Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

MATERIALS SELECTION TECHNIQUES

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Corrosion For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: COE-110.03 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Section Page

IDENTIFYING CORRODENTS, TEMPERATURE, AND PRESSURE OF

PROCESS STREAMS USING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS (PFDs) ......................... 3
Operating Conditions of Process Streams: Chemical Composition,
Temperature, Pressure........................................................................................ 5
Corrosion ............................................................................................................. 7
Typical Process Unit — Basics of Materials Selection......................................... 9

CORROSION AND EROSION/CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF POTENTIAL

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION - INFORMATION RESOURCES ......................... 12
NACE Corrosion Data Survey Metals Section, Sixth Edition ............................. 12
General Corrosion Rate .......................................................................... 12
Susceptibility to Pitting, Stress Corrosion Cracking,
Intergranular Attack and Crevice Corrosion ............................................ 12
Isocorrosion Charts................................................................................. 13
American Society for Metals (ASM) Handbooks................................................ 13
Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook ............................................................ 14
Stainless and High Alloy Steel Catalogs and Handbooks.................................. 14

IDENTIFYING INDUSTRY STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE

SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND FABRICATION METHODS.... 15
Mechanical Properties and Fabrication Methods............................................... 15
Tensile Strength/Maximum Allowable Working Stress............................ 15
Hardness/Wear Resistance .................................................................... 16
Fabrication .............................................................................................. 16
Low-Temperature Toughness................................................................. 17
High-Temperature Limitations................................................................. 17
Standards And Specifications............................................................................ 18
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards ............. 18

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

1989 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV) Code Sections ........... 18
Addenda ................................................................................................. 20
Interpretations......................................................................................... 20
Code Cases ............................................................................................ 20
API Standards......................................................................................... 21
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) Standards ........... 21
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (SAES) ....................................... 21
Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications (SAMSS)........................ 22
Saudi Aramco Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) ...................................... 22

CASE STUDIES ........................................................................................................... 23

GOSP ................................................................................................................ 23
DGA Gas Treating Facilities .............................................................................. 24
Seawater Desalination Plant.............................................................................. 25
Atmospheric Column System ............................................................................ 25
No. 1 Rheniformer (Naptha Hydrotreater) ......................................................... 26

REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 27

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

IDENTIFYING CORRODENTS, TEMPERATURE, AND PRESSURE OF

PROCESS STREAMS USING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS (PFDs)

Materials of construction for equipment and piping must be

economical, as well as meet the design, safety, and reliability
requirements of the facility. Materials that possess these
attributes are considered to be “cost-effective” for the particular
application.

In petroleum processing units the presence of hazardous

chemicals, elevated temperatures and pressures, and/or
corrosive environments can make the selection of cost-effective
materials a complicated task. In addition, plant location also
influences material selection; for example, if the plant is located
near the sea, the effects of salt-induced corrosion must be
considered. For plants located near populated areas, materials
of construction are often upgraded in an effort to reduce the risk
of failure to near zero. This is especially important when the
equipment and piping contains hazardous materials.

The materials engineer usually classifies equipment by type

when selecting materials; for example, pressure vessel, heat
exchanger, piping, furnace, compressor, and pump. Industry
standards, codes, and Saudi Aramco Standards and
Specifications are structured around these equipment
classifications, resulting in a systematic approach to materials
selection.

Petroleum facilities must conform to applicable jurisdictional

requirements, such as national or local codes. Some
jurisdictions require that new pressure vessels and heat
exchangers be built to the ASME B&PV Code and maintained to
the National Board Inspection Code (NBIC) or API 510,
Pressure Vessel Code. In some cases, the NBIC or API 510
are used as guidelines for maintenance. Although these codes
do not specify materials they do have requirements on welding,
preheat, PWHT, and inspection. The materials engineer should
have a working knowledge of these Codes, whether they are
mandatory, or are only used for guidance.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

The process flow diagram (PFD) is an important source of

useful information to aid in the selection of materials for new
construction or maintenance. As the name implies, the process
flow diagram shows the process flow through pressure vessels,
heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, furnaces, tanks, and
interconnecting piping. The PFD must also show stream
chemical composition, flowrate, pressure, temperature, liquid
level, and control mode. When contemplating major
modifications or maintenance of a facility that has been in
operation for some time, it is important to compare the current
operating conditions with those shown on the original PFD; for
example, temperature, pressure, stream velocity, and stream
chemical composition. If the operating conditions have
undergone a significant change, it is important that the new
conditions be clearly established.

