r a t e a s well
a s e m b e l l i s h e d e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e o r i g i n o f a m b e r . T h e C h i n e s e w e r e a w a r e
o f a m b e r ' s b o t a n i c a l o r i g i n a t least a s early a s t h e fifth c e n t u r y A . D . T ' a o H u n g -
c h i n g d i s m i s s e d t h e m y t h t h a t a m b e r i s f o r m e d f r o m b u r n e d b e e nests: " T h e r e i s
also a m b e r , in t h e m i d s t of w h i c h t h e r e is a single b e e , in s h a p e a n d c o l o r like a
living o n e . T h e s t a t e m e n t of t h e Po wu chih, t h a t t h e b u r n i n g of b e e s ' n e s t effects
its m a k e , is, I fear, n o t t r u e . It m a y h a p p e n t h a t b e e s are m o i s t e n e d by t h e fir
resin, a n d t h u s , as it falls d o w n to t h e g r o u n d , are c o m p l e t e l y e n t r a p p e d . " In the
s e c o n d half of t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y A . D . , Li H s l i n w r o t e : " A m b e r is a secretion in
t h e w o o d of t h e sea-fir. At first it is like t h e j u i c e of t h e p e a c h tree; later it coag-
u l a t e s a n d a s s u m e s f o r m . " A n d i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y A.D., H a n P a o -
s h e n g w r o t e in his Shu pen ts'ao, t h e m e d i c a l text of S z e c h w a n Province: " T h e
resin o f t h e l i q u i d a m b a r - t r e e p e n e t r a t e s t h e e a r t h , c h a n g e s d u r i n g a t h o u s a n d
years, and thus b e c o m e s amber."
Oddly, m u c h later, t h e o r i g i n s o f a m b e r surface i n m y t h o l o g y . A s o u t l i n e d i n
t h e Pen ts'ao kang mu of Li S h i h - c h e n , a s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w o r k on n a t u r a l
h i s t o r y : " W h e n a tiger dies, its s o u l p e n e t r a t e s t h e e a r t h , a n d is a s t o n e . T h i s
o b j e c t r e s e m b l e s a m b e r , a n d is called hu p'o [tiger's soul]. T h e o r d i n a r y c h a r a c t e r
is c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e radical yti [jewel or, literally, j a d e ' ] , since it b e l o n g s to t h e
class of j e w e l s . "
M o s t o f w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e early C h i n e s e t r a d e i n a m b e r c o m e s f r o m
B e r t h o l d Laufer, a f a m o u s G e r m a n - b o r n sinologist. Virtually all of t h e C h i n e s e
o b j e t s d ' a r t i n a m b e r c o m e f r o m Beijing, w h i c h i s n o t t o say this i s t h e o r i g i n a l
p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e pieces. T h e o r i g i n o f t h e a m b e r , t h o u g h , i s clear; i t c a m e f r o m
B u r m a , a t least p r i o r t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. C h i n a d o e s h a v e s o m e l a r g e
n a t u r a l d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n F u s h u n , b u t t h e s e a p p e a r n o t t o have b e e n e x p l o i t e d
h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s a g o , let a l o n e u s e d i n d e c o r a t i v e objects. T h e b u r m i t e f r o m
n o r t h e r n B u r m a was probably b r o u g h t by Chinese traders to Yunnan Province
as early as t h e first c e n t u r y A . D .
Below: Carving of a lotus root, flower,
and leaf, with two goldfish. China,
eighteenth-nineteenth century. Height
3 ". American Museum of Natural
History (Anthropology). Drummond
Collection, 70.3.2582

Pairs of fish often denote a joyous

union, such as a married couple. A
small goldfish is in the center of this
piece; the tail of the larger one is
intricately carved. The reverse side
has much less relief but does feature
inscribed details of scales and leaf
veins. Transparent in places, the
sculpture is mostly opaque.

Amber in Art • 195

Opposite, left: Two dragons. China,
eighteenth century or earlier. Height
2.7". American Museum of Natural
History (Anthropology). Drummond
Collection, 70.3.2702

The most important creature of

Chinese mythology, the dragon is
considered beneficent and omnipotent,
a symbol of vigilance and imperial
power. Here, two very stylized and
intricately carved dragons, their
bodies intertwined, face each other in
the center of what probably was used
originally as a pendant. The amber,
which had been cracked in the center,
is distinctively dark and opaque.

Opposite, right: Calligraphic character.

China, seventeenth-eighteenth century.
Height 2.3 ". American Museum of
Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.2580

The character is a blessing, a popular

subject for jade carvings. The surface
between its edges is slightly depressed,
due to the high polish of the edges.
The walls of the holes, which were
drilled and cut, were not polished.

Left: Chinese "Madonna." China,

eighteenth century. Height 4.5".
American Museum of Natural
History (Anthropology). Drummond
Collection, 70.3.2707

Carved from a single piece of opaque

amber, mounted on an ebony stand,
the figure (Kwan-yin, goddess of
mercy?) originally must have held a
staff, which is now gone. Her hair is
rendered in very fine parallel lines.
A small purse hangs from the left side
of her waist. She perhaps represents
a goddess to whom a woman who
wished for a child might pray.

