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26 Diodes

Chapter 2 DIODES
Course outline:
2.1 Semiconductor diode characterstics
2.2 Modelling the semiconductor diode
2.3 Diode circuits:Clipper and Clamper circuits
2.4 Special purpose diodes:Zener diode,Photodiode,Varactor diode,Tunnel diode
2.5 DC power supply,Rectifier-Half wave rectifier,Full wave rectifier(Centre tapped and Bridge),Zener
regulated power Supply
Introduction:
A diode is a two terminal non linear device.A diode can be of two types namely vacuum diode and
semiconductor diode.A vacuum diode is a two terminal non linear device which works on the
principle of thermionic emission of electrons.On the other hand,the semiconductor diode is a solid
state device which works on the principle of chemical bonding and crystal theory.
Due to small size,fast response and low cost semiconductor diodes are the device of choice
nowdays .Their counterpart vacuum diodes are getting extinct day by day.This is because vacuum
diodes are slow,bulky and expensive.They require high power to operate and it takes heating time to
start and operate.Their life time is relatively small.Also they require frequent replacement.On the
other hand Semiconductor diodes have relativelty long lifetime and require very less power as
compared to vacuum diode.At present except for few high power applications almost all of the two
terminal non linear functions are carried out by Semiconductor diodes.So, in near future,it is certain
that the use of vacuum diode will be completely discouraged .
In this chapter our concern is to study semiconductor diodes.Now onwards when we say diode we
will mean semiconductor diode.The important analog functions that can be carried out by the diodes
are clipping,clamping,rectification,switching etc.Before actually going into diode things we think
that it will be appropriate to review some semiconductor terminologies.
Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies in between that of conductors
and insulators.Their resistivity lies in the range from 10-4Ωm to 0.5Ωm.
Following are the characterstics of semiconductors:
i.The resistivity of semiconductors is less than that of conductors and greater than that of insulators.
ii.They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.This means that their resistance is
inversely proportional to temperature which of course means resistance decrease with increase in
temperature and vice versa.
iii.When impurity is added, there is a significant change in the concentration of charge carriers.
iv.Semiconductors are highly temperature dependent materials.Even a slight change in temperature
can cause appreciable change in carrier concentration.At low temperature their behavior is similar to
insulators and at high temperature their behavior is similar to conductors.
v.They have four valance electrons in their atoms.They lie in the group IV of modern periodic table.
vi.Out of 1010 semiconductor atoms there is only one free electron.
Examples:Carbon,Selenium,Silicon,Germanium
Energy Bands in Conductors,Semiconductors and Insulators:
We know that the conduction in conductor ,semiconductor and insulator is mainly due to
electrons.Electrons are always in motion ,So they possess kinetic energy.And their energy can never
have fixed value.This is because they can occupy different level of energy in an atom based on
energy supplied to the atoms.So,we can describe the state of an electron with a range of energy
rather than just a fixed value.
The different range of energy that an electron can occupy with in the atom are known as
energy bands.Energy bands are used to describe the energy state of an electron but not it’s
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Diodes 27

position.Eg.The electrons in the valance shell of an atom have different energy.The range of energy
that can be acquired by the electrons in the valance shell forms a valance band.
Similarly,the range of energy occupied by the electrons taking part in conduction forms a
conduction band and the range of energy which an electron cannot occupy forms a forbidden
band/gap.

Fig:Energy bands in insulator,semiconductor and conductor.


In case of conductors the valance band and conduction bands are overlapped and there is no
forbidden gap .So,electrons are readily available for conduct
conduction.
In case of semiconductors the forbidden gap is 1.1eV for silicon,0.67eV for Germanium and 1.41eV
for Gallium
Gallium-Arsenide.Applying
Arsenide.Applying small electric field electrons can move from valance band to
conduction band
band.
In case of insulators the forbidden gap is gre
greater
ater than 5 eV .A large electric field is required to move
the electrons from the valance band to conduction band which is not feasible.
Bonding in semiconductors:
The bonding in semiconductors occurs by the formation of covalent bonds.Four electrons of one o
semiconductor atom pairs with four electrons from another semiconductor atom.

Fig:Bonding in semiconductors

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28 Diodes

Hole current:
In a semiconductor,when energy is supplied to the atom the electrons moves from valance band to
conduction band leaving a vacancy in the valance band known as hole.This hole physically doesnot
have any charge but it has tendency to attract electron.So,it acts like a positive charge but it is not a
positive charge .The process of fusion of hole and electron is known as recombination.
In the figure below the electron from position L moves to conduction band leaving a hole.To occupy
the vacancy ,the electron from position M moves to position L leaving behind another vacancy at
position M.Again,the electron from position N occupy the vacancy at M leaving a vacant position
which in turn attracts the electron from position S.This process goes on and on.
Here we see that ,there is a flow of hole in the valance band ,which constitutes hole current.It is
similar to the flow of positive charge.In the conduction band the free electron is available for
conduction.So, in semiconductors the total current is the sum of hole current and electron current.
∴ = +
Where;
I=total current
Ie=electron current
Ih=hole current

C.B

Energy Gap

S L
N M V.B

Types of semiconductors:
a.intrinsic semiconductor:
Pure semiconductors are known as intrinsic semiconductors.Eg Pure Silicon,Germanium etc.
b.extrinsic semiconductor:
Impure semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors.The process of mixing impurity to
intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping which results to the formation of the extrinsic
semiconductor.Generally for 108 semiconductor atoms 1 impurity atom is added.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors viz P-type and N-type.
i.P-type semiconductor:
when the intrinsic semiconductor is dopped with the trivalent impurities like gallium,indium etc.the
P-type extrinsic semiconductor is formed .In p-type extrinsic semiconductor four electrons from pure
semiconductor atom has to pair with three electrons from impurity atom.Thus,three-three electrons
from each atoms part take in paring and one electrons gets unpaired. So,there remains a vacancy