The modified operating conditions will form the basis for

selecting materials for maintenance or for new items of
equipment and piping. If the operating conditions have not
changed significantly the original PFD should be used to identify
stream chemical composition, including major corrodents,
temperature, and pressure.

It must be emphasized that the PFD does not always contain all
of the required information about stream chemical composition.
For example, potential corrodents such as chloride, dissolved
oxygen, and hydrogen sulfide are not included on the PFD
unless they are present in significant quantities. Consequently,
a stream may be very corrosive, but this corrosivity is not
reflected by the information contained in the PFD. It is
necessary to discuss stream chemical composition with a
process engineer prior to preparing a list of candidate (possible)
materials.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

When the operating conditions and corrodents have been fully

identified, the materials engineer uses his expertise and various
information sources, such as the NACE Corrosion Data
Surveys, to identify possible materials, corrosion allowances, or
other special requirements, such as coatings, PWHT, and so
forth, for the specific application. The final material selection is
made using the list of possible materials, requirements
contained in Codes, industry and Saudi Aramco standards, and
material cost and availability. The material selection information
can be added to the PFD if required to produce a Material of
Construction Diagram. (Note: Page 68 in the Appendix contains
an example of an original PFD without the materials of
construction information.) The Material of Construction Diagram
is used by designers and equipment engineers to prepare
mechanical data sheets for pressure vessels, heat exchangers,
pumps, compressors, piping, and so forth. These data sheets
are incorporated into the contract documents that are
subsequently sent to various contractors and/or vendors for
bids.

Operating Conditions of Process Streams:

Chemical Composition, Temperature, Pressure

The materials engineer begins the review of the PFD by

determining the chemical composition, temperature, and
pressure of the various process streams entering and exiting
each piece of equipment. Examples of process streams include
feed, effluent, overhead, sidestreams, reflux, bottoms, product,
and so forth. As stated above, the process engineer should be
consulted to establish the corrosive species or compounds such
as chlorides, sulfides, carbon dioxide, naphthenic acids, and
water that might be present, but not shown, on the PFD.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

In addition to chemical composition, there are other factors that

influence materials selection. In certain situations, these can be
more important than stream chemical composition. For
example, when equipment or piping is in low temperature
service [temperature below -29 °C (-20 °F)], corrosion is not
usually a problem, but it is extremely important that materials
with sufficient toughness be selected to prevent brittle fracture.
Elevated temperature service requires materials that have
superior high-temperature strength, good resistance to
oxidation, and resistance to metallurgical changes that result in
embrittlement or loss of strength due to aging or graphitization.
When designing fired heaters it is important to recognize that
tube metal temperatures are usually 66 to 93 °C (150 to 200 °F)
higher than the bulk process temperature. This is caused by
overfiring, flame impingement, external scaling, internal coking,
poor heat distribution between tube passes, or unequal flow
between passes. It is sometimes necessary to upgrade heater
tube metallurgy to account for the higher tube metal
temperature. For example, the tubes in a steam boiler are often
1 1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo, while the boiler external piping is carbon steel.

It is important that metal temperature be maintained above the

dew point when carbon or low-alloy steel equipment is exposed
to gas streams containing relatively large quantities of hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide, or carbon dioxide. Failure to properly
insulate or heat (steam or electric) trace equipment and piping
in these services can result in a severe form of corrosion called
dew point corrosion. This type of corrosion occurs when the
gas stream is cooled to a temperature below the dew point and
is due to the condensation of acidic components. Dew point
corrosion problems are common in air preheaters, hydrogen
reforming, and amine and sulfur recovery units. The methods
employed to prevent dew point corrosion are: heat tracing
(steam or electric), insulation, or acid resistant linings and
alloys.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Corrosion

Carbon steel is the most commonly used material of

construction in the petroleum industry because of its:

• Low Cost

• Availability: Most product forms are readily obtained

• Superior Fabricability: Components are readily formed and

the material exhibits good weldability.