Amber in Art • 197

 Various scattered references a t t e s t t o t h e v a l u e o f a m b e r u s e d i n c h e r i s h e d
objects, from C h i n a a n d e l s e w h e r e . O n e o f t h e p r i n c e s o f t h e state o f W u ,
S u n C h ' i i a n (A.D. 181-252) is said to h a v e o w n e d a s c e p t e r of a m b e r , w h i c h he
accidentally b r o k e i n his d e l i g h t over t h e p o r t r a i t o f a b e a u t i f u l w o m a n . T h e
K ' a m b r a w o m e n o f T i b e t r e p o r t e d l y w o r e h e a d o r n a m e n t s w i t h a large oval piece
o f a m b e r i n t h e m , a n d t h e Dalai L a m a o n c e m a d e a gift o f a m b e r t o a C h i n e s e

Opposite: Carp leaping from the water.
China, early eighteenth century. Height
without base 2.7". American Museum
of Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.26.98
Carved from a single piece of deep-red,
transparent amber, sitting in an ivory base,
the fish is recognizable as a carp by the barbel
near the mouth. Carp are associated with
martial arts and with perseverance because
of their ability to struggle against the current
of a river; this one leaps from waves. Carving
appears on both sides and includes inscribed
scales and waves. The tail is more complete
on one side. The hole near the mouth
indicates that the piece was also worn as
a pendant.
Below: Jui-Ruyi. China, eighteenth century.
Length 14". American Museum of Natural
History (Anthropology). Drummond
Collection, 70.3.2511
A wish-granting scepter, this decorative
piece was used to promote good wishes at
special occasions like birthdays and
weddings. It apparently was made from a
single piece of opaque, mottled reddish-
brown amber, although the stem was broken
and repaired in four places. Along the stem
are intertwined branches. Bracket fungi
(Lingzhi), which signify longevity or
immortality, are carved at the base and near
the neck, with flowers and buds between.
The neck is branched into two limbs, just
beneath the crowning "bouquet" of bracket
fungus, on which sit a smaller bracket
fungus, a magnolia flower, bud, and leaves.
Partly protruding from between the two
branches is a bat, with the head and one
wing showing. Many ruyi come from the
Qing dynasty.

Amber in Art -199

Opposite: Pendant. China, eighteenth
century. Height 2.5". American
Museum of Natural History (Anthro-
pology). Drummond Collection,
70.3.2597

The pendant is largely of transparent

red amber with some inclusions
of debris. Surrounding the central
rectangle, on both sides, are a pair of
facing stylized dragons. Inscriptions
abo appear on both sides, one in
Manchu script (Qing dynasty), the
other in Chinese. Suspended from silk
cords with a bead and cluster of seed
pearls, it was worn by court ladies as
a symbol of abstinence.

Dragon pendant. China, nineteenth

century. Height of amber 2.1".
American Museum of Natural History
(Anthropology). Drummond Collection,
70.3.2628

Made from transparent amber, this

coiled dragon features forked ears and
tail. A bead of tourmaline and two
clusters of seed pearls are attached to
the silk cord.