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Diodes 29

which is a hole.Hence,in a p-type


p type materials
materials there are large number of such holes.It is therefore the
material is called P
P-type(or
type(or positive type , as holes are positive).
Sometimes due to the breakage of covalent bond in p p-type
type material few thermal
electrons are ggenerated
enerated along with holes.These electrons are responsible for few leakage current
and their nu
number
mber is very less than the number of holes.Hence,holes are present in excess and are
called majority charge carriers and electrons are present in minimum and ar
are
e called minority charge
carriers .

ii.N-type
ype semiconductor:
when ththe
e intrinsic semiconductor is doped
doped with the pentavalent impurities llike
ike Arsenic,Antimony etc
the N-type
ype extrinsic semiconductor is formed .In N N-type
type extrinsic
extrinsic semiconductor four electrons from
pure semiconductor atom has to pair with five electrons from impurity atom.Thus,four-four
atom.Thus,four
electrons from each atoms part take in paring and one electrons gets surplus. So,there are large
number of such surplus electrons
electrons .It is therefore the material is called N
N-type(or
type(or negative type).
Sometimes due to the breakage of covalent bond in N N-type
type material few
thermal holes are generated along with electrons.These holes are responsresponsible
ible for few leakage
current and their number is very less than the no of electrons Hence,electrons are present in
excess and are called majority charge carriers and holes are present in minimum and are called called
minority charge carriers .

Fig: Bonding in P
P--type
type semiconductor Fig: Bonding in N-type
N type semiconductor

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Conductivity of a semiconductor:
From the knowledge of elementary physics ,we can write
J=nevd, J=σE and vd=µE
where,
J=current density
n=no. of electrons
vd=drift velocity
e=electronic charge=1.6*10-19 C
σ=conductivity
µ=mobility
E=Electric field
When the electric field is applied to semiconductor holes drift in the direction of external applied
electric field and electrons moves in the opposite direction of electric field.Hence ,total current will
be in same direction.So,
J=neve+pevh
Where,
n=no. of electrons
e=electronic charge
p=no. of holes
ve=drift velocity of electrons
vh=drift velocity of holes
Also,J=σE
∴ σE=neve+pevh
or, σE=neµeE+peµhE (µe=mobility of electrons and µh=mobility of holes)
∴ σ=(neµe+peµh)
This is the required expression for the conductivity of semiconductors.
PN JUNCTION DIODE:
When p-type semiconductor is suitably connected to the n-type semiconductor,the PN junction is
formed and the device is known as PN junction diode.The process of connecting p-type material and
n-type material is done by fabrication.A PN junction can’t be formed by just connecting p-type
material with n-type material.
Metal contact

Anode P-type N-type Cathode

Fig:Simplified form of PN junction diode

When the P and N type materials are brought in contact , the free electrons from the N-type
material diffuse into the P region to recombine with holes leaving behind the positive ions near the
junction. Similarly, during the recombination of holes and electrons in P-region the negative ions are
formed near the junction. These positive ions and negative ions form a carrier depleted layer known
as depletion layer. It is called so because the layer is composed of positive and negative ions where
positive ions are depleted of negative carriers and negative ions are depleted of positive carriers.

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Diodes 31

EB
Bound
P Charges N

Holes + Electrons
-
+ + + -ss - -
+ + + - + - - -
+ + + - - -
- +

Fig:Illustration of PN junction diode with the formation of depletion layer


After the depletion layer is formed the normal flow of the holes and electrons gets stopped.The
depletion layer acts as a barrier .The potential difference across the depletion region is called as
barrier potential or built in potential and it is denoted by Vo.The expression for Vo is given by:

= ln

Where,
K=1.38*10-23J/K=Boltzman’s Constant
T=Temperature in absolute scale
q=charge of one electron=1.6*10-19 C
Na=Acceptor concentration
Nd=Donor concentration
ni=Intrinsic Concentration
Due to the barrier potential there exist an electric field which acts as a barrier for flow of majority
charge carriers.
Symbol of PN Junction Diode:

P N

Anode Cathode

Fig:Symbol of PN junction Diode

Biasing:The process of applying the dc voltage to the semiconductor diode(or any semiconductor
device) is known as biasing.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode:

VDD

Fig:Forward Biased PN junction diode

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to a P-type material and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to a N-type material then the diode is said to be forward
biased. When the diode is forward biased the depletion layer continuously decrease and disappear.
For the sake of simplicity in the figure shown below depletion layer is not drawn.

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32 Diodes

When the diode is forward biased ,the holes from P-type material gets repelled by the positive
terminal of the battery and the electrons from N-type material get repelled by negative terminal of
the battery.Thus,large number of holes and electrons recombine at the junction thereby permitting
current to flow through the diode.
P N

VDD

I-V Characterstics of forward Biased PN junction Diode:


ID(mA)

VD(Volts
)

VK(Knee Voltage)
Fig:I-V characterstics of Forward Biased PN junction Diode
Initially When the voltage across diode is zero no current flows through the diode.As the forward
voltage increases and until it becomes equal to knee voltage(VK)the diode current remains
zero.When the forward voltage (VF) becomes equal to knee voltage,the diode current starts
increasing rapidly.
For Si diode,VK=0.7V
For Ge diode,VK=0.3V
Reversed Biased PN Junction Diode:

VDD

Fig:Reversed Biased PN Junction Diode


When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-type material and the negative terminal
of the battery is connected to P-type material ,the diode is said to be reversed biased.When the

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Diodes 33

diode is reversed biased the width of the depletion layer increases.For the sake of simplicity the
depletion layer is not shown in the figure below.

When the diode is reversed biased the holes from P-type material are attracted by the negative
terminal of the battery and electrons from N-type material are attracted by the positive terminal of
the battery.Thus,the depletion layer is widened.Here diode acts as if it is an open circuit and it does
conduct.However,few leakage current flows quantum mechanically.This current is known as reverse
saturation current and is designated as IS. For each 10°c rise in temperature the reverse saturation
current gets doubled.It is important to note that the leakage current is due to the minority charge
carriers.