Although carbon steel is usually the material of first choice,

there are circumstances where it is not recommended. When
selecting materials of construction, it is common practice to
identify an upper corrosion rate and select materials that exhibit
lower rates. This is done because high corrosion rates require
greater wall thickness to obtain the desired design equipment
life. In addition, high corrosion rates also result in the formation
of considerable quantities of corrosion product. These corrosion
products can cause unacceptably high pressure drops and
plugging in downstream reactors, as well as the fouling heat
exchange surfaces, which results in reduced thermal efficiency.
Corrosion products can also jeopardize product quality as a
result of contamination. A reasonable corrosion allowance for
carbon steel equipment is 3 mm (0.125 in) for most applications.
The service life of a component with a 3 mm (0.125) corrosion
allowance suffering a corrosion rate of 0.25 mm/yr (10 mpy) is
at least 12 years.

For low-to-medium alloy steels, such as 2 1/4 Cr-1Mo and 5Cr-

1/2Mo, corrosion allowances are usually within the 3 - 4 mm
(0.125 - 0.150 in) range. The specific corrosion allowance will
depend upon the stream temperature and chemical
composition.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

For high-alloy materials such as stainless steel, Inconel, and

titanium, corrosion rates are usually very low. For these
materials either no corrosion allowance or a nominal corrosion
allowance of 0.80 mm (1/32 in) is often specified. When the
higher alloy materials are used as cladding or weld overlay, the
minimum thickness is about 2.5 mm (0.100 in). In these
situations the alloy provides corrosion protection only. The
carbon or low-alloy steel substrate provides the required
mechanical strength.

It is very important that the materials engineer knows the

predicted corrosion rates of the proposed materials of
construction in the operating environment. The National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) is one of the best
sources of information on corrosion. NACE publishes books,
journals, papers, and reports with the type of corrosion
information the materials engineer needs to specify materials of
construction for petroleum processing facilities. Other valuable
information resources are the American Petroleum Institute
(API), and the American Society for Metals (ASM) publications.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Typical Process Unit — Basics of Materials Selection

Page 68 contains an example of a typical Process Flow

Diagram (PFD). In this example, the Hydrofinishing (HDF)
Process is used to desulfurize and improve the quality of
feedstocks by catalytic hydrotreating. HDF technology is similar
to the technology employed in Catalytic Hydrodesulfurization
(CHD), except that the CHD Unit operates under more severe
conditions. It processes heavier feedstocks at higher
temperatures. In this example of HDF technology, naphtha feed
from tankage (after removal of dissolved oxygen) is hydrogen
treated in the presence of a catalyst in the reactor to remove
elemental sulfur by converting it to H2S. The reactor effluent is
condensed and sent to a separator. There, the low sulfur
naphtha is separated from the H2S rich gas stream. The H2S
rich gas is sent to a gas treating plant for sulfur recovery and
subsequent conversion to elemental sulfur. The low sulfur
naphtha product from the separator is sent to another unit for
additional distillation and fractionation.

Page 69 lists the chemical compositions of the streams entering

and leaving each major piece of equipment in the HDF Unit.
Chemical composition is expressed as mass flow rate in moles
per hour of each individual stream constituent. Temperatures
on the PFD are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit ( °F) and
appear inside of a rectangle. Temperature is indicated on each
vessel or on individual segments of interconnecting piping.
Pressures (psig) are shown inside circles at similar locations.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Reactor (D-2) is a critical item of equipment and the operating

conditions must be carefully evaluated before selecting
materials. Based on the mole fraction of hydrogen and
assuming no pressure drops across the equipment, the
hydrogen partial pressure will be approximately 380 psia. Since
the reactor operates at a temperature of 427 °C (800 °F), the
steel for the shell and heads must be resistant to high-
temperature hydrogen attack. The information resource used
worldwide to select materials that are resistant to hydrogen
attack is API Publication 941, Steels For Hydrogen Service at
Elevated Temperatures and Pressures in Petroleum Refineries
and Petrochemical Plants. (Source: Reference No. 2) The
curves contained in the API document are also known as the
“Nelson Curves”, after George Nelson who developed them.
Examples of these curves are shown on pages 70 and 71 of the
Appendix. Note: Over the years, the Nelson curves have
undergone several revisions. These were necessitated as new
materials performance data became available. Consequently, it
is important to check the date on the curves to ensure that the
latest revision is being used.