Amber in Art' 201


Bottle. China, nineteenth century.
Height 3.3 ". American Museum of
Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.1907A
Both sides of this bottle are carved in
shallow relief showing a pair of birds,
one flying over the other. On one broad
side are lotus flowers; on the other are
stems with buds. The narrow sides
have very similar portraits of a bald
man with curled eyebrows and bared
upper teeth, from which hangs a
handle. The washer and spoon are
of ivory.
202 • Amber in Art
e m p e r o r . A c c o r d i n g to t h e Old History of the Tang Dynasty, t h e k i n g of N e p a l
a d o r n e d h i m s e l f w i t h pearls, m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l , coral, a n d a m b e r . All o f t h e s e
r e f e r e n c e s are a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t o b u r m i t e . O n e r e f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r , p r o b a b l y
c o n c e r n s a gift of J a p a n e s e Kuji a m b e r , t h e size of a "peck," given by J a p a n e s e
e m p e r o r T o y o s h i - k a r u no-oji t o C h i n e s e e m p e r o r K a o T s u n g o f t h e T a n g
d y n a s t y ( a r o u n d A . D . 650).
T h e early t r a d e r o u t e s o f b u r m i t e i n d i c a t e t h a t C h i n e s e t r a d e r s t r a n s p o r t e d
t h e m a t e r i a l t o Y u n n a n P r o v i n c e f r o m n o r t h e r n B u r m a via M o g u n g a n d Myitkyia.
A b o u t 1633, P o r t u g u e s e Jesuit priest A l v a r e z S e m e d o w r o t e o f his travels i n
s o u t h e r n C h i n a : " Y u n n a n is a g r e a t c o u n t r i e , b u t h a t h little m e r c h a n d i s e . . .
w h e r e o f t h e y m a k e t h e b e a d s for c h a p p l e t s , w h i c h i n P o r t u g a l l t h e y call
A l a m b r a s ; a n d i n Castile, A m b a r e s ; a n d are like a m b e r , t h e y are c o u n t e d g o o d
a g a i n s t c a t a r r e ; it is d i g g e d o u t of m i n e s , a n d s o m e t i m e s in g r e a t pieces: it is
r e d d e r t h a n o u r a m b e r [i.e., Baltic], b u t n o t so clean. . . . T h e y are excellent in
w o r k s o f ivory, ebony, a n d a m b e r . " T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s o b v i o u s l y o f b u r m i t e , a t
t h a t t i m e still m o r e easily o b t a i n e d t h a n Baltic a m b e r . B y t h e n i n e t e e n t h century,
E u r o p e a n t r a d e w i t h C h i n a m a d e Baltic a m b e r m o r e available i n C h i n a t h a n
b u r m i t e , a l t h o u g h t h e latter m a t e r i a l w a s i m p o r t e d i n t o C h i n a as late as t h e 1930s.
A m o n g t h e collections o f C h i n e s e a m b e r objects i n W e s t e r n m u s e u m s are
t h o s e a t t h e Victoria a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , L o n d o n ; t h e P a c k a r d C o l l e c t i o n a n d
o t h e r p i e c e s a t t h e M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n ; a n d , p r o b a b l y t h e largest i n
the world, the D r u m m o n d Collection at the American M u s e u m of Natural
History, N e w York. T h e Victoria a n d A l b e r t c o l l e c t i o n consists o f n i n e pieces
of e i g h t e e n t h - a n d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o r i g i n , i n c l u d i n g a n e c k l a c e , small vases,
several b o t t l e s , s a u c e r s , a n d figurative c a r v i n g s . T h e M u s e u m o f Fine Arts
collection includes an eighteenth-century Q i n g dynasty carving of peaches
( m o s t likely m a d e o f copal), Q i n g p e n d a n t s , a n d a n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o p a q u e
y e l l o w p i e c e d e p i c t i n g birds, flowers, a n d a d r a g o n . T h e finest pieces in that
c o l l e c t i o n are t h e S a k y a m u n i B u d d h a , m a d e o f o p a q u e , d a r k r e d - b r o w n a m b e r
f r o m t h e late M i n g d y n a s t y ( s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d a n exquisite o c t a g o n a l
c u p f r o m t h e Q i n g dynasty. T h e c u p i s c a r v e d f r o m o p a q u e yellowish a m b e r i n
an archaic b r o n z e form with t w o handles, each in the shape of a dragon. T h e
B u d d h a a n d c u p are m a d e o f a m b e r q u i t e atypical o f b u r m i t e a n d are p r o b a b l y
crafted f r o m Baltic a m b e r .
T h e c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History, b e q u e a t h e d i n
N o v e m b e r 1933 by Isaac D r u m m o n d , consists of 1,893 d e c o r a t i v e o b j e c t s in
j a d e , ivory, a n d a m b e r . D r u m m o n d h a d a s s e m b l e d p a r t o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n h i m s e l f
a n d i n h e r i t e d o t h e r p o r t i o n s f r o m his father, J a m e s F . D r u m m o n d . T h e collection
i s a p r i m e r e s o u r c e for c o m p a r i n g h o w a m b e r w a s c a r v e d i n t h e m a n n e r o f j a d e
i n b o t h subject a n d style. I t also d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e v a r i e t y o f C h i n e s e objets
d ' a r t i n a m b e r i s nearly c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f E u r o p e a n objects. T h e a m b e r
pieces alone n u m b e r several h u n d r e d p e n d a n t s , bottles (a favorite of D r u m m o n d ' s ) ,
figures, b o w l s , a n d small h o u s e objects s u c h a s a n i n k s t a n d a n d a w r i t i n g screen.
Bottle. China, nineteenth century.
Height 3.9". American Museum of
Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.1887A

Made of deep-red, transparent amber

with ajade stopper, the bottle features
two large peaches on a branch with
leaves, the branch stretching along one
side. The inner cavity has a very
irregular wall and is remarkable in
that the only opening for carving it is
a hole at the top about one-eighth of
an inch in diameter. The spatula
attached to the stopper is of metal.

204 • Amber in Art

Bottle. China, nineteenth century.
Height 3.5". American Museum of
Natural History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.1922

Carved from an oval piece of opaque,

yellowish, and semitranslucent reddish-
brown amber, the bottle retains natural
pits on the surface. The engraved lines
are bounded by the color in the piece;
the reverse side has script in imitation
of an ancient style, with an
undeciphered meaning.

Amber in Art • 205

Opposite and above: Two scenes. China, nineteenth century. Height 6.5". American Museum of Natural History
(Anthropology). Drummond Collection, 70.3.2672
•

Carved from a large piece of deep yellow-orange, transparent amber are two scenes in deep relief. On one side (opposite)
a mother looks down on her child; they each hold a flower. Flowers and leaves are carved along the edges, and a large
flower appears near the middle. The other side portrays a stag kneeling beside a gnarled tree in blossom. A peacock is
perched in the tree, its tail curled over its back. A hole at the bottom indicates that the piece originally had a base.

Amber in Art • 207

Small bowl. China, eighteenth
century. Length 4.8". American
Museum of Natural History
(Anthropology). Drummond
Collection, 70.3.2695

All around the bowl are entwined

carved magnolia branches bearing
leaves, flowers, and buds. The bowl
itself is inscribed with a stylized
flower. On the underside are buds,
leaves, and a large flower as well as
thick, gnarled branches with knots.
The intricate work illustrates very
effective use of the different colors
occurring in a single amber piece.

Decorative "water pot." China,

nineteenth century. Height 5.3 ".
American Museum of Natural
History (Anthropology).
Drummond Collection, 70.3.2671

The large, central, round object

represents a water pot with the
inscribed lid fixed to it. Surrounding
the pot are branches, leaves, flowers,
and peaches. Several darker pieces
have been applied, such as the bat
and the stem. The lighter bat was also
applied. Bats are a welcome sign in
China, emblematic of happiness and
longevity. They are often rendered
in red, as one is here, which is the
color of joy. The other side is also
carved, but without the bats.

