Module 1~16 (IIW)

Module Topic Page No.

Page 1 of 1119
No.
1 Metals – Structure and Weldability 2

2 Structure, properties, heat treatment and testing of welded joints 70

3 Steel making and welding of Alloy steels 119

4 Welding of Stainless Steels 169

5 Welding of Non – Ferrous Metals and Alloys 222

6 Gas Welding, Brazing, soldering and Cutting 316

7 MMAW and SAW Process and Practice 416

8 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Processes 489

9 Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Processes 549

10 Resistance Welding 615

11 Introduction to Wear and Surfacing 698

12 Construction And Design 773

13 Welding stresses, Distortion and Repair welding 847

14 The Welding Arc and Power Sources 891

15 NDT Techniques 943

16 Quality Assurance of Welded Structures 1037

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Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 01

Metals – Structure
and Weldability
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Contents

 Structure of Metals

 Structure of Steels

 Weldability of Steels
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A Metallurgical Process

 Welding is the joining of two or more

pieces of metal by applying
 Heat or
 Pressure or both …. to form a
 Localized union through
 Fusion
 Re-crystallization across the interface

3
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Why should Welding Technologists

learn metallurgy
 Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals
and alloys

 The final properties of the welded assembly will

depend on the metallurgical structure of the parent
metal and the weld.

 All welding processes involve heating and cooling

of the components being welded

 Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component,

it is necessary to understand metallurgical
structures and how they and the weld thermal
cycle, determine the properties of the weld joint.
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Welding a major fabrication process

 General Engineering
 Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
 Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels
 Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical &
petrochemical plants
 Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses
 Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons
 Shipbuilding and aircraft
 Power plants & pressure vessels
 Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs
 Defence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
 Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt.
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Materials of Construction
 Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels
All general engineering, Infrastructure, Automotive, Shipbuilding,
Railways
 High tensile steels
Defence, penstocks for hydel plants
 Creep resisting steels.
Boilers and piping in thermal power plants
 Stainless steels - Austenitic
Chemical & petrochemical plant, refineries, cryogenic plant, food
processing, pharmaceuticals
 Aluminium
Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars
 Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium
Vessel, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food
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Structure of Metals
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Structure of metals

 All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms
arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in
three directions
 They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms
are in random order
 Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline
bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently
oriented with respect to one another
 All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact
that they contain highly mobile electrons.
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Common Properties of Metals

 Out of more than 106 elements known, 76 are metals

 All metals do exhibit some typical properties,
common to them:
 high thermal and electrical conductivity - due to presence of
free electron
 positive temperature co-efficient of electrical resistivity
 thermo-ionic emission
 good reflectivity of light
 lend themselves to plastic deformation - due to ordered
arrangement of atom
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Pure Metals & Alloys

 In their ordinary structural state pure metals are of

low strength and do not possess required
physicochemical and structural properties for
required service, in most cases. Consequently they
are seldom used in engineering applications.
 Overwhelming majority of metals are thus used as
alloys.
 Example :
 Steel, Cast iron, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys etc
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Structure of metals
 The basic structure of a metal or alloy is a crystal consisting
of the metal atoms located in a specific 3-dimensional
arrangement or lattice
 For iron you have 2 crystal structures - polymorphism

Alpha iron – upto 912 deg C Gamma iron – 912 – 1394 deg C
Delta iron – 1394 – 1539 deg C
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HCP- Hexagonal Close packed

12
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Single Crystal

Unit Cell
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Polycrystal

Grain
boundary
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Crystal boundary or
Grain boundary

 In these regions there exists a film of metals, some

three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to
any pattern
 This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature
 Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal
boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of
weakness
 Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at
grain boundary or crystal boundary.
 Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may
strengthen or weaken the boundary
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Grain Boundary
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Defects in Metals - Dislocations

 Any real crystal always has defects in its

structure and deviates from perfect periodicity
 These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice
imperfections / Dislocations
 Metals and alloys get deformed when
dislocations are forced to move by the
application of force
 Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that
resists the flow of dislocations are the
strengthening agents in any alloy system
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Structure of metals

 Phases are distinct states of aggregation of

matter
 Gases : Always single phase
 Liquids : Pure liquid or solution – single phase,
immiscible liquids eg. Oil & water – two phases
 Solids : Different crystal structures ( even having
the same composition ) form different phases.
Can be single or multi-phase.
 A phase is a homogeneous and physically
distinct portion of the material
 Microstructure, as seen under a microscope
reveals the phases that exist in the material
together
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Structure of metals…..
 Grains
 During solidification from the liquid
phase or re-crystallization from one
solid phase to another, crystals
nucleate at different points within
the parent phase and grow until
they impinge on one another and
form individual grains.
 Structure
 Structure of a metal / alloy implies
the metallurgical phases present,
their dispersion, shape, orientation
and grain size. All of these go to
determine its physical and
mechanical properties
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Structure of Steels
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Carbon & Alloy steels

 Steels are alloys of iron with a max.

carbon content of 2%
 Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65
Mn, 0.6 Si and 0.6 Cu
 Alloys steels contain Mn, Si, Cu in greater
quantities or other alloying elements
 Alloying additions enhance their mechanical
properties
 Typical alloying elements are Ni, Cr, Mo, V

21
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Phases in steel

 Ferrite:
 solid solution of carbon in α-
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.022% at 727°C
 Austenite: Ferrite or
 solid solution of carbon in γ- α iron
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
2.11% at 1146°C
 Delta(δ) ferrite:
 solid solution of carbon in delta
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.09% at 1495°C Austenite or
γ iron

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Phases in steel
 Graphite:
 crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only
forms on very slow cooling
 Pearlite:
 Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and
Cementite
Pearlite
 Cementite (Fe3C):
 an inter-metallic compound having a
complex orthorhombic structure; C -
6.67% by wt. Even though this is a
meta-stable phase, carbon is almost
always present in this form in steels.
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Fe-C phase diagram

 The Fe-C (iron-carbon diagram)

helps us to understand the phases
in steel
 Important Concepts to understand
are:
 This is an “Equilibrium” diagram
 “Steels & Irons” – a clear distinction
 “Phase fields” & “reactions”
 “Critical temperatures”

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Phase transformation reactions

in steel

 Peritectic reaction
(1495°C)
 Liquid Fe + δ-Ferrite =
Austenite
 Eutectic reaction (1146°C)
 Liquid Fe = Austenite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite is called
Ledeburite)
 Eutectoid reaction (727°C)
 Austenite = Ferrite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of Ferrite and
Cementite called Pearlite)

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Phase transformation reactions

in steel..

 Micro-structures of
slowly cooled steels
 Eutectoid steel
 ( 0.77% C ) – fully
pearlitic
 Hypo-eutectoid steel
 (<0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid ferrite +
Pearlite
 Hyper-eutectoid steel
 (>0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid cementite
+ Pearlite

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Effect of composition & cooling rate on
microstructure

A large variety of microstructures can

Austenite: fcc be developed in ferritic steel by
changing composition & cooling rate
Ferrite: bcc
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Effect of cooling rate on Pearlite

Pearlitic structure is lamellar

with alternate bands of ferrite
+ pearlite

Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 – 40 Rc

Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 – 25 Rc
( air cooled )

Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 – 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )

Cooling rate
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Temperature – Time – Transformation
T-T-T Diagrams
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Bainite
 Formed in alloyed steels Bainite + accicular ferrite
when austenite is cooled
rapidly passed the nose of
the C-curve .
 Extremely fine mixture of
ferrite + carbide but not
lamellar like pearlite
 Formed between 500 – 220
C Upper Bainite or lower
Bainite depending on
temp.
 Has higher hardness and
toughness than pearlite
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Martensite
Martensite : Martensite
 Very hard and brittle phase.

 Formed on rapid cooling below

Ms temperature
Tempered Martensite : however
has a good combination of
strength and toughness and is
a useful structure and is
developed by re-heating
martensite
 Hardness depends on carbon
content of steel

Carbon % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8

Hardness Rc 38 44 50 57 60 63 65
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Martensite formation

For carbon steels very fast cooling

rates required to form Martensite

 3 deg C / sec – Fine pearlite

 35 deg C / sec - Very fine pearlite +
martensite
 140 deg C / sec – martensite
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Effect of alloying additions

 Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the
nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt
which shifts it to left
 This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg -
0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100
 Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
 In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of
8 deg C / sec – Full martensite
0.3 deg / sec – Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec – Pearlite
Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the
Martensite they only affect the ease with which Martensite
forms
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Structural features of ferritic steel

Ferrite + TS = f(P) ~ %C; grain
Pearlite F P size & carbide spacing
Continuous plate
Cooling rate / strength

Upper Bainite TS = f(plate width %

carbide & its spacing)
B Broken platelets

Lower Bainite TS = f(plate width, %

carbide & its spacing)
B Broken fine platelets

Martensite TS = f(%C)
Brittle & unstable
M No ppt.
Needle (lens) shape
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Mild steel for structural purposes

 Carbon 0.15 – 0.25 % ( covered by IS: 2062 )

 Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the
form of plates, channels & other structural
sections
 Structure : Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite
 Properties : Y.S. – 300 to 350 Mpa
UTS - 400 to 450 Mpa
El - 26 – 30
Low carbon steels – 0.1% C
 Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite
 Properties : YS - 200–300 mpa, UTS - 300–370 mpa
elongation 28–40%
 Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in
automobile and white goods industry
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High strength low alloy structural steels

 Carbon in same range as mild steels 0.15 – 0.25%

 Low amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Ni etc
added eg. weathering steels to IS: 11587
 Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and
tempered martensite
 Sronger and tougher than pearlitic steels with higher
strength
 Hardenability is increased which affects weldability

YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
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Micro – alloyed HSLA steels

 Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by

precipitation hardening
 Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added
Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels
 Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine
grain size ASTM 12 – 14. Also improves strength.
 Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved
strength and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by
IS:8500 - 1991
 Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low
alloy HSLA steels

 Properties : UTS 600 – 650 MPa

YS 400 – 500 MPa
Elongation 20 – 22 %
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Properties of typical Micro-alloyed steels

Grade / Trade %C % Mn % Si % MA YS UTS
name MPa MPa

ASTM A633 0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
Gr C

SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 410 min 540 - 660
=0.20

SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 - 720
=0.20

SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 – 720
=0.20 CVN = 19.6J
Min at – 20C

TISTEN 60 0.20 1.80 0.50 0.20 440 min 590 min

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Weldability of Steels
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Weldability

“Weldability maybe defined as the capacity of

a metal to be welded under the fabrication
conditions imposed, into a suitable designed
structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service”

“Weldability is the ease with which a metal

can be welded to give the required service”

“Weldability is the amount and nature of

problems you face to weld a material”
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Weldability Problems
 Cracking - In the weld - solidification cracks
- micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ – H2 induced cold cracks
- liquation cracks
- reheat cracks
 Porosity
 Oxidation of reactive metals
 Reduced joint strength – In the weld
- In the HAZ
 Reduced corrosion resistance

Examples of Weldability Problems
Oxidation of reactive Aluminium, Magnesium,
metals Titanium
Gas-metal reaction or Porosity : N2 –in steel , O2 –
dissolution in Cu &NI, H2 in Al & Ti
Vaporisation of low B.P. Porosity : Zinc in brasses
metals
Hot cracking in weld Due to low melting
constituents , impurities eg.
S, P, Pb
Hot cracking in HAZ Embrittlement, liquation Heat
treatable alloys of aluminium
Cold cracking in HAZ Hydrogen cracking of C-Mn
and alloy steels
Reduction in HAZ Precipitation / Age hardened
strength alloys
Reduction in corrosion HAZ of SS welds due to
resistance Chrome carbide precipitation
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Inert gas shielding, active
fluxes
Use of de-oxidisers in filler
metal. Inert gas
Use of Sn-bronze filler and
low currents
Use of 2-phase fillers eg
SS electrodes with 5%
ferrite.
Use of lower M.P. alloys
Use of pre-heat and low H2
electrodes
Control heat input
Solution anneal and heat-
treat after weld.
Use of stabilised or ELC
steels
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Weldability is Process Related

Fusion Welding Processes

 High heat input of the welding arc / heat source
and influence of arc atmosphere
 Solidification of the molten filler metal and
fused portion of base metal into a separate weld
zone
 Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected
by the weld thermal cycle – Heat affected zone
( HAZ )
 Metallurgical effects on both reheating and
cooling
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Weldability is Process Related

Solid / Plastic state welding processes
- Diffusion welding, ultra-sonic welding, forge
welding, explosive welding, forge welding,
friction welding, friction stir welding

 Below melting point of metals

 No arc atmosphere / effect of gases
 No filler metal
 Bonding through diffusion / plastic state mixing
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Weldability is Process Related

Whereas the fusion welding processes have more
weldability problems, they are in general more versatile,
economic and suitable over a wide range of shapes and
sizes of fabricated products.

The solid state processes may have advantages in less

weldability constraints but limitations in practical
applicability and economics.
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Demands on materials of construction

 Higher strength
 Improved toughness down to cryogenic
temperatures
 Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of
chemicals and corrosive media.
 High temperature oxidation resistance
 Resistance to creep at high temperatures
 Higher strength : weight ratio
 Wear and erosion resistant
 Should be weldable
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Mechanisms used by metallurgists for

improving strength, toughness etc.
Can have adverse effect on weldability

Strength / hardness improved by :

 Solid solution hardening
 Dispersion of second phase
 Phase transformation eg martensitic transformation
 Precipitation hardening – carbides / nitrides /
intermetallic compounds
 Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
 Work hardening
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Toughness improved by :
 Grain refinement / fine grain size
 Low impurity level
 Austenite phase – promoted by Nickel, Manganese
etc.

Creep resistance improved by :

 Finely dispersed carbides of chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium etc, formed after tempering of martensitic
/ bainitic steels. eg 1Cr-0.5Mo, 2Cr-1Mo steels upto
P92 steels
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Materials Grouping for Weldability

 Materials have been gouped under ASME section IX
and ISO/TR 15608 based on comparable base metal
characteristics such as

Composition
Weldability
Brazeability
Mechanical Properties
 The objective is to reduce the number of welding and
brazing procedure qualifications

 Under ASME these groups are assigned P-Numbers

Ferrous metals which have specified impact test
requirements have been assigned Group Numbers
within P-Numbers.
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ASME Sec IX and ISO/TR 15608

material groups

Sl Material ASME Sec IX ISO/TR 15608

no P nos Groups
1 Steels 1, 3 – 11 1 – 11
2 Aluminium and Al alloys 21 – 25 21 – 26
3 Copper and Cu alloys 31 – 35 31 – 38
4 Nickel and Ni alloys 41 – 47 41 – 48
5 Titanium and Ti alloys 51 – 53 51 – 54
6 Zirconium and Zr alloys 61 & 62 61 & 62
7 Cast Iron nil 71 – 76
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Weldability Problems in C - Mn steels

Hydrogen induced cold

cracking ( HICC )
 HAZ cracking
 Delayed cracking

Solidification cracking
 Hot cracking in the weld
 Centerline cracking

Lamellar tearing
 Occurs predominantly in plate
material
 Due to presence of non – metallic
inclusions
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Solidification cracking

Due to presence of S, P
and other impurity
elements which form low
melting films at grain
boundaries Steels having unfavourable Mn-S
ratio are prone to such cracking.
Reduced by higher
Manganese content
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Mechanism of HICC
3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking
 A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid
cooling in HAZ area heated above A1 line
 Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process

 Presence of contractional and residual stresses

Mechanism
 Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion
zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools
 Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts
additional stress on the susceptible microstructure
 In combination with existing stresses causes cracking
generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass
welds
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Factors influencing HICC

 Presence of Hydrogen – Process

 Presence of stress – Weld design & procedure

 Formation of hard microstructure

Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material )

Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint

- Heat input of process
- Degree of preheat if any and inter-
pass temp
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Hydrogen levels for different

processes and consumables

 Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen

content in weld – Rutile electrodes, LH electrodes which
have been exposed to moisture
 Scale B : 10 – 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content - LH electrodes redried at 250 C
 Scale C : 5 – 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content
– Gas Metal arc welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes
redried at 350 C
 Scale D : below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content – Gas Tungsten Arc welding ( TIG ) process, LH
electrodes redried at 450 C
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Carbon Equivalent
Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon
equivalent C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the
material to form a hard microstructure ( martensite )

Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with

Weldability of a steel

C.E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V ) / 5 + % (NI + Cu) / 15

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Variation in cooling rate produces a variety of

micro-structures and hence properties in steel
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Combined thickness of joints

Butt welds & corner welds of
equal thickness - T1 + T2

Butt welds & corner welds of

unequal thickness
Av of T1 over 75 mm + T2

Fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3

Directly opposed simultaneous

fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3 / 2

Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
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Effect of process heat input on

grain size
 Grain size significantly influences the properties
of a steel.
 Finer the grain size higher the strength and
toughness
 The original or re-crystallized austenite grain
size determines the ferrite and pearlite grain
size.
 Higher the process heat input and longer the
time above 1050 C in austenite range coarser
the grain size in the previous runs and HAZ
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Heat input during welding

 Is calculated from the Arc energy divided by the

welding speed

Arc voltage X Welding current

----------------------------------------------- kJ / mm
Welding speed ( mm / sec ) X 1000

 For other welding process divide by following

factors
SAW ( single wire ) - 0.8
GTAW - 1.2
GMAW - 1.0
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Procedures to reduce weldability

problems in C – Mn steels

Pre-heating To reduce cooling rates and produce

softer micro-structures in the HAZ

Inter-pass To control process heat input to the

temperature weld & HAZ to produce finer grain
control structure for improved toughness
Post heating Eliminate H2 by diffusion from the weld
by maintaining heating at around 300 C
without allowing the weld to cool down
Post Weld Heating below the lower critical
Heat-Treatment temperature to relieve internal stresses,
reduce hardness & improve ductility
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Practical requirements of Welding Engineer

Given a steel of known composition or C.E.

 Upto what combined thickness can be welded with
normal rutile electrodes, without danger of HAZ
cracking
 Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes
 Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes properly redried as per
manufacturers recommendations
 Above what thickness pre-heat is required and
degree of pre-heat.
 Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat
input by the welding process and parameters used
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IS 9595 : 1996 recommendations for welding of
carbon and carbon – manganese steels

 Annexure F gives detailed guidance on pre-heat

requirements and inter- pass temperatures for
avoiding hydrogen induced cold cracking
considering the following factors
- Carbon equivalent of steel
- Combined thickness to be welded
- Heat input of process in kJ / mm
- Hydrogen level of process in Scales A to D
 Simplified table for Fillet welds
 Detailed graphs for other conditions
Covers steels under IS : 2062 - 1992 and IS 8500 –
1991 of C.E. upto 0.53
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.Soumya Sarkar
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.A.A.Deshpande
 Dr.Shaju Albert
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 70 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course Module 02

Structure, properties, heat

treatment and testing of
welded joints
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Formation of regions having different

microstructures during welding

Weld is a composite having different

properties in different zones
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Evolution of structure in weld pool

Part of the base metal gets partially melted during welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Macrograph of a weld joint & HAZ

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Metallurgical Zones in a typical weld

5
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Illustration:
Weld deposited
on grey iron
with Nickel
Filler Metal

Composite Zone
– Austenite

Unmixed Zone
– White Iron

HAZ –
martensite
&un-dissolved
graphite

6
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Segregation

Equiaxed
dendrite

During solidification impurities are pushed towards GB

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Evolution of microstructure during solidification

equiaxed
dendritic Columnar
dendritic
cellular
% Solute
dendritic

cellular

planar

Solidification parameter, G/R

G = thermal gradient, R = Growth rate

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Effect of weld speed on the structure of fusion zone of Al

HS

Low speed

LS

Curved columnar grains point

towards weld direction at low speed.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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10
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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11
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Various regions in HAZ formed during welding
Page 81 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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The Weld and Heat Affected Zones

 Weld zone : Columnar solidification

structure
 Fusion Zone: Boundary of weld and HAZ
 HAZ 1: Zone heated below 600 C, base
metal unaffected
 HAZ 2 – Sub-critical zone 650-727 C,
tempering and some spherodisation
 HAZ 3 – Inter-critical zone A1 to A3, partial
transformation to Austenite recrystalised
fine grain size.
 HAZ 4 – Super-critical zone above A3 full
transformation to austenite. On cooling F +
P or hard B or M may form depending on
rate and composition
 HAZ 5 – Super critical zone above 1050,
grain growth of recrystalised austenite,
reduced strength & impact Macrograph
of
Weld & HAZ
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Microstructure & hardness of HAZ in steel

Preheating helps reduce hardness of

HAZ by extending time it spends
between 800-500deg C
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weld cracking

ε CG < εFG
coarse

fine

To maintain strain compatibility both must

creep at same rate. Thus coarse grain portion
has to support higher stress. This is why HAZ
is more susceptible to cracking.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Post Weld Heat Treatment

Carried out to achieve any one or

more of the following objectives

 Stress relief
 Dimensional stability
 Resistance to stress corrosion
 Improved toughness and mechanical
properties

16
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common Heat Treatment Processes

 Group I – recrystallisation annealing or

more commonly known as “stress
relieving”
 Group II – full annealing & normalizing
 Group III – solution annealing
 Group IV – hardening & tempering
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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18
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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a. Temp. below A1:

a. Mixture of ferrite & pearlite grains; hence
microstructure not affected.
b. Temperature below A3:
a. Pearlite transformed to Austenite, A3 temp is not
exceeded, hence not all ferrite transforms to
Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed
grains will be normalized.

19
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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c. Temperature just exceeds A3, thereby

causing full Austenite transformation.
a. On cooling all grains will be normalized.
d. Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line
permitting grains to grow.
1. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries,
and a coarse pearlite will form inside the grains.
2. A coarse grain structure is more readily hardened
than a finer one, therefore if the cooling rate
between 800°C to 500°C is rapid, a hard
microstructure will be formed –(brittle fracture may
occur in this region)
20
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding versus heat treatment

Interpretation of HAZ structure needs a different set of

CCT diagram
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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A typical CCT diagram of a plain carbon

steel used for heat treatment

Microstructure depends on the time spent between 800-

500deg C during cooling
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stress Relieving

 Effective for reducing residual welding

stresses in
 Heavily-restrained welds
 Welds that are susceptible to cracking
 Dominant mechanisms in stress-relieving
are:
 Relaxation of stress by eliminating distortions
in lattice and by forming new grains in distorted
grains
 Promoting plastic flow by reducing yield stress

23
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stress Relieving

 Purpose:to relieve internal stresses, reduce hardness and

increase the ductility of strain hardened metal to a certain
extent
 Heating temperature of “stress relieving” is not associated
with phase transformations
 It is carried out by heating to a suitable temperature below
the transformation temperature, holding at this temperature
for a predetermined period of time and followed by uniform
cooling
 Typical S.R. Temperature for LA steels – 595 to 675oc
 Typical S.R. Temperature for chrome-moly steels is higher –
680 to 720oc
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Relief of Stress vs Time & Temperature

Stress relieving temperature C

300 400 500 600
25
Relief of residual stress av. %

35
45
4 hours
55
1 hour
65
75
6 hours

85
95
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Full Annealing

 The second group consists of second order or full

annealing, which involves phase recrystallisation and
consists of heating the steels above the phase
transformation temperatures
 This treatment is followed by slow cooling. Full annealing
substantially changes the physical and mechanical
properties and may refine a coarse grained structure
 The purpose of annealing is to obtain softness, improve
machine-ability, increase or restore ductility and toughness,
relieve internal stresses, reduce or eliminate structural in-
homogeneity, refine grain size and to prepare steel for
subsequent heat treatment
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Full Annealing
 Consists of heating the steel 30 - 50o C above the ac3, holding at
this temperature and then slowly cooling at a rate of 30 -200o C
per hour, depending on the composition of steel
 The rate of heating for annealing of rolled stock or forging maybe
as high as the furnace can provide. For welded assemblies rate of
heating may need to be controlled to avoid stresses and distortion
 Holding time is usually 30 minutes to an hour per ton of charge
 Slow cooling enables the austenite to transform to pearlite, ferrite
and / or cementite structure depending on the composition
 The more stable the austenite is, the slower should be the cooling
to allow this transformation. Thus alloy steels, where the austenite
is more stable, should be cooled more slowly (at the rate of 30-
100o C per hour) than carbon steels (at a rate of 150-200o C per
hour)
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Solution Annealing

 To dissolve all carbides, nitrides and other inter-

metallic compounds in a phase stable at high
temperature. Temperature depending on phase
diagram of the alloy
 Carried out mainly on non-ferrous alloys,
maraging steels and other precipitation hardening
stainless steels prior to quenching and
precipitation hardening / aging treatment
 Austenitic stainless steels may also be solution
treated and quenched to eliminate harmful
carbide precipitation
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Normalizing

 Normalizing of steel is a process of heating steel to

a temperature 40-50o C above Ac3, holding at this
temperature for a short time and subsequent
cooling in air
 This is used to eliminate coarse-grained structures
obtained in previous working (rolling, forging or
stamping), to improve the structure in welds or to
reduce internal stresses
 Also to increase the strength of medium carbon
steels to a certain extent (in comparison with
annealed steel) and to improve the machinability of
low carbon steels,
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hardening & tempering

 In the third group - hardening, alloys are heated above the
critical phase transformation temperatures, held at this
temperature and then quenched (rapidly cooled) in water, oil
or molten salt baths
 During heating the ferrite and considerable amounts of
cementite (or pearlite in eutectoid steels) are transformed
into austenite
 Cooling at a rapid rate ensures that austenite is transformed
into a hard phases called martensite.
 Higher alloyed steels may harden by air cooling
 The hardened steel is then tempered below the A1
temperature between 350 – 650 C to develop the required
combination of strength and toughness.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Classification of Mechanical Tests

Uniaxial & uniform loading Non-uniform / multi-axial

•Tensile / compression •Bend test
•Stress Relaxation •Rotating beam fatigue
•Fatigue (Load / Strain Control) •Impact (CVN)
•Creep •Hardness
•Notch tensile test
•KIC, JIC etc

Material parameters required for stress analysis of engineering

structures primarily come from uniaxial tests
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Mechanical Tests: Test Variables Page 101 of 1119

Tensile / Compression Creep

v = constant L or stress = constant

Moving Cross head

Test variables
∆l •Cross head velocity: v
•Load: L
Load cell
•Strain: e
Fixed Cross Head

Stress relaxation Fatigue: v=f (t)

Strain Control Load Control
e = constant
e t L t
v=0
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Tensile test
Uniform Necking
P
deformation UTS
Load P
Stress = =
Area A0
L − L0 0.02% Proof Stress
Elongation = ×100
∆L = L-L0 L0
Proportional limit: YS Fracture
A −A
RA = 0 ×100 stress

Stress
A0
Stress
E= if stress 〈 YS
Strain

P % Elongation
Plastic deformation

Strain Elastic strain

P
LC steel
E,YS & UTS are material properties. These are
independent of specimen dimension. Ductility
Strain depends on specimen size. Shorter specimen
exhibits higher ductility due to necking.

E,YS & UTS decrease as temperature increases.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Creep Test

 In creep test the specimen is held at constant

temperature in an electric resistance heating
furnace and is subjected to a static tensile load.
The load causes the specimen to elongate
gradually and the amount of elongation measured
periodically.
 Amount of elongations is plotted against periods
of time to obtain the creep curve.
 One standard of creep strength is the stress to
produce a creep rate of one percent per 100,000
hrs
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Creep test: shape of creep strain time plot

Tertiary
Primary Secondary /
Steady state
Strain

∆l
εs = Steady state creep rate
l − l0
tr = time to rupture
Strain =
time
l0

Creep is a slow time dependent deformation. All metals & alloys under go creep.
It is measurable if test temperature is > 0.5TM (melting point in deg Kelvin). It is a
strong function of stress & temperature. Creep test at a given temperature and
stress gives us time to rupture, steady state (minimum) creep rate, rupture strain
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stress & temperature dependence of creep

Temp.
stress
strain

strain
time time
1000
Master rupture plot
700 650 600 550

Safe stress
Stress

100
tr
10
15000 16000 17000 18000 19000

LMP = T (20+log tr) Temperature

Rupture data are more readily available for design & selection of
material for high temperature components (boiler & turbine).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hardness
Hardness is a measure of resistance to deformation. Three common methods
of measuring hardness: Scratch, Rebound & Indentation Hardness.

Hardness Indenter Magnitude Load

Brinell P Fe : P = 30 D 2
P
BHN =
D (πD / 2)( D − D2 − d 2 ) Al : P = 5 D 2
d

Vickers Diamond 1 - 120 Kg

Pyramid: DPH =
1.854 P
136deg L2
20 – 300 g
DPH ≠ f (P )
L Microhardnes
s
Rockwell Diamond cone: Rc: 0-100: Steel 150 Kg
120deg: Brale RA: 0-100: Brass 60 Kg
Steel ball: RB: 0-100: Al 100 Kg
1.6mm

Hardness gives an idea of strength & heat treatment of metals.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fatigue test
A metal subjected to a fluctuating stress fails at a stress much lower than that
required to cause fracture. This phenomenon is called fatigue.

Mild steel
σmax
Endurance limit

∆σ
σmin
1234

Al alloy
S-N curve
Rotating beam fatigue testing machine Log Nf 108
Inert: vac.

∆σ
Corrosive
environment
Log Nf
Fatigue strength = Endurance limit = f (size, surface finish, surface
prop, residual stress, UTS, inclusion content, environment)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Jack hammer component,

shows no yielding before
fracture.

Crack initiation site

Fracture zone
Propagation zone, striation
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hydrogen embrittlement test

Steel picks up hydrogen during welding, pickling, heat treatment,
electroplating or corrosion due to cathodic charging. This makes the
steel notch sensitive and makes it susceptible to delayed fracture.
P Charpy impact test is not
No hydrogen suitable to detect hydrogen
embrittlement.
σ

Slow strain rate test, slow

Hydrogen charged bend test, notch tensile tests
Log tr show loss of ductility.

P
There is a critical stress below which delayed fracture
does not take place.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stress corrosion tests

P
Chemical species Alloy Temperature
Chlorides in water Austenitic steel Above room temp
NaOH, KOH soln. Carbon steel 100 deg C
Nitrates in water Carbon steel 100 deg C
NH3 or ammonium Copper alloys Room temp. P
salts in water

fracture
KI III
C II
KI
da/dt

KISCC I
threshold
Log tr
K
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Charpy Impact Test

 A rectangular bar with a square cross section and a notch

of specified geometry at the mid length supported near its
ends is struck a single blow behind the notch sufficient to
break the specimen generally by the swing of a weighted
pendulum.

Notch toughness is then assessed by any or more of

the following parameters:

 Percent shear appearance of the fractured surface

 Energy absorbed
 Amount of lateral deformation of the compression surface
behind the notch .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Impact testing

CVN, J

Temp.
HAZ has coarse grain & high transition temperature. This
was the cause for failure of Liberty ship.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fracture mechanics
σ

2a Eγ
New free Crack propagates when
σ=
surface: γ elastic stored energy is πa
large enough to create
new surface. γ =γ s +γ p
Ductile: γp >> γs Brittle: γs >> γp
Crack tip stress field
σy K c = Eγ
σ
r Criterion for unstable crack growth: K > Kc
σ y = f (K , r ,θ )
K = σ πa (GF )
Kc can be easily estimated if we know the load at which
GF = 1 for infinite plate
UCE takes place. Quite difficult for ductile material.
K = SIF
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Experimental FM
Pc P
w

P
δ K=
B w
P
( w)
f a Kc LEFM

B = thickness For most commercial alloys do not exhibit such plots.