P N

VDD

I-V characteristics of a Reversed biased diode:


VB

-VD

Where VB=Breakdown Voltage

-IR(µA)
Fig:I-V characterstics of Reversed biased PN junction diode
When the reverse voltage is increased the reverse current IR increases gradually,when the reverse
voltage attains certain value VB called Breakdown voltage,the reverse current increases rapidly and
the breakdown occurs.Due to this breakdown the junction may be permanently damaged in
ordinary(Rectifier)diodes.

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Temperature Effects on I-V characterstics of Diode and The Diode equation:

Fig:Temperature effect on I-V characterstics of diode

The diode characterstics curve can be mathematically represented by the exponential equation

= − 1 ………….(i)

Where,
ID=diode current
Is=Reverse saturation current
VD=diode voltage
η=1 to 2,is emission coefficient

VT = ,thermal voltage
K=Boltzman’s constant = 1.38*10-23J/K
T=absolute temperature
q=electronic charge=1.6*10-19C
The equation (i) is known as diode equation.

If >> 1,then

= ……………………...(ii)

The saturation current Is doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature as mentioned in the earlier
section.
Modelling the semiconductor diode:
Modelling:The process of representing the semiconductor diode(or any other semiconductor device)
by the basic electric filaments like resistor,inductor,capacitor and sources like voltage source
,current source etc without the loss of its functional behavior is known as modeling.

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Diodes 35

Model: The circuitary representation of the diode(or any other semiconductor device) with the
equivalent elements is known as the model of diode(or device model)
In our day to day life we have to frequently deal with two types of signals,DC signals and AC
signal.In DC signal we generally require high voltage of the order of volts.So,DC signals are known as
Large Signals.
In AC signal we require voltage of order mV so, AC signals are known as small signal.
It should be noted that the objective of modeling the non-linear device is to achieve linearity so that
we can apply various circuit theory to obtain the parameters of the device.
DC or Large signal model of the diode:
In DC or large signal model we deal with the application of large signals to the diode circuit.
1.Ideal Diode and Ideal diode model:
An ideal diode is a diode such that
ID=0 for VD<0
And ID>0 for VD>0
The above expression suggests us that the resistance of ideal diode is zero.

ID

-VD
VD

Fig:I-V characterstics for ideal diode

VDD S.C
VDD

Fig:Forward Biased Ideal Diode And its equivalent circuit

O.C
VDD VDD

Fig:Reversed Biased Ideal Diode and equivalent model modelled by an open circuit.Also,the
voltage drop across the ideal diode is assumed to be zero.

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36 Diodes

2.Piecewise linear model:

Ideal diode

VDD VDD
VD

rD

Fig:Piecewise equivalent circuit of the diode

Where,
rD=Forward resistance
VD=Diode Voltage drop
In piecewise linear model a diode is replaced by ideal diode with its voltage drop VD
and internal resistance rD.So this model is also known as battery plus resistance model.
ID
1
=

VD

0.7 V

Fig:Exponential Curve approximated by two straight lines.

In this model,the exponential curve is approximated by two pieces of straight lines.So,this model is
known as piecewise linear model.
3.Constant Voltage drop model:
In this model a diode is replaced by the constant diode voltage drop.In this model the diode
resistance is assumed to be zero.Since the diode is replaced by a constant voltage drop,this model is
called constant voltage drop model.

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Diodes 37

Ideal diode
VDD
VDD

VD=0.7 V

Fig:Constant voltage drop circuit representation

ID(mA)

VD(Volts)

0.7 V

Fig:Characterstics plot for constant voltage drop model.

Small Signal analysis of diode:


In the small signal model we study the applications of small signal or ac signals to the diode
circuit.Generally the signals with the amplitude around 10mV or less are known as small signals.

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38 Diodes

Fig:Graphical analysis of small signal model.Note that the signal used in the diode circuit is assumed
to have a triangular waveform.The current and Voltage swing occurs across the bias point whose
meaning will be apparent in the topic to come.In figure,vd(t) is the voltage signal and id(t) is the
current swing.Q is the bias point.

iD

+
vd +
- vD
-
+
VD
-

Fig:Circuit for small signal analysis .


Note that here we have used dc voltage even in small signal analysis.This is done to ensure the diode
to be forward biased throughout the operation.
Let,
vd=voltage due to ac source
VD=voltage due to DC source
vD=Total voltage across diode
iD=Total current through diode
ID= current due to DC source
Id =current due to ac source

Then,applying the superposition theorem,


vD= vd+ VD.......(i)
iD= id+ ID……..(ii)

We know from the diode equation,

= −1

If >>1 then

, = (∵using equation (i) )



, =
We know,

=

∴ =
, + = (∵Using equation (ii) )

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Diodes 39

Expanding the exponential function on the right hand side of the above equation,

+ = 1+ + + +⋯
! ! !

Since this is small signal analysis and the signal voltage vd is very small.So in the above expression
we can neglect the higher powers of vd.
∴ + = 1+
, + = +
, =

, =
Here, =rd=Dynamic resistance of diode

∴ =
This is the required expression for the dynamic resistance or ac resistance of the diode.
Diode Load line:
RL
ID

VD
Q point VV
DDDD

IF
VD

VDD

Applying KVL for the above circuit,


VDD=ID*RL+VD…..(i)
When ID=0 then
VD=VDD and
When VD=0 then
=
The equation (i) can be written as
VD=VDD-ID*RL
This equation is in the form,
y=c-mx
Which is the first degree equation of the straight line having negative slope.This line has the end
points(VDD,0) and (0, ).Since ID and VDD are constant for the particular circuit and the different
values of VD can be obtained for different values of load resistance RL. So ,the straight line is known
as load line or diode load line.

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40 Diodes

The point of intersection of the load line and forward characterstics curve of the diode is
known as Q-point or quiescent point or operating point.It is after this point diode starts functioning.