208 • Amber in Art


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 INDEX

Pages numbers in italics refer to captions. medieval and Renaissance, 160-64 bacterium from, 132
mosaics, 133, 144, 166, 167, 186, 191; DNA from, 128, 130
A 176, 192 in forgeries, 140
acacia, 98, 106 paints and pigments, 14 beetles, 19, 29
Africa, 16, 19, 42, 64, 137, 149 perfume bottle, ISO leaf, 81
Agathis trees, 16; 16, 22 room, 166, 186-91; 187, 188 wood-boring and bark (ambrosia), 82,
Alaska, 25 saint figure, 171 105, 122; 82, 124
altars, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172 scene carvings, 207 Bement, Clarence, 140, 141
"ambalming," 125 scepters, 199; 199 Berendt, G. C, 57; 61
amblypygids, 63, 95 shaving basin with soap dish and Bernstein, Leonard, 144
ambroid, 133-37; 134 brush,192 Bible, 15
ancient world, 145-57 skull, 194 birds:
Greece, 15, 149, 153, 156, 157 snuffboxes, 179; 177 feathers from, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
Rome, 15, 149, 153, 157; 155, 157 vase, 157 woodpeckers, 113, 116
angiosperms, 21-22 Virgin figure, 169 Bitterfeld amber mines, 57; 58
Anselmus of Lozenstein, 160 "water pot," 208 Boswellia trees, 15
anthers, 122 winged deity with a youth, 151 bottles:
ants, 28, 90, 92-97; 30, 90, 92, 93 winged female head, 151 Chinese, 202, 204, 205
araucarian trees, 16, 22, 24, 28, 54; 24 woman figure, 170 perfume, 180
Agathis, 16; 16, 22 workshops for, see workshops bowls, 166, 179, 182
Arkansas, 46; 39, 45 see also jewelry Chinese, 208
art and decoration, 42, 143-202; 4, 50 Arabia, 15 snuff, 177
altars, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172 Aristotle, 153 box with four counters, 178
in ancient world, see ancient world arthropods, 35, 46, 79, 82, 99, 116, 137 Brazil, 19
Asian, 194-202; 194, 197, 199, 201, 202, Asia, 14, 40-42, 194-202 brooches, 134, 153, 185
204, 205, 207, 208 assassin bug, 93-97 Bronze Age, 146-48, 156; 148
banqueting group, 153 Axel Heiburg Island, 43, 54; 43, 44 Buddha, 202
bottles, 180, 202, 204, 205 Buffum, Arnold, 42, 182
bowls, 166, 179, 182; 177, 208 Burmese amber (burmite), 41-42, 149,
box with four counters, 178 B 194, 202; 40, 41, 144
calligraphic character, 197 Bacon, Francis, 117 butterfly, 87
candlesticks, 179; 180 bacteria, 132; 131
carp carving, 199 Baltic amber, 42, 43, 46, 47-61, 62, 72,
cases for needles or toothpicks, 179; 147, 160, 202; 49, 50, 51, 54, 69 c
178 ambroid made from, 134 cabinets, 166, 167, 179
chests, 133, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 4, in art and decoration, 145; 4, 50, 144, caddis fly, 27
176, 192 146, 182; see also art and decoration Caesalpinioidea trees, 19
crucifix, 190; 172 collecting of, 160 calligraphic character carving, 197
cruets, 176 features and types of, 53 Callitris trees, 14
cups, 147, 202; 147, 148 forgeries in, 140; 139 Canada, 25, 43
dishes, 179; 192 inclusions in, 55-61, 117, 137; 54, 56 candlesticks, 179; 180
dragons, 197 location and geology of, 47-53 carp carving, 199
European, 166-82, 194 origins of, 53-55, 153, 194; 43 Carpenter, Frank, 25
game boards, see game boards preservational fidelity of, 122 carvings, see art and decoration; sculpted
goddess figure, 197 Teutonic Knights and, 160-64 figures
horse figure, 145; 146 Baltic coast, 47; 47 cases for needles or toothpicks, 179; 178
human figures, 146 beads and necklaces, 145, 148, 156, 157; caterpillars, 35, 36, 87-90; 36
knives and forks, 179; 178 50, 185 cedar trees, 14, 46
lion figure, 177 Paternoster and rosary, 160, 163, 164; centipede, 66
lotus root, flower, leaf, and goldfish 164 chandeliers, 182
carving, 194 bees, 28, 30, 79, 90, 97, 117, 118, 122; 28, chessboards, 179; 144, 175
man carrying a burden, 4 118, 119, 121 chess pieces, 174