δ
EPFM Variation of fracture
toughness with plate
a dU Kc
J= thickness.
Bda 2
P
J K
J =γ = KIC = material property
a+∆a E
δ B
NB. Normal design: if a plate deforms, increase thickness. FM based
design: if a plate cracks, reduce thickness.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Mechanical tests carried out on weld

joints
Standard tests
 Macro-section examination of fillet welds
 Fracture test on fillet welds
 Transverse tensile tests on butt welds
 Face, root and side bend tests on butt welds
 Charpy impact tests on weld and HAZ at RT & LT

Special tests
 Fatigue tests
 Stress rupture tests
 Hydrogen tests
 CTOD tests
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Dr.R.N.Ghosh
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.A.A.Deshpande
 Dr.Shaju Albert
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 119 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course Module 03

Steel making and

welding of Alloy steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.11.2.Manufacture Of Pig Iron

 Pig iron is produced in a
blast furnace
 Iron ore, coke and lime
stone are charged from
the top and hot air blown
from the bottom

 Charge melts to produce

slag and pig iron - tapped
and poured into moulds

 Pig iron contains 3.0 to

4.5 per cent carbon and
other elements like
sulphur, phosphorous,
silicon etc.
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2.11.3. Manufacture Of Steel

 Various grades of steel

are produced by :

 Direct reduction of iron

ore by carbon by
melting the charge

 Carburising wrought
iron by heating it out
off air contact

 Decreasing carbon
content of pig iron by
oxidation
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2.11.4. Modern Methods Of Steel

Making
 The major method of steel
production today is the
BOF – LD process where
oxygen is blown from top
to refine the steel

 EAF steel making in arc

furnaces is the second
most important process.
Here steel scrap, sponge
iron etc, are melted by
electric arc or induction
coils. By adding alloying
elements special steels
are produced.
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Direct reduction steel making

process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.11.5. Special Treatments In Steel

Making

 Different steel making processes contain sub

processes or treatments to :
 Reduce oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen
 Improve cleanliness
 Eliminate central porosity and segregation
 Improve mechanical properties
 These are achieved through :
 Degassing
 De-sulphurising
 De-oxidation
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2.11.6. De-oxidation Of Steel

 The cleanliness of steel is improved by lowering

the content of oxygen and controlling its extent
in liquid steel and enables the desired final
composition and solidification structures

 In addition to vacuum degassing strong

deoxidisers such as aluminium, silicon and
titanium when added to molten steel are
effective in reducing the oxygen content so that
carbon cannot react with oxygen during
degassing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of steel based on de-oxidation practice

Killed Steel

 The term indicates that the steel has been completely deoxidised
by the addition of an agent such as silicon or aluminium, before
casting, so that there is practically no evolution of gas during
solidification

 Killed steels are characterised by a high degree of chemical

homogeneity and freedom from porosity

 Formation of the carbon monoxide bubbles can be eliminated

through the addition of deoxidising agents such as aluminium,
ferrosilicon and manganese

 In the case of aluminium, the dissolved oxygen reacts with it to

form aluminium oxide (Alumina, Al2O3). The formation of
alumina not only prevents the formation of bubbles or porosity,
but the tiny particles or inclusions also pin grain boundaries
during heat treatment processes, preventing grain growth.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Completely deoxidised steel - “killed steels”.

They have a more uniform analysis and are relatively free

from ageing. For a given carbon and manganese content,
killed steels are usually harder then rimmed steels.

Steel that are generally killed include:

· Steels with carbon contents greater then 0.25%

· All forging grades of steel
· Structural steels with carbon content between 0.15 to
0.25%
· Some special steel in the lower carbon ranges
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Partially de-oxidised steels

Semi killed Steel

Gas evolution is not completely suppressed by de-oxidant
addition
Greater degree of gas evolution than in killed steel but lesser
than in rimmed steel

Rimmed Steel
Characterised by a great degree of gas evolution
Marked difference in composition across cross-section and from
top to bottom of the ingot
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AOD process for decarburisation of

stainless steels

In argon oxygen Degassing

process Nitrogen & argon is
used to avoid oxidation of
Chromium, at the same time
reducing carbon in the bath
to very low levels by partial
oxidation
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2.11.7. Defects In Steel

 Common defects in semi-finished and finished steels

are:
 Brittleness in the hot or cold state
 Porosity or voids
 Piping
 Lamination
 Surface defects such as :
 Scabs
 Cinder patch
 Laps
 Burned steel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.11.8. GROUPING OF STEEL

Plain carbon steels

 Low carbon steels
 Medium carbon steels
 High carbon steels
Alloy steels
 Microalloyed Steels – Alloys upto 0.25%
 Low Alloy Steels - Alloys upto 10 %
 High Alloy Steels - Alloys above 10%
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.12.3. Selection Of Steels

 Selection of steels for production and

manufacture of various products is done
according to the properties required to suit
working conditions and the purpose they are
to serve

 Other considerations are weldability and the

cost of fabrication

 Cracks, distortions, porosity, lack of fusion,

and penetration are the common problems to
decide weldability
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.12.5. Low Alloy High Strength

Steels

 Such steels containing low carbon with

additions of copper, nickel, titanium,
niobium, chromium, tungsten in small
percentages are used for the manufacture
of:
 Ships
 Bridges
 Cranes
 Pressure vessels etc.
 Weldability of such steels is medium.
Preheating, control of current and welding
speed is essential to produce a good weld.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Low Alloy Steels

 Cryogenic steels for low temperature

applications

 Creep-resisting steels for high temperature

applications

 High strength Quenched & Tempered steels

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.13.1. Low Alloy Steels For

Cryogenic Applications

 The terms “ low temperature “ and “

cryogenic “ may be defined as involving
temperatures to minus 100 to minus 273
degree centigrade.

Application areas for cryogenic steels :

 Space applications
 Cryogenic air separation plant
 Chemical process industries
 Storage tanks for liquefied chemicals & gases
 Medical and food processing.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.13.4. Effects Of Nickel On Low

Temperature Properties

 Nickel plays a significant role in cryogenic

steels .
 It increases the strength and toughness of
steel at low temperatures.
 It imparts notch toughness to steel, reflected
in the lowering of the DBTT ( Ductile – Brittle
transition temperatures.
 Cryogenic Nickel steels normally have 2%
minimum percent nickel and addition of each
percentage increases the tensile strength by
about 600 psi.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.13.8. Toughness Tests

 Cryogenic steels must have high strength as

well as high toughness values at sub zero
temperatures . izod and charpy notched bar
tests conducted at a range of temperatures
provide data to find out such values

 These tests have been developed with the

assumption that the energy absorbed by a
material is proportional to the notch toughness
at different temperatures.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.13.9. Charpy Test

 A rectangular bar with a square cross section

and a notch of specified geometry at the mid
length supported near its ends is struck a
single blow behind the notch sufficient to break
the specimen generally by the swing of a
weighted pendulum. Notch toughness is then
assessed by :

 Percent shear appearance of the fractured

surface
 Energy absorbed
 Amount of lateral deformation of the
compression surface behind the notch .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Nickel Steels
Popular varieties are
2.25 %Ni
3.5% Ni
5 % Ni
9 % Ni
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Liquification Temperature of gases and

associated material of construction
 Gas Liquification Material
Temperature
Propylene -47.7degC 2.25%Ni Steel
Carbon Di Sulphide -50.2 deg C 3.5 %Ni Steel
Hydrogen Sulphide -59.5 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Carbon Di Oxide -78.5 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Acetylene - 84 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Ethylene(LEG) -103.8 degC 5-9% Ni Steel
Methane (LNG) -163 deg C 9% Ni Steel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of 2.25 To 5% Nickel Steel

 2.25% Ni Steels (ASTM A203) are supplied in

normalised condition: Electrode AWS E
8018-C1
 3.5% Ni Steels (ASTM A203/300) are
supplied in normalised / QT condition:
Electrode AWS E 8018-C2
 5% Ni Steels (ASTM A645) are supplied in
QT conditions Electrodes
 Similar to being used for 9% Ni Steel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Selection of electrodes for Fine – grained and Nickel Steels for

cryogenic service

 This group contains fine grained steels and steels

bearing nickel from 1 to 7% eg A333 grades to give
improved low temperature toughness.
 For fine grained plain carbon-manganese steels E7018-
1 electrodes maybe used.
 For nickel bearing grades electrodes with matching
composition are used
- E8018 – C1 2.5% Ni
- E8018 – C2 3.5% Ni
- E8018 – C3 1.0% Ni
- E8018 – C4 1.5% Ni
- E9015 – C5 6.5% Ni
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of LNG tankers using 9%

nickel steels

The 9% Nickel Steels are

Quenched and Tempered Steels
having high strength and
extreme toughness at very low
operating temperatures.
ASTM A353 and A553 are
typical grades. Both are having
good notch toughness even at -
196 deg. C. A553 has higher Y.S
( 585 N/mm2 min .) as
compared to A353( 515N/mm2
min ). UTS for both is in the
range of 690 to 825 N/mm2.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of 9% Nickel Steel

 Normally for lower thickness preheat is not

recommended. With higher thickness and
severe joint restraint. Preheating in the
range of 100 – 200 deg. C is employed.
 9% Ni based electrodes are not suitable due
to inadequate toughness in weld.
 AWS ENiCrMo-3 Or ENiCrMo-6 are popular
electrodes
 Due to Magnetic Blow AC welding is often
used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 146 of 1119

Creep Resisting Steels

 Steels to withstand elevated temperature and high

pressure
 Applications – boilers and pressures vessels & steam
pipes in thermal power plants, Chemical High pressure
synthesis , parts in oil refineries etc.
 Chrome – moly steels have been found to be most
suitable for this purpose due to their high temperature
strength and oxidation resistance.
 Chromium from 0.5 to 9% and Mo from 0.5 to 1.0 % (
sometimes with little vanadium )are popular materials.
 These steels are air hardening steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 147 of 1119

Creep resisting steels used for Boiler

fabrication
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 148 of 1119

2.14.5. Oxidation And Corrosion At

Elevated Temperatures
 One of the simplest form of corrosion is
oxidation of the metal which occurs by the
process of diffusion of oxygen inwards and of
alloying elements outwards.
 Above 535 deg. Centigrade oxidation rate of
plain carbon steel increases rapidly. Addition
of chromium to steel increases the resistance
to oxidation by forming a tightly adhered
layer of chromium rich oxide on the surface
of the metal retarding the inward diffusion of
oxygen.
 Silicon and aluminum in steel also increase
the oxidation resistance appreciably.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.14.3. Creep Resistance

 Creep is defined as the time dependent

deformation which occurs after the
application of load to a solid especially at
elevated temperatures.
 Creep strength is important above the
temperature range of 425 to 535 deg.
Centigrade and is a primary factor in
determining design stresses above these
temperatures .
 Creep test is carried out to determine the
creep rate directly related to the applied
stress and the test temperature.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2.14.4. Creep Test

 In creep test the specimen is held at constant

temperature in an electric resistance heating
furnace and is subjected to a static tensile
load. The load causes the specimen to
elongate gradually and the amount of
elongation measured periodically.
 Amount of elongations is plotted against
periods of time to obtain the creep curve.
 One standard of creep strength is the stress
to produce a creep rate of one percent per
100,000 hrs
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
3.5.15. Correlation Between Room Temp. Page 151 of 1119

Tensile Strength And 100000 Hrs Rupture

Strength For 2.25 Cr-1 Mo STEEL

TENSILE 100000 HR RUPTURE STRENGTH

STRENGTH AT 427 DEG. 482 DEG. H538 DEG.
27 DEG. (Mpa) CENT(Mpa) CENT(Mpa) CENT(Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of Creep resisting steels

 Tempered martensite structure with high hardenability

 Important to preserve carbide particle size and
dispersion to maintain creep strength
 Traditional P11 & P22 grades now being substituted by
P91 & P92 grades for super – critical thermal plant
 The air hardening property of the base metal and high
alloy content of the weld metal demand correct welding
procedures including preheat, postweld heat treatment
, low hydrogen consumables and right weld deposit
composition to prevent HAZ and weld metal cracking.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Recommended Preheat
Temperature(deg.C )
Thickness
 <12.7 mm 12.7-57 mm > 57 mm
 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo 20 95 150
 1.0Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
 2.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
 2.25Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
 3.0Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
 5.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
 7.0Cr – 0.5Mo 200 200 200
 9.0Cr – 1.0Mo 200 200 200
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Chrome Moly Steel

Post Weld Heat Treatment
Cr.-Mo Weldments, specially in pressure
pipings have to be stressed relieved as
required by relevant codes.
Welded Joints in pipings are given local
stress relieved while vessels and similar
fabrications are wholly stressed relieved.
Table gives stress relieved temperatures
which are below critical range and result in
reduced hardness and residual stress level
and increased ductility of weld metal and
HAZ.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Welding of Chrome Moly Steel

Page 155 of 1119

Post Weld Heat Treatment (Stress

Relieving, Degree Centigrade)

Temperature Range

 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 700

 1.0Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 730
 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 745
 2.25Cr – 1.0Mo 680 - 760
 3.0Cr – 1.0Mo 680 - 760
 5.0Cr – 0.5Mo 680 - 760
 7.0Cr – 0.5Mo 680 - 760
 9.0Cr – 1.0Mo 680 - 760
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Reheat cracking of Cr – Mo – V
steels
Occurs during stress relieving
heat treatment of CrMoV steel
having coarse grain HAZ. On
heating fine carbides form within
the grains making them stronger
than the Grain Boundary before
stresses are relieved.
CS = %Cr+3.3x (%Mo)+8.1x (%V) -2
Cracking occurs if CS > 0

Prevention: Control chemical composition, low restraint joint design,

multipass welding / low heat input to avoid grain growth
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 157 of 1119

Selection of electrodes for Creep Resisting steels

AWS Class Weld Typical ASTM Base Material
composition recommended
.
E7018-B2L 1.25Cr - 0.5Mo Thin wall A335 – P11pipe or tube / A588
plate
E8018-B1 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo A335-P2 pipe, A387 Gr2 plate
E8018-B2 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo A335-P11 pipe, A387 Gr11 plate
E8018-B3L 2.25Cr - 1Mo Thin wall A335 – P22 pipe in as welded
cond.
E9018-B3 2.25Cr - 1Mo A335-P22 pipe, A387 Gr22 plate
E8015-B4L 2Cr - 0.5Mo A213-87 Gr T3b tube
E8016-B5 0.5Cr – 1Mo A356-58T Grs 3 or 4 castings
E8018-B6 5Cr - 0.5Mo A213-T5 tube, A335-P5 pipe
E8018-B7 7Cr - 0.5Mo A213-T7 tube, A335-P7 pipe
E8018-B8 9Cr - 1Mo A213-T9 tube, A335-P9 pipe
E9018-B9 9Cr - 1Mo A213-T91 tube, A335-P91 pipe, A387 Gr91
plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 158 of 1119

DEVELOPMENT OF 9-12% Cr CREEP RESISTING

STELS STEELS

 Development of 9-12%Cr ferritic creep resistant steels

for steam power plant applications e.g. thick section
boiler components, steam lines, turbine rotors and
turbine casings, has led to doubling of the 105 hour
creep rupture strength at 600°C.
 Achieved through minor compositional changes to
well-established steels like the 9Cr1Mo and 12CrMoV,
The new alloys including the modified 9Cr1Mo steel
(P91) & the tungsten alloyed 9Cr steels (E911 and
P92), have recently been used in full scale in new
power plants in Japan and Europe at advanced steam
conditions up to 30 MPa and 600°C.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 159 of 1119

PROPERTIES OF 9-12% CR CREEP RESISTING STELS

STEELS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 160 of 1119

Welding of Creep Enhanced Ferritic

steels ( CEFS ) P91 & P92

 Twice the creep strength of conventional 9 Cr- Mo steels

 In general welding is not considered difficult provided proper
procedures are followed and filler material selected
 Selection of consumables with H4 hydrogen level for SMAW and H5
level for FCAW & SAW
 Controlled chemistry of filler is very important with Mn+Ni < 1.5 %.
and Mn / S ratio > 50 . Also close control on Carbon 0.09, Nb – 0.03
& N2 – 0.02 and impurities.
 It is important that weld joint cools to 80 -100 C ( below martensite
finish temp of 120 C ) before PWHT to allow complete
transformation in weld and HAZ and achieve a fully tempered
structure.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding practice for P91/P92 steels

Variable Commonly applied variant / range

Welding processes GTAW (including narrow gap & hotwire ), SMAW,
FCAW, SAW and combinations
Preheat temp GTAW : 100 C – 150 C, other processes : Min 200 C
Interpass temp Max 300 – 350 C
Post heating 200 C for 4 hrs. Not reqd for thin sections < 50 mm
Thick sections with H4 or H5 consumables and weld
cooled slowly to not below 80 C
Cooling before PWHT 80 – 100 C
PWHT P91 : 745 – 775 C P92 : 750 – 770 C
PWHT duration GTAW : 2hrs, SMAW : 2 – 4 hrs, FCAW / SAW : 4 hrs
Gas back purging Required using Argon
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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PWHT of P 91 / P 92 steels
Stringent control on PWHT is
essential to ensure proper
ductility and toughness at room
temp.Otherwise may not
withstand hydro test.
Rate of heating and cooling to
be contolled as per code
requirements
Composition of base metal and
weld metal is to be considered
to ensure that lower critical
temperature is not exceed
HAZ hardness after PWHT 200 –
275 BHN
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 163 of 1119

Low Alloy Quenched &

Tempered Steels
 High tensile steel used in penstock, earthmoving
equipment, ships, submarines, offshore structures
etc.

 QT steels have Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, V, B in different

percentages as their alloying elements and undergo
water quenching in the austenite range during rolling
followed by a tempering treatment to impart desired
combination of strength and toughness.

 Their relatively high hardenability, renders Q&T

steels more susceptible to the thermal effects of
welding than conventional carbon and carbon-
manganese structural steels.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 164 of 1119

Construction of Penstock in Hydel

plant using QT steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 165 of 1119

Weldability of QT steels
It is necessary to observe limitations of both maximum and minimum
total weld heat inputs. The total heat input involves consideration of
a) Preheat temperature
b) Inter-pass temperature
c) Arc energy input (Q in kJ/mm)

Preheat & Interpass Temperature

Too high preheat will produce over tempered zone near fusion line
Too low a preheat will produce hard microstructure due to fast cooling

Heat input during welding to be carefully controlled .

Eg max. heat input for ASTM A516 Gr.F For 12.7 mm plate thickness is
2.76 KJ/mm& for 19 mm thickness 3.9KJ/mm.

H4 hydrogen level of consumable or less is preferred to reduce risk of

HICC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Electrodes for high strength steels

 Examples T1 steel, HY 80 / HY100, ASTM 517 /

A533 / A537 grades
 Welded with matching strength E 9018 G / M
upto E 12018 G / M electrodes.
 Requirement of extra low hydrogen level
electrodes.
 Heat input must be controlled to prevent
reduction in strength of HAZ .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 167 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.S.K.Gupta
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.Hassan Sheikh
 Mr.R.Sengupta
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 168 of 1119

THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 169 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course Module - 04

Welding of
Stainless Steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 170 of 1119

What are stainless steels ?

• Steels containing 10.5 - 30% Chromium

• The chromium oxide forms a passive layer on
the surface which is adherent and
regenerative.
• This prevents corrosive attack and gives the
steel its “ stainless” property.
• Minimum 10.5% Cr needed to protect against
atmospheric corrosion.
• Elements like Ni, Mo, Cu, Nb, Ti etc added to
improve mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance
• Do not resist corrosion in strongly reducing
media eg.HCl, hot phosphoric acid etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of stainless steels

• Martensitic

• Ferritic

• Austenitic

• Duplex
(Austenite +Ferrite)

• Precipitation hardening
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 172 of 1119

Effect of chromium addition on phase diagram

Effect of Cr addition on A3 temp. Pseudo phase diagram for 0.1%C steel

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 173 of 1119

Martensitic stainless steels

• Cr 11 –18%
C 0.1 – 1.2%
• AISI 403, 410, 416, 420,
& 440 A/B/C grades
• Martensitic structure -
higher carbon grades
used in tempered
condition.
• Used for cutlery, surgical
instruments, steam, gas
& hydel turbine blades,
ball bearings and races.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 174 of 1119

Ferritic stainless steels

• Cr 10.5 – 30%
C 0.02 – 0.2%
• AISI 405, 409, 430, 446
grades
• Ferritic structure -higher
ductility and resistance to
SCC & pitting corrosion.
• Used as thin sheet for
corrosion, oxidation & heat
resisting applications and
decorative purposes eg.
Automobile exhausts,
catalytic converters and
automobile trim.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 175 of 1119

The Iron – Nickel phase diagram

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 176 of 1119

Schaeffler diagram
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 177 of 1119

Developments on the
Schaeffler diagram
• The Schaeffler diagram is useful to determine the phases
present in a stainless steel related to its composition.
• For castings the Schoefer diagram is more accurate for
estimating ferrite content
• In 1973 the WRC-Delong diagram was developed which
included the effect of nitrogen as an austenite stabiliser, as
30 X %N. It also showed Ferrite numbers in addition to
percent ferrite
• In 1992 the WRC-1992 diagram was developed and
replaced the Delong diagram as most acurate in predicting
ferrite particularly for higher alloyed grades.
Ni equivalent = %Ni + 35 X %C + 20 X %N + 0.25 x %Cu
Cr equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 0.7 X %Nb
• Ferrite may also be directly measured by magnetic ferrite
meters and metallographic means.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Austenitic stainless steels

• Cr 16 – 26%
Ni 6 – 26%
• AISI 304, 310, 316, 321 &
347 grades
• Austenitic structure gives
good weldability with
excellent ductility and
toughness down to
cryogenic temperatures.
• Nickel improves general
corrosion resistance
• Widely used for chemical,
petrochemical, fertilizer
plant and food processing.
Also used for nuclear and
cryogenic plant
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Precipitation Hardening
stainless steels
• Cr 12 –18%
C 0.05 – 0.15%
Ni 3.0 – 27.0% +
Mo, Cu, Al, V, Cb, Ti
• Martensitic - 17-4 PH, PH 13-8Mo
Semi-austenitic - 17-7 PH, AM
350 Austenitic grades - 17-10PH,
A 286
• Low carbon martensitic structure
developed by quenching then
aged. For SA and A grades given
complex heat treatment to
develop strengths upto 1650 Mpa
• Available as forgings, castings,
bar and plate and used for
compressor blades, pumps, gears
for metering chemicals etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stainless Steel Castings

• Corrosion resistant
grades (C) – used for
corrosion resistance
to aqueous media
( carbon upto 0.2% )
• Heat resistant grades
(H) – used for heat
resistant applications
above 650C ( higher
carbon upto 0.6% )
• Metallurgical structure
maybe Ferritic,
Martensitic, Austenitic
or Duplex ( ferritic-
austenitic) depending
on composition.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Stainless Steel Casting

grades
Alloy Type Wrought grade Casting grade
Martensitic 12Cr 410 CA15
Ferritic 21Cr 442 CB30
Austenitic 19Cr 9Ni 304 CF8
Austenitic 19Cr 9Ni Nb 347 CF8C
Austenitic 19Cr 12Ni 2.5Mo 316 CF8M
Austenitic 25Cr 20Ni 310 CK20
do Heat Resistant - HK40
Duplex 25Cr 5Ni 2.5Mo 3 329Cu CD4MCu
Cu
Duplex 22Cr 5Ni 3Mo 0.15N Alloy 2205 Alloy 2205
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of stainless steels

• All standard welding processes ie MMAW, GMAW,

FCAW, GTAW, PAW and SAW maybe used
depending on the application.
• Generally corresponding grades of filler metal
composition are used to match corrosion and / or
heat resistance properties along with strength.
• Weldability problems are different for different types
of stainless steels eg martensitic, ferritic, austenitic,
duplex and precipitation hardening.
• Weldability considerations are similar for wrought
and cast alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Martensitic Steels

Higher carbon grades used in

the quenched and tempered
condition
Problem of Hydrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ.
Pre-heat and post-weld heat
treatment required if welded
with matching composition
martensitic SS electrodes.
Austenitic SS electrodes
generally used which avoids
cracking problems without pre
and post heating
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Ferritic steels

• Softer and more ductile than martensite steels but poorer
formability than austenitic steels.
• Corrosion resistance and formability improved by
increasing Cr & Mo content and lowering levels of
interstitial elements e.g. C & N to below 100 ppm. Low
interstitial or Super Ferrites.
• Ferrite phase does not transform to martensite but
susceptible to 475 deg embrittlement and sigma phase
formation in higher chromium grades.
• Problem of grain growth during welding leading to brittle
structure in HAZ.
• Grains may be refined only by cold work and re-
crystallization.
• Generally welded with austenitic SS electrodes or TIG
process with restricted heat input.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Austenitic steels

• Generally good weldability
as there is no martensitic
transformation but
following problems
encountered:

 Sensitization leading to
inter-granular corrosion –IGC
 Hot cracking
 Stress corrosion cracking –SCC

 Sigma phase formation

leading to embrittlement
 Higher distortion during
welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Sensitization and inter-granular

corrosion or ‘weld decay’

• Due to precipitation of chromium carbides at the grain

boundaries in temperature range of 650 – 800 C
• Areas adjacent to grain boundaries depleted of
chromium and become susceptible to corrosion.
• Encountered in the HAZ on both sides of weld
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Steels to prevent IGC

• Standard grades
304 – 19Cr / 9Ni
316 – 18Cr / 12Ni / 2.5Mo – for pitting
resistance

• Steels with elements having higher affinity for

carbon eg Ti , Nb – stabilised steels. Form
carbides in preference to Cr but have to be
given stabilisation treatment at 900 C.
321 grade – Ti stabilised
347 grade - Nb stabilised

• Steels with low carbon

304L & 316L grades( 0.03% C max)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hot cracking in austenitic

welds
• Hot cracking or solidification
cracking is caused due to low
melting eutectics formed at the
grain boundary.
• As the weld solidifies, in
combination with shrinkage
stresses, leads to cracks in fully
austenitic welds
• Promoted by S,P,Nb,Ti,N etc.
• Prevented by adjusting weld
metal composition to give 5 – 10
% ferrite phase in the deposit.
• Also prevented by reducing heat
input and controlling design
stress.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Physical properties of
Page 189 of 1119

austenitic stainless steels

• Has 50% higher coefficient of linear expansion,

than carbon steels
• Has poor thermal conductivity, 30% less than
carbon steels
• Results in much higher distortion after welding

• Steps to prevent distortion

- closer tacking
- greater use of jigs and fixtures
- use of balanced and skip welding
techniques
- use of copper chill bars to help remove heat
- limit heat input by use of low currents and
stringer beads
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Limitations of Standard
Stainless Steels
• Low proof stress – 35% of UTS.
• Sensitive to stress corrosion in acidic Cl or F ion
media above 70 C and also hot caustic
• Sensitive to pitting corrosion in more aggressive
acid chloride media.
• Preferential attack on the ferrite phase in weak
reducing media ( urea carbamate )
• Inadequate corrosion resistance in stronger
reducing media such as hot phosphoric acid or
sulphuric acid in intermediate concentrations

Steel makers have developed new grades of steel to

overcome these limitations and meet the requirements of
higher operating pressures / temperatures or liquor
concentrations demanded by modern chemical and petro-
chemical plant
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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High Proof Strength nitrogen

alloyed steels

• Development of N bearing grades eg 304LN,

316LN & 317LN.
• 0.2% nitrogen added which increases proof stress
by 15%
• Largest application in transportation and storage
in ships holds, road tankers etc.
• 304LN used for transporting chemicals, foodstuff,
beverages etc. 316LN for fatty acids and more
corrosive applications
• Also used for cryogenic applications down to -106
C in LNG and LPG tankers
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Duplex stainless steels

• Half the nickel content of

austenitic steels
• Cr 18 – 28%
Ni 4.5 – 9.0 %
• 50% austenite + 50%
ferrite structure
• Almost twice the strength
of austenitic steels
• Excellent pitting + SCC
resistance
• Used for plant and piping in
oil and gas production,
corrosive applications to
resist chloride ion media.
Higher strength structurals.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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About Duplex Stainless Steels

Corrosion Resistance
• They are extremely corrosion resistant having high resistance to
intergranular corrosion. Even in chloride and sulphide environments,
they exhibit very high resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
• The super duplex grades are even more resistant to corrosion
Heat Resistance
• High chromium content gives protection against corrosion, but causes
embrittlement at temperatures over about 300°C.
• At low temperatures they have better ductility than ferritic and
martensitic grades. Duplex grades can readily be used down to at least
-50°C.
Heat Treatment
• They can not be hardened by heat treatment. Can however be work
hardened.
• Solution treatment or annealing can be done by rapid cooling after
heating to around 1100°C.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Composition Of Two Typical

Duplex Steels

Elements (%) 2205 UR52N+

(Super
Duplex)
C 0.03 Max 0.03 max
Mn 2.0 1.50
Si 1.0 0.80
S 0.03 0.035
P 0.02 0.02
Cr 21-23 24-26
Mo 2.5-3.5 3.0-5.0
Ni 4.5-6.5 5.5-8.00
N 0.08-0.2 0.2-0.35
Cu - 0.5-3.0
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of Duplex steels

• Duplex stainless steels have fairly good weldability.