Locating the 380 psia and 427 °C (800 °F) point on the table on
page 69 in the Appendix, we note that a satisfactory material is
either 1Cr-1/2Mo or 1 1/4Cr-1/2Mo. However, a base 1Cr-
1/2Mo or 1 1/4Cr-1/2Mo vessel would be subject to severe
sulfidation attack due to the high-temperature
hydrogen/hydrogen sulfide environment. For a hot wall reactor
the solution is to internally clad or weld overlay the inside
surface with an appropriate sulfidation-resistant material such
as austenitic stainless steel (for example AISI type 347 weld
overlay). An alternative approach is to use a cold wall reactor
design. In a cold wall design, an insulating refractory is used to
internally line the vessel. The purpose of the lining is to reduce
the vessel wall temperature to about 232 °C (450 °F). At this
temperature, sulfidation is not a problem, and carbon steel
provides adequate resistance to high-temperature hydrogen
attack. Although this approach may reduce initial installation
costs, maintenance costs are usually higher due to periodic
lining inspection and repairs. Most refractory repairs consist of
patching or relining relatively small local areas to eliminate “hot
spots”. As discussed in Module 6, “hot spots” are caused by
local lining failure.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

The materials selection process for the Charge Heater (B-1) is

extremely important because heater reliability is critical to the
successful operation of the hydrofinishing process. The charge
to the heater is naphtha and hydrogen treat gas with operating
conditions similar to reactor D-2. For hydrogen attack and
sulfidation resistance the tubes must be either AISI Type 321 or
Type 347 stainless steel. The expected design life is at least 10
years. This is based on a corrosion allowance of 1.2 mm (0.050
in) and an estimated sulfidation rate of 0.125 mm/yr (5 mpy).

The product air cooler (E-2) sees the reactor effluent stream
leaving the reactor D-2 but the temperature has been lowered to
200 °C (400 °F) by exchanger E-1. At this temperature, the
cooler is not subject to high-temperature hydrogen attack or
sulfidation. The header boxes should be fabricated from killed
carbon steel with a 4 mm (0.150 in) corrosion allowance and
stress relieved. Tubes should be 12 gage killed carbon steel.

The materials of construction for piping are usually similar to

those used for equipment immediately upstream or
downstream, whichever is exposed to the more corrosive
environment. However, the corrosion allowance for piping is
usually based on a design life of about 5 to 10 years, instead of
the 10 to 20 years typically used for major items of equipment
such as columns, drums, and large heat exchangers.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

CORROSION AND EROSION/CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF POTENTIAL

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION - INFORMATION RESOURCES

NACE Corrosion Data Survey Metals Section, Sixth Edition

In Module 5, use of the NACE Corrosion Data Survey, Sixth

Edition and Errata (copies have been provided to each
Participant) was reviewed.

Page 72 in the Appendix shows the matrix key, key to data

points, and the footnotes for data squares. (Source: Reference
No. 3)

General Corrosion
Rate
For a given environment, the data square or grid indicates
general corrosion rates plotted as a function of temperature and
percent concentration in water for various materials of
construction. The materials addressed include carbon steel,
cast iron, stainless steel, copper-base alloys, nickel-base alloys,
titanium, and other less commonly used metals and alloys. The
symbols used in the matrix for average penetration rate are:

• < 2 mpy, o < 20 mpy, 20-50 mpy and x > 50 mpy.

Susceptibility to Pitting,
Stress Corrosion
Cracking, Intergranular
Attack and Crevice
Corrosion
The susceptibility of a particular material to pitting, stress
corrosion cracking, and so forth, in a particular environment is
indicated on the data squares or grids by referencing the
appropriate Footnote from the Key to Footnotes. The data
square or grid also indicates the conditions of temperature,
concentration, pH, dissolved oxygen content, and so on, that
apply to the particular Footnote.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Isocorrosion
Charts
In the Survey, isocorrosion charts for materials with reported
corrosion rates of < 20 mpy are indicated for:

• Mixed Acids (page 177)

• Carbon Monoxide (pages 178 and 179)

• Hydrochloric Acid (pages 180 and 181)

• Hydrofluoric Acid (pages 182 and 183)

• Sulfuric Acid (pages 184 and 185).