Index'211
 chests, 133, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 4, Dipterocarp trees, 40, 46; 39 forgeries, 16, 133, 137-41; 134, 136, 139
176, 192 dishes, 179; 192 forks and knives, 179
China, 42, 194-202; 194, 197, 199, 201, DNA, 117, 124, 126-32; 126 wedding, 178
202, 204, 205, 207, 208 Dobberman, Jacob, 182 fossil resin, see copal
Chopin, Frederic, 144 Dominican amber, 14, 19, 62-72, 79, fossils, 12, 79, 98; 29
clarification, 133, 191 140; 4, 66, 68, 69, 72, 74, 77, 79 cone, 21, 44
cockroaches, 129, 130; 36, 129 forgeries of, 140; 134, 139 flower, 28-30; 29
cocoons, 97; 97 inclusions in, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, Metasequoia branch, 22
Colden, Cadawallader, 14-15 98-116; 66, 72, 74, 77, 79 fossils, amber, 12, 16, 22, 43-46, 79-132;
collembola, 98 preservational fidelity of, 122 29
Colombia, 19; 19 reconstructing ancient forest from, Baltic, 55-61, 117, 137; 54, 56
Columbus, Christopher, 62 98-116 crab, 66
Commiphora trees, 15 dragon carving, 197 DNA in, 117, 124, 126-32; 126, 129
cones, fossilized, 21, 44, 54, 61 dragon pendant, 201 Dominican and Mexican, 62, 64, 68,
conifer trees, 12, 21, 22, 24 Drummond, Isaac, 202 72, 79, 98-116; 63, 66, 72, 74, 77, 79
araucarian, see araucarian trees Drummond, James R, 202 feathers, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
Conwentz, Hugo, 57; 58 frogs, 113, 116; 111
Cook, John, 14, 15 insect, see insect fossils
Copaifera trees, 19 E lizards, 61, 113, 137, 149; 108, 109, 111
copal (fossil resin), 14, 16-19, 21, 28, 42, earrings, 157; 180, 185 menagerie, 99; 98, 100
64, 72, 122, 137, 149; 19 Egypt, 14, 15, 117 plant, see plant fossils
forgeries from, 133, 137, 140 eighteenth-century amber, 166, 167, preservation of soft internal tissues
use of term, 16 182, 186 in, 117-25
crab, 66 Ellesmere Island, 43; 43 reconstructing ancient forest from,
crazing, 16, 72; 151, 155, 168, 180 embalming, 15, 124 98-116
Cretaceous amber, 22, 24, 25, 28, 30, encrustation, 167 reptile skin, 113; 111
35-36, 38, 42, 43 England, 47, 50, 145, 146, 147, 166 vertebrates, 14, 61, 113-16, 137
collecting of, 33, 34 Eocene epoch, 38, 42, 43, 46, 52, 129 France, 25, 166
Cretaceous period, 21-22, 28; 21 Etruscans, 148, 153, 156, 157; 151, 153, frankincense, 15, 19
forest in, 24 154, 155, 185 frass, 90, 105
crucifix, 190; 172 European amber, 25, 42 Frederick I, King of Prussia, 166, 186
cruets, 176 in art and decoration, 166-82, 194 Frederick William I, King of Prussia,
Cupressaceae trees, 22, 27, 28, 46 see also Baltic amber 166, 186
cups, 147, 202 evolution, 21-22, 126, 130, 131, 141; 129 Frick, Clemens, 190
Hove tumulus, 147; 147,148 exine, 122 Frick, Heinrich Wilhelm, 190
cycads, 21, 22; 24 extinctions, 130 frogs, 113, 116; 111
in forgeries, 140, 141; 139
fungi, 27, 105, 122; 124
D F
Dahn, Felix, 52 feathers, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
dammar, 14 fern, 77 G
Dammara australis trees, 16 fig trees, 100 game boards, 166, 167, 179
damselflies, 98; 79 fir trees, 14 chessboards, 179; 144, 175
Danzig, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172, 176, 192 fish carvings, 194, 199 chess pieces, 174
Denmark, 50 fleas, 116; 115 with crown on a pillow, 185
deposits, amber, 12, 16, 21-72; 21 flies, 85, 87, 97 gecko lizards, 113, 137; 108
in Africa, 16, 19, 42 Camus, 116; 113 geological time scale, 13
in Asia, 40-42 crane, 86 gnats, 85, 117; 87
Baltic, see Baltic amber Dolichopodidae, 85 goddess, Chinese, 197
Dominican, see Dominican amber eggs of, 87 Goeppert, H. R., 53; 61
in Europe, see European amber in forgeries, 141; 139 Greece, ancient, 15, 153, 156, 157
in Japan, 16, 32; 33 fruit, 87 legend in, on origin of amber, 149
in marine sediments, 13; 12 horseflies, 116
Mesozoic, see Mesozoic era larvae, 111
Mexican, see Mexican amber parasitic, 96 H
in the Middle East, 35-36 flower fossils, 98; 54, 58, 61, 98 Hagen, Hermann, 55
in North America, 25-30, 43-46 in clay, 28-30; 29 hairs, 113, 116; 114
in Siberia, 35; 34 Hymenaea, 103, 104 halictid bees, 79
Tertiary, see Tertiary period flowering plants: Hallstatt Culture, 148
see also mines, amber evolution of, 21-22 Hamamelidaceae trees, 28, 30
Diodorus, 153 pollen from, 30, 122; 29, 118, 121 Heise, Jacob, 182
Dionysus, mask of, 157 Fontebasso, Francesco Salvatore, 190 Hennig, Willi, 141; 139