• All standard welding processes can be used.
• Not quite as easily welded as the austenitic grades but
low thermal expansion in duplex grades reduces
distortion and residual stresses after welding.
• All grades
– Solidify as ferrite, austenite formation during cooling
– Austenite/Ferrite ratio dependent on 2 primary
variables
• Alloying effects – Cr & Ni equivalents
• Heat input/cooling rate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding metallurgy of Duplex steels

• The longer the cooling time between 1500 and 1100 C
the higher the austenite content
• Faster cooling rate produces higher Ferrite which leads
to reduced low temperature impact strength and
corrosion resistance
• Slow cooling through 1050 – 550 C produces carbides,
nitrides, sigma etc which affect corrosion resistance and
cause embrittlement

Fast cooling Correct cooling Slow cooling

Too high Ferrite Between 30 -60 % Nitrides, Carbides
ferrite & intermettalics
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Duplex Stainless

Steels

– Overmatch nickel in filler metal

– Control heat input and cooling rates

carefully

– Use N2 in shielding gas

– Ensure low impurities in base and filler

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Steels for Urea service

• In urea service there is preferential attack on

the ferrite phase by urea carbamate media
which is mildly reducing.
• Generally 316L Urea grade Sandvik 3R60 or
Assab 724L with nil ferrite are used
• Welded with TIG or E316L ( standard ferrite)
for root pass and 316L ( controlled ferrite
0.6% max ) for filler passes.
• ESAB 316 KCR electrode. ( SNAMPROGETTI
approved ) Alternatively a modified 316L
electrode with 4 – 5% Mn gives improved
resistance to cracking
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Super Austenitic steels for strong

oxidising and reducing media
• For stronger oxidising conditions in modern fertiliser
plant a modified AISI 310 composition steels have been
developed 25CR – 22Ni – 2 Mo – 0.1N eg. Sandvik
2RE69
Welded with matching composition electrodes with 4 –
5% Mn to prevent hot cracking

• For service in strong reducing media

eg. Sulphuric acid at intermediate concentrations and hot
phosphoric acid steels of the type 20Cr – 25 Ni – 4Mo –
2Cu and 21Cr – 35Ni – 3Mo – 3Cu have been developed
eg Sandvik 2RK65, HV9A, Uddenholm 904L and
Carpenter 20 Cb3
Welded with matching composition or E320 electrodes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Steels for increased resistance

Page 200 of 1119

to pitting corrosion

• Steels with higher Molybdenum content have been

developed eg. 317 and 317L grades ( 3.5% Mo )
and Allegheny AL-6X ( 20Cr – 24Ni – 6Mo ) which
give exceptional resistance to chloride ion pitting.
• Used for handling fatty acids, SO2 scrubbers in
thermal plants, steam condenser tubing in coastal
sea water operated power plants etc.
• Welded with matching electrodes with addition of
4% Mn or 0.2%N to stabilise austenite and
prevent sigma phase formation.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of
Cast Irons
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cast Irons

• Contain 2 – 4 % carbon 10 X that of steel with

1 -3 % silicon
• Grey Cast Irons- have graphite flakes in a
ferritic, pearlitic or ferritic-pearlitic matrix
• SG ( spheroidal graphite ) irons - also known as
Nodular Cast irons or ductile iron
• Heat-treated SG irons – Best strength and
toughness properties
• White Cast Irons ( reduced carbon & silicon )
carbon present as cementite – very hard
• Malleable irons – produced by heat-treatment
of white cast irons
• White and malleable irons not much used these
days
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Iron - cementite phase diagram

Page 203 of 1119

fcc
austenite

bcc
ferrite
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 204 of 1119

Grey Cast Irons

• The graphite flakes give

good damping and
machinability but poor
tensile properties
• Graphite flakes form
planes of weakness, as
such inherently brittle and
often cannot withstand
weld cooling stresses
• Weldability poor due to
formation of hard and
brittle cementite and Structure of Grey CI
martensite in the HAZ
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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SG Cast Irons

• Graphite is spherodised by
addition of Magnesium or
Cerium during casting
• Available with pearlitic or
mixed ferrite matrix. Gives
greater strength and ductility
• Better weldability as less
likely to form martensite in
HAZ
• Annealing further improves
ductility by breaking down
cementite to give ferrite
matrix
• Austempering gives bainitic
matrix – major improvement Structure of Nodular CI
in strength & toughness.
Used in automobile crank
shafts and suspension arms
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Cast Irons

• Cast Irons generally welded only for repair or joining to

steel components
• Formation of hard and brittle structure in HAZ make
them prone to HAZ cracking during post-weld cooling.
• Pre-heating combined with slow cooling reduces risk of
HAZ cracking by producing softer structures
• Alternatively large castings, difficult to preheat, maybe
welded with very low heat input to minimise HAZ
formation and shrinkage stresses
• Generally welded with Nickel, Monel or Fe-Nickel filler
metal. The resulting austenitic weld metal is not
sensitive to carbon pick-up and deposits are soft and
ductile and yield preferentially to relieve shrinkage
stresses
• Low-hydrogen mild steel electrodes can also be used for
non-machinable fill repair welds or after buttering with
a nickel or monel electrode
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Metallurgical Considerations

• During welding carbon may diffuse into the austenite which

transforms into martensite when cooled. Extent and hardness
depending on type and composition of cast iron, preheat and
heat input
• Ferritic cast irons contain most of their carbon as graphite which
dissolves slowly and produces less martensite as compared to
pearlitic matrix irons in the HAZ
• The partially melted zone freezes as white iron the extent
depending on heat input and is the hardest part of the weld and
most prone to cracking.
• Most effective way to reduce severity of cracking problems in
cast iron is to reduce peak temperatures and duration of welding
at high temperatures so as to minimise width of HAZ and PMZ.
• This maybe achieved by using low diameter electrodes at low
currents, low melting filler metal and reduced pre-heat.
• Use of nickel alloy filler metal which has low solubility for carbon
and does not form carbides.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Illustration:
Weld deposited
on grey iron
with Nickel
Filler Metal

Composite Zone
– Austenite

Unmixed Zone
– White Iron

HAZ –
martensite
&un-dissolved
graphite

40
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Welding processes and

Page 209 of 1119

procedure for Cast Irons

• Can be Oxy-acetylene gas welded

using matching cast iron rods with
high Silicon
• Can be Braze welded using copper
alloy filler metal
• MMAW, MIG or FCAW processes
can be used with nickel, monel or
Fe-nickel filler
• Always pre-heat parts slowly
and uniformly
• Butter faces to be welded if
possible
• Use low currents and short runs.
Peen the weld bead while still hot
to relieve shrinkage stresses Buttering of surfaces
• Cover and allow to cool slowly
unless using cold process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Preheating temperatures for

Cast Irons

Cast Iron type MMA MIG Gas

Pre Heat Temp C
Ferritic Grey 300 300 600
Ferritic nodular RT-150 RT-150 600
Ferritic whiteheart RT RT 600
malleable
Pearlitic Grey 300-330 300-330 600
Pearlitic nodular 200-330 200-330 600
Pearlitic malleable 300-330 300-330 600
*200C if high C core involved
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of
Dissimilar Materials
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of dissimilar metals

• For certain dissimilar metal combinations it may

not be possible to make a fusion arc weld if the
melting points of the metals are very different or
the two metals are metallurgically incompatible.
• For such applications i.e.. welding steel to
aluminium; either solid state processes or power
beam processes or brazing may be found suitable
• However a large number of dissimilar metal
combinations maybe fusion welded using
suitable filler metal or bi-metallic inserts
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Processes for joining

Page 213 of 1119

dissimilar metals

Solid State Processes

• Diffusion bonding

• Explosion Welding

• Ultasonic welding

• Friction Welding

• Flash-butt resistance
welding
Diffusion welded Titanium to
aluminium
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Processes for joining

Page 214 of 1119

dissimilar metals

Power Beam processes

• Electron Beam Welding

• Laser Welding

Laser welded steel to aluminium

 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Commonly Fusion welded

Page 215 of 1119

Dissimilar metal combinations

• Carbon steel to low alloy steels

• Carbon/low alloy steels to tool steels
• Carbon/low alloy steels to cast iron
• Carbon/low alloy steels to martensitic /
ferritic stainless steels
• Carbon/low alloy steels to austenitic
stainless steels including clad steels.
• Carbon/low alloy steels to nickel alloys
• Carbon/low alloy steels to copper alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability problems for

different material groups
• Carbon/ low alloy steels - Hydrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ
• Tool steels/cast irons - Martensitic cracking in
weld/HAZ, low ductility
• Martensitic stainless steels – Hyrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ
• Ferritic stainless steels – Grain growth and
sigma phase formation
• Austenitic stainless steels – hot cracking in
weld, sigma phase and distortion due to high
coefficient of expansion.
• Copper alloys - porosity
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

General solutions for dissimilar

Page 217 of 1119

metal arc welding

• Carbon steel to low alloy steels – use low hydrogen

E 7018 electrodes / MIG welding using preheat as
required for the low alloy steel.
• Cast iron to Carbon steel– E7018 electrodes or E NiFe-CI
electrodes. Cast Iron to stainless steel or 14% Mn steel
E NiFe-CI electrodes
• Carbon/low alloy/stainless steels to copper alloys
phosphor bronze E CuSn-A electrodes, brazing.
• All other combinations – austenitic stainless steels
electrodes/nickel alloy electrodes. Composition of filler
depending on material combination and application.
• For high temperature applications involving thermal
cycling eg in Power plant, it is important to provided a
transition between the two coefficients of expansion.
Use of high nickel Inconel electrodes is recommended.
• In highly stressed applications, buttering of the low
alloy steel side with a stainless steel electrode before
welding is recommended
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Use of Schaeffler diagram for

Page 218 of 1119

selection of electrode

• The two austenitic stainless steel

electrodes commonly used for mixed
welding applications are E309 (L) or
E312 type electrodes
• Choice is made so that the final weld
composition after dilution from both
metals falls in an area which avoids the
3 zones of martensitic cold cracking,
fully austenitic hot cracking and brittle
sigma phase at high chromium levels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding dissimilar steels

• Encountered in transition
joints between mild / low
alloy steels and stainless
steels or welding of clad
steels
• Problems of martensitic
cold cracking on MS side,
hot cracking in weld.
Differential thermal
expansion.
• Use E309 or E312 electrode
or consult Schaeffler
diagram
• Where thermal cycling is
encountered e.g. power
plant use Inconel electrode.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

• Mr.R.Banerjee
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 222 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – module 05

Welding of Non – Ferrous

Metals and Alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contents
 Aluminium and aluminium alloys
 Copper and copper alloys
 Nickel and nickel alloys
 Titanium and its alloys
 Magnesium and its alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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What are non-ferrous alloys?

 Alloys in which iron (Fe) is not the
major component are termed as Non-
Ferrous Alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common non-ferrous metals

(All metals and alloys in which iron is not the
major component are termed as non-ferrous)
 Copper Cu

 Nickel Steel

 Aluminum Ti
 Titanium
Al
 Magnesium
Be
Attractions:
Low density Mg

High environmental resistance 0 2 4 6 8 10

Density (kg/m3)
Low DBTT
Applications in aerospace, automobile, chemical, petro-chemical, and
several other industries.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 226 of 1119

Common non-ferrous metals

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 227 of 1119
Free energy of formation of some non-ferrous metal oxides

A large negative free energy shows a strong affinity for oxygen. This
property has a major influence on the type of shielding required during
welding and the processes that can be used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Important Properties of Aluminium

 Pure Al. - Low strength :70-90 MPa.

 Al. Alloys - Mod. Strength : 90-500 MPa.
 Light weight : D ≈ 2.7 g/cc.
 High strength to weight ratio.
 Good corrosion resistance and non toxic.
 Ductile. Good ductility at subzero temperature
 Good formability.
 Low temperature toughness.
 High electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applications

 Transportation automobile, railway,

marine
 Aerospace & Defence Aircraft, launch vehicles for
space & missiles, naval ships,
 Building & Architecture speedboats

 Packaging, Containers, Cryo-vessels

 Electrical cables & Bus-bars
 Household & consumer durables
 Machinery
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Aluminium Alloy Classification

AA Series IS Series
 1XXX (99% Al) 1060 19800 (NHT)
 2XXX (Al-Cu) 2219 24345 (HT)
 3XXX (Al-Mn) 3003 31000 (NHT)
 4XXX (Al-Si) 4043 43000 (NHT)
 5XXX (Al-Mg) 5083 54300 (NHT)
 6XXX (Al-Mg-Si) 6061 65032 (HT)
 7XXX (Al-Zn) 7005 74530 (HT)
 8XXX (New Alloys) 8090
For 1XXX series, the last two digits indicate the minimum aluminum purity
(e.g., 1060 is 99.60% Al minimum). The second digit in all groups indicates
consecutive modifications of an original alloy.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Aluminium Alloy Classification

Non-Heat-treatable and Heat-treatable Alloys

Heat-treatable
Non-Heat-treatable (Age hardenable) alloys
(Work hardenable) alloys
Al - Cu - 2XXX
Unalloyed Al. - 1XXX
Al - Cu-Mg - 2XXX
Al - Mn - 3XXX
Al - Cu-Li - 2XXX
Al - Si - 4XXX
Al - Mg-Si - 6XXX
Al - Mg - 5XXX Al - Zn - 7XXX
Al - Fe - 8XXX Al - Zn-Mg - 7XXX
Al - Zn- Mg-Cu - 7XXX
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Strengthening Aluminium Alloys

Non heat-treatable Aluminium Alloys:

By solid-solution strengthening

By dispersed phases

By work hardening
Heat-treatable Aluminium Alloys:

Solution heat-treatment & quenching followed by

either natural or artificial aging

Cold working for additional strength

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Non-Heat-Treatable Al Alloys

 Alloy Designation
• 1xxx: Pure aluminum (1050, 1200)
• 3xxx: Al-Mn (3003, 3005)
• 4xxx: Al-Si (4032, 4043)
• 5xxx: Al-Mg (5053, 5083)
 Temper Designation
• O : Annealed
• H : Cold worked
• H1(CW)
H18 (full hard) H16 (3/4 hard)
H14 (1/2 hard) H12 (1/4 hard)
• H2 (CW + partially annealed)
• H3 (CW + stabilization treatment)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Heat-Treatable Al Alloys

 Alloy Designation
 2xxx: Al-Cu (2014, 2219, 2090 (contains Li))
 6xxx: Al-Mg-Si (6061, 6262)
 7xxx: Al-Zn-Mg (7020, 7075 (contains Cu))
 8xxx: “Other” alloying elements (Li (8090), Fe, Ni)
 Temper Designation
 O : Annealed
 T : Thermally treated (T1 – T10)
 T3 (ST + CW + NA)
 T4 ( ST + NA)
 T6 ( ST + AG)
 T7 (ST + overaged)
 T8 ( ST + CW + AG)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Age Hardening

 Solution treatment
 Heat to dissolve all the
coarse second phase
particles
 Rapidly cool to achieve After ST After Aging
Prior to ST
supersaturation
 Aging treatment
 Heat and soak to form
precipitates with desired
morphology

Peak aged
Hardness

Underaged Overaged
Time
Typical aging curve
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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General consideration for Fusion

Welding
Most of Al. alloys are weldable. Some are of course
sensitive to cracking. Only it is necessary to
understand that Welding characteristics of
aluminium are distinctly different from those of steel.
Problem s in W elding Alum inium :
High affinity for oxygen.
High thermal conductivity.
Softening in HAZ of age hardened alloys.
Susceptibility to cracking.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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General consideration for Fusion

Welding
High affinity for oxygen results in quick
formation of tenacious Aluminium Oxide skin.
 Melting temp.of Al. oxide is high (≈2050°C)
≅ 3 times of Aluminium (≈ 650°C)

 Al. Oxide promotes lack of bonding.

 In-process cleaning of oxide is achieved by

cathodic cleaning in TIG and MIG welding.
(Meticulous cleaning before welding required)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Problems in Welding Aluminium

Al. oxide skin Aluminium
Mp.2050°C Mp.650°C

Aluminium metal melts. Aluminium oxide in weld-

Aluminium oxide skin remains pool impedes bonding
unmelted.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Problems in Welding Aluminium

High affinity for oxygen

Solution: In-process cleaning
of oxide during welding is
required.
Cathodic cleaning of oxide is
utilized in AC TIG welding in
Electrode + half cycle. Oxide cleaning
in DCEP mode
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Problems in Welding Aluminium

Softening in HAZ in Age Hardened alloy.

Reasons:
Re-solutionizing of age hardening
precipitates. Resolutioned B.M

Weld
Over-ageing of precipitates. Unaffected
B.M
Resulting in:
Over aged B.M
Joint Efficiency in as welded condition
60-70% of age hardened alloy.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cracking

 In general the non-heat treatable aluminium

alloys can be welded with a filler metal of the
same basic composition as the base alloy.
 The heat-treatable alloys are most sensitive to
‘hot short’ cracking during welding. A
dissimilar filler metal having a lower melting
temperature and similar or lower strength than
the base metal is used.
 Solidification cracks in weld.
 Liquation cracks in weld & HAZ (PMZ)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cracking in Aluminium Alloy
Welding --- Prevention
1. Select an weldable alloy, which is less crack
susceptible.
2. Select a filler alloy to avoid crack sensitive weld
metal composition.
3. Use less heat-input. Dilution can lead to crack
sensitive weld composition
4. Avoid rigid clamping / fixtures.

Sq.butt jt. Max dilution B.M :1100, F.M: 4043 (Al-5% Si)
If Dilution : 80%
Weld metal will have about 1% Si
which is crack sensitive

Less Dilution in V-groove

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cracking in Aluminium Alloy
Welding --- Prevention
Crack sensitive Base Metals usually have wide solidification range.
(Large difference between Solidus and Liquidus temperatures is
caused by minor alloy additions made to increase strength).
Alloy Composition Solidus Liquidus Weld rating Strength
ºC ºC MPa
7075 Zn: 5.6 477 635 C 572 (T6)
Mg: 2.5
Cu: 1.6
7079 Zn: 4.3 482 638 C 538 (T6)
Mg: 3.3
Cu: 0.6
7178 Zn: 6.8 477 629 C 607 (T6)
Mg: 2.8
Cu: 2.0
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cracking in Aluminium Alloy
Welding --- Prevention
Avoid Crack Sensitive Weld Metal Composition

Mg2Si

Cracking susceptibility with Al-Mg2Si Addition.

6xxx BM if welded w/o filler, or same filler : Weld Metal will
be in Crack Sensitive Range.
Recommended Filler :4043(Al-5%Si), 5356 (Al-5%Mg)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 245 of 1119
Cracking in Aluminium Alloy
Welding --- Prevention
Avoid Crack Sensitive Weld Metal Composition

(A) Without filler addition (B) With filler addition ER 5356

6061 pipe welding (Root run )

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 246 of 1119

Filler Metals for Welding of Aluminium

Similar classification as Base Metals

Some important filler metals:
ER1100.
ER2319.
ER4043 (Al-5%Si), 4047, 4045.
ER5356(Al-5%Mg), 5183, 5556.
Available in spools of wire,
dia 1.2mm and 1.6mm(MIG, Mech. TIG).
Dia 2.0mm, 2.4mm, 3.2mm, 4.0mm in straight lengths for TIG.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Filler Metal Selection Criterion

1. Base metal composition.

2. Ease of welding / Freedom from Cracking tendency.
3. Strength and ductility of the weld.
4. Corrosion resistance.
5. Service temperature.
6. Colour match between weld and base metal after
anodising.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Filler Metals for Non-Heat-Treatable Al Alloys

Hot cracking is a not a serious issue

Base Filler
1xxx 1xxx (1100, 1188) and 4xxx (4043, 4047)

3xxx 1xxx, 3xxx, and 4xxx

4xxx 1xxx and 4xxx

5xxx 5xxx (5183, 5356, 5556) and 4xxx

(Low Mg) Caution: Mg2Si formation
5xxx 5xxx
(High Mg) Caution: Mg3Al2 network

Special considerations
Dissimilar welding or welding with dissimilar fillers: Dilution can result in a
susceptible weld composition
EBW or LBW: Loss of Mg can result in a susceptible weld composition
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Filler Metals for Heat-Treatable Al Alloys

Base metal Filler wire

Al-Cu (2219, 2014, (i) High Cu fillers (2319) (corrosion problems)
2024) (ii) Al-Si (4043, 4047) and Al-Si-Cu (4145)
Al-Mg-Si (6061) (i) Al-Si (4043) (dilution < 50%)
(ii) Al-Mg (5356) (dilution < 30%)
Al-Zn-Mg (No Cu) (i) Al-Mg (5356, 5183)
(7005, 7020, 7039) (ii) Al-Si
(iii) Al-Zn-Mg (less Zn, more Mg)
Al-Zn-Mg (with Cu) Al-Si and Al-Mg fillers
(7075, 7178) Avoid welding in critical applications

Considerations: Hot cracking, strength, and corrosion

Some compromise on joint efficiency unavoidable
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding processes for Aluminium

and Aluminium alloys
Most widely used processes :
 AC TIG
 MIG (conventional)
Other Special processes :
DCSP TIG
Pulsed MIG
Plasma Arc Welding (key hole mode)
Electron Beam Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding processes for Aluminium and

Aluminium alloys
AC TIG Welding of Aluminium
 Most widely used method to weld Al.
 Good oxide cleaning by the arc.
 Average penetration.
 Suitable for manual welding in all positions and
mechanised welding.
 Use pure or zirconiated tungsten electrodes with
hemispherical tip.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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DCSP TIG Welding of Aluminium and

Aluminium alloys

Requirements:
Short arc length
Helium shielding
Mechanised welding
Top Bead
Advantages:
Weld and HAZ width are narrower.
Less softening of HAZ.
Sq. butt joints produced in Single pass
Faster welding speed

DCSP TIG Weld, 7.4mm Sq. butt

Single Pass, 350mm /min.

DCSP TIG Weld, 7.4mm Sq. butt

Root Penetration Bead Single Pass, 350mm /min.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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MIG Welding of Aluminium and

Aluminium alloys

MIG Welding of Aluminium requires

“Spray” type of metal transfer.

Process Options :
 Conventional MIG (Un-pulsed)
 Pulsed MIG.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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MIG Welding of Aluminium and

Aluminium alloys

Spray type of metal transfer

 Has a typical fine arc column with
pointed wire tip.
 Very small drops are formed and
detached at rate of hundreds per sec.
 Drops are accelerated axially across
the arc gap. (helps in overhead
welding).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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MIG Welding of Aluminium and

Aluminium alloys

Pulsed MIG Welding

Welding current is pulsed
between a high peak
current (in the spray
region) and a low
background current (below
spray region) in a given
pulsing frequency.
Average current remains
below spray region, but
with spray transfer.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Key-Hole Plasma Arc Welding of Aluminium

and Aluminium alloys

PAW in Key hole

mode produces a
small weld pool with
a hole penetrating
thro’ the joint. Electrode
negative part

Current, ampere
Advantages :
Clean weld. time, ms

Square Butt Joint in Electrode

positive part
single pass upto
8mm thickness. Variable Polarity Wave Form for Plasma
Key-hole Welding of Aluminium
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Electron Beam Welding of Aluminium

Advantages :
Welding of very thick plates.
Narrow weld bead.
Narrow HAZ.
High speed welding in thin sheets
Disadvantages :
High Cost.
Vacuum Chamber required.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Shielding Gases for TIG & MIG welding

of Aluminium Alloys

Argon (AC TIG, MIG).

Helium (DC TIG, MIG).
Argon-Helium mixture.
(80/20 – AC TIG), (50/50 - MIG)
Control of impurity important for high quality welds.
Moisture, oxygen, nitrogen and hydro-
carbons are impurities.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Techniques for Aluminium

Always Forehand and

Vertical up in Welding
Aluminium
6’O clock to 12’O clock in Direction of welding

5G positional welding.

Direction of welding
Stringer bead preferred.
Avoid wide weaving.
Use min. or no preheat.
Preheat <200ºC.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Defects in Aluminium welds

1. Pores
2. Lack of fusion/bonding.
Remedy: Adjust parameter (heat input),
Improve cleanliness.
3. Cracks
Remedy: Reduce heat input,
Select proper B.M
& filler metal combination.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Defects in Aluminium welds

Pores :
Caused by dissolution of
hydrogen in weld metal.
Causes :
Impurity from gas,
filler metal, base metal
and environment.
Note : Aluminium has a very low
Remedy:
solubility for hydrogen at the
Keep B.M., F.M. clean. freezing point but a substantial
solubility at higher temperature.
Use argon with high purity Thus hydrogen is prime cause of
(Controlled moisture content). porosity in aluminium welds.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applications & relevant properties

of Copper & its alloys
Applications Relevant Property

Electrical conductors, bus Electrical conductivity

bars

Tubing Ductility, corrosion

resistance

Chemical Plants Corrosion resistance

Valves, fittings, marine Corrosion resistance

propellers
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Copper and Copper alloys

Copper is a ductile metal and it has a low melting point but very
high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is used primarily for its
electrical and thermal properties and its excellent corrosion
resistance in certain environments, particularly sea water.
Copper is available in 3 forms
•Tough pitch copper – oxygen bearing
•Phosphorous de-oxidised copper
•Oxygen-free copper
Copper forms solid solution with a wide range of elements. The
most important alloys are :

Copper alloys
Alpha Brasses (upto 30% Zn )
Alpha-beta brasses eg. muntz metal
(40% Zn), naval brass (40Zn-1Sn)
Nickel silvers ( 20 – 45% Zn + Ni )
Phosphor bronze (10% Sn),
Gun metal ( P-Bronze +5%Zn )
Si-bronze (3% Si),
Al bronze (5-10% Al + Fe / Ni ) - single
phase
Al Bronze ( 12%Al + 5%Fe) 2-phase
Cupro-nickels
( upto 30%Ni )
Cu-chrome , Cu-Be alloys
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Single phase solid solution & work
hardening. Improved corrosion
2-phase solid solution hardening.
Improved corrosion
Improved strength and corrosion
resistance
Improved strength and corrosion
resistance
Improved strength and corrosion
resistance
Moderate strength, corrosion and
oxidation resistance
Precipitation hardening alloys for high
strength
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of copper and its alloys.

 Pure copper – High conductivity requires pre-heat above 5mm

thickness. Porosity and embrittlement in HAZ in tough pitch copper
and porosity in autogenous welds of P-deoxidised copper
 Brasses - Zinc vaporization during welding gives porosity and toxic
white fumes of zinc oxide. Low Zinc brasses ( upto 20% ) weldable
by fusion welding with zinc free filler metal. Higher Zinc brasses
difficult to weld. Brazing or braze-welding preferred.
 Tin and phosphor Bronzes – susceptible to hot cracking
 Al – Bronze – Formation of Al oxide thus gas shielded processes
preferred TIG ( AC ) or MIG. Low thermal conductivity – no pre-heat.
 Copper – Be or Copper – Cr alloys - Precipitation hardening alloys
reduction in strength / cracking in HAZ. Weld in solution annealed
condition and then heat treat
 Cupro – nickels – Single phase good weldability. Susceptible to hot
cracking in presence of sulphur.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Copper / Pre-heat Requirement

Thermal conductivity of copper is

more than 6 – 7 times that of steel.

Due to high thermal conductivity of

copper, heat moves away quickly
from the weld. Supplemental heat
given in the form of Pre-heat to
create adequate molten pool.

Pre-heat temperature depends on

copper alloy composition,
thickness, welding process and
shielding gas.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Joining processes for Copper and

copper alloys
SMAW – Normally used for maintenance and surfacing of worn
out parts with Si- bronze or Sn- bronze electrodes

GTAW – Argon or Ar + He mixtures ( increased heat input ). AC

used for Al-Bronze and Cu-Be alloys.

PAW – Advantage of reduced Tungsten inclusion and lower

furmes in Cu – Zn, Cu-Sn and Cu-Al alloys

GMAW – Ar + He mixtures used for heavier sections

Gas welding – Can be used for pure copper

Brazing / Braze welding – Widely used ( except for Al-bronze)

with Cu-P, Cu-Ag-P & Si-bronze alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applicable Joining Processes for Copper and Copper

Alloy
Alloys
UNS SM Oxy Resi Solid Braz Solder EB
No. AW GTAW st State ing ing W
Fuel Wel
Gas GMA
d
Wel W

ETP Copper C1100

d
NR NR NR F NR G E G NR
0
Oxygen-Free Cu C F NR G G NR E E E G
10200
Deoxidized Cu 0
C1200 G NR E E NR E E E G
0
Red Brass- C2300 F NR G G F G E E -
85% 0
Cartridge Brass- C2600 F NR F F G G E E -
70% 0

Phosphor C5010 F F G G G G E E -
Bronzes 0
Cu-Nickel- C7060 F G E E G G E E G
0
Aluminium C6130 NR G E E G G F NR G
Bronzes 0

Silicon C6510 G F E E G G E G G
Bronzes 0

E=Excellent G=Good F=Fair NR=Not

Recommended.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Nickel and Nickel alloys

 Nickel has FCC structure over the complete

range of temperature upto its melting point. This
structure makes nickel ductile.
 Nickel is useful as an engineering material for its
corrosion resistance and its excellent high
temperature properties when appropriately
alloyed.
 Applications: Chemical and Petro-chemical plant
piping and heat exchangers, Food processing
equipment, Breweries, aero-engine parts etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applications & relevant properties

of Nickel & its alloys
Applications Relevant Property

Food Processing Corrosion resistance

Equipments

Chemical Plants Corrosion resistance

High temperature vessels High temperature strength

Aero-engine parts
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Nickel alloys

 Copper and nickel have complete solubility

 Monel with 30-45% copper
 Ni-Cr (Nimonic) and Ni-Cr-Fe (Inconel) alloys
 Solid solution strengthened
 Corrosion and oxidation resistance
 Precipitation hardened alloys (with Al, Ti and
Nb)
 High temperature service
 Hastelloys (Ni-Cr-Mo and Ni-Mo alloys)
 Precipitation hardening
 Excellent corrosion resistance
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fig. Phase diagram for the copper-nickel system.

Note the complete range of solid solubility.

Nickel and Nickel alloys
Nickel Pure nickel ( Nickel 200 )
Monel 400 ( 70Ni / 30Cu )
Ni-Cr alloys - Nimonic 75,
Brightray S
Ni-Cr-Fe alloys - Inconel 718, Solid solution / precipitation
Inconel 600 Inconel 800
Ni-Mo alloys Hastealloy B-2
Ni-Cr-Mo alloys Hastealloy
C-22, Inconel 625
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 275 of 1119
Solid solution, moderate
strength, good corrosion
resistance
Solid solution
hardening
Precipitation hardening -
strength & improved
corrosion resistance
do
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of Nickel and its alloys.

 Solid solution alloys are generally welded in the annealed

condition, have good weldability and normally do not require any
post weld heat treatment..
 Precipitation hardening alloys are subject to post weld heat
treatment cracking in the weld or HAZ. To be welded in solution
annealed condition and then aged. In specific applications in HF
acid or fluo-silicates stress relief is given to prevent SCC.
 Porosity – caused by O2, N2 from air or oxides and H2 grease etc
 Susceptibility to high temperature embrittlement by S, Pb, P and
other contaminants existing in grease, paint, cutting fluids snd
lubricants. Plates must be thoroughly cleaned before welding
 Hot cracking due to sulphur etc and excess heat input and stress.
 Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion. Oxides are very high
melting and may not fuse fully during welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hot Cracking in Nickel & its alloys

• Nickel and many of its alloys are prone to hot cracking in
the weld metal due to sulphur and other impurities

Fig. Part of the nickel-sulphur phase diagram. Note the lack of

solubility of sulphur in the solid nickel and the low melting
point - 1175°F (635°C) of the eutectic.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding processes for Nickel and

Nickel alloys
SMAW – Suitable for all alloys with matching filler
metal. Ti Al and or Nb maybe added to minimise risk
of porosity and cracking.

GTAW – Argon, Ar-He or Ar-H2 mixtures maybe

used. Back purging recommended to avoid porosity.

GMAW – Argon and Ar -He mixtures (used for heavier

sections )

SAW – Restricted to solid solution alloys, less widely

used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Basic considerations in Welding Nickel

Higher thermal conductivity than carbon and alloy steels attributes
great difficulties in fusion.
To minimise fusion problem joint should be design with wide angles.

Fig. Typical joint preparations for welding nickel. Even with

thin material filler metal is necessary.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Titanium and its Alloys

 Titanium has an HCP structure, the alpha phase, at room

temperature but undergoes a transformation to BCC, beta-
phase, on heating about 885°C.
 Most alloy elements stabilizes the beta-phase and allow
beta-phase to be present in the microstructure at room
temperature.
 Aluminium, however, stabilizes the alpha-phase.
 The presence of beta-phase improves toughness, increases
strength, enhances hot working behaviour, but generally
has a negative effect on weldability.
 Titanium alloys of the alpha-beta or beta type can be
strengthened through heat treatment involving solution
treating, quenching and aging.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TITANIUM & its ALLOYS

Silver coloured, reactive, exotic metal.

High specific strength, modulus & toughness.

Exceptional corrosion and fatigue resistance.

High temperature serviceability.

Lighter than steel

(D ≈ 4.5g /cc).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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LIMITATIONS

 High Reactivity at Elevated Temperature.

 HIGH COST.

 Fusion welding with steel or most other

metals not feasible.

 Used only for Special Applications

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applications & relevant properties

of Titanium & its alloys
Applications Relevant Property

Aerospace, Defence Low Density, High strength

Sports Equipments

Chemical plants Corrosion resistance

Surgical implants
Marine application High resistance to sea
water corrosion
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Titanium alloys

Titanium Pure titanium ( 98.5-99.5% ) Work hardening

Alpha alloys (Ti-3Al-2.5V) Solution & work hardened

Alpha-beta alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) Age hardened

Beta alloys (Ti-3Al-13V-1Cr) Age hardened

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TITANIUM ALLOYS : ASTM GRADES

Mechanical Properties
Designation Nominal Composition, wt% Impurity limits (max.), wt%
At Room Temperature
Al Sn Zr Mo Others N C H Fe O UTS (MPa) YS %E
Unalloyed Grades
ASTM Gr.1 --- --- --- --- --- 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18 262 A 186 30
ASTM Gr.2 --- --- --- --- --- 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 414 A 310 28
ASTM Gr.3 --- --- --- --- --- 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.35 517 A 414 25
ASTM Gr.4 --- --- --- --- --- 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.50 0.40 621 A 517 20
ASTM Gr.7 --- --- --- --- 0.2Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 427 A 317 27
ASTM Gr.11 --- --- --- --- 0.12-0.25Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18
ASTM Gr.12 --- --- --- 0.3 0.6-0.9 Ni 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 510 A 414 33
Alpha and Near-Alpha Alloys
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn 5 2.5 --- --- --- 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.50 0.20 862 A 827 15
Ti-5Al- 5 2.5 --- --- --- 0.07 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.12
2.5Sn-ELI
Ti-8Al-1Mo- 8 --- --- 1 1V 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.12 924 A 855 14
1V
Ti-6Al-2Sn- 6 2 4 2 --- 0.05 0.05 0.0125 0.25 0.15 986 A 938 13
4Zr-2Mo

O2, N2, H2, C, Fe --- Unwanted alloying elements, Reduce ductility.

Hence treated as Impurities, Max limit prescribed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Titanium Alloys : ASTM Grades

Titanium Alloys
Mechanical Properties
Designation Nominal Composition, wt% Impurity limits (max.), wt%
At Room Temperature
Al Sn Zr Mo Others N C H Fe O UTS (MPa) YS %E
Alpha-beta Alloys
Ti-6Al-4V 6.0 --- --- --- 4.0 V 0.05 0.10 0.0125 0.30 0.20 931 A 896 15
1117 STA 1034 12
Ti-6Al-4V 6.0 --- --- --- 4.0 V 0.05 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.13
ELI
Ti-3Al-2.5V 3.0 --- --- --- 2.5 V 0.015 0.05 0.015 0.30 0.12 717 A 586 22
Beta Alloys
Ti-13V- 3.0 --- --- --- 11Cr, 13 V 0.05 0.05 0.025 0.35 0.17 910 A 869 10
11Cr-3Al 1207 STA 1138 4
Ti-8Mo-8V- 3.0 --- --- 8.0 8.0 V 0.05 0.05 0.015 2.5 0.17 883 A 848 12
2Fe-3Al 1241 STA 1207 8
Ti-11.5Mo- --- 4.5 6.0 11.5 --- 0.05 0.10 0.020 0.35 0.18 841 A 793 15
6Zr-4.5Sn 1524 STA 1427 6
(BetaIII)

A: Annealed. STA : Solution treated & aged.