Special Purpose Diodes:


PN Junction diode cannot be used for all type of applications .Depending upon the type of
application the PN junction diode is modified to obtain a new kind of diode.These diodes are known
as special purpose diode.Following are the different types of special purpose diodes:

i.Zener Diode
ii.Light Emitting Diode(LED)
iii.Photo Diode
iv.Varactor Diode
v.Tunnel Diode
v.Schottky Diode
i.Zener Diode:
Zener diode is a special purpose diode which is designed to operate in the breakdown region.Unlike
the other ordinary PN junction diodes, the Zener diode can operate in breakdown region without
damage to the junction.For this Zener diode is heavily doped.In the forward biased condition,it’s
characterstics is same as that of ordinary PN junction diodes.It is always reverse connected in the
circuit.Due to the very steep I-V characterstics in the breakdown region(ideally a straight vertical
line) the Zener voltage remains constant over the large change in current.This property of Zener
diode is utilized in the design of voltage regulator circuits so as to get stable output voltage.The
operation of zener diode as a voltage regulator will be studied in the later section.The voltage at
which Zener Breakdown occurs is known as reverse breakdown voltage or in specific Zener
Breakdown voltage.It is designated as VZThe symbol of the Zener diode is:

Fig:Symbol of Zener Diode

Fig:Characterstic curve for the Zener diode

ii.Light Emitting Diode:


The special purpose semiconductor diode which emits visible light when forward biased is known as
Light Emitthing Diode(LED).The symbol of LED is

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Diodes 41

Fig:Symbol of Light Emitting Diode(LED)


In the light emitting diode the PN junction is not made from Si or Ge.Instead it is made from the
materials like gallium,phosphorous and arsenic.During the forward biased condition the
recombination of holes and electrons cause the electron to radiate energy in the form of heat and
light which lies in the visible region.

Emitted Visible
P N Light

Electron Hole
Recombination
+ - ++ --
+ - + -
+ -
+ - + -

Fig:Emission of the visible light due to the recombination of holes and electrons.

Radiated
Light(mW)

ID(mA)

Fig:I-V characterstics of the Light Emitting Diode

iii.Photo Diode:
The special purpose semiconductor diode in which the reverse current increase when the junction is
exposed to light is called as photodiode.
The reverse current in the photo diode is directly proportional to the intensity of
light falling on the PN junction of the Photo diode.This means greater the intensity of light falling on
the junction larger will be the magnitude of the reverse current.The symbol of the photo diode is:

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42 Diodes

Fig:Symbol of Photo Diode.

Characterstics of Photo Diode:


a.Reverse Current illumination curve:(IRVs E)
It is the graph plotted between reverse current IR illumination E of the photo diode.
IR

Fig:Reverse current illumination curve


b.Reverse voltage-reverse current curve:
It is the graph between reverse voltage VR and reverse current IR of the photo diode.
IR(µA)

E=600lux

E=400lux

E=200lux

Dark current VR(Volts)

Fig:Reverse voltage-Reverse current curve

IV.Varactor Diode:
The special purpose semiconductor diode which is designed to exhibit the variable capacitance
under the reversed biased condition is known as varicap(Vari for variable and cap for capacitance)
or Varactor diode.The symbol of varactor diode is:

Fig:Symbol of Varactor diode

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Diodes 43

- +
P N

Wd

Fig:Descriptive figure of varactor diode.The depletion layer is shown in larger scale for the
purpose of illustration
When reversed biased,the width of the depletion layer is increased.Here,the positive and negative
ions on the either side of depletion region forms a parallel plate capacitor in which capacitance c is
the function of width of depletion layer(Wd) which is again the function of reverse voltage VR
. i.e C=f(Wd)
Where, Wd=f(VR)
Thus,the capacitance of the varactor diode is controlled by the reverse voltage across the varactor
diode.
The capacitance is given by:

=

Where,
ℰ=Permitivity of semiconductor material
A=Cross sectional area of semiconductor material
Wd=Width of the depletion layer.
C=Capacitance of the Varactor diode

C(pF)

100

80

60

40

VR 20

-15 -10 -5

Fig:Characterstics curve for varactor diode

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44 Diodes

It is important to note that the variation of capacitance for ordinary PN junction diode is not so
appreciable because they are not designed for capacitance.So,we use varactor diode for this
purpose in which the variation of capacitance is appreciable as shown in the figure.
V.Tunnel Diode:
The Special purpose semiconductor diode which exhibits negative resistance between two values of
forward resistance (i.e between peak-point voltage and valley point voltage) is called as Tunnel
diode.The symbol of the Tunnel diode is:

Fig:Symbol of Tunnel diode

I(mA) P Negative
IP=2.2mA resistance
Region

IV=0.3mA
V

V(volts)

VP=0.07 VV=0.7V

Fig:I-V characterstics of Tunnel Diode

The Tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times the ordinary PN diode.The operation of the
Tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling phenomenon.So the diode is called Tunnel diode.
Note:
In semiconductor approach the movement of electron from valance band to conduction band with
very little or no energy is known as tunneling.Here the electron is said to have tunneled through the
forbidden band.
This tunneling phenomenon is same as that studied in general physics where the electron
with the energy less than the energy of the potential barrier can cross the potential barrier.
Vi.Schottky Barrier Diode(SBD) or Schottky Diode or Hot carrier diode:
Schottky Barrier Diode(SBD) or Hot carrier diode is an special purpose semiconductor diode which is
formed by bringing the metal in contact with the moderately doped n-type semiconductor
material.Here the metal is used instead of p-type material.The resulting metal-semiconductor
junction acts like a diode which conduct the current in one direction and acts as an open circuit in
opposite direction.The characterstics of Schottky diode is same as that of ordinary PN junction diode
with two major exceptions.
a.In the schottky diode the current is conducted entirely by majority carriers(electrons).Thus there is
no effect of minority charge stored therby giving the fastest possible switching speed.

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Diodes 45

b.The forward voltage drop is less than the ordinary PN junction diode voltage drop.It is around
0.3V-0.5V whereas for ordinary diode forward voltage drop is around 0.6-0.8V.The symbol of
Schottky diode is shown below:

Fig:Symbol of Schottky diode

Fig:Comparision between characterstics of Ordinary PN junction diode and Schottky diode.