212' Index
 horse carving, 145; 146 intaglio, 167, 179 Martinez, Ramon "Rubio," 68
horseflies, 116 Iron Age, 146, 148, 156 mask of Dionysus, 157
Hove tumulus cup, 147; 147, 148 mastic, 14
Hymenaea trees, 14, 19, 64, 68, 122; 19, Maucher, Christoph, 179
64, 103, 104 J Maya, 14, 19
hyphae, 27 Japan, 16, 32, 194, 202; 33 medicines, 14-15, 53
jewelry, 156, 157 medieval amber, 160-64
beads and necklaces, see beads and menageries, 99; 98, 100
I necklaces Mesolithic period, 145; 145, 146
imitation amber, 133, 137 brooches, 134, 153, 185 Mesozoic era, 21-36; 22
incense, 15, 19, 62 Castellani, 185 Jurassic period, 22; 21, 22
inclusions, see fossils, amber earrings, 157; 180, 185 see also Cretaceous amber; Cretaceous
inlays, 167, 179, 186; 192 with insect inclusions, 182 period
in amber room, 186, 191 pendants, see pendants Metasequoia tree, 22
insect fossils, 14, 19, 30, 32, 57, 61, 72, ring, 155 Mexican amber, 14, 62-72, 105, 140; 62,
79-97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 108, 116, sun spangles in, 133; 134 63, 66
137; 36, 95 Jui-Ruyi, 199 preservational fidelity of, 122
ants, 28, 90, 92-97; 30, 90, 92, 93 Jurassic Park, 128, 130 midges, 61, 85, 87, 137; 86
arthropods, 35, 46, 79, 82, 99, 116, 137 Jurassic period, 22; 21, 22 phlebotomine, 116
bees, see bees Middle East, 35-36
beetles, see beetles millipedes, 36, 93; 36, 95
butterfly, 87 K Milton,John, 149
caddis fly, 25-27 Kant, Immanuel, 126 mines, amber:
caterpillars, 35, 36, 87-90; 36 kauri gum, 16-19, 137; 16, 134 Bitterfeld, 57; 58
centipede, 66 knives and forks, 179 in Burma, 41; 40
cocoons, 97; 97 wedding, 178 in Dominican Republic, 68, 72; 68, 72
damselflies, 98; 79 Koch, Erich, 190, 191 in Mexico, 68
DNAin, 126-32; 126, 129 Konigsberg, 166, 167, 179, 182, 186, 190, Palmnicken, 50, 52-53, 55, 191; 52
eggs, 87; 86 191 Miocene epoch, 38, 40, 42, 68, 113, 129
exhumation of, 117 Kornilowitch, Nicolai, 117, 118 mites, 82, 97; 36
fleas, 116; 115 phoretic, 79
flies, see flies mitochondria, 118-22
forgeries of, 137, 141; 134, 139 L monkey pendant, 155
gnats, 85, 117; 87 lacewings, 25; 93 mosaics, 133, 144, 166, 167; 176, 192
in jewelry, 182 lacquers, 14 in amber room, 186, 191
lacewings, 25; 93 Larsson, Sven, 57 mosquitoes, 85, 116; 115
larvae, 87; 56,111 larvae, 87 moths, 35-36, 87-90, 97
in menageries, 99; 98, 100 fly, 111 inchworm, 87
midges, 61, 85, 87, 116, 137; 86 owl "fly," 56 mummification, 117
millipedes, 36, 93; 36, 95 Laufer, Berthold, 194 mushroom, 30, 106
mites, 79, 82, 97; 36 leaf fossils: Myanmar (Burma), 41, 149, 194, 202; 40,
mosquitoes, 85, 116; 115 in amber, 98, 122; 58, 106, 123 41, 144
moths, 35-36, 87-90, 97; 87 DNA from, 126-28 Myeloxylon, 21
muscles in, 118-22 leafhopper nymphs, 97 myrrh, 15, 19
owl "fly," 56 Lebanon, 35, 36 myths, about amber, 149, 194
phoresy and, 79, 82 legume trees, 16, 19
praying mantises, 93, 129 lignite, 13, 46, 68; 12
preservation of soft internal tissues lion figure, 177 N
in, 117-25 liverwort, 125; 106 Native Americans, 14
sandflies, 116; 36, 114 lizards, 61, 149; 109, 111 Natural History of Lac, Amber, and Myrrh,
spiders, 14, 61, 85, 87, 93, 97; 95, 96, 98 in forgeries, 137, 140; 134, 139 The (Cook), 14, 15
stick insect, 81 gecko, 113, 137; 108 necklaces, see beads and necklaces
termites, see termites lotus root, flower, leaf, and goldfish nematode worm parasites, 97
ticks, 116; 114 carving, 194 Neocomian amber, 35
treehopper, 81 Louis XIV, King of France, 166 Neolithic period, 145, 146
wasps, see wasps New Jersey, 25, 28, 30; 27, 28, 29, 30
insects, 14, 21-22, 57, 68, 105 New Zealand, 16-19; 16
feces of, 90, 105 M forest in, 24
parasitic, 92, 93, 97; 96, 97 "Madonna," Chinese, 197 Nicholas II, Czar, 190; 185
pollination by, 30; 29 Malaysia (Sarawak), 40; 38, 39 nineteenth-century amber, 182
reproduction in, 79, 85 marcasite, 27 North America, 25-30, 43-46
social, 90-93, 105 Martial, 79 no-see-ums, 116