O2, N2, H2, C, Fe --- Unwanted alloying elements, Reduce ductility.

Hence treated as Impurities, Max limit prescribed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of Titanium Alloys

Material Weldability issues
CP Ti and α alloys Weldable
Good ductility (α′ forms, but it is not brittle
(low β stabilizing elements))
Near-α and α+β Weldable
alloys Inferior ductility (large amount of α′)
Metastable β alloys Weldable
Good as-welded ductility
Low strength
Segregation problems
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Basic Characteristics

 Ti oxidises rapidly at elevated temperature.

 Ti dissolves O2, N2, H2 interstitially at high

temperature encountered in welding causing
embrittlement.

 Inert gas shielded welding methods needed.

 Requires additional shielding of hot solidified
weld bead till cooled to 350ºc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Special Requirements

 Primary shielding of the weld pool thro’ the TIG

torch alone is not adequate.

 Solidified hot weld & HAZ on the trailing side of the

torch to be provided shielding till cooling down to below
300°C.

 Underside (root) of the weld joint also to be

protected with inert gas shielding.

 Colour of weld indicates contamination with

atmosphere and brittleness
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding of Titanium Alloys

 Extremely reactive and sensitive to contamination
 GTAW, GMAW, PAW
 High purity shielding gases
 Backing and trailing gas arrangements
 Glove box welding
 No serious hot cracking problems
 Matching fillers often used
 Limited availability of filler wires
 Undermatching fillers with generous reinforcement
 Go for EBW and LBW
 Most alloys suffer from poor weld ductility
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Joining Processes for Titanium

FUSION WELDING PROCESSES:

TIG WELDING

MIG WELDING

PLASMA ARC WELDING

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG Welding of Titanium

WELDING IN INERT ATMOSPHERE CHAMBERS

(FLOW PURGED & VACUUM PURGED).

OPEN AIR WELDING WITH AUX. SHIELDING.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG Welding of Titanium

WELDING IN INERT ATMOSPHERE CHAMBER :

Welding in Flow Welding in Vacuum

purged chamber purged chamber
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG Welding of Titanium

OPEN AIR WELDING WITH AUXILIARY SHIELDING:

Primary shielding : Thro’ TIG torch

for weld-pool

Secondary shielding : Thro’ Trailing shield for

solid weld & HAZ.

Back side shielding : Thro’ Grooved backing

bar for root bead shielding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Open Air Ti Welding

Root shielding
gas inlet TIG torch

Protection of solidified weld & HAZ with

trailing shield (Ar)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 296 of 1119

Open Air Ti Welding

TIG welding of titanium pipe

with trailing shield
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contamination colours in
Titanium welds.

Shining Silver colour

Reqd. No oxidation.

Golden colour.
Slight oxidation.
Mostly accepted.

Oxidised bead.
Not acceptable.

Highly Oxidised bead.

Not acceptable.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Composition of filler metals for titanium

and titanium alloys
Filler metal Composition weight % (remainder titanium)
designatio
n C O H N Al V Sn Fe Other

ERTi-1 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.015 0.10

ERTi-2 0.03 0.10 0.008 0.020 0.20
ERTi-3 0.03 0.10-0.15 0.008 0.020 0.20
ERTi-4 0.03 0.15-0.25 0.008 0.020 0.30
ERTi-5 0.03 0.18 0.015 0.030 5.5-6.7 3.5-4.5 0.30 0.005 Y

ERTi-5ELI 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.012 5.5-6.5 3.5-4.5 0.15 0.005 Y

ERTi-6 0.08 0.18 0.015 0.050 4.5-5.8 2.0-3.0 0.50 0.005 Y

ERTi-6ELI 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.012 4.5-5.8 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.005 Y

ERTi-7 0.03 0.10 0.008 0.020 2.5-3.5 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.12/0.25 Pd

ERTi-9 0.03 0.12 0.008 0.020 0.25 0.005 Y
ERTi-9ELI 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.012 2.5-3.5 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.005 Y

ERTi-12 0.03 0.25 0.008 0.020 0.30 0.2/0.4 Mo

0.6/0.9 Ni
ERTi-15 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.015 5.5-6.5 0.15 0.5/1.5 Mo
1.5-2.5 Nb
(Cb)
0.5/1.5 Ta
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Magnesium and its alloys

 Magnesium is very light metal with good

corrosion resistance making it suitable for a
wide range of applications including aero-
space, highspeed equipment such as
printing machines, material handling
equipment, ladders and light weight casting.
 Magnesium has a HCP structure that renders
it difficult to cold work.
 Forming operation are always carried out hot
between about 200-300°C.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Magnesium and its alloys Page 300 of 1119

(Contd.)

• The elements is highly reactive with

oxygen and the magnesium powder can
ignite and burn spontaneously in air.

• The addition of beryllium upto 0.001%

reduces the tendency to ignition and filler
metal for GMAW and GTAW commonly
have 0.0002- 0.0008% beryllium
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 301 of 1119

Its low density is the most

important property of magnesium

Metal Density

lb/ft3 kg/m3

Steel 489 7.83

Aluminum 173 2.77

Magnesium 111 1.78

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Applications & relevant properties

of Magnesium & its alloys
Applications Relevant Property

Printing equipment Low Moment of Inertia

Conveyors, ladders Low Density

Aerospace Low Density

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Magnesium and its alloys

 Over 50% of Mg produced is consumed in:
 Al alloys
 Removal of sulfur from iron and steel
 Most Mg alloys are cast alloys
 Mg-Al-Zn system still dominates
 Al, Zn Alloying for precipitation hardening
 Mn improves corrosion resistance
 Zr refines grain structure
 Rare-earths increase creep resistance
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 304 of 1119

Fig. Part of the phase diagram for the magnesium-aluminum

system. The rising solubility of aluminum in magnesium
allows this alloy to be precipitation hardened.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common Mg Alloys

 AZ91: Mg-9Al-1Zn-0.2Mn
 General casting alloy
 Properties
 Yield Strength: 100MPa
 UTS: 165MPa
 Ductility: 2.5%
 AE42: Mg-4Al-2.5RE
 Mg engine blocks
 Properties
 Yield Strength: 145MPa
 UTS: 235MPa
 Ductility: 11%
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common Mg Alloys

 ZK60: Mg-5Zn-
0.5Zr
 Forged car wheel
 Properties
 Yield Strength:
270MPa
 UTS: 325MPa
 Ductility: 11%
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Nominal composition of wrought

magnesium alloys
ASTM Nominal composition* weight %
designation Al Zn Mn Zr
AZ31B 3.0 1.0 0.5
M1A 1.5
AZ10A 1.2 0.4 0.5
AZ31B 3.0 1.0 0.5
AZ61A 6.5 1.0 0.2
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2
M1A 1.5
ZK21A 2.3 0.6
ZK60A 5.5 0.6
* (remainder Mg)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weldability of Mg alloys

 Problems with MgO

 Mechanical cleaning essential
 Preferred polarity: AC
 Low Zn (up to 2%) alloys are fusion
weldable
 Ca promotes hot cracking
 Welds normally fail in HAZ (grain
coarsening)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fig. For a given current the volume of weld metal deposited

from a magnesium electrode is more than three times that
from a steel electrode.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Room temperature properties

of magnesium alloys
ASTM Tensile strength Tensile yield strength Compressive yield Elongation
designation strength % in 50 mm

ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)

AZ31B-0 37 (255) 22 (152) 16 (110) 21
AZ31B-H24 42 (289) 32 (220) 26 (179) 15
HK31A-H24 33 (227) 30 (207) 22 (152) 9
HM21A-T8 34 (234) 25 (172) 19 (131) 10
M1A-0 34 (234) 19 (131) 18
M1A-H24 39 (269) 29 (200) 10
AZ10A-F 35 (241) 22 (152) 11 (76) 10
AZ31B-F 38 (262) 29 (200) 14 (96) 15
AZ61A-F 45 (310) 33 (227) 19 (131) 16
AZ80A-F 49 (338) 36 (248) 22 (152) 11
AZ80A-T5 55 (379) 40 (276) 35 (241) 7
HM31A-T5 44 (303) 38 (262) 27 (186) 8
M1A-F 37 (255) 26 (179) 12 (83) 11
ZK21A-F 42 (289) 33 (227) 25 (172) 10
ZK60A-F 49 (338) 37 (255) 28 (193) 14
ZK60A-T5 52 (358) 44 (303) 36 (248) 11
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding processes for Magnesium

and Magnesium alloys

GTAW – Argon or Ar-He mixtures maybe

used. Back purging recommended to avoid
porosity.

GMAW – Argon and Ar -He mixtures (used for

heavier sections )

Other processes - PAW, EBW, Laser and

Friction and resistance welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Joint design

Fig. Typical joint geometries for GMAW in magnesium

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Filler metals for magnesium

and its alloys
Filler metal Composition weight %
designation
Al Be Mn# Zn Cu* Fe* Ni* Si* Zr RE Other
*
ER AZ61A 5.8-7.2 0.0002-0.0008 0.15 0.40-1.5 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30

ER AZ101A 9.5-10.5 0.0002-0.0008 0.13 0.75-1.25 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30

ER AZ92A 8.3-9.7 0.0002-0.0008 0.15 1.7-2.3 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30

ER EZ33A 2.0-3.1 0.45-1.0 2.5-4.0 0.30

* max # min (refer to AWS A5.19 for details)

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Dr. T. K. Pal
 Mr. R. Banerjee
 Mr. A. A. Deshpande
 Dr. Janaki Ram
 Mr. T. K. Mitra
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Thank You
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 316 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding-

ANB
Refresher course : Module-06

Gas Welding, Brazing,

soldering and Cutting
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 317 of 1119

Contents

• Part-1 : Introduction
• Part-2 : Welding & related processes
• Part-3 : Brazing and soldering
• Part-4 : Cutting & edge preparation
• Part-5 : Plasma Cutting
• Part-6 : Thermal Cutting Standards
• Part-7 : Safety
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Part-1

Oxy- Acetylene Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Development of Welding
Processes
Welding Processes Year Introduced
• Carbon arc welding • 1887
• Thermit welding • 1896
• Oxyacetylene gas welding • 1903
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) • 1912
• CO2 gas shielded metal arc welding (MAG) • 1928
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) • 1935
• Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) • 1947
• Metal inert gas welding (MIG) • 1948
• Electro slag welding (ESW) • 1953
• Plasma arc welding (PAW) • 1963
• Explosive welding (EW) • 1963
• Electron beam welding (EBW) • 1965
• Laser beam welding (LBW) • 1965
• Ultrasonic welding • 1965
• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) • 1965
• Robotic welding • 1975
• Welding with programmable control system • 1995
• Friction stir welding • 1995
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Gas Welding

 Oxy-acetylene welding - commonly Torch

referred to as gas welding - based on Tip
the combustion of oxygen and
acetylene. Filler
 When mixed in the correct ratio, an Flame
extremely hot flame is produced
with a temperature of > 3,100oC
 Because steel melts at a temperature
greater than 1500oC, oxy-acetylene
is the only gas combination hot
enough to weld steel.
 Least investment and very versatile
can be used for welding and brazing
most metals and alloys

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 5

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Energy Intensity of Welding

Processes

Heat Intensity of Different Welding Processes

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Relative Welding Speeds

Welding Process Speeds (cm /min)
Oxyacetylene gas 1

Shielded Metal Arc Welding 10

(SMAW)
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) 12

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) 60

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 50

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 100

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Combustion Chemistry of Acetylene

Fuel gas + Oxygen = CO2 + H2 O

Acetylene C2 H2 + O2 = 2 CO + H2
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4 CO2 + 2H2 O
C2 H2 + 2.5O2 = 2 CO2 + H2 O overall

However, maximum flame temperature for

Acetylene is reached at 55% oxygen stoichiometry

Actual oxygen to fuel gas ratios used are :

Acetylene 1.5 : 1
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hottest point of flame

Acetylene = >3,000 deg C

Primary flame LPG = 2,826 deg C
(or inner cone)

Nozzle

Secondary flame (or outer cone)

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of flames

Correct mixture
Neutral Greenish, rounded
inner cone

Excess of O2
Oxidising Blueish, sharp
inner cone

Excess of FG
Reducing Long white
luminous feather
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of Flames
For most applications, a neutral flame is used,
however some materials are different:
– Welding brass, and bronze : Oxidising flame
– Nickel, and alloys : Neutral to slightly
carburising (reducing)
– Copper : Neutral to slightly carburising
(reducing)
– Oxy-cutting : Neutral
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Gas welding
FLAME
METAL FLUX FILLER
SETTING

Cast Steel Neutral No Steel

Steel Plate Neutral No Steel
Slightly
High Carbon Steel Yes Bronze
Oxidising
Cast Iron (Gray) Neutral Yes Cast Iron
Base
Chrome steel Neutral Yes
metal
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Joint design for welding

Thickness Joint recommendation

< 4 mm No special preparation. Butt joint OK

No special preparation.
4-6 mm
Slight root opening recommended
Bevel of 35-45 deg
>6 mm Root upto 3 mm depending on plate
thickness
>19 mm Double bevel with 3 mm root
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Gas Welding Techniques

Technique Suitability
Upto 3mm plate thickness
Forehand Pipe welding <10mm wall
thickness

Above 3mm plate thickness

Backhand Pipe welding >6 mm wall thickness
For faster welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Oxy – Fuel Gas Processes

• Oxy gas processes are based on

controlled combustion of fuel gas and
oxygen mixture, and consequent
generation of heat

• Oxy gas processes are popular for

welding, brazing, soldering and cutting
of steel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fuel Gases

 Acetylene ( C2H2 )
 Propane ( C3H8 )
 LPG ( Mixture of propane and butane )
 Methane (CH4 ) - Natural gas
 Hydrogen ( H2 )
 Propylene ( C3H6 )
 Butane ( C4H10 )
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Fuel gases and their characteristics

Flame Heat of
Oxygen:FG Temperature combustion
Deg C MJ/m

Acetylene 2.5 3087 55

Propane 5 2526 104

Hydrogen 0.5 2660 12

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Heating Effect of Fuel Gases

OXY OXY-LPG
ACETYLENE

HEAT CONCENTRATION HEAT CONCENTRATION

TOTAL 54,772 Kj/m3 TOTAL 95,758 Kj/m3

Primary 18,890 “ Primary 10,433 “
Secondary 35,882 “ Secondary 85,325 “
Flame Temp 3,160 deg C Flame temp 2,820 deg C
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Other processes using oxy-fuel flame

Cleaning Fishtail burners are normally used

Large handheld heating blowpipes

are used. Custom built burners are
Preheating used which are configured as per
requirement for heating large
irregular areas.
Large handheld heating blowpipes
Straightening
are convenient for local heating
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Gas Equipment
CYLINDER
FLASHBACK
VALVE
ARRESTOR
OXYGEN
ACETYLENE REGULATOR
REGULATOR
FLASHBACK
ARRESTOR CUTTING
TORCH

WELDING
TORCH

OXYGEN AND
ACETYLENE FLASHBACK
HOSES ARRESTORS

ACETYLENE (OXYGEN CYLINDER

CYLINDER (PAINTED BLACK)

(PAINTED MATROON) T-CQ3

-2
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cylinders
Max
Service Pressure Construction Connection Colour
(Kg)

Oxygen 150 Steel body RH Black

Steel body. Porous

kisselghur /Calcium
Dissolved
15 Silicate & acetone LH Maroon
Acetylene inside for dissolving
acetylene.

A cylinder normally contains about 6 cu.m of gas

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cylinder manifolds
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Part-3

Brazing and soldering

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing

Economical for complex assemblies

Simple way to join for large joints
Excellent stress and heat distribution
Ability to join dissimilar metals
Ability to join non metals to metals
Ability to join different thickness parts
Joints require no finishing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Principle of brazing

 Parts must be joined

without melting
 Melting point of filler metal
> 450 deg C
 Molten filler metal must be
able to wet surface of base
metals
 Capillary flow is the
dominant physical principle
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing / Conditions of Wetting

Chemical affinity between the No wetting Wetting

molecules of the solid base metal
and the molten filler metal.
Base metal surface must be
clean and active when the molten
filler makes contact with it at the
brazing temperature.
There may be some diffusion No wetting
or alloying between the base and
the filler metal. For spreading
Surface tension of molten filler
should be low enough
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 342 of 1119

Brazing / Types of Brazed Joints

Butt
Lap
Modifications of
butt and lap
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing Processes
Brazing processes are classified based on
methods of heating:
 Torch brazing
 Furnace brazing
 Induction brazing
 Dip brazing
 Resistant brazing
 Infrared brazing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing Processes : Torch Brazing

Simplest and most widely

used process
Oxygen-fuel gas mixture
burned for heating
Matching filler alloy and flux
required
Usually used as a manual
process
Automation is possible
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Furnace Brazing
Brazing is carried out inside a
furnace.
Fixturing / parts are assembled
before loading in the furnace.
Pre-placement of filler and flux
is necessary.
Vacuum or inert gas or special
atmosphere is possible
depending on the nature of the
base metal / job.
Batch/continuous production is
possible.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Induction Brazing

Heat generated by flow of

induced current

Frequency used commonly

from 1khz to 10khz. System
upto 450khz available

Assembly to be made by
self-locating or non-interfering
fixturing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing Processes : Dip Brazing

Molten metal (filler) bath

Molten chemical (flux) bath
Pre-assembled parts are
dipped in the bath
Advantageous for
applications involving
multiple joints, complicated
shape and large areas
Suitable for Batch
production
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing Filler Alloys for General

Applications
Filler Alloy Melting Range ºC Applied to

Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd 595-700 Cu, Cu-alloys

Ag-Cu-Zn 680-850 Steel, SS
Silver Alloy
Ag-Cu-P 640-780
Ag-Cu 778-825
Cu-Zn 865-900 Cu, Cu-alloys
Copper Alloys
Cu-P 718-900 Steel

Alu-Alloys Al-Si 565-625 Al, Al alloys

SS & Heat
Ni Alloys >875
Resisting Alloys
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Problems in brazing
Problems Causes

-Wrong filler -Poor fit-up

No flow
-Low temp. -Dirty parts
No wetting
-Too little flux -Bad vacuum
-Wrong filler -High temp.
Excess flow
-Excess filler -Time too long
or Excess wetting
-No stop-off -High temp.

Erosion of -Time too long

parent metal -Excess filler / Wrong filler
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Braze-welding
 Similar to fusion welding but the filler wire
melting point is lower than the parent metal.
No fusion of parent metal or capillary action
takes place.
 Main difference between brazing & braze
welding is in the joint clearance.
 Brazing generally requires a joint clearance
of 0.04-0.20mm. This allows the liquid filler
to be drawn between the two closely fitted
surfaces by capillary action.
 Braze welding does not require such a close
fitting joint and hence larger quantities of filler
alloy are used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 351 of 1119

Soldering

Parts must be joined without melting

Melting point of solder (filler) < 450 deg C

Molten solder must be able to wet surface of

base metals and flow by capillary action
between the surfaces to be joined.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Soldering methods
Method Application
manual working, low volume and
Air-FG torch
maintenance jobs
manual working, electrical &
Soldering iron
maintenance jobs
Furnace batch production and automation

Wave soldering automatic soldering of electronic PCB

Vapour phase in-line continuous process for

soldering electronic parts
Induction continuous automated production
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 353 of 1119

Selection of flux for soldering

Rosin Organic Inorganic Special

Al & Al bronze √
Brass √ √ √
Copper √ √ √
Steel/SS √
Cast iron √
Tin & Tin bronze √ √ √
Zinc √ √
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 354 of 1119

Fluxes
Inorganic fluxes Organic fluxes
Zinc chloride Stearic acid
Ammonium chloride Oleic acid
Tin chloride Glutamic acid
HCl Hydrazine hydrobromide
Phosphoric acid Acid based or acid
Metal chloride forming organics
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Solders

Solder Workpiece
Sn-Sb-Pb Copper, brass
Sn-Zn Aluminium
Sn-Ag, Sn-Cu SS, copper,
Cd-Ag Aluminium
Zn-Al Aluminium

Indium-Sn Glass to glass, glass to metal

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Brazing & Soldering - comparison

Brazing Soldering

Mech. strength Higher Lower

Working temp > 450oC < 450oC

Versatile Less More

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 357 of 1119

Part-4

Oxy-cutting and other

edge preparation
processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 358 of 1119

Various cutting processes

WATER
OXY PLASMA LASER ROUTER
JET
MS √ √ √ √ √
SS √ √ √
TITANIUM √ √ √ √
ALUMINIUM √ √ √ √
CERAMIC √ √
RUBBER √ √
KEVLAR √
GLASS √
LAMINATES √ √
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 359 of 1119

Oxygen cutting process

 Job is preheated to cherry red (around 850ºC)
 Release pure oxygen stream
 The pure oxygen starts oxidation (ignition) of
the hot metal which is exothermic – Helps
sustain reaction
 Oxide produced is molten at that temperature
 Kinetic energy of O2 removes molten oxide
producing kerf

These conditions are satisfied by Steel & Titanium.

Therefore these metals can be cut by this process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Oxy-fuel gas cutting

Most widely used cutting
process
Can be used for cutting
MS and low alloy steels
Uses a wide range of fuel
gases – acetylene, propane,
LPG, Methane, Hydrogen
Used in foundries for
cutting off runners and
risers
Used for machine cutting
or hand cutting
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 361 of 1119

Oxy-cutting Torch
Nozzle mix system
Torch head
Cutting oxygen
Heating oxygen
Acetylene

Mixed gas
Cutting oxygen
Cutting Nozzle
Pre-heat flame View from the bottom
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 362 of 1119

Oxygen cutting
NOZZLE
FUEL GAS AND
PREHEAT OXYGEN
DIRECTION OF CUT MIXTURE

PRE-HEAT FLAME CUTTING OXYGEN

CUTTING STREAM
DRAG LINES
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 363 of 1119

Drag Lines
As well as the roughness of the cut face, drag lines across the
surface of the cut can give the operator an indication if the cutting
speed is correct and the right cutting oxygen velocity is being
used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common defects in Oxy-cutting

DEFECTS CAUSES

Fluted cut
Low speed
-gouging at the bottom

Large preheat flame

Top edge melt
Oxygen pressure low

Heavy slag Large preheat flame

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Common defects in Oxy-cutting

If the pre-heat temperature is too high it can have an effect on
the top edge of the cut. Too fierce a flame can cause melting of
the face or upper edge, this defect is called 'top edge melt'
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 366 of 1119

Common defects in Oxy-cutting

Example of a good quality cut
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 367 of 1119

Effects of alloying elements

ALLOYING ELEMENT MAX LIMIT (%)

Carbon 0.3
Manganese 10
Silicon 2
Chromium 5
Nickel 3
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 368 of 1119

SPEED / CONSUMPTION (%)

Effects of oxygen purity

175

150
O2 CONSUMPTION

125

100
75
50
CUTTING SPEED
25
100 99.5 99 98.5 98
O2 PURITY %
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cutting parameters
High speed vs standard nozzle

1.0
m/min

0.75 HIGH SPEED

CUTTING SPEED

0.5

0.25 STANDARD

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
PLATE T H I C K N E S S mm > >
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 370 of 1119

Plate Edge Preparation

Flame Planing Machine

Torch
CONTROLS Carriages

TBA

WORKPIECE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 371 of 1119

Triple Burner Assembly

Direction of travel
3
2

Scrap
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 372 of 1119

Profile Cutting & Nesting

OPTIMISE PLATE UTILISATION
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 373 of 1119

Programming Station

CUSTOMERS’
ORDER DESIGN

DXF
BOM
FILES

FINISHED
GOODS PRODN PART TOOL PATH CNC
PLANNING LIBRARY NESTING GENERATION CUTTING

RAW PROGRAMMING
GRAPHIC
MATERIALS MIS MIS
STATION
EDITOR
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 374 of 1119

Problems in Profile Cutting

PROCESS INFLUENCE:
THERMAL DISTORTION DURING CUTTING
START START BY UNCUT
PIERCING START
“BRIDGE”

SOLUTION: NOZZLE PATH CONTROL

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 375 of 1119

Adjusting Kerf
TORCH PATH
KERF FINISH START

COUNTER
CLOCKWISE
TRAVEL KERF OFFST =
½ KERF WIDTH
ON RH SIDE
CLOCKWISE OF TRAVEL
TRAVEL

START
SCRAP
DESIRED JOB
DIMENSION
JOB
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 376 of 1119

Kerf Setting

KERF
LEFT RIGHT

INSIDE CCW CW
PROFILE

OUTSIDE CW CCW
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 377 of 1119

Piercing
RETRACTION PIERCING SEQUENCES
(UPTO 40MM TK)

3-5 20-25
mm mm 3 4
1 2
Preheat Retract Release O2 Normal
& Move
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 378 of 1119

Part-5

Plasma and other

cutting processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 379 of 1119

Plasma Cutting

 Originally introduced in around 1950s for

non ferrous cutting
 Often only method for non-ferrous and SS.
 Suitable for profile or straight cutting
 Suitable for Machine/hand cutting
 Often used for cutting MS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 380 of 1119

Plasma cutting of MS
 Advantage- high cutting speed at lower thickness
 Produces a taper cut which is often not acceptable
 Taper not prominent in thin sheets. Therefore, popular for
cutting sheet metal, using low priced air plasma.
 May be used low thickness MS (upto 20mm) for speed
advantage, compromising quality
 WI produces good quality cut at high speed upto 40mm
thickness, with insignificant taper
 Suitable for profile/straight cutting
 Suitable for machine cutting(high amps) or hand cutting (low
amps)
 Normally used for square edge cutting but possible to cut V
edge with expensive equipment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 381 of 1119

Plasma cutting equipment

PLASMA
GAS
PLASMA
CUTTING
TORCH

SECONDARY
GAS
RECTIFIER HIGH
POWER FREQUENCY
SOURCE SOURCE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 382 of 1119

Air plasma

Hot ionised gas stream = plasma

(Temp = 30-40 thousand degC)

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 383 of 1119

Dual flow plasma

-

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 384 of 1119

Water injection plasma

-

Steam Layer

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 385 of 1119

Plasma cutting
CUT QUALITY

T-1>T-2>T-3>T-4
T-1

T-2
T3 WORKPIECE

T-4

TAPER CUT
SURFACE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 386 of 1119

Water Injection Plasma

Underwater cutting
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 387 of 1119

Plasma Cutting parameters

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 388 of 1119

Commonly used plasma gases

Open-arc WI
Plasma gas Secondary Plasma gas
Air √ √
Nitrogen √ √
Argon √
Argon+Hydrogen
√
(60% + 40%)
Nitrogen
√
(99.999%)
Oxygen √
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 389 of 1119

Plasma cutting
Further refinements

WATER MUFFLER REDUCE UV, NOISE

UNDERWATER REDUCE UV, NOISE

CUTTING FURTHER

O2 PLASMA WITH FASTER CUTTING

WATER INJECTION OF MS

FINE PLASMA NARROW KERF

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 390 of 1119

Oxy vs plasma cutting of MS

OXY FUEL OPEN PLASMA WI-PLASMA
UV, IR, Noise Low V. High Contained
Max Thickness >200 30-50 30-50
Kerf 0.9-3 3 --
HAZ (mm) 0.6 0.4 --
Suitable for MS MS, SS, Alu, etc. MS, SS
Acceptable < 6mm
Cut Squareness Good Bevelled > 6mm Good
Good < 6mm
Cut Surface Good Good
Fair > 6mm
Cutting speed Low High High
Equipment cost Low High V. High
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Water-jet cutting

 High pressure (30-60 K PSI) water is forced through 0.1-0.6

dia orifice
 Efficiency increased by adding abrasive powder with water
 Generally effective upto 3mm thickness
 Velocity achieved : 1700-3000 ft/sec
Can cut metals & non metals
Profile cutting possible using
CNC machine
Excellent cut quality
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Water-jet cutting

Cutting of marble/ceramic by water-jet for architectural

applications. Note the inlay work on the floor
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Laser cutting
 The heat is provided by laser
 Assist gas removes the
vaporised/molten material to
form the kerf
 O2 used as assist gas for MS
cutting (1”max) to improve
speed
 CO2 Lasers are most popular
 Can be used for profile cutting
 Provides high quality clean
cut. Low HAZ
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 394 of 1119

Laser Cutting
Possible to cut intricate shapes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 395 of 1119

Laser drilling
Various techniques of Laser drilling/micromachining
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 396 of 1119

Laser drilling
Close up picture of Laser drilled hole 100uM dia
In Stainless Steel In Plastic (PVC)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 397 of 1119

Laser drilling
Laser drilling rigs for petroleum exploration
-Swan Energy Inc, USA
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 398 of 1119

Performance comparison of
various cutting methods
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 399 of 1119

Other cutting processes

PROCESS APPLICATION
High alloy steel where normal
Powder cutting oxy-cutting is not possible
Flame gouging Removal of weld deposit in MS
Scarfing Removal of surface defects in MS
Carbon arc Severing of MS,SS,CI, Bronze,
cutting/gouging Al/Mg alloys. Gouging.
Oxy-arc
cutting/ gouging Severing MS, alloy steel
Plasma arc
gouging Gouging of MS, SS, alloy steel, Alu.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 400 of 1119

Flame gouging nozzle

Pre-heat flame

Oxygen stream
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 401 of 1119

Part-6

Thermal Cutting
Standards
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 402 of 1119

Thermal cutting standards

Acceptance testing of Oxygen

cutting machines – testing the
DIN EN 28206
accuracy and operational
characteristics
Classification of thermal cuts -
DIN EN ISO
Geometrical product spec and
9013
quality tolerances
Quality standard for gas cut
WES 2801
surface
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 403 of 1119

DIN EN ISO 9013

1 2 3 4
Indication of quality of cut
surface & tolerance class

1 2 3 4
Main Perpendicularity/
Mean height Tolerance
number of angularity
of profile RZ5 class
standard tolerance, u
Angularity of Roughness of
cut surface Dimensional
ISO 9013 cut surface to
along cutting accuracy
plate surface direction
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 404 of 1119

Part-7

Safety
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 405 of 1119

Safety in oxy-cutting & welding

PERSONAL PROTECTION

Protection Protection
Recommendation
of from
Use correct goggles
IR Radiation,
Eyes -shade # 3-6 for cutting
Spatter
-shade # 4-8 for welding
IR Radiation,
Skin Spatter, Wear leather gloves & apron
Hot metal, Burn
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron

Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 406 of 1119

Safety in oxy-cutting & welding

USE OF ACETYLENE

►Do not draw more than 15% acetylene content per

hour from a cylinder
►Always use cylinder in upright position

►Always use correct hose, regulator & fittings

►Do not use oxy-acetylene torch in a closed space

►Do not use copper piping/parts in acetylene line

►Never use Acetylene at a pressure higher than 1kg.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 407 of 1119

Safety in oxy-cutting & welding

BACKFIRE
Flame burns back inside torch, usually with a shrill
sound, or flame is extinguished with a loud pop.
Sustained flashback indicates something seriously
wrong. In the event of backfire:
Immediately shut of the oxygen supply, (otherwise
high pressure oxygen can get into low pressure
FG line causing mixed gas and explode).
Then shut off FG supply
Set the pressures correctly
Clean the nozzle and seat, start again
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Safety in oxy-cutting & welding

Flashback
A flame and it’s pressure wave (75x gas pressure in bar) travel
back through the torch and into the gas system.