The Schottky diode has been extensively used in design of Schottky TTL*.Where the function of
Schottky diode is to prevent the transistors to go into the saturation so as to provide the fastest
possible switching speed.
*TTL( ) stands for Transistor-Transistor Logic which is one of the important logic family of
digital circuits.

Clipping Circuit:
The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing(or clipping) a portion of the applied
wave is known as clipping circuit.There are three types of diode clippers namely
i.Positive and Negative Clipper
ii.Biased Clipper
iii.Combinational Clipper

i.Positive and Negative Clipper:


The diode circuit which clipps off the positive portion of the input waveform is called as positive
clipper.

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46 Diodes

+Vm
RL Vout
D

-Vm
-Vm

Fig:Positive clipper circuit

Circuit operation:When the input wave is positive the diode will be forward biased .So for the
positive half cycle diode will conduct and acts as a short circuit and the current through resistor RL is
zero and the output voltage becomes zero.
When the input is negative or during the negative half cycle,the diode is reverse biased.So,all
the current appears on RL.Thus,there is a voltage drop across it.
Here we see that the positive portions of the input are clipped off in the output.Thus it is called
positive clipper.For the negative clipper all we have to do is reverse the connection of diode as
shown below.

Vm R Vm

RL Vout
D
-Vm

Fig:Negative Clipper
The operation of this circuit is similar to that of positive clipper except that it clipps off the negative
portions of the input wave.
ii.Biased Clipper:
Sometime we require to remove certain portion of input wave rather than removing the total
positive or negative portions of the input wave.For this purpose biased clipper as following are used.

+Vm
Vm R
D
Vout +V
RL
V

-Vm Fig:Positive Biased clipper

Circuit operation:In the positive half cycle,the voltage across the diode has to overcome the voltage
+V in order to get forward biased.When the input voltage exceeds the biasing voltage +V ,the diode
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Diodes 47

will conduct heavily.As long as the input voltage is greater than +V the diode acts as short circuit and
+V will appear across RL.

For the negative half cycle the diode is going to be reversed biased and all current flows through
the resistor RL and the output voltage appear across it which is equal to input voltage.
Here,we see that the small portion of input wave is clipped off during positive half cycle. Hence, the
circuit is called as positive biased clipper.
Similarly,the circuit for negative biased clipper is shown below:

R
Vm

V
RL Vout
D -V
-Vm -Vm

Fig:Negative Biased Clipper

The operation of this circuit is similar to that of positive biased clipper except that certain portion of
negative half cycle of input wave clipped off.
iii.Combinational Clipper:
It is a combination of both positive(biased or not biased)clipper and negative(biased or not
biased)clipper.Thus combinational clipper can be used to remove the small portions or all portions of
both negative and positive half cycles simultaneously.

Vm +V1
D1 D2 RL Vout
V1 V2
+V2
-Vm

Fig:Combination of Positive biased clipper and negative biased


clipper

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


48 Diodes

Vm
D1 RL
D2 Vout

V2 -V2
-Vm

Fig:Combination of Positive clipper and negative biased clipper

R
Vm +V1

D2 Vout
D1 RL
V1
-Vm

Fig:Combination of Positive biased clipper and negative clipper

The readers are encouraged to understand the circuit operation of above combinational clipper
circuits.The operations are similar to that of previous clippers except that both positive half cycle of
input waveform are clipped off fully or partially.

Clamper Circuit:
The diode circuit which changes the voltage level or dc level of the input wave
without affecting its general shape and peak-peak voltage is known as clamper circuit.It adds DC
component to the signal.So,it is also called as DC restorer or level shifter.For example:

+20V

+10V
Clamper +10V

Circuit
0V
-10V

From the above illustration it must be clear that only the voltage level is changed by a clamper
circuit.Here the mean position is shifted fronm 0V to 10V but the general shape and peak-peak
voltage(For above case VP-P=20V) is not changed.
By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel
Diodes 49

Types of clamper circuit:


There are two types of clamper circuit viz positive clamper and negative clamper.

a.Positive Clamper:
The clamper circuit which shifts the input signal towards positive DC level is known as positive
clamper circuit.The circuit for positive clamper circuit is shown below:
Vin
Vin C
+ + +2V

+V +V
Vin Vout
D RL
0
-V t
- t
-

Circuit operation:
i.When Vin is negative:

V
- +
+ In this case diode D is forward
biased and acts as a short circuit
C
- assuming the voltage drop across it
D RL Vout to be zero.The capacitor is charged
V
+ up to the voltage V with the
- polarity as shown in the figure.

Applying KVL for above circuit,


− + =0
∴ =0
ii.When Vin is positive:

V
- + In this case diode D is reversed biased
+
and acts as an open circuit .When input
C is switched to +V,the capacitor still
+
V D Vout remains fully charged because the
RL
- discharging time constant of capacitor
is made much greater than time
-
period of signal.

Applying KVL to above circuit,we get,



− =0
∴ =2
The output waveform is as shown in the figure.Here we considered square waveform for input
signal.Same is true for other waveforms.Also we can see that the waveform is shifted towards
positive dc level.It is clamped by +V volts.i.e. signal climbed up V volts dc level.
b.Negative clamper:
The clamper circuit which shifts the input signal towards the negative dc level is called negative
clamper circuit.The circuit for negative clamper circuit is given below:
By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari
50 Diodes

Vin Vout

+
+V C
D t
Vin RL Vout
0
t
-V -V
-
-2V

Circuit operation:
i.When Vin is positive:
V
+ -
+
In this case diode D is forward
C biased .The diode thus acts as
+
D short circuit and capacitor C is
V RL Vout
charged to V volts with the
-
polarity as as shown in the figure.
-

Applying KVL to the above circuit,we get,


+ − =0
∴ =0
ii.When Vin is negative:

V
+ -
+
In this case,the diode D is
reversed biased and acts as an
- open circuit.When input is
D
V RL Vout
switched to –V ,the capacitor still
+ remains fully charged because
the discharging time constant of
-
the capacitor is greater than the
time period of the signal.