Index' 213
 o c l a r i f i c a t i o n i n , 133, 191 h o r s e , 145; 146
O l i g o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 42, 64, 113 s u n s p a n g l e s i n , 133; 134 h u m a n , 146
o r i g i n s o f amber, 12-19 properties of amber, 12-19 l i o n , 177
legends a b o u t , 149, 194 P r u s s i a , 166, 1 6 7 - 7 9 man carrying a burden, 4
o w l "fly," 56 a m b e r r o o m f r o m , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, s a i n t , 171
188 V i r g i n , 169
Pseudolarix t r e e s , 4 6 , 5 4 - 5 5 ; 43 w i n g e d d e i t y w i t h a y o u t h , 151
P p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s , 36, 82; 36, 82 w i n g e d f e m a l e h e a d , 151
paints, 14 p t e r i d o s p e r m s , 21 w o m a n , 170
Paleobiology of Baltic Amber, The Pterophyllum, 21 seed, w i n g e d , 103
( L a r s s o n ) , 57 p u t t i , 182; 192 S e n d e l i o , N a t h a n a e l , 49, 136
P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d , 146 p y r i t e , 2 5 ; 27, 74 s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a m b e r , 166, 167,
Palestine, 15 179,182,186
P a l m n i c k e n a m b e r m i n e , 50, 5 2 - 5 3 , 55, s h a v i n g b a s i n w i t h soap d i s h a n d b r u s h ,
191; 52 R 192
p a n e l , w o o d , w i t h a m b e r i n s e r t s , 168 R a s t r e l l i , V a r f o l o m e i , 186 Shorea t r e e s , 39
parasites, 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 7 ; 96, 97 R e d l i n , M i c h e l , 179 S i b e r i a , 3 5 ; 34
parasitoids, 97 Renaissance a m b e r , 1 6 0 - 6 4 S i c i l i a n a m b e r ( s i m e t i t e ) , 42; 4
P a t e r n o s t e r b e a d s a n d r o s a r i e s , 160, 163, reptiles: sirens, 153
164; 164 s k i n o f , 113; H i s k u l l , 194
P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r s , 160, 163 see also l i z a r d s s l o t h s , 113
p e n d a n t s , 1 5 6 - 5 7 ; 182 r e s i n i t e , 16 s n u f f b o x e s , 179; 177
a m b e r a n d g o l d , 154 r e s i n , 12, 13, 1 4 - 1 5 , 19, 2 4 , 6 8 , 105, 108, S p e n g l e r , L o r e n z , 182, 190; 185
C h i n e s e , 201 124; 12, 19, 194 s p h i n x p e n d a n t , 154
d r a g o n , 201 a n t i b i o t i c p r o p e r t i e s of, 124-25 s p i d e r s , 14, 6 1 , 85, 87, 93, 97; 95, 96, 98
m o n k e y , 155 f o s s i l , see c o p a l s p r i n g t a i l s , 98
s i r e n , 153 f r a n k i n c e n s e , 15 Stantien, W i l h e l m , 52
s p h i n x , 154 m y r r h , 15 S t a n t i e n a n d Becker, 52, 55
p e r f u m e , 15 r i n g , 155 S t a t e n I s l a n d , N.Y., 2 7 - 2 8
p e r f u m e b o t t l e , 180 R o g g e n b u c h , F r i e d r i c h , 190 s t i c k i n s e c t , 81
Peter I ( t h e G r e a t ) , C z a r , 166, 186, 190 R o g g e n b u c h , J o h a n n , 190 s u c c i n i c a c i d , 42, 53, 54, 147, 153; 43
p h a s m i d , 81 R o h d e , A l f r e d , 190 s u c c i n i t e , see B a l t i c a m b e r
phoresy, 79, 82 R o m a n i a n amber, 42 s u n s p a n g l e s , 133; 134
p i g m e n t s , 14 R o m e , a n c i e n t , 15, 149, 153, 157; 155, s u s p e n d e d a n i m a t i o n , 131-32
" P i l t d o w n Fly," 1 4 1 ; 139 157 s y s t e m a t i c s , 126, 130
Pinaceae trees, 2 2 , 27 r o o m , a m b e r , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, 188
see also p i n e t r e e s r o s a r i e s , 160, 163, 164; 164
pine trees, 12, 14, 15, 2 2 , 53, 54 R o y a l A m b e r W o r k s , 163 T
Pseudolarix, 4 6 , 5 4 - 5 5 ; 43 r u m a n i t e , 42 t a b e r n a c l e s , 179
Pistacea trees, 14 R u s s i a , 166; 22 T a c i t u s , C o r n e l i u s , 153
p l a n t fossils, 24, 4 3 , 46", 57, 9 8 , 137 a m b e r r o o m i n , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, 188 t a n k a r d s , 179, 182
acacia, 98, 106 S i b e r i a , 3 5 ; 34 T a x o d i a c e a e trees, 22, 24, 27
cones, 54, 61 Tears of the Heliades, or Amber as a Gem,
f e r n , 77 The ( B u f f u m ) , 42, 182
f l o w e r s , 9 8 ; 54, 58, 61, 98, 103, 104 S t e r m i t e s , 19, 25, 35, 40, 85, 90, 9 2 , 105,
leaves, 98, 122; 58, 106, 123 s a i n t figure, 171 129; 74, 85, 126, 129
l i v e r w o r t , 125; 106 s a n d a r a c , 14 D N A f r o m , 1 2 8 - 3 1 ; 126, 129
in m e n a g e r i e s , 98 s a n d f l i e s , 116; 36, 114 n a s u t e , 90, 105
m u s h r o o m , 30, 106 S a r a w a k , M a l a y s i a , 40; 38, 39 t e r p e n e s , 14, 124
p r e s e r v a t i o n o f soft i n t e r n a l tissues scale i n s e c t s , 27 T e r t i a r y p e r i o d , 22, 2 4 , 28, 30, 3 8 - 4 6
i n , 117, 122 s c a l l o p s h e l l , 140; 139 E o c e n e e p o c h , 3 8 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 52, 129
w i n g e d seed, 103 scenes, c a r v e d , 207 M i o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 4 0 , 4 2 , 6 8 , 113,
p l a n t s , f l o w e r i n g , e v o l u t i o n of, 2 1 - 2 2 s c e p t e r s , 199; 199 129
Pleistocene e p o c h , 113 S c h a c t , E r n s t , 186 O l i g o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 42, 6 4 , 112
P l i n y t h e Elder, 133, 137, 149, 153, 157 S c h m i d t , F r i e d r i c h , 190; 172 P l i o c e n e e p o c h , 19
Pliocene a m b e r , 19 S c h m i d t , S t e n z e l , 179 Tetraclinus t r e e s , 14
p o l l e n , 30, 122; 29, 118, 121 S c h r e i b e r , G e o r g , 179; 172 Teutonic Knights, 160-64
p o l y e s t e r r e s i n , 133, 1 3 7 - 4 0 ; 134, 139 scorpion, 4 T i b e t , 199; 194
P o l y m e r a s e C h a i n R e a c t i o n ( P C R ) , 128 Scotland, 47 t i c k s , 116; 114
Pope, A l e x a n d e r , 98 s c u l p t e d figures, 166 t r e e h o p p e r , 81
p r a y i n g m a n t i s e s , 93, 129 b a n q u e t i n g g r o u p , 153 trees, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 22, 24, 153
processed a m b e r , 133 g o d d e s s , 197 Agathis, 16; 16, 22