Flame
• Symptoms
A bang Pressure MIXED
Wave GAS

Hose Direction of Flashback

Toward Regulator
• Cause: Improper purging & pressures of O2 & DA lines.
The flame speed is too fast to be blocked by the check valve in
the hose and proceeds right past it through the hose. Use of
suitable Flash Back Arrestor recommended.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 409 of 1119

Safety in brazing

► For manual brazing safety requirements are

essentially same as in gas welding
► Use goggles for eye protection (shade # 3-4
for gas brazing)
► Additional safety measures must be taken
for protection against flux & toxic metal
vapours by assuring ventilation &
respiratory protection as required
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Safety in soldering

►Precautions for fire hazard, specially

when flame is used,

►Use goggles for eye protection

(use shade # 1.5-3 for soldering with gas torch)

►Ventilation to remove toxic metal &

chemical vapours,

►Precaution from hot metal and burns.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Safety in plasma cutting

To protect Protection from Recommendation
IR, UV Radiation, Use correct goggles
Eyes
Spatter (shade # 8-14)
IR, UV Radiation, Wear leather gloves
Skin Spatter, Hot metal, Burn & apron
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Ear Sound Use ear plug
Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes
Follow safety
Body Electric shock instructions
Use exhaust,
General Toxic Fumes
Ventilate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Eye protection

Gouging
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 413 of 1119

Safety in Laser, Water Jet

Eye Use glasses

Laser Fumes Use exhaust/ventilation

Electrical
Follow safety rules
safety
Sound Use ear plugs
Water
Jet Physical
Use suitable guard
Injury
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 414 of 1119

Contributors to this presentation:

1) S. Ghoshal

1) Ranajoy Banerjee
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 415 of 1119

Thank You
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 416 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 07

MMAW and SAW

Process and Practice
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 417 of 1119

Contents

 Manual Metal Arc Welding

 Submerged Arc Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 418 of 1119

Manual Metal Arc

Welding
Process and Practice
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 419 of 1119

Advantages of MMAW

 Equipment used is simple,

inexpensive.
 Electrode provides and
regulates its own Flux.
 This process has excellent
suitability for outdoor use
lower sensitivity to wind
and even for use under
water.
 All position capability
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Principles of MMAW

 An electric arc is maintained

between the end of a coated
metal electrode and work
piece.
 The flux covering melts
during welding and forms gas
and slag to shield the arc and
molten weld pool
 The flux also provides a
method of adding
scavengers, deoxidizers and
alloying elements to the weld
metal

Shielded Metal Arc Welding
SMAW electrodes consist of a metal
core wire and a flux covering
surrounding the core wire.
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 421 of 1119
As the electrode melts, the flux
covering disintegrates, giving
off vapours that protect the
weld area from oxygen and
other atmospheric gases. In
addition, the flux provides
molten slag which floats to the
surface and protects the weld
from contamination as it
solidifies.
The Arc and the weld are
shielded by gas and slag.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Drooping characteristics power

source
 Designed to give stable operation where the electrode moves
up and down with the welders hand eg MMAW and GTAW
processes.
 Variation in arc voltage with movement of the welders hand
results in very little change in current
 Stable current gives consistent arc heat and weld pool

ISO line of the power

source is V= 20+ 0.04xI
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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OCV
 Open circuit voltage ( ocv )is the voltage across
the output terminals of the power source when it
is under no load condition.
 In case of AC welding ocv plays an important
role in ensuring easy arc starting and good arc
stability. Higher is the ocv better is the arc
stability. However higher ocv poses danger of
electric shock and hence its value is restricted to
100 v max
 Commercially available transformers
generally have ocv values 60 v to 70 v.
 Commercially available rectifiers generally have
ocv values 65 v to 80 v
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Equipment And Accessories

EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

1. Power source
2. Welding and ground cables
3. Electrode holder
4. Ground clamp
5. Chipping hammer and steel wire brush
6. Hand-shield / welding helmet / head-shield
7. Welding electrode
8. Re-drying oven
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Coatings On SMAW Electrodes

 An Electrode consists of:

Core wire Electrode coatings can
consist of a number of
 Coating different compounds,
 Formulation : including rutile, calcium
fluoride, cellulose, and
 Choice of core wire iron powder.
 Formulation of coating
mixture.

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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MMAW Electrode

 Core Wire
 Electrode core wire: C 0.10 max; Mn 0.38-0.62; Si
0.03 max; S 0.03 max; P 0.03 max
 Important feature: low level of C, Si, S & P

 Coating
 Arc characteristics – Stability, Striking & Re-
striking, Force, Capability to work in positions, and
in AC & DC sets
 Slag characteristics – Good shielding, Capability
to bring impurities out of molten weld metal, Good
detachability, Flowability as well as quick freezing
nature
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Functions of the Flux coating

 Stabilises and maintains Arc

 To improve metal transfer and reduce spatter
 They also reduce operating voltage for the electrode.
 Shielding: (i) by gases produced by the flux and
(ii) slag covering during welding
 Weld Pool Control
 Slag fluidity determines the ease of positional welding
 Fast freezing slag is more suitable for welding in vertical
and overhead positions.
 Alloying Elements: May contain elements which can improve
mechanical properties of the joint

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Coating Constituents

 Arc stabilisers
 Slag formers
 Deoxidisers
 Gas forming materials
 Binders
 Alloying elements
 Deposition efficiency improvers
 Extruding/slipping agents
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Coating types

 Rutile
 Basic
 Cellulosic
 Acid
 Acid-rutile
 Oxidising
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types Of Electrodes

Based on application:
> Carbon-manganese steel electrodes AWS A5.1
> Stainless steel electrodes A5.4
> Low alloy steel electrodes A5.5
> Copper & Copper alloy electrodes A5.6
> Aluminium & Aluminium alloy electrodes A5.10
> Nickel & Nickel alloy covered electrodes A5.11
> Hardfacing electrodes

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Merits/Demerits of coating types

 Rutile: Merits
 Easy striking/restriking
 Good slag control
 Good slag detachability
 Good positional welding capabilities
 Usable in low OCV sets
 More welder friendly

 Demerits
 Limitation in mechanical properties
 Alloy transfer difficult
 High hydrogen level
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Basic Coated Low Hydrogen

Electrodes
 Baked at high temperatures
around 4500C during
Coating contains
manufacture.
Metal Carbonates &
 Re-drying is a must before
Calcium Fluoride. use.
Releases CO2 in arc
atmosphere.
Fluxing by Calcium Fluoride.
(Fluorspar) Adequate penetration.
Moisture bearing materials are Slag removal is good.
restricted in coating. Contains more iron powder.
Good mechanical Properties.

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Basic Coated Low Hydrogen

Electrodes
 Technologically very important
 Weld metal integrity very high High radiographic quality
High toughness at subzero temperatures
 Low amount of diffusible hydrogen content of weld metal (< 5
ml/100g deposited weld metal)

 Alloy transfer efficiency high compared to other class of

electrodes Iron powder /alloying additions

 Fluid slag
Slag volume low,
Thin friable slag
Slag removal is good
 Chemically slag is “basic”
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Merits/Demerits of coating types

 Basic: Merits
 Good mechanical properties
 Low hydrogen level
 Alloy transfer effective
 Higher deposition efficiency

 Demerits
 Greater welder skill required
 AC welding difficult, especially in low OCV
 High temperature preheating before welding
necessary
 Slag detachability not as good as rutile type
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Merits/Demerits of coating types

Peculiarity: Cellulose
Electrodes need moisture in
 Cellulosic: Merits coating for effective functioning
Hence, Do Not re-dry Cellulose
 Fiery arc (Forceful & noisy arc)
electrode.
 High arc force ⇒ good penetration
 Thin coating ⇒ good manouverability in roots
 Vertical down
 Cross-country pipelines (for oil, gas)
 Less slag volume
 Good positional welding
 Alloy transfer possible

 Demerits
 DC based
 High hydrogen level
 Operator skill is important
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Production Of Electrodes

 The powdered coating materials are dry mixed and then liquid
silicate is added to form a paste.
 The flux paste is extruded onto the core wire in an hydraulic
extruder. The two ends are brushed and linished for gripping
by the electrode holder and easy striking of arc.
 The electrodes are then dried at between 110 – 130 C in
continuous or batch type ovens before packing.
 Low hydrogen basic coated, stainless steel and other special
electrodes are further baked at 350 – 450 C to remove
moisture to very low levels.
 Cellulose coated electrodes are dried at 80 – 90 C so that the
cellulose is not damaged and there is some residual moisture
to augment the arc force.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Handling And Storage Of Electrodes

1. Bending of electrodes causes weakening of bonding of coating

– to be discouraged

2. Striking the electrode tip hard with base plate can cause peeling
of flux of electrode tip.

3. Use of higher current than recommended can

cause overheating of coating in end portion causing coating
decompose or disintegrate.

4. Contamination of electrodes by oil, grease, shop floor dirt to be

avoided.

5. Re-dry the electrode as per recommendation before use

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Handling And Storage Of

Electrodes
SOURCE OF WATER IN COATING

1. Chemically combined water [ water of crystalisation of certain

ingredients of coating ] – to remove it very high temp. [ Say 900
deg. C or more ] is needed.

2. Hygroscopic water – partly retained by the silicates used as

binder and partly as free moisture originated from atmosphere
and settled into the pores of coating --

3 Can be removed by heating the electrode at 110 to 450 deg.C.

Hygroscopic water varies as the relative humidity of atmosphere
of storage area.
Regular consumer of electrodes are advised to maintain special
storage rooms which are dehumidified to 50% RH maximum
and are kept 5 to 10 deg. C above ambient temperature.

Handling And Storage Of Electrodes
Type of electrode
Rutile E6012 / E6013
Cellulosic E6010 / 6011
Low hydrogen 10-15 ml H2
Low hydrogen 5 -10 ml H2
Low hydrogen below 5 ml H2
Stainless steel – Exxx-16/17
Stainless steel – Exxx-15
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 439 of 1119
Redrying temp & Remarks
time
100 – 110 C for 1 hr
Not recommended If wet 70 C for 30
min
250 C for 1 - 2 hrs Transfer to holding
oven at 125 – 150 C
350 C for 1 - 2 hrs Transfer to holding
oven at 125 – 150 C
400 - 450 C for 1 - 2 Transfer to holding
hrs oven at 125 – 150 C
250 C for 1 hr
300 – 350 for 1 hr
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 440 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 441 of 1119

Classification - AWS A5.1 - 1991

 Example : E 6013
 Letter E indicates covered electrode for MMAW
process manufactured by extrusion process.
 Digits 60 indicate minimum weld metal UTS of 60,000
psi
 Digit 1 indicates the position – all positions except V-
down
 Digit 13 indicates the type of coating, current
condition – High titania, Potassium & AC, DC±
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 443 of 1119

Classification - IS 814 - 1991

 Example : EB5426H3JX
 Letter E indicates covered electrode for
MMAW process manufactured by extrusion
process.
 Letter B indicates Basic coating.
 Digit 5 indicates UTS 510-610N/mm2 & Y.S.
360 N/mm2 (min)
 Digit 4 indicates a min elongation as 20%
with impact strength as min 27J at –300c.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Classification - IS 814 - 1991

 Digit 2 indicates that electrode can be used in all
positions except vertical down.
 Digit 6 indicates that electrode is usable in DC
with electrode positive & on AC with min. 70 OCV
 Letter H3 indicates that max. H2 level will be 5 ml
per 100 gm weld metal.
 Letter J indicates that electrode efficiency is in
the range 110-129%.
 Letter X indicates that electrode deposits
radiography quality welds.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 445 of 1119

Selection Of Covered Electrodes

For Applications
 MMAW PROCESS IS BEING SUCCESSFULLY
USED FOR WELDING OF
1. MILD AND CARBON – MANGANESE STEELS
2. LOW ALLOY STEEL
3. HIGH ALLOY STEELS AND STAINLESS
STEELS.
4. CAST IRONS
5. SURFACING APPLICATIONS
6. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
7. ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
8. NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 446 of 1119

Selection Of Covered Electrodes

For Applications
To ensure compatible property with base material

A. Strength / toughness related compatibility

B. Environment / specific environment related

compatibility – eg. Corrosion / high or low
temperature related applications

C. Welding procedure / position related

compatibility – eg. V-up / v-down / oh welding

D. Crack resistant weld during welding in

specific cases – SS / cast iron / dissimilar
welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 447 of 1119

Factors to be Considered for

selecting electrodes

 Chemical composition of base material

 Mechanical properties required

 Service requirements of the joint

 Position of Welding

 Deposition requirements
 Joint design / fit up

 Penetration requirements
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 448 of 1119

Selection of electrodes

 Use an all position Electrode when welding job

involves all position
 Use high deposition electrodes when the job is to be
done in down hand and large amount of deposition is
to be done. High deposition electrodes will have
limitations on welding position.
 Use deep penetration electrodes, cellulosic type
electrodes to achieve higher penetration (or) to make
one side welding respectively.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Selection of electrodes for C-Mn Steels

 Group contains
- Mild steels to IS : 2062
- Boiler quality steel to IS: 2002
- Micro-alloyed steels to IS : 8500
- Weathering steels to IS : 11587
 For mild steel non-critical, applications in static
loading upto 40 mm combined thickness – E6013
medium coated electrodes
 For mild / boiler quality steel for all applications above
40 mm combined thickness and sub-zero conditions
– E 7018 electrodes + pre-heat as required for higher
thicknesses
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 450 of 1119

Selection of electrodes for Micro-

alloyed steels
 Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give
improved strength and toughness without impairing
weldability. Covered by IS:8500 - 1991
 Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc
added Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-
alloyed steels
 Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in
very fine grain size ASTM 12 – 14.
 Properties : UTS 450 – 600 MPa
YS 400 – 500 MPa
Elongation 20 – 22 %
 Weld all sections with E7018 / E8018 G electrodes
depending on minimum yield requirements
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 451 of 1119

Selection of electrodes for

Weathering steels
 These are medium tensile steels with Cu, Cr & small amount of
Phosphorous added to improve atmospheric corrosion
resistance. However P gives hot shortness and lower impacts
and latest grades have reduced P levels
 Example - Corten A, B & C and Sailcor –HR & CR steels used
for rolling stock in railways and other transportation sectors.
Corten B & C with lower P levels have better weldability
 For the lower strength Corten A & B type use E7018 – W1
electrodes
 For higher strength Corten C use E8018 – W2 electrodes.
 Note the electrode weld metal does not contain P
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 452 of 1119

MMAW – Best practice

Selection of welding parameters

 Current
Current selected is dependent on
 Size & type of electrode
 Thickness of base material
 Welding position

 Voltage
Try to use highest voltage setting available,
specially for basic coated low hydrogen
electrodes.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 453 of 1119

MMAW – Best practice contd.

Operator control
 Quality of welding
highly dependent on the
skill of operator
 A high level of manual
dexterity is required to
co-ordinate the
electrode to match the
burn off rate and to
maintain a constant
ARC length.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 454 of 1119

MMAW – Best practice contd.

Defects due to lack of operator control

 Porosity
 Undercut
 Insufficient / excess penetration
 Lack of fusion
 Slag inclusion
 Undercut
 Incorrect weld size
 Incorrect weld profile
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 455 of 1119

MMAW – Best practice contd.

Operator control points

 Set correct current.
Too low current - lack of fusion, convex bead
Too high current – spatter, undercut in H-V fillets
overheating & damage to flux coating.
 Maintain shortest arc possible for basic electrodes
 Avoid excessive weaving – may lead to slag entrapment.
 Use work-back technique at start for Basic coated LH
electrodes
 Always fill crater at end of run
 Maintain correct welding speed to ensure optimum weld
size. Avoid over-welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 456 of 1119

Position of Electrode – Good Practices

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 457 of 1119

Position of Electrode – Good Practices

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 458 of 1119

Cleaning Of Joints
 To avoid porosity and attain satisfactory
welding speed , remove excessive scale ,
oxide films, rust, moisture , paint , oil and
grease , dirt and other contaminations before
welding.
 The cleaning procedure may involve light to
heavy brushing/grinding and removal of the
metal by goughing electrode .
 In case of some non ferrous materials
chemical cleaning is recommended
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 459 of 1119

Process Limitations of MMAW

 Highly dependent on manual skill of welder

 Variability in implementation of qualified
welding procedure

• Low deposition rate. Productivity is less.

• Fixed length of electrode.
• Continuous & automatic welding is not possible.
• Slag removal required.
• Width of heat affected zone high.
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 460 of 1119

Effect of Welding parameters

 A- Proper amperage, arc length, travel speed

 B- Amperage - too low
 C- Amperage - too high
 D- Arc Length - too short
 E- Arc Length - too long
 F- Travel Speed - too slow
 G- Travel speed - too fast
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Submerged Arc
Welding
Process and Practice
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 462 of 1119

SAW Process Principles

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 463 of 1119

Application of SAW process

Uses continuous wire

2.0 – 6.3 mm as
electrode.

Automatic process

Down-hand position
and H-V fillets only
Heavy section welding
of straight sections
Circumferential
welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 464 of 1119

SAW Features

•High Productivity, high

amperages may be used
•Easy de-slagging
•High Quality
•Deep penetration
•Excellent mechanical
properties
•Environment friendly
•Very little fume
•No radiation
•Easy operation
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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SAW Equipment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 466 of 1119

Equipment And Accessories

1. WIRE FEEDER
2. WELDING POWER SOURCE
3. FLUX HOLDER AND FEEDER
4. MEANS FOR TRAVERSING THE WELD
JOINT
5. REDRYING ARRANGEMENT FOR
FLUX
6. FLUX RECOVERY UNIT .
7. OTHER ACCESORIES
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 467 of 1119

Consumables
 Wire : solid / fluxcored

 Soilid wires for mild and low alloy steel applications are
normally copper coated.
Flux cored wires are often referred as composite
electrodes and comes under “EC” designation in wire –flux
classification.
Flux :

 A. Fused flux :
 Ingredients ( ground minerals ) are mixed and melted in a
pot / furnace at high temperature [ 1600 – 1800 deg.C ].
melt is rapidly solidified and fragmented by quenching in
water. These flux fragments are dried , crushed , sieved ,
sized and packed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 468 of 1119

Consumables contd.
 B. Agglomerated flux ;
finely powdered ingredients are mixed and mix is steadily
moistened with liquid alkaline silicates.The mixer blades
are designed to assist agglomeration.
 The green agglomerates are baked in rotary oven gradually
with final exposure at 600 to 800 deg.C.While baking the
water evaporates leaving the binder as bridges between
particles. The flux is then sieved , graded and packed.

C. Sintered flux :
 Produced by grinding the dry charge together, pressing
into small balls and heating to just below melting point [
1000 – 1100 deg. C ] in furnace. These semi fused masses
are crushed, sieved, sized and packed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 469 of 1119

SAW Fluxes
 Fused  Agglomerated
 Heavier, higher bulk  Lighter, lower bulk
densities, hence less densities, hence volume
volume for same weight is more for same weight
 Thicker slag cover,
 Thinner slag cover, less
more consumption
consumption
 Higher manufacturing
temperature and so  Lower manufacturing
ferro-alloys, alloy temperature and hence
addition not possible. ferro-alloys, alloys
additions possible
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Neutral , Active And

Alloy Fluxes
 A change in arc voltage will change the quantity of
flux interacting with a given quantity of electrode
resulting change in composition of weld metal
Neutral fluxes :
 These fluxes do not produce any significant change in the weld
metal chemical composition due to a large change in arc
voltage or arc length / stick out.
Active fluxes :
 These contain manganese and / or silicon bearing ingredients
as de-oxidiser and changes the weld metal chemical
composition with change in arc voltage / stick out.
Alloy fluxes :
contain alloying ingredients in the flux and when used with non
–alloyed carbon steel electrode give alloy weld metal.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 471 of 1119

Basicity Index ( B.I )

 B.I = BASIC OXIDES / ACIDIC OXIDES =

 [CaO+MgO+Na2O+CaF2+ ½ (MnO+FeO)]
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 [SiO2+ ½ (Al2O3+TiO2+ZrO2)]

 B.I < 0.9 , ACIDIC

B.I = 0.9 to 1.2 , NEUTRAL
B.I > 1.2 -2.0 , BASIC
B.I > 2.0 , HIGH BASIC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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SAW Wire - Flux Classification

F 7A6 – EM 12K
 F – Indicates SAW flux
 7 – UTS minimum 70,000 psi
 A – As welded condition
( P – post weld heat-treated condition )
 6 – Impact minimum 20 ft-lbf at – 60 F
 E – Solid wire electrode
 M – Medium manganese level wire
 12K – specific composition wire
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 473 of 1119

Flux consumption in SAW

kg/m
0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Welding speed in m/h

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 474 of 1119

Handling and Storage of Fluxes

 A. Wires : should be free from rust , oil , grease

etc. Before welding.

 B. Flux : to be redried depending on flux type in

line with manufacturer’s recommendation

Care should be taken while storing agglomerated

flux - if bags containing flux are stacked one
upon other – the bag at the bottom should
not experience heavy load .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Parameters
 1. WELDING CURRENT
2. ARC VOLTAGE
3. SPEED OF ARC TRAVEL
4. SIZE OF ELECTRODE
5. ELECTRODE STICK OUT
6. HEAT INPUT RATE

 TO GET OPTIMUM RESULTS , EFFECTS OF

THESE PARAMETERS AND TO SELECT AND
CONTROL THOSE PROPERLY TO BE
UNDERSTOOD CAREFULLY.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Parameters for SAW welding

 Typical parameters for square-butt weld on

19 mm MS plate
Plate thickness 19 mm
Pass 1 2
Wire size 5 mm 5mm
Current ( amps ) 800 900
Voltage ( volts ) 36 37
Travel speed ( cm/min ) 56 56
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 477 of 1119

Arc Starting in SAW

Unlike MMAW arc start in SAW may be difficult due to flux cover

Few common methods are –

A. Use of steel wool / iron powder

B. Sharp wire start- wire tip made chisel like

for high current density

C. Scratch start – carriage starts just before current

flow starts

D. Molten flux start – arc starts inside molten flux – used

for multi wire technique

E. Wire retract start

F. High frequency start

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 478 of 1119

Control points of SAW process

The plates have to be straight

The plates have to be clean, preferably ground or
shot blasted
The positioning of the wire is of utmost
importance
The flux should cover the arc completely (not
necessarily cover the wire completely)
The flux should be dry
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 479 of 1119

SAW – Typical Defects

Porosity
- Inadequate flux depth, moisture or contaminants
in the flux or weld joint
- Excessive travel speed
- Slag residue from tack welds made with covered
electrodes

Slag Inclusion
- Contaminants of flux, Usage of cold flux.
- Improper joint geometry
- Viscosity of the slag
- Inadequate interpass cleaning
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 480 of 1119

Influence of Amperage and Voltage

Higher amperage gives deeper penetration

Higher voltage gives wider penetration. The arc

length gets extended
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 481 of 1119

Influence of polarity and wire diameter

Deepest penetration with positive electrode. Normally, the
welding machine is equipped with DC positive electrode.

At constant amperage, the penetration gets deeper with

smaller wire diameter, due to the higher current density.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 482 of 1119

Influence of stick-out
Longer stick-out gives higher deposition rate, but
also more shallow penetration.

Above: Penetration at different stick-out

Right: Deposition rate at different stick-outs.

A: 25 mm
B: 57 mm
C: 83 mm
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 483 of 1119

Deposition rate
Recommended current range and deposition rate (kg/h)
for different wire diameters

2,7 kg/h 9,0 kg/h

∅ 1,6
10,3 kg/h
3,8 kg/h ∅ 2,0
9,5 kg/h
3,5 kg/h ∅ 2,5
3,4 kg/h ∅ 3,2 11,4 kg/h
10,6 kg/h
4,6 kg/h ∅ 4,0
18,8 kg/h
5,7 kg/h ∅ 5,0
5,6 kg/h 21,8 kg/h
∅ 6,0

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Ampere

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 484 of 1119

Deposition rate
As a function of wire diameter and amperage
Kg/
h
16 f
Wire
14 d e g
diameter
a = 1,6 mm 12
b = 2,0 mm 10 a c
c = 2,4 mm b
8
d = 3,2 mm
e = 4,0 mm 6
f = 5,0 mm 4
g = 6,0 mm
2

200 400 600 800 1000 Amp

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 485 of 1119

SAW - Process Variations

 Tandem SAW

 Twin / Multiple wire SAW

 SAW with auxiliary hot wire feeding

 SAW with metal powder addition

 Narrow Gap SAW

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 486 of 1119

SAW – Process Limitations

 Limited welding position

 Limited to higher thickness
 Limited to few materials
 Elaborate arrangement for equipments &
accessories - expensive
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 487 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.R.Senguta
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.R.Ravi
 Mr.N.K.Mukherjee
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 488 of 1119

THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 489 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Module 08

Gas Metal Arc and Flux

Cored Arc Welding
Processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 490 of 1119

Contents

• Gas Metal Arc Welding

• Flux Cored Arc Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 491 of 1119

Major Arc welding processes

– MMAW / SMAW
• Manual Metal Arc Welding / Shielded Metal Arc
Welding
– GMAW / FCAW *
• Gas Metal Arc Welding ( MIG / MAG )
• Flux Cored Arc welding
– GTAW *
• Gas Tungsten Arc welding
– SAW
• Submerged Arc Welding
• Electro – slag

*Gas shielded processes

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 492 of 1119

Weld Metal Deposited By Major Arc

Welding Processes

70% 28%
2%
Manual Metal Arc
1%
20% Submerged Arc
% 9%
Gas Metal Arc

8% Gas Tungsten Arc

Developed 62%
Countries
India
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 493 of 1119

Gas Metal Arc Welding the Dominant Process

• Improved productivity with flexibiity

• High weld quality with low hydrogen deposit
• Suitable for semi-automatic and automatic welding
• Increased penetration and deposition rates
• Amenable to mechanisation and robotic applications

• Adaptable to microprocessor based feed back

control
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 494 of 1119

Gas Metal Arc ( MIG ) Welding

Uses continuous wire

0.6 – 2.0 mm as
electrode
Gas shielded, inert or
active gas
Manual, automatic or
semi-automatic
process
High productivity
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 495 of 1119

GMAW process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 496 of 1119

GMAW equipment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 497 of 1119

Power Source Characteristics

 Power Sources of Constant Current type having

drooping characteristics are used for
- MMAW process
- GTAW process
- Plasma processes

 Power sources of constant voltage type having flat

characteristics are used for
- GMAW & FCAW processes
- SAW process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 498 of 1119

V-A Relationship – CV power

source for GMAW / SAW
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 499 of 1119

Automatic arc length regulation

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 500 of 1119

Wire Feed Speed / Current.

• Constant potential power sources are used for

GMAW and have no built in means of changing the
current. The current adjusts itself to burn off the
quantity of wire delivered. If the wire feed speed is
increased more current is drawn to burn it off . In
this way adjusting the wire feed speed also adjusts
the current supplied.

• The current dictates the amount of heat generated

by the arc. Increasing the current increases the arc
energy and therefore the heat input. This in turn
increases fusion and penetration, wire deposition
rate and travel speed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 501 of 1119

Shielding Gases

Shielding gases provide a Types of shielding

protection to the weld metal gases used in GMAW
from the atmosphere and • Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
have a pronounced effect on: • Argon (Ar)
• Arc characteristics • Helium (He)
• Mode of metal transfer • Ar + O2
• Penetration and weld bead profile • Ar + CO2 ( + O2 )
• Speed of welding • Ar + He
• Undercutting tendency • Ar + H2
• Cleaning action • Ar + N2
• Weld metal mechanical properties

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 502 of 1119

GMAW Filler Wire

GMAW filler wire for welding carbon-manganese and low alloy steels
require additional quantities of silicon and Manganese as de-oxidisers.
Some stainless steel wires may also have higher silicon, otherwise
chemistry of GMAW wire generally match the plate material

AWS specifications covering GMAW wire

• SFA-5.7 for copper and copper alloys
• SFA-5.9 for stainless steels
• SFA-5.10 for aluminium and aluminium alloys
• SFA-5.14 for nickel and nickel allos
• SFA-5.18 for carbon – manganese steels
• SFA-5.28 for low alloy steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 503 of 1119

Modes of metal transfer

• The mode of transfer is determined by a number of

factors:
– Magnitude, type and polarity of welding current
– Electrode diameter
– Electrode composition
– Electrode extension and
– Shielding gas composition
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 504 of 1119

Influence of welding current & gas on

metal transfer mode in GMAW

DIP GLOBULAR SPRAY

CO2 Argon Mix
CO2 /
Ar Mix
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 505 of 1119

Modes Of Metal Transfer

• DIP TRANSFER
Low current - low voltage used to produce
short circuiting arc, freq. 200 times / minute.
Used for sheet metal and postional welding

• SPRAY TRANSFER
Higher currents and voltage used , droplet size
same as or lower than the wire diameter.
Higher deposition rate penetration and fluidity
of the molten pool , increases the productivity
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 506 of 1119

Dip or Short Circuit Transfer

• Occurs with carbon dioxide, argon and argon mixtures
as the shielding gas and the current density is low.
• Molten droplets forms on the tip of the electrode, but
instead of dropping to the weld pool, they bridge the gap
between the electrode and the weld pool as a result of
the greater wire feed rate.
• This causes a short circuit and extinguishes the arc, but
it is quickly reignited after the surface tension of the weld
pool pulls the molten metal bead off the electrode tip.
• The metal is transferred from the electrode only during
the period in which the electrode is in contact with the
weld pool.
• No metal is transferred across the arc.
• The electrode contacts the weld pool in the range of 20-
to 200 times per second.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 507 of 1119

GMAW – Metal Transfer modes

Spray Transfer Globular Transfer

4 steps in
Short
circuiting
transfer
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 508 of 1119

Spray Transfer
• Spray transfer GMAW occurs when the molten
metal from the electrode is propelled axially
across the arc in the form of minute droplets.
• With Argon-rich gas shielding it is possible to
produce a very stable, spatter-free axial spray
transfer mode.
• The mode requires Direct current with a positive
electrode (DCEP) and a current level above a
critical value termed the spray transition current.
Below this level, the transfer is globular.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 509 of 1119

Axial Spray Transfer

•Molten metal is
propelled axially
across the arc in
minute droplets
•Argon-rich gas
shielding produces
stable spatter free
axial spray transfer
mode
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 510 of 1119

Argon Mixed Gas Spray Transfer

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 511 of 1119

Modes Of Metal Transfer Contd.