American Society for Metals (ASM) Handbooks

The ASM Handbooks contain considerable information on

various materials properties, material selection, corrosion, etc.
A list of the ASM Handbooks by Title and Edition is shown on
page 73 in the Appendix. (Source: Pages 73 to 78, Appendix,
Reference No. 4)

Examples of the kind of information available in Volume 13,

Corrosion, are described below.

A matrix of corrosion-resistant alloy materials for a petroleum

production environment containing aqueous CO2 and H2S is
shown on page 74 of the Appendix. Materials are arranged
according to increasing chloride concentration and temperature
versus hydrogen sulfide concentration (none to high).

Page 75 of the Appendix lists ASTM standard specifications for

carbon, low-alloy and stainless steel in refinery service. Note: In
some situations, ASTM specifications are identical to ASME
specifications; in others they are not.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Page 76 of the Appendix shows the effect of temperature on

high-temperature sulfidation of carbon, Cr-Mo, and stainless
steels. Note that the sulfur content for these series of curves is
0.6 wt - %. For higher sulfur levels it is necessary to use curves
that are based on the applicable sulfur content, or to apply an
empirical correction factor to the 0.6 wt - % curves as indicated
in page 77.

Note that the multiplier effect of sulfur content on corrosion rate

applies within the 288-400 °C (550 - 750 °F) temperature range.

Page 78 illustrates the effect of temperature and hydrogen

sulfide content on H2S/H2 corrosion of carbon steel. Similar
curves for other materials such as 5Cr-1/2Mo, 9Cr-1Mo, and
austenitic stainless steel are available in the literature.

Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook

An additional information resource on materials is Perry’s

Chemical Engineer’s Handbook. An example of the kind of
information available in Perry’s is shown on page 79 of the
Appendix. (Source: Reference No. 1)

Stainless and High Alloy Steel Catalogs and Handbooks

Considerable information on stainless and high alloy steels (AISI

and proprietary) is available in manufacturer’s catalogs and
handbooks. Examples are: Avesta, Allegheny-Ludlum,
Carpenter Technology, Inco Alloys International, Haynes, and
Sandvik.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

IDENTIFYING INDUSTRY STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR

THE SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND FABRICATION
METHODS

Mechanical Properties and Fabrication Methods

Tensile
Strength/Maximum
Allowable Working
Stress
In COE 105.04, the ultimate tensile strength of a material was
determined by drawing a horizontal line from the maximum point
on the stress-strain curve to the vertical stress values on the
left. The value obtained is called the ultimate tensile strength,
or tensile strength. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
(B&PV) Code Selection VIII, Div. I defines the maximum
allowable stress value for a material as the lowest value of:

• 25% of the tensile strength

• 67% of the yield strength

• the average stress for a creep rate of 0.01% per 1000

hours

• 67% of the stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000

hours.

Pages 80 and 81 of the Appendix contain the maximum

allowable stress values for SA-516 grades 55, 60, 65, and 70 at
various temperatures. (Source: Reference No. 5) These values
are used when designing, repairing, or altering pressure vessels
or heat exchangers in accordance with ASME B&PV Code
Section VIII, Div. I.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Hardness/Wear
Resistance
In COE 105.04, hardness was defined as the ability of a
material to resist deformation by an indenter. Hardness can be
used to assess ductility; the lower the hardness the greater the
ductility. Conversely, materials with higher hardness often
demonstrate improved wear resistance in certain environments.

Fabrication
The manufacture of the various product forms of steel was
reviewed in COE 105.07. The manufacture of castings,
forgings, plate, seamless pipe and clad materials was covered
in considerable detail. In addition, the basic welding processes
and the weldability of ferritic and high-alloy materials were
reviewed. Information about the use of weld metal overlays to
perform repairs or to provide a layer of corrosion-resistant
material was also provided.