214 • Index
 araucarian, see araucarian trees V weevils, 130, 132
Baltic, 53-55 varnishes, 14, 16, 19, 25, 53 Welpendorf, Johann, 190
Boswellia, 15 vase, 157 Wessex Culture, 147-48
cedar, 14, 46 velvet "ant," 66 Wolffram, Gottfried, 186
conifer, see conifer trees Venezuela, 19 wood, 28, 72
Cupressaceae, 22, 27, 28, 46 vertebrates, 14, 21, 61, 113-16, 137 wood panel with amber inserts, 168
dipterocarp, 40, 46; 39 in forgeries, 137, 140 woodpeckers, 113, 116
fig, 100 Virgin figure, 169 workshops, 166
Hymenaea, 14, 19, 64, 68, 122; 19, 64, Danzig, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172, 176, 192
103, 104 Konigsberg, 166, 167, 179, 182, 186,
kauri, 16-19; 16 w 190, 191
legume, 16, 19 Washington, 46
pine, see pine trees wasps, 97, 100; 97 Y
Pseudolarix, 46, 54-55; 43 in forgery, 134 Yeltsin, Boris, 191
Shorea, 39 mutillid, 66
Triassic amber, 21 paper, 90, 92; 90 z
Turau, Gottfried, 186; 176 "water pot," decorative, 208 Zaddach, George, 50
Turow, Nicholas, 179 wedding knife and fork, 178 Zanzibar, 19

Index'21S
PHOTOGRAPH/ILLUSTRATION
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel-
phia: 23, 39, 43
American Museum of Natural History:
Jacklyn Beckett: 2, 10, 18, 19, 21, 22,
26, 28, 38, 44, 48, 50, 54, 55, 62, 63,
70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 86, 88,
92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 107,
108, 110, 111, 131, 134
Denis Finnin: 7, 27, 33, 45, 51, 73, 100,
146, 150, 151, 153, 154 middle and
bottom, 155, 159, 195, 196, 197,
198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205,
206, 207, 208
Edward Bridges: 67, 71, 83, 85, 86, 87,
89,91, 102, 104, 106, 109, 115, 127,
135, 138, 139
David Grimaldi: 12, 13, 28, 31, 36, 37,
39, 65, 66, 69, 76, 77, 80, 82, 86, 93,
95,97, 99, 100, 101, 112, 113, 114,
115, 118, 129, 135, 146
216 •Credits
CREDITS
Elizabeth Bonwich/Peling Melville:
119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125
Malcolm McKenna: 44
Library Services (Joel Sweimler): 17,
24, 49, 59, 60, 136, 146, 161, 162, 163
Matthew Harnick: 108
Booth Museum, Brighton: 147, 148
From Chhibber, H. L. The Mineral
Resources of Burma. London: Macmillan
& Co., 1934
Cornell University (William L. Crepet
and Kevin Nixon): 29
Ekaterininsky Palace Museum, Saint
Petersburg: 187
Stas V Chabdutkin: 173, 176, 185,
188, 189, 192, 193
Kuji Amber Museum (Kazuhisa Sasaki):
32
Metropolitan Museum of Art: 152
Museum ftir Naturkunde, Stuttgart
(Dieter Schlee): 38, 90
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard (Frank Carpenter): 30, 56
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: 6, 142,
165, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178 middle and bottom,
180, 181, 184
Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen: 145
The Natural History Museum, London:
41, 139, 183
Paleontological Institute, Moscow:
J. Sukacheva: 34 top and middle
A. Ponomarenko: 34 bottom, 35
Rolf Reinicke: 52, 58
Smithsonian Institution, National
Museum of Natural History: 64
Victoria and Albert Museum, London:
172