• GLOBULAR TRANSFER
An intermediate stage between dip and spray
transfer. Droplet sizes are more than the wire dia.
Produces excessive spatter and erratic arc
behaviour

• PULSED TRANSFER
Controlled method of spray transfer. Heat input to
the job is controlled by low background current
with high pulses using special type of equipment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 512 of 1119

Globular transfer
• Globular transfer is normally encountered with CO2 as shielding gas
at higher current and voltages.
• The higher surface tension of molten metal with CO2 produces a
larger size droplet greater than the wire diameter.
• The CO2 gas also dissociates in the welding arc to CO and oxygen
and then recombines back on top of the weld.
• This sets up some electro-magnetic forces in the upward and
tangential directions which act on the metal droplet. It also produces
greater heat due to the burning of the CO.
• When the droplet finally detaches by gravity or it falls in an uneven
manner on to the workpiece, This causes higher spatter and a more
uneven bead.
• As a result of the large molten droplets this mode of transfer is
generally limited to flat and horizontal welding positions.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 513 of 1119

CO2 Globular Transfer

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 514 of 1119

Pulse Transfer

Combines the control on heat input of short arc with the higher
deposition rate of open arc.
Gives extremely precise control on metal transfer and penetration
to give superior weld quality
In synergic pulsed systems wire feed rate synchronised with
pulsed current to control individual droplet detachment.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 515 of 1119

Problems of using CO2 as

Shielding Gas
• Unstable arc with high level of spatter

• High fume formation rate

• Higher level of reinforcement

• Reduced speed due to high viscosity

• Undercut / sharp notch at the toe of weld

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 516 of 1119

Spatter generated

1 metre of weld at 260 amps

using 1.2mm dia. A18 solid wire

Carbon dioxide Argon - 20 CO2 Argon-12 CO2

17.1 g 8.6 g 5.5 g

T-GK 3 (10)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 517 of 1119

Problems in using pure Argon

as Shielding gas

• Stable and Soft arc with a tendency to wander

• Finger shaped penetration profile

• Poor fusion and penetration due to low heat

input

• Comparatively high bead profile

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 518 of 1119

Finger Profile of pure Argon arc

Pure Argon Profile
Oxygen

Carbon di-oxide
20% 10%

Modified by oxygen and CO2

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 519 of 1119

Development of Shielding Gas

Mixtures
For welding mild and alloy steels which can tolerate some amount of
oxidising gases the pure Argon arc is modified by adding
• 1 – 5% oxygen to reduce surface tension and improve weld pool
fluidity to give a flatter bead and increase welding speeds.
• 5 – 25% CO2 to increase arc heat to improve fusion and penetration
and round out the penetration profile of pure argon. However the
greater is the amount of CO2 added higher is the spatter.
For welding stainless steels
• Upto 2% oxygen or 3% CO2 added to improve weld fluidity and give
flatter weld bead.
• 10 - 40% helium added in modern gases for improved penetration &
bead shape and increased welding speeds,
For welding aluminium, copper, nickel and other non-ferrous
alloys where no oxidising gas can be tolerated
• 25 – 75% helium added to improve fusion, penetration and welding
speeds.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 520 of 1119

Argon - Helium Mixtures used for

Aluminium and Non-ferrous metals

Helium Argon
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 521 of 1119

Effect of CO2 and O2 on welding speed

( 4mm throat fillet on 6mm plate)

70
60
Welding 50
40
speed
30
cm/min 20
10
0

2
2

2
2

O
CO

O
CO

2%
C
%

8%

2-
20

O
-
Ar
-

C
Ar

-5%
Ar
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 522 of 1119

CO2 and Argon mixture profiles

CO2 Argon mixture

 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Shielding gas profiles & Page 523 of 1119

effect on weld length

weld length
1.2 m weld length
1.15 m weld length
1m

Ar-CO2-O2 Ar-CO2 CO2

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 524 of 1119

Savings with Argon / CO2 / O2 gas mixtures

Process
Savings in wire DIP SPRAY
----------------------
• From reduced spatter 5% 10 - 15 %

• From flatter weld 10 - 20 % 10 - 15 %

Total Savings 15 - 25 % 20 - 30 %

Savings in arcing time 15 - 25 % 20 - 40 %

-----------------------------------
• Savings in power Equivalent to Equivalent to
arcing time arcing time

• Savings in gas volume Equivalent to Equivalent to

assuming flow rate same as CO2 arcing time arcing time

Savings in weldshop productivity

------------------------------------------------
• From improved welder productivity 5 - 10 % 5 - 10 %

• From reduced spatter cleaning and upto 50 % upto 75 %

weld dressing time
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 525 of 1119
CASE STUDY - 2
Heavy Fabrication
CO2 Argon Mix
Welding Parameters 270 A 280 A
31 V 30 V

Gas flow rate (lt/min) 15 15

Arcing Time (sec) 440 306
(30% saving)
Wire Consumption (kg) 32.8 25.8
(21% saving)
Cost (Rs.) 1180 930
Gas Consumption (M3) 6.6 4.6
Cost (Rs.) 92 263
Power Cost (Rs.) 372 249
Labour - welding (Rs.) 366 255
- dressing (Rs.) 60 30
Total Welding Cost 2070 1727

Reduction in direct weld costs - 16.6 %

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 526 of 1119

All weld deposit properties

with ER70S-6 wire
Weld Chemistry
Wire With CO2 With Argon-mix

C 0.085 0.08 0.09

Mn 1.39 1.20 1.30

Si 0.95 0.73 0.76

Mechanical Properties
UTS (kg/cm2) 54.8 62.5
YS (kg/cm2) 45.1 49.8
% El 24 30
Impact (Joules) - RT 149 180
- (-)300C 60 100
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 527 of 1119

Benefits of using gas mixtures

• Improved arc stability leading to lower spatter loss

• Improved weld bead geometry leading to weld metal saving

• Faster welding speeds leading to higher productivity and

reduced labour costs

• Improved weld quality leading to lesser rejects

• Reduced clean up time

• Lower distortion

• No heaters required for individual cylinders

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 528 of 1119

Gas Metal Arc Welding Parameters

• Current ( amps )
• Voltage ( volts )
• Shielding gas flow rate. ( litres / min )
• Stick out
• Torch angle
• Welding speed
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 529 of 1119

Balancing the wire feed speed

• As the wire feeds toward the weld it is melted by the

arc which burns up the wire. This is shown below.

Balancing welding parameters

Wire Feed
Rate

Arc Burn -
Back Rate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 530 of 1119

Balancing the wire feed speed

• Two options are available to balance the wire

feed rate
• Adjusting the arc voltage to increase or
decrease the burn off rate - used when the
current is OK for the job
• Adjusting the wire feed speed if the current
is too high or low.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 531 of 1119

WELDING PARAMETER CHART

PROCESS PARAMETER WIRE SIZE WIRE SIZE WIRE SIZE

0.8 mm 1.0 mm 1.2 mm

Dip Amps 45 -130 60 -145 65 -150

(Short nozzle) Volts 15 -22 16 -22 16 -22
Gas flow (lts/min) 10-15 12-16 12-16
Stick out (mm) 8 – 10 8 – 12 8 – 12

Spray Amps 150 – 200 180 – 200 (250) 210 – 400

(Long nozzle) Volts 24 – 31 25 – 31 26 – 35
Gas flow (lts/min) 12 – 16 14 – 18 15 - 20
Stick out (mm) 15 – 20 16 - 22 18 – 25
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 532 of 1119

Torch angle.

This rake angle should be utilised for the welding of all joint types in the
flat and overhead position.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 533 of 1119

Influence of wire angle

The wire angle influences
• penetration
• weld convexity
• tendency to undercutting
• porosity.

Backhand gives high penetration,

narrow and high weld convexity, and
relatively high risk for undercutting

Vertical welding gives optimum

performance
Backhand Vertical Forehand
Forehand gives low penetration, wide
and low weld convexity, and relatively
slight risk for undercutting
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 534 of 1119

Process Variations

• Gas metal arc spot welding is a technique in

which two overlapping work-pieces are fused
together by penetration of the arc
• Heavier sections can also be welded by
punching a hole in the upper work-piece. This is
know as plug-welding
• As against resistance spot welds, access to only
one side of the joint is necessary for Gas metal
arc spot welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 535 of 1119

MIG Brazing
• MIG brazing is a variation of the MIG
welding process used for brazewelding. It
uses the heat generated by an arc struck
between a continuously fed consumable
filler wire and the workpiece to fuse the
metal in the joint area.
• The consumable wire used in MIG brazing
is solid and an additional shielding gas is
required to protect the arc and weld area in
the same manner as that used for MIG
welding.
• The main features of the process are low
welding currents, low heat input and high
deposition rates.
• The filler wire is usually of copper-silicon
alloy, although other copper alloy wires
have also been used.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 536 of 1119

High Productivity GMAW Processes

• Conventional GMAW limited to deposition rates upto

6kg / hr and speeds upto 600 mm / min.

• To achieve higher productivity

- Modified single wire processes
Speeds upto 2m/min, deposition rate 14kg/hr
- Two wire processes
Speeds upto 5m/min, deposition rates 20kg/hr
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 537 of 1119

RAPID ARC / RAPID MELT / T.I.M.E

PROCESSES

• Characterised by high wire feed rates upto 30 m/min

with high stick out
• 3 voltage ranges : Low - Forced short arc
High - Moderated spray arc
V.High - Rotating arc
• Special gas mixture compositions
Ar - 26.5He - 8CO2 - 0.5O2
Ar - 30He - 10CO2 - 300ppm NO
Ar - 8CO2
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 538 of 1119

Two Wire Processes

• Two wires, leading and trailing forming common
elongated weld pool.

Twin wire GMAW -

• Power sources coupled in parellel with common
control. Parameters cannot be set independently
• Equipotential contact tubes - same volts for both
wires. Magnetic attraction of arc roots.
• Optimum inter wire spacing 4-7mm.
• Mostly used with Pulsed - Arc and Spray Arc
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 539 of 1119

Multi-wire GMAW Process

• Tandem Wire Technologies

came to the GMAW process
in early Nineties .
• 2 electrically isolated wires,
one behind the other (lead &
trail electrodes), closely
spaced, deposit metal in
single weld pool
• Lead wire generates most of
base metal penetration, trail
wire controls bead contour
and edge wetting-also adds
to Depo. Rate.
• Managed by specialized
Power control software
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 540 of 1119

Two Wire Processes

Tandem MIG
• Independently controlled power sources
frequency coupled - master and slave operation.
• Electrically seperated contact tubes allows
independent volts and parameter settings.
• Phase shift in pulsed welding achieves high
quality spatter free welding
• Argon - 5O2 and Argon - 18CO2 gas mixtures
used
• Applications in Ship building, tank welding, truck
wheels, rail coaches
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 541 of 1119

FCAW PROCESS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 542 of 1119

FCAW Process Features

• Uses tubular wire with flux
inside
• Gas shielded (FCAW-G) or self
shielded (FCAW-S)
• The flux produces a protective
slag and/or gas cover
• Combination of benefits of
MMAW and GMAW
• High productivity process with
low spatter. Smooth arc with
CO2. Argon mixtures give
superior performance
• Problem of high fumes which
need to be extracted in
enclosed areas
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 543 of 1119

Application of FCAW

• For fabrication of
- mild and low alloy steels
- stainless steels
- high nickel alloys

• For surfacing
- for wear or corrosion/oxidation resistance
- wide range of hardness / compositions available
- self shielded wires mainly used here
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 544 of 1119

FCAW application areas

Out-of-position welding
• Solid wire GMAW has to use dip-transfer which is slow with
tendency for lack-of-fusion or expensive pulsed-arc power sources
• Rutile type gas shielded E71T-1 wires can deposit over 3 kgs/hr
vertically up and are extensively used in shipbuilding, structural and
general fabrication applications.

Outdoors field welding

• Gas shielded, solid wire or FCAW processes cannot be used due to
windy conditions
• Self shielded E71T-8 wires used which can deposit upto 2 kgs/hr
vertically up.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 545 of 1119

FCAW application areas

Down-hand welding
• For applications not requiring Charpy impact properties
E70T-4, self shielded wires used. Deposits upto 18 kg/hr
in mechanised operation
• For applications requiring impact properties E70T-1
wires used. Deposits upto 14 kg/hr in mechanised
operation.

For welding coated and galvanized sheet

• Self shielded E71T-14 wires used. Breaks up and
volatilizes the coating avoiding porosity and cracks

For high impact requirements and low alloy steels

• E70T-5 wires used with gas shielding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 546 of 1119

Typical welding Parameters for FCAW

E71T-1 wire
Wire Down-hand Vertical-up Overhead
Size
0.9 mm 26V – 200A 23V – 150A 26V – 200A

1.2 mm 27V – 240A 25V – 200A 27V – 210A

1.4 mm 28V – 260A 25V – 210A 28V – 220A

1.6 mm 28V – 275A 25V – 220A 28V – 240A

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 547 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

• Mr.R.Banerjee
• Mr.R.Srinivasan
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 548 of 1119

THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 549 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Module 09

Gas Tungsten Arc and

Plasma Arc Processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 550 of 1119

Welding processes – Areas of

application

• MMAW Most versatile process, low investment

Deposition rate upto 4 kg/hr
Offers flexibility with higher productivity.
• GMAW Deposition rate upto 6 kg/hr for manual
Upto 20 kg/hr for mechanised twin wire
High quality low productivity process
• GTAW Deposition rate upto 2kg/hr
Maybe mechanised for higher productivity
Very high productivity but restricted to
• SAW
Straight welds in downhand & H-V fillet
Deposition rates upto 25 kgs / hr
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 551 of 1119

Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding (GTAW / TIG)

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 552 of 1119

Development of GTAW process

On February 24th 1942 a patent was issued to Russell
Meredith of the Northrop Aircraft Company
concerning an invention 'relating to welding
magnesium by means of an electric arc'. After
acquiring the rights to the process the Linde
Corporation renamed the process 'Heliarc'.
The process is now widely known as Tungsten Inert
Gas, or TIG, although it may sometimes be called
'Argonarc', or, less frequently now, 'Heliarc', while in
the USA it is known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or
GTAW.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 553 of 1119

TIG WELDING

Names
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

 ARGON ARC WELDING

 HELIARC WELDING

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 554 of 1119

TIG WELDING
 An Arc Welding Process.
 Arc between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the workpiece.
 An inert gas sustains the arc and protects the
molten metal from atmospheric contamination.

 Process is independent of filler addition

Filler metal can be added when required.

 Independent control on heat input and filler wire

addition.

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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How the TIG process works

The Tungsten Inert Gas, or TIG process, uses the heat generated by an
electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and
the workpiece to fuse metal in the joint area and produce a molten weld
pool. The arc area is shrouded in an inert or reducing gas shield to
protect the weld pool and the non-consumable electrode. The process
may be operated autogenously, that is, without filler, or filler may be
added by feeding a consumable wire or rod into the established weld
pool.

Schematic showing the principle of the TIG welding process

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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GTA welding advantages and

disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Very good control of the weld pool and penetration
– Heat transfer is easily controlled
– No spatter
– Welding without filler material possible
– Thin material welding with very low currents is
possible
– Can weld all types of metals and alloys
– The weld seam forming is good and slag free
– Weld root side is clean and slag-free (with root gas)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Disadvantages of TIG welding

– Slow speed in filling large grooves

– Sensitive to drafts and wind
– Sensitive to impurities
– Gas purity is a critical factor
– High need for root protection
– Welder skill requirement is high
– Cost of process is comparitively higher.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Application of TIG welding

• Welding of critical pipes and pipelines, for example
pressurized pipes,
• Manufacturing heat exchanger pipes and combinations
• Manufacturing stainless pipe and tubes
• Thin materials from ~ 0,1 mm and higher
• Thin stainless steel welding
• Aluminum welding
• Special materials welding, eg. Titanium
• Fixing and repairing minor works
• Space and aircraft industry
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Joint Design
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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GTAW process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG welding set-up

TIG TORCH REGULATOR/FLOWMETER
(AIR or WATER COOLED)

SHIELDING GAS
WORK PIECE

WATER COOLER
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY (OPTIONAL)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG Torch and electrodes

normal
(manual)

straight
(machine

Short head

Nozzles in different shapes & sizes

Gas lens
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Tungsten electrodes
Addition of small amount of oxides of thorium / cerium /
lanthanum / zirconium to tungsten enhance the performance
of the tungsten electrodes by increasing the electron
emissivity and current carrying capacity of the electrodes.

Types of tungsten electrodes:

 Pure Tungsten (EWP), (Green)
 Thoriated Tungsten (EWTh), (Red)
Zirconiated Tungsten (EWZr),(Brown & white)
 Ceriated Tungsten (EWCe), (Grey)
 Lanthanated (EWLa), (Black, Gold & Blue )

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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ISO 6848 Classification of Tungsten

Electodes
Classification Principal Oxide Mass percent Colour Code
WP None N.A, Green
WCe 20 CeO2 1.8 – 2.2 Grey
WLa 10 La2O3 0.8 – 1.2 Black
WLa 15 La2O3 1.3 – 1.7 Gold
WLa 20 La2O3 1.8 – 2.2 Blue
WTh 10 ThO2 0.8 – 1.2 Yellow
WTh 20 ThO2 1.7 – 2.2 Red
WTh 30 ThO2 2.8 – 3.2 Violet
WZr 3 ZrO2 0.15 – 0.50 Brown
WZr 8 ZrO2 0.7 – 0.9 White
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIG Torch and electrodes

Tungsten Electrodes
2% Thoriated for DC
welding of MS, SS, Cu & Ni
alloys - red tip.
Thoriated electrodes are
being replaced by Pointed tip for
DCSP TIG
Lanthanated and Ceriated
tungsten electrodes.
Pure tungsten and
Zirconiated tungsten for AC
welding of Aluminium, Balled tip for
Magnesium. AC TIG
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Preparation of Tungsten Electrode

It is necessary to prepare the tip of the tungsten electrode, usually by
grinding, to aid arc initiation, stability, and control. For DCEN operation a
point is ground with an included, or vertex, angle according to the
application and the current that is to be used.
It should be noted that grinding should be carried out along the length of
the electrode not round the tungsten. Grinding round the tungsten can
cause the arc to wander up the electrode creating an unstable or rotating
arc.

For AC operation the tip of the electrode should be rounded off and not
pointed. This is because when using AC the tungsten tends to form a ball
on the end of the electrode rather than keeping a point.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Shielding Gases in TIG welding quality

ARGON --- Most widely used
 Best shielding
 Best cleaning action
 Arc starting easier
 Best arc stability
 Available and comparatively less
costly.
HELIUM
 Increases penetration and heat
 Increases welding speed
 Arc starting difficult
 Higher flow rate (2-3 times of
Argon) required.
Control of impurities is very
important for high quality welds.
 Higher cost
Impurities:
ARGON / HELIUM MIXTURES Moisture, oxygen, nitrogen and
 Combines benefits of both gases. hydro-carbons.
 Some times small percentage of
Oxygen or Hydrogen added to Argon
to improve wetting.
+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Schematic profiles during TIG-welding

of different shielding gases,
current 150 A, arc length 4 mm, weld speed 15 cm/min
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Back Purging
When TIG welding certain materials, such as
stainless steel or nickel alloys, it is necessary to
prevent the reverse side of the weld area oxidising,
particularly in pipework when post-weld cleaning of
the root is impossible.This is usually achieved by
passing a stream of inert gas through the pipe, or
over the reverse side of a plate, to exclude, or purge,
oxygen from the area.
The gases most frequently used for purging are
argon or nitrogen. Which gas is chosen will depend
on technical, practical or economic reasons.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Shielding gas flow rates

• Flow rates : 6 – 10 litres per minute, depending on
application, using argon gas.
• A low flow rate can easily cause defects in the welding.
Too high a flow rate can also cause defects in the
welding due to turbulence, along with high costs in gas.
• Shield gas type : For example, when using ”light” helium
as shielding gas, the flow rate must be 1.5 - 3 times
more than with argon.
• Welding speed: In mechanized welding the weld pool
can become larger than usual. Then a larger gas nozzle
and flow rate can be used
• When needed, a gas lens can be used in the torch.
Longer gas shield distances are possible when using a
gas lense.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Gas post flow

•The solenoid valve in the shielding gas flow path opens
immediately after the command from the start switch.
•When welding is stopped the solenoid valve shuts after a
certain adjustable post flow time.
•This delay protects in cooling the weld and especially the
cooling of the electrode from oxidation.
•When the post flow time is long enough the electrode tip
remains shiny and clear.
•Too short a post gas time oxidises the Tungsten, and
darkens its colour. The electrode wear is even 30 % higher,
causing also faults in the weld.
• Post gas time is adjusted according to the electrode cooling
time, which is long when welding with high currents.
Usually the setting is 5 - 15 s.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

• Power Sources of Constant Current type having

drooping characteristics are used for
- MMAW process
- GTAW process
- Plasma processes

• Power sources of constant voltage type having flat

characteristics are used for
- GMAW & FCAW processes
- SAW process
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Drooping characteristics power source

• Designed to give stable operation where the electrode moves up
and down with the welders hand eg MMAW and GTAW
processes.
• Variation in arc voltage with movement of the welders hand
results in very little change in current
• Stable current gives consistent arc heat and weld pool

ISO line of the power

source is V= 20+ 0.04xI
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Effect of polarity on heat input

DCEN DCEP A
Cathode Anode C
_

1/16” 1/4” 3/32”

2/3 heat 1/3 heat 50% heat

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC Cleaning

DCEN DCEP Electrode

Oxide Layer
Arc

(Negative Half Cycle) (Positive Half Cycle)

Melt Zone
Penetration Cleaning
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Heat distribution and penetration

in DCEN, DCSP and AC TIG welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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GTAW with AC for Aluminium

In this mode the polarity of the tungsten electrode and the workpiece
alternate between negative and positive at the frequency of the
applied welding current. This operating mode offers a good
compromise between workpiece heating and good fusion
characteristics combined with cathodic cleaning as described
above.

Diagram showing the current waveform for AC TIG operation

At normal mains frequencies (50Hz) heating and cleaning take place
during alternate half cycles, and is particularly suitable for materials
with tenacious oxide layers which would otherwise restrict or inhibit
fusion.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Polarity for arc processes

GTAW
• Electrode DC –ve for mild steel, stainless steel,
Ni and Ni alloys, Cu and Cu alloys
• AC for aluminium, magnesium & Al-Bronze.
• Sometimes electrode DC +ve used for thin
sheet.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Development of Power sources

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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GTA Welding Machines

For GTAW Welding we can have

• DC TIG welding Machines

• DC Pulsed welding machines
• AC TIG welding machines,
• AC/DC TIG Welding Machines
• Square wave AC machines

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Pulsed welding Power Sources

Many welding sets now are capable of giving a pulsed

arc in which high current pulses are provided over a
lower background current. The pulse frequency,
duration, and maximum current and the background
duration and current can be varied to suit the
application. With some equipment the pulse shape
can be varied too.
Use of pulsing allows greater control over heat input
of the arc and enables consistent welds to be made in
very thin materials, in dissimilar thickness joints, and
unsupported root runs, and when welding in position.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Pulsed welding
In pulse-TIG welding the current changes
according to the settings of frequency and pulse
ratio, between pulse and pause currents.
tc
I
ts Build-up of a bead consisting
of diverse nuggets
Is

It

t
I ave = Average current
t c = Cycle time / Frequency
PL = pool length
t s = Pulse time OL = overlapping length
I s = Pulse current DN = distance between
I t = Pause current two nuggets

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 583 of 1119

Pulsed TIG welding modes

Pulse welding can be divided to three different classes, according to
frequency:

Long pulse welding

• Frequency 0.2 - 10Hz
• Considerable pause time, during which the molten metal has time to
cool, so the weld is easier to control
.
Quick pulse
• Frequency 50 - 500Hz
• Frequency is so high, that pulse cycles are no longer distinguished
• Usually the penetration is better and weld narrower
• This feature is typical for ”ordinary inverter power sources”.

“High frequency pulse”

• Frequency 1kHz- 20kHz
• Only in special machines
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 584 of 1119

Pulsed TIG applications

Pulsed TIG is a versatile welding process for all
positions and material thicknesses
Uses:
Positional welding
Pipe welding
Welding without filler material
Welding of materials of different
thicknesses
Special materials eg SS & Ni alloys
Advantages:
Greater control on fusion & penetration
Welding is quicker (quick pulse)
Deeper penetration
Easier welding
Stabile arc
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC waveforms
+
0 • Sine wave
- t
– Traditional AC - transformer
(50Hz)
– Low noise,half cycle ignition bad
+ • Square wave
0 – Traditional or inverter power
- t source
– High noise, good oxide cleaning
– AC frequency adjustable
+
• Formed square wave
– Available in modern power
0 sources
- t – Combined sine- and square
wave
– Optimum AC properties
– AC frequency adjustable
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC - balance adjustment
70%
• Maximum positive balance
+ – Low penetration
– Good oxide cleaning
0
– A hotter electrode, tip wears round
-
30% • Maximum negative balance 2.4
3.2
– Deep penetration BALANCE
30% – Bad oxide cleaning 4.0

– A colder electrode, stays sharper

+ AC
0
- Adjustment depends on:
Material thickness
Oxide layer thickness
70%
t Base material

+ Usually in AC welding the arc ignition is

done with DC+. This function is
0
t automatic
-
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Deep penetration
Bad oxide cleaning
A colder electrode, stays sharper

Low penetration
Good oxide cleaning
A hotter electrode, tip
wears round

Wave balance (EN/EP ) & AC frequency Variables In Square

Wave AC TIG Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AWS Specifications for Filler

Metals Suitable for GTAW
Specification
No.
A 5.2 Iron and Steel gas welding rods.
A 5.7 Copper and Copper alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
A 5.9 Corrosion resistant Chromium-Nickel steel bars and composite
metal cored and standard arc welding electrodes and welding rods
A 5.10 Aluminium and Aluminium alloy welding rods and bare electrodes
A 5.13 Surfacing welding rods and electrodes
A 5.14 Nickel and nickel alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
A 5.16 Titanium and titanium alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
A 5.18 Mild steel electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding
A 5.19 Magnesium alloy welding rods and bare electrodes
A 5.24 Zirconium and Zirconium alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Arc Initiation in GTAW

To start the process a method of initiating the arc is
required. Initiation may be achieved by several
different methods, primarily dependent on the type
of TIG equipment being used, but influenced by the
material being welded and the application.
The most common methods in use are:
• Touch or scratch start.
• Carbon block.
• High Frequency (HF) power.
• Lift arc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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HF - Ignition Unit
• High frequency (HF) unit ignites the arc without
contact between the electrode and workpiece.
• Usually TIG welding equipment are compact, so
that the high frequency unit is mounted inside the
machine.
• Separate units are mainly used with multiprocess
power sources.
• HF has been known to create difficulties and
interference with computer systems, telephones,
and other electronic items, including heart
pacemakers
• For example at nuclear power plant constructions
the use of HF - spark is prohibited.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC Freq.50 Hz.
EN/EP 50/50

HF impulse in Sine Wave AC TIG Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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DC Suppressor in AC

 Function of DC Suppressor
 Additional accessory to remove unwanted DC from
output - provides only AC output for welding
 Why DC Suppressor?
 In the positive half cycle, the oxide layer formed on
the surface of the job behaves as a PN junction
diode in the reverse bias and does not conduct
current
 A DC suppressor removes the DC component and
facilitates AC output free from unwanted DC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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GTAW Welding Parameters

The current and polarity to be used will determine the

diameter of the tungsten electrode. The relationship
between current and electrode diameter for tungsten
electrodes with additions of thorium oxide, cerium
oxide, lanthanum oxide or zirconium oxide is shown in
the next table
If using pure tungsten electrodes the currents quoted
should be reduced to 75-90% of these values for DCEN
operation and to 60-75% for AC operation.
It is advised that national standards be consulted for
suitable current ranges.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Recommended Current Ranges for Tungsten Electrodes

Based upon Standard, ISO 6848 - 2004.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Selecting the right parameters

ELECTRODE GAS NOZZLE no GAS FLOW CURRENT RANGE

DIAMETER l / min A

∅ 1,6 4-5 5-7 20 - 130

∅ 2,4 5-6 6-8 100 - 250
∅ 3,2 6-7 7-9 150 - 350
∅ 4,0 7-8 8 - 10 200 - 500

• Gas nozzle number is defined by the marking 1/16” ( 1,5875mm )

• Example: number 5 is 5 x 1,5875 mm = 7,9 mm
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Electrode stick-out and arc length

in DC-ve welding

3 - 5 mm

1 - 5 mm

Electrode stick-out depends on the current and joint type used

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Defects in TIG WELDING

Bead oxidised

Tungsten inclusion

Lack fusion /
penetration

excess penetration
Crack in weld
Crater crack

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Tungsten Inclusions
Touching a tungsten electrode into a molten weld pool
will often result in some tungsten being melted off and
taken into the weld metal. Similarly, if the tip of a
tungsten electrode for AC operation is ground to a point,
this will be removed on initiation of the AC arc and end
up in the weld metal.
The resultant tungsten inclusions will be classified as a
defect and will have to be ground out and the weld
repaired.
Welders should be careful not to allow the electrodes to
come into contact with the weld pool and to ensure all
tungsten electrodes are correctly ground and prepared
for welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Hot Wire TIG

In this variation, instead of the welder manually feeding

a cold, length of filler rod into the molten weld pool,
filler wire from a small spool is electrically pre-heated
and continuously fed via a contact tube into the back of
the pool. The resistance heating of the wire prior to
adding to the pool means that deposition rates can be
substantially improved compared to conventional cold
wire TIG.
There can also be improvements in productivity, as the
welder does not have to stop to pick up filler rods.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Mechanised wire feeding in TIG

to increase productivity
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Orbital TIG
Orbital TIG is an automatic process used primarily of the
welding together of pipes. The welding head comprises
of a method to hold in place both of the pipes to be
welded. It also contains a compact welding torch and a
drive mechanism allowing it to move completely around
the pipe. There will also be an integral wire feed system
on models for use with pipe that cannot be welded
autogenously.
Welding heads are produce in different diameters
suiting only a limited range of pipe diameters.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Process variations - Pipe welding

Schematic view of
mechanised butt welding
of tubes using a pipe welding
clamp

- Orbital welding -
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 603 of 1119

Tube to tube- sheet welding

Typical boiler tube plate welding head

Specialist equipment for tube and tube-plate welding for
heat exchangers has been developed. These systems may
operate from the outside or inside depending on tube
diameter and the size of the welding head.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Narrow-Gap TIG
In this variation, the components to be welded are
brought together in either as a square edge joint with a
small gap and a backing bar or 'U' preparation. These
combinations mean that distance between the two sides
of the joint are much smaller, hence the term 'narrow
gap'. The TIG torch, perhaps with some modification,
can be lowered into the gap and withdrawn slowly as
the weld progresses. Hot-wire filler addition may be
used together with pulsed current and other techniques
to assist the process.
Using a small gap between the component faces allows
thicker plates to be welded with fewer weld passes,
saving consumable costs, but, more importantly, labour
costs.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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The Activated –Flux (A-Tig) process

• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is widely used in nuclear,
aerospace, power, oil, shipbuilding & host of other
industries.
• Fundamental to applications requiring high quality thru’
control of bead shape & metallurgical characteristics.
• It is, however, a low productivity process,
• A-TIG welding process, developed by Paton Welding
Institute in the 1960’s, is a feasible alternative to
increase the process productivity
• A-TIG uses a thin layer of an active flux that is applied to
the surface before welding.
• The activated flux causes constriction in the arc-
,increasing current density at the anode root and the arc
force acting on weld pool.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Advantages Of A-Tig Process

• A-TIG can enhance weld penetration by up to 300%

• A-TIG gives weld metal properties similar to parent

metal

• Less sensitive to cast to cast material variation

• Higher welding speed and productivity

• Cost of Welding can be reduced by as much as 50 %

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weld Penetration Profile

Conventional-vis-à-vis A -Tig
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Plasma Arc Process

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Plasma Arc Welding

• Developed in in 1964 to provide
improved levels of control, accuracy
and consistency for precision
applications to that obtained by TIG
• In Plasma welding the gas plasma is
constricted by a fine bore copper
nozzle ( generally water-cooled ) so
that very high velocities and
temperatures upto 20,000 C are
achieved.
• Since the tungsten electrode is
positioned well inside the copper
nozzle the plasma arc can be
separated from the shielding gas
envelope. This also reduces
contamination and wear of the
electrode.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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The Plasma Arc Process

• Generally operated on DC with a
drooping characteristic power
source. A plasma control console
can be added to a TIG power
source
• A pilot arc is first struck between
the electrode and copper nozzle
and then main arc struck with the
work-piece when welding.
• A HF unit is required only at the
start to strike the pilot arc.
• The plasma gas is generally Argon
or sometimes Argon-Helium and
the shielding gas Argon + 2-5% H2.
• The electrode is Tungsten + 2% Th
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Features of the plasma process

• Needle like stiff arc reduces arc wander and distortion.
• Currents a low as 0.05 amps can be used and arc transfer is more
gentle and consistent allowing thin wires to be welded.
• Arc energy density 3 X that of TIG. Gives higher welding speeds
with less distortion. Also gives much higher penetration to enable
key-hole technique to be used.
• HF only needed to start pilot arc. Thus can be used with NC controls
and for hermetically sealed electronic components.
• Extremely short weld times can be achieved down to 0.005 secs.
Thus fine wire mesh can be spot welded.
• Weld bead size can be predicted by nozzle bore size, which controls
the plasma column diameter.
• Precise control on penetration facilitates plasma overlaying to
control depth of surfacing layer.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Application of the plasma process

Three operating modes possible by varying current bore
diameter and gas flow rate
• Micro plasma: 0.05 to 15 amps – used for welding thin sheet down
to 0.1mm eg SS bellows and wire mesh, welding of surgical
instruments, repair of gas turbine engine blades, electronic
components and micro-switches etc.
• Medium current: 15 to 200 amps – used as alternative to
conventional TIG for improved penetration and greater tolerance to
surface contamination. Generally mechanised due to bulkiness of
torch.
• Keyhole Plasma: over 100 amps – By increasing current and
plasma gas flow a very powerful beam is possible which can achieve
full penetration in 10 mm stainless steel.During welding the hole
progressively cuts through the metal with the molten weld pool
flowing behind to form the weld bead.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

• Mr.R.Banerjee
• Mr.R.Srinivasan
• Mr.T.K.Mitra
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 615 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 10
__________________________

Resistance Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 616 of 1119

Spot welding machines

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 617 of 1119

Basic principle of resistance welding

Top Electrode
Cooling Water

Weld
Nugget

Distance
Resistance
Bottom Electrode
Resistance welding is a process where heat is generated by the resistance of the
parts being welded to the flow of a localized electric current.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of Resistance welding

Electrodes Electrodes Electrodes Projection
or Welding or Welding or Dies Welds
Tips Wheels

Spot Weld Seam Weld Projection Weld

 Spot welding Electrodes or Dies

 Seam welding
Butt Seam welding
Flash Butt welding
 Projection Welding
 Flash Butt welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Spot welding process

P Pressure is applied to ensure
adequate contact resistance
Overlapping steel
between the parts.
sheets are positioned
between
Cu-based electrodes.