Applying KVL to above circuit,we get,


+ =0 +
∴ = −2
The output waveform is as shown in the figure .Here we can see that the waveform is shifted
towards the negative dc level.It is clamped by –V volts.i.e. signal climbed down V volts dc level.
DC Power Supply:
In many applications of electronics it is required to use DC power instead of AC power.Electronic
components like diode ,transistor and other components along with various integrated circuits
require DC power to operate.For this reason the AC power is to be converted into DC power which
means AC current/voltage needs to be converted to DC current/voltage.The process of conversion of
AC current/voltage in to DC current/voltage is known as rectification.
By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel
Diodes 51

The block diagram for DC power supply is :

DC
Transformer Rectifier Filter Output
voltage

Fig:Block diagram for DC power supply

The ac signal from the supply is stepped down using step down transformer.The output
obtained from the transformer is fed to the rectifier circuit.The output of rectifier is a pulsating dc
which require to smooth further using the filter circuit.The output of the filter circuit is the final dc
output voltage.
However,to get a stable output we may use voltage regulater to the output of DC power supply.

Rectifier:
The circuit which converts the ac current/voltage to dc current/voltage is known as rectifier.The
unidirectional current conduction property of diode has find its application in rectifier circuit.So
diode can be used to implement rectifier circuit to perform rectification.There are two types of
rectifier viz Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier.
1.Half wave rectifier:
The rectifier circuit which converts only half of the input signal into the dc is called as half wave
rectifier.
M D

Vin RL Vout

N
Fig:Half wave rectifier

When input signal is positive:


D
+

Vin Vout
RL

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


52 Diodes

When input signal is negative:


- D

Vin RL Vout=0
00

+
Initially during the positive half cycle of the input signal,let end M be at positive potential and end N
be at negative potential.The diode D is forward biased and the diode current flows through diode to
the load resistor.
During the negative half cycle of the input signal,the end M is at negative potential and end N is at
positive potential.The diode D is reversed biased and no current flows through the circuit.
Here, we see that only one half of the input signal is rectified because the diode conducts for
positive half cycle only.
The input output relationship is given in the figure below:

I/V

Input ac signal
ωt

Output dc
D D D

ωt

Fig: Timing diagram of Half wave rectifier

Rectification Efficiency(η):
It is defined as the ratio of output dc power to input ac power.
Let rf be the diode resistance and = ℎ input signal.
Also,
=
Where,
Vm=peak voltage
Im=peak current
V=instantaneous voltage
I=instantaneous current
ω=angular frequency
where,
=
( )= ∗ +
By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel
Diodes 53

For half-wave rectified sine wave, =

∴ = ∗ +
For output DC power:
In half wave rectifier the output current is not constant.So,we will find the average value of output
DC current.

I/V

Vm/Im

ωt
0
dωt π 2π 3π

Fig:Output dc waveform to calculate average value

By using the formula,


=
As we know average value is taken for half cycle.So for area dωt extends from 0 to π.
And base for above case=2π.
∴ = ∫
, = ∫ sin
, = (− cos )
, = ∗2
∴ =
∴ ( )=( ) ∗
∴ = ∗
Therefore,Rectification efficiency is given by:

=


, =
∗ +
2
4
, =
+

, = 0.406
+
1
, = 0.406
1+
Since rf is negligibly small,
, = 0.406 = 40.6%
Thus,only 40.6% of input signal is converted to dc.

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


54 Diodes

2.Full Wave Rectifier:


The rectifier circuit in which full cycle of input signal wave is rectified or converted to dc is called full
wave rectifier.There are two types of full wave rectifier.They are:
i.Center-tapped full wave rectifier
ii.Bridge full wave rectifier
i.Centre-tapped full wave rectifier:

M D1

Vin
RL Vout

N D2

Fig:Centre-tapped Full wave rectifier.

When Vin is positive:

+ D1

Vin

RL Vout

D2

When Vin is negative:

- D1

Vin

RL Vout

D2

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 55

I/V

Input ac signal
ωt

Output dc
D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2

ωt

Fig: Timing diagram of Centre tapped Full wave rectifier

The circuit of full wave rectifier is shown in the figure.It consist of two diodes D1 and
D2.The output is taken across the load resistor RL.
Suppose at the positive half cycle of the input signal end M be at positive potential and end N be at
negative potential.In this case,diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reversed biased.The current
flows through diode D1 to load resistor RL and finally to centre tap.
During the negative half cycle of of input signal end M is at negative potential and end N is at
positive potential.In this case diode D2 is forward biased and the diode D1 is reversed biased.The
current flows through the diode D2 to load resistor RL and finally to centre tap.
Here,we see that in each cycle one of two diodes is conducting and the direction of current is
same.Thus,the output appears for full cycle of input signal.Furthermore,the output is in the form of
pulsating dc which require to smooth further using filter circuit.

ii.Bridge Rectifier:
M
Vin D1
D4

D3 D2
RL
N

Fig:Bridge rectifier

A Bridge rectifier consists of four diodes D1,D2, D3 and D4 as shown in the figure.The output is taken
across the load resistor RL.

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


56 Diodes

When Vin is positive:

D4
D1

Vin

D3 D2
RL
-

D1,D3 forward biased

D2,D4 reversed biased

When Vin is negative:

D4 D1

Vin

D3 D2
RL
+

D2,D4 forward biased

D1,D3 reversed biased

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 57

I/V

Input ac signal
ωt

D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2
D3 D4 D3 D4 D3 Output dc
D4

ωt

Fig: Timing diagram of Bridge Full wave rectifier

During the positive half cycle of input signal ,suppose end M be at positive potential and end N be at
negative potential.In this case the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and conduct the current as
shown in the figure and the diodes D2 and D4 are reversed biased and they do not conduct.
In the negative half cycle of input signal the end M is at negative potential and the end N is
at positive potential thereby causing the diodes D2 and D4 to get forward biased and diodes D1and
D3 reversed biased.Therefore,diodes D2 and D4 conducts current as shown in the figure.
In this way,both half cycle of input signal is rectified and output is taken across RL.The
advantage of the bridge rectifier over the centre tapped rectifier is the elimination of the bulky
centre tapped transformer owing to the two diodes drop for the rectification in each cycle.Again ,the
output is pulsating DC which require to smooth further using filter circuit.
Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier:
The output waveform of full wave rectifier is as shown below:

I/V

Im /Vm

ωt

o
dωt π 2π 3π

Fig:Output dc waveform to calculate average value

Let input signal be = sin


Also,
= sin
=
Where,
rf=internal diode resistance

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


58 Diodes

RL=Load resistance
For full wave rectified sine wave,
=


=
= 2
∴ =
( )= ∗ +

∴ = ∗ +

∴ ( )=( ) ∗
∴ = ∗
Therefore,Rectification efficiency is given by:

=

4

, =
∗ +
√2
8
, =
+

, = 0.811
+
1
, = 0.811
1+
Since rf is negligibly small,
∴ = 0.811 = 81.1%
Thus the rectification efficiency of the full wave rectifier is twice that of half wave rectifier.
Zener diode as a Voltage regulator:
In many cases it is desired to have a stable dc output.For this voltage regulators are used.Due to its
property of having the constant voltage in breakdown region the zener diode can be used as a
voltage regulator.The circuit for the voltage regulator using the zener diode is shown below .
IS RS

IZ
+
RL
VZ
VS
-
IL

Fig:Zener diode as a Voltage regulator

In the figure,the source VS is a variable source,RS is source resistance and the output is taken across
the load resistor.

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 59

Circuit operation:
When the input voltage is less than VZ Zener diode doesnot conduct and all the current flows
through RL and output is taken across it.When the input voltage exceeds VZ ,the current IZ flows
through the Zener diode.But still the output voltage remains same.This is because Zener diode is so
doped that whenever IZ increase the Zener resistance RZ decreases but VZ remains
constant.Similarly,when IZ decrease the Zener resistance RZ increases but VZ remains constant.Since
the load resistor is connected in parallel with zener diode,the voltage across it also remains
constant.Thus,when input voltage is low ,all the current is transferred to load and when the input
voltage is high ,the excess current is bypassed by the Zener diode.Hence,the output across RL is
stable and constant.So,Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.
Applying KCL to above circuit,
= + …….(i)
Applying KVL to above circuit,
= ∗ + ….(ii)

Zener Regulated Power Supply:

RS

Vin

VZ RL Vout

Fig:Zener regulated power supply

Here,the Zener diode is connected to ordinary power supply to provide regulated or constant
voltage across the load resistor.

Numericals:
1.In the diode circuit η=1,VD1=0.7V,ID1=1mA then for ID2=10mA.Calculate VD2.
Solution:
We know,

= ….(i)

= ….(ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by equation(i),we get,

=
Taking ln on both sides, we get,
ln =

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


60 Diodes

, = + ln
For VT =0.025V=25.7mV
VD2=0.7+1*0.0257ln
∴ VD2=0.759V
2.A silicon PN junction diode which have η=1 has V=0.7V at I=1mA.Find the voltage drop across the
diode at
i.I=0.1mA
ii.I=10mA
Solution:
we know,

, = + ln

i.
ID1=1mA,VD1=0.7V
ID2=0.1mA
VT=0.0257 V
.
∴ = 0.7 + 1 ∗ 0.0257 ∗ ln
, = 0.7 − 0.059
∴ = 0.641
ii.
ID1=1mA,VD1=0.7V
ID2=10mA
VT=0.0257 V
, = 0.7 + 1 ∗ 0.0257 ∗ ln
∴ = 0.759
3.A si diode has the saturation current of 0.1pA at 20°C.Find its current when it is forward biased by
0.55 volt.Find the current in the same diode when the temperature rises to 100°C.
Solution:
At 20°C,
IS1=0.1 pA
∴ IS1=0.1*10-12A
VD=0.55 V
. ∗ ∗
= = = 0.0257
. ∗
η=1 then,

=
.
, = 0.1 ∗ 10 ∗ .

=1.96*10-4 A
= 0.196 mA
At 100°C
IS2 = 28* IS1,since,for 10°C rise in temperature saturation current doubles.
∴ for20°-100°C i.e 80°C change in temperarure saturation current doubles 8 times.
. ∗ ∗
= = = 0.032
. ∗

∴ =
.
=2 ∗ .

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 61
.
= 2 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 10 ∗ ∗.
-4
= 7.45*10 A
=0.745 mA Ans
4.Find the current through the diode using constant voltage drop model.Assume diode voltage drop
to be 0.7V

2Ω
10 V 2Ω ID

Solution:
Using the source conversion technique,converting 10V source with 2Ω series resistance to 5A
current source with 2Ω parallel resistance.

5A 2Ω 2Ω D

The above circuit is equivalent to:

5A 1Ω

Again converting 5A current source with 1Ω parallel resistance into 5V voltage source with 1 Ω series
resistance

1Ω

5V VD=0.7V

Constant voltage drop equivalent model is

1Ω

5V
0.7V

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


62 Diodes
.
= = 4.3 A Ans
Or using Thevinin’s Theorem

2Ω

10V 2Ω

Finding Voc or VTH :

2Ω
10V 2Ω Vth

∴ = 10 ∗ = 5
Finding Rth:

2Ω

2Ω

RTH


∴ = = 1Ω

Therefore we can write,

1Ω

Vth=5
0.7V

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 63

Constant voltage drop model is:

1Ω ID
5V
0.7V

.
∴ Diode current , =
or , = 4.3 Ans

5.Find the load line for the circuit given in question no 4.