It is important to note that regardless of material product form

and welding process, manufacturing must be performed in
accordance with qualified procedures using qualified personnel.
All welding procedures and welders must be qualified in
accordance with ASME Code Section IX. In addition, welding
procedures and procedures used for the heat treatment, stress
relief, and postweld heat treatment of materials and welds
should be reviewed and approved by the materials engineer
prior to fabrication. Also, it is very important that inspection
personnel make frequent visits to the fabricator’s shop. The
purpose of these visits is to ensure that the approved
procedures are being followed and that weld quality and
workmanship are acceptable.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Low-Temperature
Toughness
In COE 105.04, toughness was defined as the ability of a
material to absorb energy and deform plastically prior to
fracture. In general, the toughness of a steel decreases with
decreasing temperature. To avoid brittle fracture, materials are
subjected to Charpy V-Notch impact tests to determine the
relationship between impact strength (energy) and temperature.
For equipment subject to low temperatures during startup,
operation, or shut down, the ASME B&PV Code, Sec. VIII, Div.
1 contains impact requirements for pressure vessels and heat
exchangers, as does the B31.3 Code for piping.

Page 82 of the Appendix lists numerous ASTM specifications for

carbon steel that exhibit enhanced resistance to brittle fracture
at low temperatures. Note that all of the important product
forms are addressed, for example, plate, pipe, tube, forgings,
fittings, and castings.

High-Temperature
Limitations
It is not practical to use certain materials when designing
equipment for high-temperature, high-pressure service due to
low values of maximum allowable stress. It should be noted
that if these materials were used, vessel walls would be
extremely thick. For a cost-effective operation, it is important
that vessel wall thickness be minimized; consequently,
compatible materials with higher values of allowable stress at
the design temperature should be used. This may involve the
use of a high-strength Cr-Mo steel clad with stainless steel or
the fabrication of a layered vessel, where the soft internal layer
is surrounded by layers of high-strength steel.

At design temperatures within the creep range, values of

allowable stress based on tensile or yield strength are no longer
used. Under these conditions, creep and stress-rupture
properties of the material are paramount.

Page 83 of the Appendix provides suggested maximum

temperatures for continuous service of certain steels based on
creep or rupture data. (Source: Reference No. 4)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Standards And Specifications

American Society
for Testing and
Materials (ASTM)
Standards
ASTM Standards provide extensive information on a material’s
chemical composition, mechanical properties, and material’s
testing requirements.

Pages 84 to 86 of the Appendix contain a complete list of the

1991 ASTM Standards by Section and Volume. (Source:
Reference No. 6)

1989 ASME Boiler

and Pressure
Vessel (B&PV)
Code Sections
The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code is divided into several sections,
divisions, parts, and subparts. Some of these cover specific
kinds of equipment and applications, others cover specific
materials and methods for application and control of equipment,
and others relate to care and inspection of operating equipment.
The following sections either cover or are referred to for the
design, construction, and testing of process plant type
equipment:

Section I - Power Boilers

Section II - Material Specifications

Part A - Ferrous Materials

Part B - Nonferrous Materials

Part C - Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals

Section III*

Division 1 - Nuclear Power Plant Components

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 18

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Division 2 - Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and

Containments

Section IV - Heating Boilers

Section V - Nondestructive Examination

Section VI - Recommended Rules for Care and Operation

of Heating Boilers

Section VII -Recommended Guidelines for the Care of

Power Boilers

Section VIII - Pressure Vessels

Division 1

Division 2 - Alternative Rules

Section IX - Welding and Brazing Qualifications

Section X* - Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels

Section XI - Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear

Power Plant Components

Code Case Books

1 Boilers and Pressure Vessel

2* Nuclear Components.

*Referred to occasionally for special problems.

All sections of the Code are updated, and Code interpretations

are issued by an ANSI committee that consists of
representatives from a cross section of industry (users,
manufacturers, material’s suppliers, regulatory, insurance, and
general interest groups). A new edition of the Code is issued on
July 1 every three years, and new addendas are issued on
January 1 of each year. Code Cases are issued after each
committee meeting (4 per year). They contain rules about the
use of special materials and designs that have not yet been
incorporated into the Code.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 19

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Addenda
Colored-sheet Addenda, which include additions and revisions
to individual Sections of the Code, are published annually and
are automatically sent to purchasers of the applicable Sections
up to the publication of the 1992 Code.