Current is switched on,

Heats the workpiece interface,
melts the steel to form a nugget
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Spot welding process

Key parameters

Squeeze pressure,
 Current,
 Weld time,
 Hold time
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Squeeze Time is the time interval between the

initial application of the electrode force on the
work and the first application of current. Squeeze
time is necessary to delay the weld current until the
electrode force has attained the desired level.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Weld time is the time during which welding current is

applied to the metal sheets. The weld time is
measured and adjusted in cycles of line voltage as
are all timing functions. One cycle is 1/50 of a
second in a 50 Hz power system.

As the weld time is, more or less, related to what is

required for the weld spot, it is difficult to give an
exact value of the optimum weld time.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Hold time is the time, after the welding, when the electrodes
are still applied to the sheet to chill the weld. Considered
from a welding technical point of view, the hold time is the
most interesting welding parameter.
Hold time is necessary to allow the weld nugget to solidify
before releasing the welded parts, but it must not be to long
as this may cause the heat in the weld spot to spread to the
electrode and heat it.
The electrode will then get more exposed to wear. Further, if
the hold time is to long and the carbon content of the
material is high (more than 0.1%), there is a risk the weld will
become brittle. When welding galvanized carbon steel a
longer hold time is recommended.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 624 of 1119

TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

P Pressing Time
R
E
S T im e
S
U
R
Initial Pressure Run Time Holding Time Off time
E

Press work piece Fusion by resistive heating NUGGET Forms Cooling

due to high current & solidifies

Total Cycle Time

WELDING SEQUENCE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 625 of 1119

Joule heating
Top Electrode
Cooling Water

Weld
Nugget
H=I2Rt
H=Heat
I=Current

Distance
R=Resistance
t=time

Resistance
Bottom Electrode

The high contact resistance at the interface of the two

sheets cause heating during passage of high current.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 626 of 1119

Resistance and heating

The temperature varies from electrode to the interface.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 627 of 1119

Temperature profile

Fusion temperatures at center of nugget exceed 2000oC

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 628 of 1119

Heating sequence of the nugget

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 629 of 1119

Properties of Nugget

Electrode
Tip

Molten
Nugget

Electrode
Tip
FN ≥ FE : Expulsion
FN = Force of expanding nugget
FE = Force of Electrode
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 630 of 1119

Properties of Nugget
F Electrode
Pressure Tip
lines
HAZ

Electrode
F Tip

rF > rN : Contained weld rF < rN : Expulsion

rF = Electrode force radius
rN = Nugget radius
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 631 of 1119

Nugget shape and size

The nugget diameter should ideally be between 3.5√t and

5√t in order to provide proper strength.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 632 of 1119

Welding defects

Mild steel without cladding Clad steel

Identifying causes for defects helps in their prevention.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 633 of 1119

Parameter – nugget size relationship

Welding diameter
3.5 √ t 5√t No nugget
Splash
Welding Time

Pressure
Interfacial
splash
Good
weld

Explosion

Welding current Welding current

Pressure control is critical for good quality joints

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 634 of 1119

Process range – weld lobe

300 dn=4.3-4.5mm dia. 140

Welding time, ms
250
120
Weld Time, ms

200 Splash Zone

100
150
80
100

50 dn=3.3-3.5mm dia. 60

4 5 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9
Weld Current, kA Welding current, kA
0.8mm thick IF-coated steel 0.9mm thick IF-bare steel

Weld lobe is the permissible operating range

for a given pressure condition.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 635 of 1119

Effect of weld time on nugget diameter

5.5
5 6.5 KA
Nugget Dia (mm)

4.5 7 KA
4 7.5 KA
3.5 8 KA
3 8.5 KA

2.5 9 KA

2
50 70 90 110 130 150
Weld Time (ms)
Increase in weld time increases nugget size
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 636 of 1119

DETERMINATION OF SPOT WELDING PARAMETERS

Sheet thickness, Electrode force, Weld current, Weld time Hold time Electrode diameter,
t [mm] F [kN] I [A] [cycles] [cycles] d [mm]

0.63 + 0.63 2.00 8 500 6 1 6

0.71 + 0.71 2.12 8 750 7 1 6
0.80 + 0.80 2.24 9 000 8 2 6
0.90 + 0.90 2.36 9 250 9 2 6
1.00 + 1.00 2.50 9 500 10 2 6
1.12 + 1.12 2.80 9 750 11 2 6
1.25 + 1.25 3.15 10 000 13 3 6 7
1.40 + 1.40 3.55 10 300 14 3 6 7
1.50 + 1.50 3.65 10 450 15 3 6 7
1.60 + 1.60 4.00 10 600 16 3 6 7
1.80 + 1.80 4.50 10 900 18 3 6 7
2.00 + 2.00 5.00 11 200 3x7+2 4 7 8
2.24 + 2.24 5.30 11 500 3x8+2 4 7 8
2.50 + 2.50 5.60 11 800 3x9+3 5 8
2.80 + 2.80 6.00 12 200 4x8+2 6 8
3.00 + 3.00 6.15 12 350 4x9+2 6 8
3.15 + 3.15 6.30 12 500 4x9+2 6 8
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 637 of 1119

FEA based software help simulate welding process

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 638 of 1119

Process control monitor

Current, voltage, time monitors help in

proper process control.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 639 of 1119

Advantages of Resistance Spot Welding

 Adaptability for Automation in High-Rate

Production of Sheet Metal Assemblies

 High Speed

 Economical

 Dimensional Accuracy
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 640 of 1119

Limitations of Resistance Spot Welding

 Adds weight and material cost to the product, because of

the lap, compared with a butt joint
 Equipment generally more expensive than most arc welding
equipments
 Produces unfavorable line power demands
 Low tensile and fatigue strength
 The full strength of the sheet cannot prevail across a spot
welded joint
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 641 of 1119

Spot welding applications

Car body

Resistance spot welding is extensively applied for car

body manufacture.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 642 of 1119

Spot welding applications

Rail car body panels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 643 of 1119

Spot welding applications

Complete side walls of rail coach
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 644 of 1119

Spot Welding Machine

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 645 of 1119

Spot Welding Process

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 646 of 1119

Spot welding in progress

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 647 of 1119

PORTABLE SPOT WELDING GUNS

C-GUN
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 648 of 1119

PORTABLE SPOT WELDING GUNS

X-GUN
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 649 of 1119

Portable Spot Welding Machine

TROLEY
GANTRY

전원,AIR
,냉각수

SPRING
BALANCE T/R

SELECT S/W AIR

Cylin KICKNESS
3 4
-der CABLE
GUN S/W
2

SHUNT T/C
1

POINT HOLDER
Guide Rod CAP TIP SCR
GANTRY
SHANK BOX
ADAPTOR
HOLDER
GUN BODY

MOTOR
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 650 of 1119

Portable spot welders

for side wall arch
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 651 of 1119

Robotics Spot Welding

LHB side wall
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 652 of 1119

Power Source Principles

Switching circuit
Secondary has a few turns
only and delivers very low
voltage while it is capable of
delivering very high current
Mains Supply

(5,000-20,000Amps)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 653 of 1119

Peltier effect
Current
Metal-1 Metal-2
Direction of sss COLD
heat travel

sss
DC
power

sss HOT COLD source

HOT

DC power source
Current
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 654 of 1119

Effect of Self Inductance

Self inductance of any circuit is given by:
dφ di
N » N
dt dt
Secondary of the power source has only a few turns,
therefore value of N is very low.
However, value of φ is very high since value of i is very
high and is generally in the order of thousands of
amperes.
Therefore the self inductance of the power source is
considerable and affects current build up
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 655 of 1119

Characteristics of welding machines

MF-DC PPN

MF DC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 656 of 1119

Issues with zinc coated steels

• Smooth surface, i.e. low contact resistance
• Zinc expulsion
• Poor electrode life
• Inconsistent nugget quality
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 657 of 1119

Electrode - types and shapes

Cap tips Electrodes

 The electrodes are made of copper alloys since pure copper is soft and
would wear out fast.
 Ceramic tips are also available which have longer life but higher resistivity
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 658 of 1119

Electrode dimension and parameter

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 659 of 1119

Welding parameters – BS1140

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 660 of 1119

Welding parameters – BS1140

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 661 of 1119

Specific testing

Shear-tension

Cross-tension

Mechanical properties indicate about the quality of the product.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 662 of 1119

Cross-tension test

Load bearing capacity of nugget in cross tension.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 663 of 1119

Shear tensile test

Load bearing capacity of nugget under shear condition

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 664 of 1119

Test Results

 Sufficiently large size nugget

 Strong nugget

A button failure indicates good weld.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 665 of 1119

Shear strength of spot welds

4.4

4.2
Shear strength, N

4.0

3.8

3.6 Steel: IF-GA

3.4

3.2
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Nugget dia., mm
Bigger nuggets are stronger.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 666 of 1119

Shear strength of spot welds

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 667 of 1119

PROJECTION WELDING PROCESS

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 668 of 1119

Seam welding machine

Electrodes

All resistance welding processes work on almost

the same principle.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 669 of 1119

Butt Seam Welding

 IN BUTT SEAM WELDING, THE ELECTRODES ARE TWO

COPPER ROLLERS DRIVEN BY AN ELECTRIC MOTOR.

 THE PARTS TO BE WELDED ARE CLAMPED BETWEEN

THE ROLLER ELECTRODES.

 WITH THE ROLLERS ROTATING AND THE CURRENT

SWITCHED ON AND OFF, A WELD IS PRODUCED EITHER
IN THE FORM OF A SERIES OF CLOSELY SPACED
STITCHES, OR AS OVERLAPPING SPOTS, OR AS A
CONTINUOUS WELD NUGGET.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 670 of 1119

Seam Welding Machine

CARRIAGE

COPPER
RAILS
MAGNETIC
TABLE

FOIL
SPOOLS

GUIDE

ELECTRODE ROLLER SERVO DRIVE FEEDERS TELESCOPIC

COVER
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 671 of 1119

Butt-Seam Welding of Roof Sheets

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 672 of 1119

Butt Seam Welded Joint

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 673 of 1119

Butt Seam Welding

Work in progress
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 674 of 1119

Butt Seam Welding

Work in progress
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 675 of 1119

Seam welding of galvanized steel

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 676 of 1119

Flash butt welding machine

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 677 of 1119

Flash butt welding machine

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 678 of 1119

Flash Butt Welding Machine

Flash butt welding of pull rod
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 679 of 1119

Flash butt welding of pull rod

setting up
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 680 of 1119

Flash butt welding of pull rod

Actual welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 681 of 1119

Flash butt welding of pull rod

Welding just completed
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 682 of 1119

Joint configurations of processes

 Resistance spot - Overlap

 Resistance seam - Overlap
 Projection – Lap attachment
 Flash butt - Butt
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 683 of 1119

Safety
Protection from Use / provide
Sharp and hot Leather gloves and
workpiece safety shoes
Spark, Splashes Eye glasses
Pinch point injury Electronic device
Mechanical injury Suitable guards

Electrical shock Follow electrical safety rules

Fumes Ventilation
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 684 of 1119

Friction Stir Welding

 A non-consumable rotating
tool is pushed into the
materials to be welded.
 Then the central pin, followed
by the shoulder, is brought into
contact with the two parts to
be joined.
 The rotation of the tool heats
up and plasticises the
materials it is in contact with.
 As the tool moves along the
joint line, material from the
front of the tool is swept
around this plasticised annulus
to the rear, so eliminating the
interface.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 685 of 1119

20 HP
Experimental Setup of FSW Motor

V-Belt and
Pulley System

Vertical
Head

Dynamometer

Tool
Sample

Backing
Plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 686 of 1119

Operating Sequence
1 Rotate 2 Plunge

3 Axial Force
4 Travel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 687 of 1119

Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 688 of 1119

Tools for Friction Stir Welding

Smooth Pin Threaded Pin

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 689 of 1119

Typical parameters
 Parameters (Variables) are:
 Rotational Speed (RS)

 Travel Speed (TS)

 Sample
AA 6061-T6: 76.2 x 457.2 x 6.35 mm (3 x 18 x ¼”)

 Rotational Speeds:
1000-5000 RPM

 Travel Speeds:
290-1600 mm/min (11.4 in/min–63 in/min)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 690 of 1119

Advantages Of Friction Stir Welding

 Weld is formed across the entire cross-sectional area of

the interface in a single shot process.
 The process is completed in a few seconds with very
high reproducibility - an essential requirement for a
mass production industry
 No melting occurs during welding
 Friction heating is generated locally, so no widespread
softening of the materials,
 Low distortion & ability to weld awkward material
combination
 Capable of joining dissimilar materials.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 691 of 1119

Advantages Of Friction Stir Welding

 Increased weld strength over fusion welding

 Fatigue & Corrosion resistance
 No consumables, No shielding gasses used
 No environmental impact
 Reduces inventory-no consumable required
 Lower cost of welding - energy efficient
 Increasing use for aluminium & copper based alloys –
research going on welding of Ti & SS also
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 692 of 1119

Limitations of FSW

 Problem: High axial forces required to FSW (1-12+ kN

or 225-2700+ lbs), difficult to maintain even using
robust robots especially at large distances from the
base unit
 Possible solution: Utilize increased rotational
speed/decreased axial force relationship to aid in
developing a larger operational envelope for high
speed FSW
 Conflict: 3-D contours difficult with heavy duty machine
tool type equipment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 693 of 1119

Application Area

 Aerospace (Spirit, Boeing, Airbus)

 Railway (Hitachi Rail)
 Shipbuilding/marine (Naval vessels)
 Construction industries and others (Audi)
 Can be used in industrial robots
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 694 of 1119

Applications Of FSW

FRICTION STIR WELDED

ALUMINIUM CONNECTOR
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 695 of 1119

Applications Of FSW
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 696 of 1119

Contributors to this presentation:

 Mr. M. Shome, TISCO, Jamshedpur

 Mr. R. Ravichandran, ICF, Perambur

 S. Ghoshal, IIW, Kolkata

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 697 of 1119

Thank you
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 698 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 11

Introduction to Wear
and Surfacing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 699 of 1119

Contents

 Types of wear and causes

 Surfacing alloys
 Reclamation Processes &
technology
 Protective coatings
 Spraying and Cladding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 700 of 1119

Types Of Wear

 Metal To Metal (Friction)

 Metal To Particles (Abrasion)
 Metal To Particles in Fluid (Erosion)
 Impact Wear
 Wear caused by heat
 Corrosive Wear
 Fatigue
 Fretting Wear
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 701 of 1119

Mechanism of Frictional Wear

Frictional wear is caused by: -

The action of one material sliding over another with surface interaction
and welding (adhesion) at localised contact areas.
Adhesive Wear are of 3 Types:-
Mild wear, Severe wear and Galling
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 702 of 1119

Wear by Adhesion

When machine force

Sliding metal Contact under heat and
fractures cold welded
components have tiny pressure causes the
asperities from one
raised or roughed areas, metal to flow and bond
surface remain boded to
called asperities, which momentarily in ‘cold
the opposite surface,
collide welding’
accelerating wear.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 703 of 1119

Alloys to resist Frictional Wear

 Low co-efficient of friction

 Sufficient structural strength to
resist distortion under load
 Pearlitic, low carbon martensitic
steels mostly used, also austenitic
steels
 Co & Ni based alloys have highest
resistance to frictional wear
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 704 of 1119

Rebuilding of Sprockets

 Sprocket wear out is a

result of high
compressive friction
and cyclic loading.
 Often fine particles
get entrapped
between the sliding
surface and aggravate
deterioration.
 Hardfacing can
enhance life to a great
extent without
endangering the
matching part.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 705 of 1119

Abrasive Wear

 Involves forced indentation of hard

particles across the surface which
exhibits scratches or grooves.
 Abrasive wear accounts for 60% of
all wear.
 Classified further as
 Low Stress Scratching Abrasion
 High Stress abrasion wear
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 706 of 1119

Low stress scratching abrasion

 Least severe form of abrasion as abrasive
particles do not fracture and are usually
small and not constrained.
 The small particles slide freely over the
metal surface, scouring the surface as they
move across it at varying velocities.
 Example is dry sand flowing over a part
such as, agricultural implements,
classifiers, or chutes.
 Since there is no impact associated with
this type of wear, high hardness carbide
containing alloys, such as high carbon/high
chromium carbide, complex carbide,
tungsten and vanadium carbide are best for
this type of abrasion.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 707 of 1119

Wear by Low-Stress Scratching

Abrasion

Sliding abrasive material gently Micro-schematic shows how a

scratches the surface gradually moving abrasive particle scratches
wearing it down out a tiny silver of the metal
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 708 of 1119

Excavator bucket

 Fabricated from wear

plate
 The buckets undergo low
pressure abrasion
 Teeth undergo erosion
and fine particle
scratching.
 Bucket plate undergoes
some impact
 Surface fissures
frequently appear on
body leading to total
fractures.
 Excessive wear of teeth
reduce efficiency.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 709 of 1119

Undercarriage components

 Lead to huge losses due

to downtime
 The wear pattern is non-
uniform and depends on
the mineral being
excavated and the
design of the
components.
 Downtime can be
brought down by up to
15% of the original value
by hardfacing.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 710 of 1119

High stress gouging abrasion

 Abrasion combined with some degree of impact

and weight the resulting wear is called Gouging
Abrasion.
 Gouging Abrasion occurs when large abrasive
objects, such as rocks, are forced under pressure
against a metal surface, leaving prominent
gouges and grooves.
 Typical applications include:
 Agricultural implements Conveyor screws, Augers,
Road rippers Bulldozer blades, Fan blades, Paving
screws, Coal feeder screws Cement chutes, Pug mill
paddles, Coal chutes, Pulverizers etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 711 of 1119

Wear by Gouging Abrasion

The rock’s weight impacts on metal Micro-schematic shows how heavy

with a low velocity force and cuts rock gouges or depresses the
into the metal surface metal surface. The furrow is result
of the plastic flow of the metal.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 712 of 1119

High stress gouging abrasion

 The particles either may be present at the surface

of a second material or may exist as loose
particles between two surfaces.
 Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass
by the ASTM G65 Abrasion Test .
 Very high metal hardness reduces abrasive wear
 Alloys chosen are Chromium Carbide (around
1500 Hv) irons or Tungsten carbide (around 2500
Hv) irons.
 They are bonded in an austenitic iron matrix to
have some impact resistance along with
resistance to gouging abrasion.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 713 of 1119

Wear by High-Stress Grinding

Abrasion

Two metal components squeeze Micro-schematic shows the

abrasive material between them fracturing of an abrasive particle
breaking down the original particle into smaller, sharp cornered pieces
size which cut furrows into both metal
surfaces
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 714 of 1119

Drill Bit Wear protection system

 Rock Drill bits are exposed to the

most aggressive wear form.
 It’s a complex wear system with
80% abrasion, 10% erosion and
8% impact.
 Abrasion is by fine and medium
particles.
 The tips of the teeth needs
extensive protection offered only
by "preformed Tungsten Carbide"
in optimum size
 proportion to ensure high density
deposit.
Proper hardfacing can reduce
drill bit consumption by 75%.
Tri-cone Rock Roller Bit
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 715 of 1119

Coal Grinding,
Cement Grinding
Mill tables

Hardfaced with
high Cr-carbide
deposit, 60 HRc
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 716 of 1119

Erosive Wear

 Erosion is wear caused by abrasive

particles usually contained in a fluid - by
agents of currents such as wind, water, or
ice by usually by downward movement in
response to gravity.
 Eroded surfaces show typical channels
and waves Like those in sand moved by
wind or water.
 Alloys required - with high matrix
hardness and a high particle dispersion
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 717 of 1119

CI pump casings and impellers

 The slurry handling

pump casings and
impellers degrade
fast.
 The cast iron body is
affected by cavitation,
low angle erosion and
corrosion.
 The impellers often
get grooved and the
surface becomes
irregular
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 718 of 1119

Impact Wear

 Impact wear is caused by rapid, repeated

application of a compressive load, causing
the metal to deform (mushroom),
fracture or peel off in pieces (spalling),
directly below the point of impact.
 Examples of impact applications include
railroad switch points and frogs, and rock
crushing equipment such as impact and
roll crushers, mill hammers and impact
breaker bars.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 719 of 1119

Wear by Impact

Wear by impact observed on a chisel Similar ‘mushrooming’ occurs on

where repeated hammer blows equipment such as rock crushing
gradually deform the chisel tip, finely hammers, except the projecting
cracking the edges and spreading edge can actually be knocked off
them like the head of a mushroom. by the impacting rock.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 720 of 1119

Alloys used: work-hardening

Austenitic steels
 The alloys used are austenitic steels
which are usually soft as deposited (as-
deposited hardness 17-25 HRc)
 Used as buffer or build-up alloys
 Austenite is tough phase & therefore
these alloys have high toughness - makes
them impact resistant. These alloys
harden under work – which means their
hardness increases in service under
impact.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 721 of 1119

Wear Caused By Heat

 Heat causes metal loss by Softening the

component, making it more susceptible to
abrasion and impact.
 Softening can happen for hardened and
tempered steels if service temp. exceeds
tempering temp. in initial manufacture.
Exception is certain high alloy tool steel
having a secondary hardening effect.
 All metals soften at high temp.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 722 of 1119

Wear Caused By Heat

 Co-base alloys have highest red hardness,

but as-deposited hardness is lower than tool
steels.
 Ni-base alloys also have good red hardness
up to about 500 deg. C.
 Co-base alloys are suitable to resist wear by
elevated temp. scaling or oxidation.
 Applications: cutting edges, valve seats,
forging dies & parts subject to hot erosion &
oxidation.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 723 of 1119

Heat Treatment furnace

fixtures & bottom plate

 Furnace fixtures,
guards, walls and
bottom plate are
subjected to cyclic
thermal loads.
 Spalling damage costs
are enormous
 They are reclaimed to
combat spalling and
oxidation.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 724 of 1119

Wear By Corrosion

 Corrosion is an electro chemical

reaction on metals by corrosive
substances.
 Noble metals like Gold & Platinum
generally do not corrode.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 725 of 1119

Wear by Liquid Corrosion

When water contacts steel, small electric cells are set up. The
acidified moisture attacks the steel surface, gradually changing
it to oxide.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 726 of 1119

Wear By Corrosion

 Stainless steels are good corrosion

resistant materials (formation of
thin film of oxide that act as a
protective barrier against corrosion)
 Cobalt & Nickel base alloys are
suitable for corrosive wear. Typical
applications: Scrappers, feeders,
screws in Chemical & mining
industries
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 727 of 1119

Wear by Fatigue

 Fatigue is progressive & localized

structural damage that occurs when
a material is subjected to cyclic
loading.
 Maximum Fatigue stress is less than
Ultimate Tensile strength and can
be below the Yield Stress in may
steels
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 728 of 1119

Wear by Fretting

 Repeated cyclical rubbing between two

surfaces, is known as fretting - over a
period of time removes material from one
or both surfaces in contact.
 Fretting typically occurs in bearings,
although most bearings have their
surfaces hardened to resist the problem.
When cracks in either surface are created,
known as fretting fatigue.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 729 of 1119

Wear mechanisms and

selection of alloys

 In practice, industrial components

are subject to all these wear
conditions in varying degrees.
 They are referred to as wear
mechanisms
 The alloy we need to choose for
overlaying is the one that has the
optimum resistance to the wear
mechanisms present.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 730 of 1119

Summary of Hardfacing &

Build-up Materials
 These are broadly divided into 5
categories:
1. Hard and tough ferritic, ferritic-martensitic
and martensitic steels
2. Soft Austenitic steels which have work
hardening properties
3. Very hard Chromium and alloy-carbide irons
4. Cobalt base alloys and Ni-base alloys for
combination of heat and wear resistance
properties
5. Cu-base alloys are used for corrosion and
wear resistance properties
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 731 of 1119

Weld Surfacing Alloy Groups &

General Characteristics
High Abrasion Resistance Low

Low Tungsten Martensitic Pearlitic Austenitic Low

Carbide Alloy Steel Alloy Steel Manganese
Group-1 Group-2 Group-3 Group-4

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Heat Corrosion
Chromium High Alloy Cr-Ni Stainless Resistance
Resistance Carbide Tool Steel steel
Irons
Group-6 Group-7
High Cobalt and Nickel Alloys
Base High
Group-9

Impact Resistance
Low High
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 732 of 1119

Hard & tough ferritic &

martensitic steels

 These alloys can also be further

classified as
 Cr-Mo steels
 Cr-Mo-V-W tool steels
 12%Cr steels
 Other special alloys newly developed
 Their hardness varies from 30-60
HRc with their carbon & alloy
content
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 733 of 1119

Idlers

Rebuilt using 0.2 C - 2.5

Cr - 2.5 Mn tough Ferritic
alloy of hardness 38-42
HRc using submerged
arc welding with tubular
flux cored wires and
neutral flux
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 734 of 1119

Tractor Rollers

Rebuilt using 0.10C-

1.5Cr-1.5Mn tough
Ferritic alloy of hardness
35 HRc using
submerged arc welding
with tubular flux cored
wires and neutral flux
The rollers are cooled
internally during welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 735 of 1119

Cladding cast iron valves

Cladding valves
with 12%Cr steel
overlay (SS 410)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 736 of 1119

Typical austenitic work-hardening

build up materials

Alloy 14Mn-2Ni 14Cr-14Mn 18Cr-8Ni-5Mn

Composition Bal Fe Bal Fe Bal Fe

As welded 17-25 HRc 20-25HRc 17-20HRc

hardness
Work hardens 45 HRc 45HRc 40-45HRc
to
Impact ***** ***** *****
resistance
Abrasion ** ** *
resistance
Corrosion * **** *****
resistance
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 737 of 1119

Railway points and Crossings

 cast manganese steel

rail points and crossings
are regularly being hard
faced, using austenitic
Manganese steel
electrodes.
 Suitable for high traffic
density under
classification of Indian
Railways.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 738 of 1119

Gyratory crusher clad with

14Cr-14Mn steel overlay
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 739 of 1119

Special alloys & recent

developments
 C-Cr-Mo and C-Cr-Mo-V-W tool steels
have been used for hardfacing roller press
rolls for two decades.
 A significant recent development is that of
C-Cr-Nb-Ti alloy steel that effectively
combines the advantage of hard Cr-Nb
carbide dispersion with a very tough
ferritic-martensitic matrix to provide
crack-free and long-lasting deposit.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 740 of 1119

Alloy Comparison
Weld metal hardness

62

60
0.5C-8Cr-0.5Mo
58
M7 (0.8C-3.5Cr-
56 9Mo-1.8W-1.8V)
2C-7Cr-6Ti
54
1C-6Cr-7Nb-1Ti
52

50
Hardness HRc
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 741 of 1119

Alloy Comparison
Weight Loss

1.4
1.2
0.5C-8Cr-0.5Mo
1
0.8 M7 (0.8C-3.5Cr-
0.6 9Mo-1.8W-1.8V)
2C-7Cr-6Ti
0.4
0.2 1C-6Cr-7Nb-1Ti
0
Weight loss (ASTM G65 A wear
test)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 742 of 1119

Crack-free Iron-base hardfacing

alloys…

 The martensitic alloy 1 C- 6 Cr -7 Nb

alloy is further improved to 1 C – 9
Cr – 2 Mo -7 Nb -1.5 Ti to produce
better results.
 These depositions, require high
preheats 300 deg. C, but have wear
resistance and hardness similar to
hyper-eutectic Fe-Cr-alloys, namely
Cr- Carbide irons
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 743 of 1119

Crack-free Iron base

hardfacing alloys…

Chevrons
welded on
roller press
rolls used in
cement
industry with
this alloy
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 744 of 1119

Very hard Chromium carbide irons

 These are irons and not steels. They are

characterized by their high amounts of
carbon content – typically above 3%.
 The chromium in the weld metal forms
needle like carbides since high amounts of
carbon are available in the weld metal.
 These carbides are very hard, and when
uniformly distributed in the matrix can
provide high hardness and therefore high
abrasion resistance to the weld deposit.
 Typically, these carbide irons have
hardness of 60 HRc and above.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 745 of 1119

How Carbides Prolong Life?

As carbides are
undermined and
knocked out by moving
abrasive particles,
additional carbides are
exposed which further
resist abrasives and
delay wear as shown
below
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 746 of 1119

Very hard Chromium & alloy-

carbide irons….

 Chromium carbide irons provide high

abrasion up to service temperatures of 300
deg. C.
 However, they do not retain their hardness
at high temperatures, such as those
encountered in blast furnace chutes, slag
grinding, and ingot lifting tongs.
 The high temperature hardness of these
carbide irons is improved by alloying them
with Niobium, Molybdenum, Vanadium,
Tungsten or Cobalt. By varying the degree of
alloying, filler materials are developed to suit
applications at different service
temperatures.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 747 of 1119

Relative wear rate of carbide irons

20
18
16
14
12 5C- 25Cr
10 6C-27Cr
8 5C-25Cr-Mo-V-B
6 5C-25Cr-Nb-V
4
2
0
Wt. Loss Cu mm(ASTM G65 test)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 748 of 1119

Surfacing Processes

 Gas Welding
 Manual Metal Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Flux Cored Arc Welding Process
 Thermal Spraying
 Plasma Arc Spraying
 Cladding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 749 of 1119

Surfacing processes …

 Oxy Acetylene (Gas)

 usually confined to hard-facing small components,
enables operator close control of deposit shape and
thickness
 Dilution of deposit negligible- important for
corrosion resistance
 Low Thermal Shock
 Manual Arc
 Widest Use, Normal Equipment, Easy to apply, Low
Cost
 Positional Welding possible
 Disadvantage for thin metals, Small intricate
shapes, thin edges etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 750 of 1119

Surfacing Processes …

 Submerged Arc Welding

 High deposition rates
 Alloying can be done from both wire & flux
 Suitable for both build up and hardfacing
 Excellent weld appearance, less spatter, easy
slag removal
 Improved working conditions
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Used extensively for surfacing and build up for
overall productivity & economy
 Wide variety of consumables available, flux
and gas not normally required
 Excellent weld appearance
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 751 of 1119

Automatic Hard-facing of Cement

Plant Roller Press
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 752 of 1119

Bronze component welding

 A regular job of
transport repair shops
is welding brass,
bronze components
and other copper
alloys.
 Can be reclaimed
using suitable
consumables ensuring
high success rate and
minimum scrap.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 753 of 1119

Welding process selection

 Base Metal Composition:

 High heat input such as gas welding are unsuitable
for austenitic manganese steel deposits, which
require low heat input.
 Size & Shape of Component to be hard-faced
 GMAW or MMAW are not usually economical for
surfacing large areas.
 Accessibility
 It may not be possible to use heavy automatic
equipment.
 For heavy rebuilding high deposition processes are
used
 No. of Components
 Automatic Process most suitable for large number
of similar items to be hardfaced
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 754 of 1119

Surface Preparation

 Surface Condition
 Removal of cracks by gouging / grinding
 Rough machining
 Cleaning to free from rust & scale by brushing/
grinding/ solvent cleaning
 Job Positioning
 Job to be preferably positioned in down-hand
position
 For positional welding, process and
consumables suitably chosen
 Preheating is often required to
 Prevent cracking in hardenable alloys
 Prevent cracking of large areas of very hard
deposits
 To minimize distortion
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 755 of 1119

Control of Distortion

 Distortion is primarily caused by

imbalanced stresses during
heating/cooling
 Can be controlled by
 Pre-forming flat sections & other thinly
formed parts.
 Bending, forming or clamping the part
with proper preset before welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 756 of 1119

Control of Distortion…

 Counterbalancing
stresses:
 Weld or clamp 2
similar parts back to
back & alternate
welding from one
part to another OR
 weld or clamp to a
strong-back, fixture
& plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 757 of 1119

Control of Dilution

Dilution in hardfacing means extent of admixture of base

Metal & deposit metal. Single layer applications most
susceptible to dilution- effect progressively reduced for multi
layer deposit.
Controlled by:-
 Using slower welding speeds and lower welding current
as possible
 Using welding technique to direct arc on molten metal
 Selecting proper welding polarity-DC+ gives maximum
dilution, AC intermediate and DC- lowest
 Gas rod hardfacing and powder spray process give
lowest dilution
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 758 of 1119

Use of Buffer Layers

 Buffer Layer is an intermediate deposit

layer between base metal and actual
hardfacing weld metal.
 Used when hardfacing on soft material for
high load service to prevent spalling off of
hard material due to ‘sink in’ of the soft
base
 In components subject to heavy impact or
flexing buffer layer prevents crack
propagation
 Helps during reclaiming partially worn out
components
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 759 of 1119

Roller press surfacing

(cement plant)
 Surface of roller press comes
under heavy compressive
loading cycles with micro-
fine particles trying to score
the surface under this
pressure.
 Ordinary high hardness
carbides cannot withstand
this pressure and comes out
in chunks (shelling off). This
shelling off takes place
preferentially from relief
cracks formed during hard
surfacing.
 This can be reclaimed by
first depositing a buffer layer
 Then micro-carbide type
flux cored wire, where the
deposit is crack free even
after reaching 800 HV (= 62
RC) hardness is used
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 760 of 1119

Wear Plate Technology

 The most modern technology is

used to manufacture our
unique and ready to use Wear
Plate
 Consists of a Steel Plate, on
which a wear-facing layer is
laid down either by welding or
metallic powder coating.
 Offers superb protection
against erosion and abrasion
therefore providing the user
with cost saving solutions
where large wear problems
occur.
 It can be cut, reformed, and
welded to specific needs.