Solution:
The given circuit is:

2Ω
10 V 2Ω ID

Using repetitive source conversion


RD=1Ω

VDD=5V
VD=0.7V
ID

Applying KVL,we get,


= − ∗

When ID=0
= =5
When VD=0
= = = 5
So load line is:
ID
5 mA

VD
5V
Fig:Required load line

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


64 Diodes

7.Find the value of small signal resistance,VD and VF of the given figure:
(IS=10-12A,η=1.6,ID=1mA)

Solution:
+ 1.6 ∗ 0.025
= = = 40Ω
10
rd We know,
VD
Vf =
∴ = ln ∗

- ∴ = ln ∗ 1.6 ∗ 0.025=0.82V
Again,
= ∗ +
, = − ∗
, = 0.82 − 10 ∗ 40 = 0.78 Ans

8.Use the ideal diode model and piecewise linear model to find the current through the diode (for
piecewise linear model rd=0.5Ω)

2Ω

10V Diode

Solution:
Using ideal diode model the equivalent the equivalent circuit is:

2Ω
S.C
10V

10
∴ =5 =
2
Using piecewise linear model,the equivalent circuit is :

2Ω Ideal diode

rD=0.5Ω
10V

VD=0.7V

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 65

The equivalent of this circuit is:

S.C
2Ω
0.5Ω
10
0.7V

10 − 0.7 9.3
∴ = = = 3.72
2 + 0.5 2.5
9.The circuit shown below uses three identical diodes D1, D2, and D3.For each diode assume reverse
saturation current is 10-13A at 300K and η=1.Calculate Vin to get 600mV across diode D3.
D1 D2

D3 600mV
Vim RL=1K

Solution:
T=300K
η=1
= 10
. ∗ ∗
= = = 0.02587
. ∗

D1 D2

ID 600mV
D3
RL=1K
Vin ID3
IL

=

, = 10 ∗ .

, = 1.18 ∗ 10
Again,
= = 0.6
∴ = + = 1.18+0.6=1.78mA
For D1,

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


66 Diodes

= 10 ∗ . = 1.78
. ∗
∴ = ln ∗ 0.02587 = 0.6
The diodes D1 and D2 are identical and current through them is also same.
∴VD2=0.6V
Also,
VD3=600mV=0.6V
Applying KVL for the above circuit,we get,
Vin=VD1+ VD2+ VD3=0.6+0.6+0.6=1.8V Ans
10.For the circuit shown below find the peak value of current i(t) and voltage V(t) across the resistor
when
e(t)=20 sin ωt
Also draw the waveform of e(t),i(t) and V(t).
D

e(t) 15K Vout


i(t)

Solution:
Peak voltage across resistor=20-0.7=19.3V
.
∴Peak current through resistor= = 12.87 A
.
∴VR(t)=19.3 sin ωt
∴i(t)=12.87 sin ωt
The waveforms for e(t),V(t) and i(t) are shown in the figure below.
I/V
e(t)
20V
ωt

V(t)

19.3V
ωt

I(t)
ωt
12.87mA

Fig:Output waveforms for e(t),V(t) and i(t)

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel


Diodes 67

11.Calculate the total current I,load current IL and the Zener current IZ in the circuit shown
below.How will these value be affected if the source voltage be increased to 70V.

I RS=3K

IZ
+
RL=2K
VZ=10V
40-70V
-
IL

Solution:
When Vin=40V
= = =5
( )
∴ = = = 10
= − = 10 − 5 = 5
When Vin=70V
= = =5
( )
∴ = = = 20
= − = 20 − 5 = 15
12.Find the maximum and minimum current through the Zener diode from the figure shown below.

I RS=5K

IZ
+
RL=10K
VZ=50V
80-120V
-
IL

Solution:
When Vin=80V
= = =5
( )
∴ = = =6
= − =6−5=1
When Vin=120V
= = =5
( )
∴ = = = 14
= − = 14 − 5 = 9

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


68 Diodes

13.What value of the series resistance is required when three 10w,10V,1000mA Zener diodes are
connected in series to obtain the 30V output fram a 45v dc power supply.

R
10V
Vin 45V
10V
Vout=30V

10V

Solution:
( )
= = = = 15Ω Ans
14.Suppose VS=24V,VZ=6.2V,PZ max=400mw and IZ=1mA.Design a regulator circuit.
Solution:
I RS

IZ=1mA
+
RL
VZ=6.2V
VS=24V
-
IL


= = = 64.5
.
= + =64.5mA+0=64.5mA
.
∴ = = = 276Ω
. ∗
= − = 64.5 − 1 = 63.5
15.Find the output voltage waveform when input is appied to the circuit as shown in the
figure.Assume diode as ideal diode.

10V

+ +
+15V
0 Vin Vout
10k

-30V
- -

Solution:
When the input is +15V,the diode will be forward biased and act as a short circuit since it is ideal
diode.As a result 5V appears across the load and output will be +5V.
By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel
Diodes 69

When the input is negative ,the diode will be reversed biased and acts as an open circuit.As a result
output across the load becomes zero.So the output waveform will be:

Vout

+5V t
0

16.Find the output voltage waveform when the input is applied to the circuit as shown in the
figure.Assume diodes drop to be 0.7V.

1K
+ +

+10V
Vin
0 D1 D2 Vout

-10V
- -

Solution:
When input voltage is +10V diode D1 will be reversed biased and diode D2 will be forward
biased.So,in this case diode D2 will conduct.It has a drop of 0.7V.Since output is taken across the
diode D2 the output will be +0.7V
When input is -10V diode D1 will be forward biased and diode D2 will be reversed biased.So,in this
case diode D1 will conduct.It has a drop of - 0.7V.Since output is taken across the diode D1 the output
will be -0.7V.
So the output waveform will be:
Vout

+0.7V
0 t
-0.7V

17.Find the output voltage waveform for the given circuit with input as shown in the figure.Assume
diode to be ideal.

+V + +

0
Vin R Vout
-V

- -

By Pramil Paudel and Bikal Adhikari


70 Diodes

Solution:
When input voltage is +V volts the diode will be forward biased.Since it is ideal diode it will act as a
short circuit.So,the capacitor will be charged to +V volts.If we apply KVL to above circuit then we will
get, =0
When input voltage is –V volts the diode will be reversed biased and it will act as an open
circuit.Since the capacitor is still fully charged the capacitor has +V volts with same polarity as in
previous case.Now the capacitor will discharge through resistor R .If we apply KVL in this case then
we will get, = −2
Therefore,the output waveform will be:
Vout

t
0

-2V

By Bikal Adhikari and Pramil Paudel

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