Interpretations
ASME issues written replies to inquiries concerning
interpretation of technical aspects of the Code. The
Interpretations for each individual Section are published
separately and are included as part of the update service for
that Section. They are issued semiannually (July and
December) up to the publication of the 1992 Code.
Interpretations for Section III, Divisions 1 and 2, are included
with the update service to Subsection NCA. Interpretations are
not part of the Code or the Addenda.

Code Cases
The Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee meets regularly to
consider proposed additions and revisions to the Code. It also
formulates cases to clarify the intent of existing requirements or
provide, when the need is urgent, rules for materials or
constructions not covered by existing Code rules. Those Cases
which have been adopted will appear in the appropriate 1989
Code Cases book: (1) Boilers and Pressure Vessels and (2)
Nuclear Components. Supplements are sent automatically to
the purchasers of the Code Cases book up to the publication of
the 1992 Code.

Note: In many cases the ASME Section II, Parts A and B

specifications are identical to the ASTM specifications; in some
cases they are not. Materials for pressure vessels or heat
exchangers for new construction, repairs, or alterations should
be ordered to the ASME specifications (for example, SA 516-70
not A-570).

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 20

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

API Standards
There are a number of API Standards, Recommended
Practices, and Publications related to materials used in
petroleum equipment. Pages 87 to 89 of the Appendix contain
these documents. (Source: Reference No. 7)

National Association of
Corrosion Engineers
(NACE) Standards
NACE issues three classes of standards: recommended
practices (RPs), test methods (TM), and material requirements
(MR). Pages 90 to 94 of the Appendix list all the available
standards in the 1991 Book of Standards. Individual standards
may be ordered from NACE. (Reference No. 8)

Saudi Aramco
Engineering
Standards (SAES)
Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure SAEP-125 establishes
guidelines for the development, publication, and use of Saudi
Aramco Engineering Standards (SAES’s).

The purpose of SAES’s is to provide minimum mandatory

requirements for the design, construction, maintenance, and
repair of equipment and facilities for Saudi Aramco. SAES’s
take precedence over all standards and specifications.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 21

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Saudi Aramco
Material System
Specifications
(SAMSS)
Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure SAEP-119 establishes
guidelines for the development, revision, approval, and
distribution of Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications
(SAMSS’s). The purpose of a SAMSS is to serve as an
attachment to a purchase requisition, request for quotation, or
purchase order to specify the minimum technical requirements
which a vendor must meet when supplying specific materials or
equipment for use by Saudi Aramco.

Saudi Aramco
Process Flow
Diagrams (PFDs)
Various Saudi Aramco PFDs are reviewed and stream chemical
composition, temperature, pressure, and corrosive species are
identified.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 22

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

CASE STUDIES

GOSP

Page 140 of the Appendix contains a flow diagram of a typical

Ghawar Field GOSP. Pages 141 to 145 are PFDs which show
the flow through the various pieces of equipment and contain
the chemical compositions of the streams.

Page 145 shows the LPPT Compressor Suction Drum

(U29-D-052). Two material selection problems are illustrated
below:

A new larger drum is required. What should the materials of

construction be and what is the required corrosion allowance?
The gas stream to the drum is Stream No. 2. Summer and
winter data show the temperature to be within the 100 - 148 °C
(212 - 300 °F) range. Pressure is 450 kPa (65 psia). The data
on chemical composition indicates the presence of carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and water. Although carbon steel is a
satisfactory material for the shell and top head, the concern is
that sour water containing H2S and CO2 can accumulate on the
bottom head. It is expected that the new drum will have a
service life of at least 20 years. The top head and shell can be
carbon steel with a corrosion allowance of 3mm (0.125 in), since
the expected corrosion rate at these conditions is less than 5
mpy. The bottom head should be Monel or stainless steel clad
carbon steel, since the compressor suction drum is essential to
compressor operation. The cladding can be applied by roll
bonding, explosion bonding or weld overlay.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 23

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

List of Candidate Materials - A commonly used pressure

vessel steel is SA 516. An examination of Table UCS-23 in
ASME Section VIII Div. 1 indicates that grade 70 material has
the highest value of maximum allowable stress of the four
grades. By using the higher strength grade the required
thickness of the drum is less. However, current industry
practice appears to be moving in the direction of using a lower
strength grade, such as grade 60, along with PWHT after
fabrication to minimize the risk of sulfide-stress cracking. If
grade 70 material is used, at a minimum the drum must be
given PWHT. The selection of grade 60 or 70 will depend
primarily and cost and availability.

For the bottom head competitive bids can be obtained for Monel
or stainless steel clad carbon steel by roll bonding, explosion
cladding, or weld overlay.

DGA Gas Treating Facilities

Pages 146 and 147 of the Appendix contain a flow diagram and
a PFD for the DGA Gas Treating Facilities at the Shedgum
Natural Gas Center. Another example of materials selection
would be for the DGA contactor (R41-C-101). The sour gas to
the DGA contactor is stream 8. The PFD shows a winter and
summer temperature of 46 °C (115 °F) and a pressure of 160
psia. The data on chemical composition indicate the presence
of considerable quantities of CO2, H2S, and water. For these
conditions the top head and shell can be fabricated from carbon
steel. The recommended corrosion allowance is 6 mm (0.250
in). This is based on a predicted corrosion rate of approximately
0.25 mm/yr (10 mpy). This additional shell thickness should
provide a service life of at least 20 years. The bottom head will
be exposed to rich, sour DGA (DGA with H2S and CO2) solution
that could cause erosion-corrosion due to high fluid velocity at
the contactor outlet. To minimize the potential for corrosion it is
recommended that an alloy-clad head and outlet nozzle be
considered. Since Monel is not suitable for amine service, it is
suggested that the head be clad with Type 304L or Type 316L
stainless steel. The cladding could be applied by roll bonding,
explosion bonding, or weld overlay. The final selection should
be made based on cost and availability.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 24

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

Seawater Desalination Plant

Page 148 of the Appendix shows a process overview of the

Seawater Supply System. What kind of FRP pipe can be used
for the seawater piping systems in the various facilities?

Beginning on Page 19 of the Appendix, information on Ameron

Bondstrand pipe is presented. For general seawater service,
the 2000 series pipe can be used. For severely corrosive
services, the 5000 series can be used up to 93 °C (200 °F).

For maximum reliability, the 5000 series can be considered for

stream 3/3. The 2000 series could be used for stream 3/8.

Atmospheric Column System

Pages 149 and 150 of the Appendix contain PFDs for the
Atmospheric Column System at Ras Tanura (stream analyses
are not included). Should the atmospheric column bottoms line
to the vacuum furnaces be carbon steel or 5 Cr-1/2 Mo?

At 357 °C (675 °F) the corrosion rates shown on page 151 are
approximately: 128 mpy for carbon steel, 73 mpy for 5 Cr-1/2
Mo, 23 mpy for 9 % chrome, and 4 mpy for 18 Cr-8 Ni.
Assuming there is no limitation on the life of the unit, 9 Cr-1 Mo
or 18 Cr-8 Ni should be considered after evaluating the amount
of sulfur in the crude that the unit will process. If 18Cr-8Ni
material is used for the atmospheric column bottoms line it
might be advisable to paint the external surface of the line with
high temperature silicone based paint. The paint will prevent
chlorides form coming into direct contact with the surface of the
material.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 25

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

No. 1 Rheniformer (Naptha Hydrotreater)

Page 152 of the Appendix contains a PFD for the No. 1

Rheniformer (Naptha Hydrotreater) at Ras Tanura (no stream
analyses are provided). The hydrotreater reactor (488-C-201)
will be replaced with a new hot wall reactor. What should the
reactor material of construction be? As indicated on the PFD,
the reactor conditions are 460 psig and 290 C (558 °F) at the
start of run (SOR) and 395 C (750 °F) at the end of run (EOR).
The reactor will operate at 200 psia hydrogen partial pressure.
Using the Nelson curves in API 941, 1Cr-Mo steel is required.
Based on availability, 1Cr-Mo steel can also be used.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 26

Engineering Encyclopedia Materials Selection and Failure Analysis

Materials Selection Techniques

REFERENCES

1. Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook

2. API Publication 941, Steels for Hydrogen Service at

Elevated Temperature and Pressures in Petroleum
Refinery and Petrochemical Plants

3. NACE Corrosion Data Survey, 6th Edition, Houston,

Texas, USA

4. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 13

5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Selection, VIII,

Division 1

6. American Society for Testing and Materials Standards

(ASTM)

7. API Standards

8. NACE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 27