The advantages:
 wear service life
 cost savings
 minimum downtime
 efficiency
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 761 of 1119
Indian Institute of Welding-ANB
Refresher Course-Module

Thermal Spraying

Known previously as Flame Spray, Metallizing, and Metal

Spray Processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Comparison of Thermal Spraying Processes Page 762 of 1119

& Coating Characteristics

Particle Typical deposit

velocity Adhesion Oxide content Porosity Deposition rate thickness
m.s -1 MPa % % kg.hr -1 mm

Flame 40 <8 10-15 10-15 1-10 0.2-10

Arc 100 10-30 10-20 5-10 6-60 0.2-10

Plasma 200-300 20-70 1-3 5-10 1-5 0.2-2

HVOF 600- >70 1-2 1-2 1-5 0.2-2

1000
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 763 of 1119

Flame Spray process

 Sprays molten metal* onto a surface to provide a

coating.
 Material in wire form is melted in a flame (oxy-
acetylene flame most common) and atomized
using compressed air to form a fine spray.
 Fine molten droplets rapidly solidify forming a
coating on the substrate.
 It is a "cold process" as the substrate
temperature can be kept low during processing
avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and
distortion to the substrate material.
 Extensively used for machine element work and
anti-corrosive coatings.

* Ceramics and cermets can be used in rod or

composite wire form.

Flame Spray Process
Common Materials Sprayed:
 Zinc and aluminium for anti-
corrosion cathodic coatings on steel
 Nickel/aluminium composite wire for
bond coats and self-bonding
coatings
 Molybdenum for bond coats
 Molybdenum for hard bearing
applications, excellent resistance to
adhesive wear, used on piston
rings, syncromesh cones and
journals.
 High Chromium steel for many
applications requiring hard and wear
resistant coating
 Bronzes, babbitt for bearing
applications
 Stainless steels, nickel and monel
for anti-corrosion and wear
 Aluminium, nickel/aluminium for
heat and oxidation resistance
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 764 of 1119
Process Advantages:
 Low capital investment
 Simple to operate
 Wire form cheaper than powder
 Deposit efficiency very high
 Possibly still best for applying pure
molybdenum coatings for wear
resistance.
 Portable system
 Preheating facility built in, unlike arc
spraying
 Possible to use system in areas
without electricity supply
Process Disadvantages:
 Limited to spraying materials
supplied in wire or rod form
 Not capable of the low oxide, high
density and high strength coatings of
plasma and HVOF
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 765 of 1119

Glass mould repair by hot metal

spray powders

 Over the years alloys have

been developed to
rejuvenate glass moulds and
others components by
thermal spraying.
 Powder products include
nickel-base ranges, cobalt-
base ranges, ferrous and
non-ferrous powders for
flame spray, plasma spray,
PTA surfacing and HVOF
spray.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 766 of 1119

Plasma Spray Process

 Material in form of powder is injected

into very high temperature plasma
flame, where it is rapidly heated and
accelerated to a high velocity.
 The hot material impacts on the
substrate surface and rapidly cools
forming a coating.
 Plasma spray gun comprises a copper
anode and tungsten cathode, both are
water cooled. Plasma gas (argon,
nitrogen, hydrogen, helium) flows
around the cathode & through the
anode which is shaped as a constricting
nozzle.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 767 of 1119

Cladding
What is Cladding?
 Cladding is a method of joining Two or more metals or alloys
by a roll-bonding and thermal treatment process OR BY Laser
that produces a bond at the atomic level.
 Basic cladding has been around for centuries. It originally
served as a way to bond decorative gold or silver surfaces onto
base metals.
 Most famous example of an early clad metal “product” is the
Damascus sword – crafted from layers of steel and valued for
its ability to take and keep an edge
Why Clad?
 A single metal can not be designed to exhibit all desired
properties.
 Cold-rolled cladding of metals makes it possible to put
disparate metals together in a way that opens the doors of
design to an exciting new world of possibilities.
 Cladding not only allows you to expand your design
possibilities, but also can provide significant improvements in
product performance and manufacturability.
 And may even yield meaningful reductions in product costs as
well.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 768 of 1119

Laser cladding

Laser cladding is the innovative technology for the application of metallic

coatings. An additional material is "cladded" to the work item using a
powerful diode laser.
This coating technique sets new standards for adhesion, layer
thicknesses and fields of application
The possibility of applying diverse materials provides a wide field of
application for laser cladding, such as:
 Repair of axle and drilling damage
 Application of hard-wearing coatings
 Application of corrosive-resistant coatings
 Finishing work after cladding brings each
work piece back to the original measurements
or tolerance.
 Dimensions of up to a diameter of
 500 x 2000 mm (in the sack diameter 1100 mm).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 769 of 1119

Advantages of Laser Cladding

 100% metallic adhesion; no chance of coating coming loose

 Both simple and special, high-quality coatings are available
 Very local application
 Small total heat contribution; no deformation
 Contact-free; no forces are exerted on the work item
 Process depth is well defined
 Environmentally friendly process
 Superior properties:
 No porosity
 Homogeneous distribution of the elements
 Excellent control of the layer thickness
 Controlled minimum mixing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 770 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.Soumya Sarkar
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.A.A.Deshpande
 Dr.Shaju Albert
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 771 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.P.K.Das
 Mr.A.A.Deshpande
 Dr.D.K.Sharma
 Mr.R.Ravi
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 772 of 1119

THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 773 of 1119

Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 12
Construction And
Design

S.K.Gupta
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 774 of 1119

Contents

 Behaviour of welded structures under

different types of loading

 Design for static loading

 Design for dynamic loading

 Design of welded pressure equipment

Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 775 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 776 of 1119

JUPITER WAGONS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 777 of 1119

Objectives of Weld Joint Design

Weld Joint design are ideally to provide an

assembly that :
Will perform its Intended Functions
Will have required Reliability & Safety

Is capable of being Fabricated, Inspected,

Transported & placed in service at minimum total
cost.
Total cost includes the cost includes the cost of ;
Front end Engineering, Design, Materials, Fabrication,
Erection, Inspection, Operation etc.,
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 778 of 1119

3.5.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

Under Different Types Of Loading
 All composite and fabricated structures work
under different environmental and loading
conditions such as :
 Static or dynamic loading
 Concentrated or distributed loading
 Tension or compression or torsional loading
 Combination of above loading
 At normal temperature
 At sub-zero temperature
 At elevated temperature
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 779 of 1119

3.5.2. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

 Steels working under above mentioned conditions of

loading and temperatures behave differently due to
variation of the following properties :
 Tensile strength
 Ductility
 Impact strength or toughness
 Creep resistance
 Brittleness
 Variations in the above properties occur mainly due to
the changes in the grain structures and inter granular
grain cohessiveness
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 780 of 1119

3.5.3. Static And Dynamic Loading

Under static loading condition the

 tensile strength ,
 compressive strength ,
 shear strength values
are determinants of the section of
the material and that of the weld
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 781 of 1119

Static and Dynamic loading

But when the load
 varies in value ,
 is repeated at relatively high frequency,
 constitutes a relatively high frequency

the material’s endurance limit must be

substituted for the tensile strength in the
calculations to determine section and weld
dimensions
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 782 of 1119

Static and Dynamic Loading

At a given high stress

value the material has a
definite service or fatigue
life expressed as “ n “
cycles of operations.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 783 of 1119

3.6.2. Types Of Load

STATIC IMPACT

VARIABLE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 784 of 1119

Typical Types of Load

TENSION

COMPRESSION

LOAD
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 785 of 1119

Types of Load

TENSILE LOADING
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 786 of 1119

Types of Load

COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 787 of 1119

Types of Load
LOAD

SHEAR
SHEAR LOADING
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 788 of 1119

3.6.5. Stress, Strain, Modulus Of Elasticity.

 Stress is defined to be the load on a member

divided by the area of cross section and is expressed
in newton per mm sq.
 Stress may be tensile or compressive or shear
 Elongation or compression per unit length is
termed strain and is a number.
 The ratio of stress by strain is called modulus of
elasticity
 The endurance limit is the maximum stress to
which the material can be subjected for an indefinite
service life.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 789 of 1119

STRESS, STRAIN, MODULUS OF

ELASTICITY
LOAD 2
STRESS = N/mm
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

STRAIN = CHANGE IN LENGTH

ORIGINAL LENGTH

2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY = STRESS N/mm
STRAIN
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 790 of 1119

3.5.4. STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
TUNGSTEN
STEEL
STRESS

ALUMINUM

CAST IRON
RUBBER

STRAIN
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 791 of 1119

3.5.5. Stress Vs “ N “ Curve

S
T
R ENDURANCE
ENDURANCE
E
S
S

“ N “ CYCLES OF STRESS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
3.5.6. Elevated Temperature Page 792 of 1119

Strength

 At elevated temperatures
secondary stresses such as
those due to thermal gradients
or due to non-uniform heating
and cooling can be relatively
large and difficult to assess.
These stresses may affect
service performance of a
structure with regard to strength
characteristics.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 793 of 1119

Elevated Temperature Stresses

Design stresses are usually limited

by yield and tensile strengths upto a
moderate temperature of about
450 deg. to 535 deg. Centigrade.

At higher temperatures the design

stresses are limited by creep and
creep rupture strength.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 794 of 1119

3.5.7. Elevated Temperature Design

 In designing apparatus / structures at

elevated temperatures allowance must be
made for the thermal coefficient of
expansion of the component materials.
 The tensile modulus of elasticity at room
temperature decreases linearly upto 450
deg. Centigrade and then begins to drop at
an increasing rate.
 Creep ( continuous non-reversible plastic
deformation with time under load )
resistance is the most important property to
consider in designing a structure to operate
at elevated temperature.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 795 of 1119

CREEP STRENGTH

Two standards of creep strengths are

commonly used :

 The stress to produce a minimum

creep rate of 0.00001 per cent per hour
( 1 per cent per 100,000 hours )

 The stress to produce a total creep

strain of 1 per cent per 100,000 hours.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 796 of 1119

SCHEMATIC CREEP CURVE

A –ELASTIC
EXTENSION
E
C B- CREEP AT
DECREASING RATE
EXTENSION PER CENT

B D
C – CREEP AT
APPROXIMATELY
F CONSTANT RATE

D – CREEP AT
INCREASING RATE
A
E – ELASTIC
CONTRACTION

ELAPSED TIME IN HOURS F – PERMANENT

CHANGE OF LENGTH
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 797 of 1119

3.5.8. Low Temperature Strength

The terms
 “low temperature” and
 “cryogenic”
may be defined as involving
temperatures to
–100 degree and –273 deg. Centigrade.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 798 of 1119

LOW TEMPERATURE STRENGTH

Design of structures operating at

low temperatures are based on
the properties of
yield and tensile strength,
fatigue limit,
ductility and
toughness especially
notch toughness.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 799 of 1119

NOTCH TOUGHNESS

Notch toughness is a property of

steel reflected in its resistance to
brittle failure under conditions of
high stress concentration such as
impact loading in the presence of a
notch.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 800 of 1119

3.5.9. Influence Of Notches And Weld

Defects

 Structures and welds are

designed on the basic
assumptions that the steels
and the welds are defect free
resulting normal tensile / yield
strength, ductility, toughness
and homogenous structures.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 801 of 1119

Influence of Notches

However defects such as

notch in the steel brings stress
concentration resulting brittle
failure under impact load.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 802 of 1119

Influence of Weld Defects

Similarly weld defects such as

undercut,
porosity,
cracks,
lack of fusion and penetration
will cause failure of the welded
joint and the structure at a load
less than the designed value
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 803 of 1119

3.5.10.Types Of Fractures -- I

 Failure of structural members at stresses

well below their yield strengths indicates other
considerations besides the conventional
tensile properties. Analysis of the failures
indicates that the fractures usually are
initiated at notches caused by :
 Design features – rigidity of members
 Fabrication procedures– weld arc, defects
 Flaws in the materials – flakes, seams
Fracture surfaces provide an indication
of the probable causes of failure
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 804 of 1119

3.5.11. Types Of Fractures -- II

 Normal observations of fractured

surfaces of a structural member may
be of :
 Brittle fracture or low energy fracture
-surface tends to show that there is
little deformation , the surfaces are flat
and at right angles – having a shiny
crystalline appearance.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 805 of 1119

Types of Fractures

Ductile or shear fracture occurs

after plastic deformation by a
sliding action. There are signs of
yielding along edges of the
fractured surfaces normally at 45
deg. angle with a dull fibrous
appearance.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 806 of 1119

Types of Fractures
Lamellar Tearing

Lamellar tearing -
- layers of plate
seams open up at
fractured surfaces
showing clean
separation.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 807 of 1119

3.5.12. TYPES OF CRYOGENIC STEELS

 THE MOST COMMON RANGES OF COMPOSITIONS
OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS IN SUCH STEELS ARE :
 CARBON-------------------0.06 TO 0.10 PERCENT
 MANGANESE--------------1.50 TO 9.00 PERCENT
 SILICON ---------------NORMALLY 0.60 PERCENT
 NICKEL -------------------4.50 TO 18.00 PERCENT
 CHROMIUM -------------17.00 TO 25.00 PERCENT

 CRYOGENIC STEELS CONTAINING 9.00 PERCENT

NICKEL ARE CAPABLE OF RETAINING TOUGHNESS
AT A VERY LOW TEMPERATURES.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

3.5.13. CREEP RESISTANCE Page 808 of 1119

STEELS
 CHROMIUM – MOLYBDENUM STEELS SUCH AS 2.25
Cr.,1.00 Mo STEELS ARE USED EXCLUSSIVELY FOR A
VARIETY OF TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS UPTO
450 DEG. CENTIGRADE
 12.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED
UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 705 DEG. CENTIGRADE
 17.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 816 DEG
CENTIGRADE
 27.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS FROM 870 to 1095 DEG CENTIGRADE
WHERE MOST SEVERE OXIDATION IS
ENCOUNTERED.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 809 of 1119

3.5.14. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF

CRYOGENIC STEELS
TENSILE YIELD LOWEST
STRENGTH STRENGTH SERVICE
AISI NO. (Mpa) TEMP DEG.
(Mpa)
CENT.

201 655 310 -195

304 L 483 172 -270

316 517 207 -270

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 810 of 1119

3.5.15. CORRELATION BETWEEN ROOM TEMP.

TENSILE STRENGTH AND 100000 HRS RUPTURE
STRENGTH FOR Cr- Mo STEEL
TENSILE 100000 HR RUPTURE STRENGTH
STRENGTH AT AT AT AT
27 DEG.CENT. 427 DEG. CENT. 482 DEG. CENT. 538 DEG. CENT
(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 811 of 1119

3.6.3. Types Of Joints

WELD
SINGLE
T JOINT
DOUBLE
CORNER WELD WELD T JOINT
JOINT

SQUARE BUTT JOINT

WELD DOUBLE VEE BUTT JOINT

SINGLE VEE BUTT JOINT

RE INFORCEMENT
FLANGE JOINT
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 812 of 1119

SQUARE BUTT WELD SINGLE U BUTT WELD

SINGLE BEVEL BUTT

DOUBLE U BUTT WELD
DOUBLE VEE BUTT

DOUBLE BEVEL BUTT SINGLE J BUTT WELD

TYPES OF BUTT WELDED

JOINTS
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

3.6.4. Joint Design Page 813 of 1119

0 0
45 60
B
A ROOT GAP
D
C

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK GOUGING
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 814 of 1119

Determining Weld Size :

Groove Weld
 In strength connections, groove welds must be
made all the way through the plate, i.e. 100 %
penetration.
 Since a groove weld, properly made, has equal or
better strength than the plate, there is no need for
calculating the stress in the weld or the size of
the weld.
 The only consideration is that the weld metal
deposit must be same or similar to the parent
metal composition to match the strength.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 815 of 1119

Groove Weld Size

FULL PENETRATION GROOVE WELD

SAME DIMENSIONAL TO THICKNESS
AND WIDTH
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 816 of 1119

EFFECTIVE
THROAT LEG

LEG
THEORETICAL
THROAT

ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET WELD
NOMENCLATURE
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Single-bevel tee joint can withstand more severe
Page 817 of 1119

loadings than the square tee joint,

because of better distribution of stresses.

Horizontal Fillet Weld Double-Vee,

Groove
Weld
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 818 of 1119

Types of Corner Joint Welds

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 819 of 1119

Determining Weld Size :

Fillet welds
RULE OF THUMB FOR FILLET WELD SIZE
In order to develop the full strength of a plate by
fillet weld, it is necessary that the leg size of a
fillet be ¾ of the plate thickness

w = ¾ t
This assumes that :
1. Fillet welds on both sides of the plate
2. Fillet weld for full length of the plate
3. t = thickness of the thinner plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 820 of 1119

Determining Fillet Weld Size

Rule of thumb for rigidity design
When a member is designed to maintain a certain
degree of rigidity or stiffness, the stresses are
usually of a rather low value, but the weld size is
still dependent on the forces which must be
transferred through them.
The rigidity design would require a fillet leg length
1/2 to 1/3 of the full weld size

W = 1/4 t – 3/8 t
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 821 of 1119
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 822 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 823 of 1119

3.6.7. SHEAR STRENGTH OF WELD

HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCE ON EACH WELD

Vay
r N/m
h = In
WHERE :
V = TOTAL SHEAR ON SECTION AT A GIVEN
POSITION ALONG BEAM, ( N )
2
a = AREA OF FLANGE HELD BY WELD ( m )
y = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE C.G. OF FLANGE AREA
AND N.A. OF THE WHOLE SECTION (m)
4
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE WHOLE SECTION ( m )
n = NUMBER OF WELDS JOINING EACH FLANGE TO WEB
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 824 of 1119

3.6.8. WORKED EXAMPLE ON 3.6.7.

GIVEN :
Width of the flange= 250 mm. Thickness of the flange = 70 mm
Thickness of the web = 15 mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn
3 6
Then : r = (V.a.Y)/I.n ( 860/10) x (70 x 250)/10 x 1270/2000
h =
3 3
{ ( 250/12000) x (1.340 ) – 2.35 x 1.2 } x 2/12
= 0.2934712 MN/m
If the size of the fillet is w, and allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m2
Then, 0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712.
or w = 4.32 mm

THIS SHOULD BE THE MINIMUM LEG SIZE OF THE CONTINUOUS

FILLET WELD
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 825 of 1119

250
70

AREA OF
FLANGE
HELD BY
WELDS
1200

860 kN
WELD LEG
SIZE w
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 826 of 1119

V = 860 kN = 860 / 1000 MN = 0.860 MN

Cross-sectional area held by
2
the weld = 70 /1000 x 250 /1000 m
2
= 0.070 x 0.250 = 0.175 m

70
y = distance between the c.g. of the
flange area and the n.a. of the
whole section = (1200 + 70 )/(2 x 1000) m 15
= 0.635 m

1200
I = the moment of inertia of the section
= 1/12 { (250/1000) x (1340/1000)33
- (235/1000) x (1200/1000) }
= 0.16282262 m4
n= number of welds joining

70
each flange to web = 2
Throat area for a parallel loaded fillet weld
= 0.707w 250
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN / m
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 827 of 1119

3.7.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

Under Dynamic Loading
 When the load on a member is constantly varying
in value or is repeated at relatively high frequency
or constitutes a complete reversal of stresses
with each operating cycle the material’s
endurance limit must be substituted for the
ultimate strength where called for by the design
formula
 Under high load values the variable or fatigue
mode of loading reduces the material’s effective
ultimate strength as the number of cycles
increases
 At a given high stress value the material has a
definite service or fatigue life expressed as n
cycles of operations
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 828 of 1119

3.7.2. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD

A TYPICAL S a
a Av+
FATIGUE T MAX
LOAD R
PATTERN E a
CURVE Av-
S a
S MIN
TIME
THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT THE FATIGUE LOAD :
1. AS A MEAN OR AVERAGE STRESS WITH A SUPERIMPOSED
VARIABLE STRESS
2. AS A STRESS VARYING FROM A MAXIMUM VALUE TO A
MINIMUM VALUE . HERE THE CYCLE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY THE RATIO
K = a Min / a Max
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 829 of 1119

3.7.3. VARIABLE STRESS AND MEAN

STRESS RELATIONSHIP
b
d
f

c e a

a = ULTIMATE STRENGTH UNDER STEADY LOAD (YIELD STRENGTH)

b = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR A COMPLETE REVERSAL OF STRESS
f = VARIABLE STRESS SUPERIMPOSED ON STEADY STRESS
e = MEAN STRESS ( AVERAGE STRESS )
A LINE CONNECTING POINTS b AND a WILL INDICATE THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIABLE STRESS AND THE MEAN
STRESS FOR ANY TYPE OF FATIGUE CYCLE FOR A GIVEN FATIGUE
LIFE N .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 830 of 1119

3.7.4. Fatigue Strength

100

95
ALLOWABLE FATIGUE STRESS X 100
KNOWN FATIGUE STRENGTH
90

85

80

75

70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N / Na
b
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 831 of 1119

3.7.5. FATIGUE STRENGTH AS RELATED

TO THE NUMBER OF CYCLES

IF , a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES

A A
a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES
B B
c = 0.13 FOR BUTT WELDS AND
= 0.18 FOR PLATES IN AXIAL LOADING, TENSION AND
COMPRESSION

THEN , c
a = a x(N /N )
A B B A
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 832 of 1119

3.7.6. Improving Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength of welded structures can be improved

by :
1. Using butt joints rather than lap joints
2. Avoiding intermittent fillet welds
3. Minimizing the size of the fillet welds
4. Peening the weld immediately after
welding
5. Post weld heat treatment to remove built
in stresses
6. Tumbling small welded components
7. Giving preference to structures with
multiple load paths.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 833 of 1119

Improvement in fillet weld fatigue life

 Improving Fatigue strength Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 834 of 1119

Reduce Stress Concentration Use smooth shapes,transitions

Flush machining in butt welds (100% Put welds in low stress areas
improvement)
Toe grinding in fillet welds (80% impr.) Check weld joint classifications

Melt smoothing ;TIG Torch (140% impr.) Fatigue strength of welds does
not depend on the yield and
Introducing Compressive stresses tensile strengths of parent
Shot or grit blasting (25-100% impr.) metal.

Peening (80 % improvement)

Spot heating in region adjacent to weld
(200% impr. – very difficult to control in
practice)
Overloading – Plastic deformn. relaxes
residual stresses (50% impr.)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
3.8.1. Design Of Dynamically Loaded Page 835 of 1119

Structures: Applications

Most common and widely used welded

constructions working under moderate to
heavy dynamic loading are
1. Bridge structurals
2. Automobiles
3. Railway wagons and coaches
4. Sea going vessels
5. Offshore drilling platforms
6. Stationary and mobile cranes
7. Tall chimneys
8. Towers
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 836 of 1119

3.8.2. Fatigue Strength In Cyclic

Loads
KIND OF FATIGUE DESIGN STRESS N / mm
WELD AND BUT NOT
6 5 5 TO
STRESS 2 x 16 6x 10 10 EXCEED
CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES
BUTT WELD 112 120 127 a
1 – 0.8r 1 – 0.7r 1- 0.5r
t
TENSION

BUTT WELD 126 127 127 a

c
COMPRESSION 1-r 1 – 0.8 r 1 – 0.5r

FILLET WELD 36 w 50 w 62 w 62 w
ALL 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 837 of 1119

3.8.3. STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT

THE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT AT ALTERNATING LOAD MAY

APPROXIMATELY BE OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE STRESS
VALUES GIVEN IN SLIDE NO. 3.8.2. BY :
1 FOR BUTT WELDED JOINTS
1 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)}

AND BY :
1 FOR CORNER AND SLOT
1.3 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)} WELDED JOINTS

HERE P(min) AND P(max) APPEAR IN THE FORMULA EACH

WITH ITS SIGN. HENCE, P(min)/ P(max) < 0 AND THEREFORE THE
FACTOR BECOMES LESS THAN 1 .
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 838 of 1119

3.8.4.WORKED EXAMPLE - FATIGUE LOADING

100 LOAD 45 kN
100
XXXXXXXXX
PROBLEM
A PLATE IS ATTACHED TO THE
FRAME OF A MACHINE AS xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
SHOWN IN THE FIGURE 150
SOLUTION
SHOWN WITH A VERTICAL CONSULTING THE TABLE GIVEN IN
LOAD OF 45 Kn. TO FIND OUT 3.8.2.:
THE SIZE OF THE FILLET IF ALLOWABLE LOAD
THE LIFE OF THE COMPONENT = (50 w)/( 1 – 0.5r) N /mm
IS 6 x 105 CYCLES AT = (50 w)/{1 – 0.5(-0.3)} N/mm
P(min)/P(MAX) = -0.30 = 43.5 w N/mm
= 795 N/mm (FOR STATIC LOADING)
RESULTANT FORCE= 795 N/mm HENCE w = 18.3 mm.
FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES THE
FILLET SIZE TO BE TAKEN AS 20mm
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 839 of 1119

3.9.1. Design Of Welded Pressure Equipment

 Welded pressure equipment are close containers

carrying or containing steam, pressurised fluids or
gases exerting uniform pressure in all directions.
 Such containers must be tight and have sufficient
strength to withstand internal pressure to which it is
subjected. In arc welded construction the joints are
made as tight and strong as the plates joined.
 Tanks, boilers, pipe lines, hydraulic cylinders, steam
chests are some of the examples of pressure vessels in
use.
 Containers are required to work at normal, elevated or
even at sub-zero temperatures
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 840 of 1119

3.9.2. Unfired Pressure Vessels

 Any pressure container of any importance

undoubtedly must conform to the
minimum requirements of the asme
section 8 “unfired pressure vessels”. IN
GENERAL THIS COVERS CONTAINERS
FOR PRESSURES EXCEEDING 15 psi
UPTO A MAXIMUM OF 3000 psi AND
HAVING A DIAMETER EXCEEDING 150 mm

 In the next slides formulas for calculating

the minimum required wall thickness of
cylindrical shells and spherical shells are
given.
 CODES in Joint design Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 841 of 1119

Circumferential (Hoop) Forces acting on thin Cylinder under Internal Pressure

ASME modified formulae; close agreement of LAME’S equation.

ASME recognises the significance of defects in welds & attempted to
overcome the reduction in strength by incorp. Joint efficiency.

Codes & Stds apply to weldments designed for certain services…

 CODES in Joint design Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 842 of 1119

Weld or joint efficiency η = joint strength / parent strength - which varies

from 100% for a perfect weld (ie. virtually seamless) through 75-85% for a
tolerably good weld.

Joint efficiency factor dep. on type of weld

& degree of its radiographic inspection.

Joint efficiency E for arc & gas welded joints in code…

Acceptance Criteria for Pressure vessel weld joint Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 843 of 1119

UW-14 OPENINGS IN OR ADJACENT TO WELDS

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 844 of 1119

3.9.3. FORMULAS FOR SHELL THICKNESS

ts = THICKNESS OF THE SHELL IN INCH
rc = MEAN RADIUS OF CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE SHELL IN INCH
r = MEAN RADIUS OF THE MERIDIAN OF THE SHELL IN INCH
m
p = INTERNAL PRESSURE IN psi
a = ALLOWABLE STRESS ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR USC 23 )
E = JOINT EFFICIENCY ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR UW – 12 )
a
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MERIDIAN
mp
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF A TANGENT TO A
cp
CIRCUMFERENCE
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE RADIAL DIRECTION
rp
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 845 of 1119

3.9.4. WALL THICKNESS OF

CYLINDRICAL SHELL
THIN SHELL :
WHEN ts < ri /2 AND p < 0.385 a E
p ri ri
THEN : t = ro
s a.E – 0.6p

THICK SHELL : WHEN ts > r i /2 ts

AND p > 0.385 a E
ro = outside radius
1/2
THEN : t = r {z - 1} ri = inside radius
s i

WHERE : z = (a E + p) / ( a E – p) ts = shell thickness

p = Internal pressure
a = Allowable stress
E = Joint efficiency
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 846 of 1119

THANK YOU
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 847 of 1119

The Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Module 13

Welding stresses, Distortion

and Repair welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 848 of 1119

Contents

 Welding stresses

 Distortion and its control

 Repair Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 849 of 1119

4.3.1. Residual Stresses

 Residual stresses are self balancing

internal system of stresses in a weldment
arising from non-uniform mechanical or
thermal strains with some measure of
plastic flow.

 These would exist in a body if all external

forces are removed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 850 of 1119

Residual stress

Prevention: Stress relief heat treatment,

reduce volume of weld metal, placing
weld along neutral axis
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 851 of 1119

Stresses Developed due to Welding

 Contractional stresses developed due to solidification of the

weld pool
 Stresses developed due to localised heating and cooling of the
weld zone and parent metal
eg. volume reduction on solidification for C-Mn steel weld metal will be approx
3% and at heat-affected zone will be by another 7%

 Degree of stress will depend on the rate of cooling, which will be

influenced by section thickness, climatic conditions, air drafts
etc.
 Stresses developed due to physical restraint ie. use of jigs &
fixtures, use of stiffeners and clamps and cleats
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 852 of 1119

Causes for Development of Stresses

 Non-uniform local thermal expansion / contraction

causes stresses to develop in the welded component
and change its dimensions leading to distortion in
structure.
(e.g. Linear expansion coefficient of mild steel is 12 X 10-6 per 0 C)

 During heating the components will expand freely.

However, during cooling zones heated above plastic
temperature ( for mild steel 900 – 950 ) will yield due
to the stresses developed, resulting in dimensional
change or distortion.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 853 of 1119

How Residual Stress Develop – A Schematic

Only the end cap and middle bar are

heated to 6000C and then cooled down.
 Compressive stresses will develop in
middle bar as its expansion is restrained
by the cooler side bars (along AB).
 B refers to yield strength of material that
reduces with increase in temperature
(along BC).
 Tensile stress developed in middle bar as
its contraction during cooling is restricted
by the side bars (along CD).
 On cooling to room temperature a tensile
residual stress (point E) is developed
Middle bar  Weld Seam equal to material yield strength.
Side bars  Base Metals
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 854 of 1119
Schematic presentation of Transverse Residual Stress
Development in Typical Butt Joint

Transverse residual
stress develops as
the heat source
moves along X-X.

The section D-D

represents solidified
weld joint.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 855 of 1119

4.3.3. Effects Of Residual Stresses

 Proneness to weld cracking,

 Stress corrosion and cracking,
 Distortion of workpieces when welded further,
 Distortion of welded objects when machining,
 Brittle fracture,
 Adverse effects on brittle strengths and structural
behavior of weldment,
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 856 of 1119

4.3.3. Effects Of Residual Stresses

 Applied stresses and residual stresses add vectorially

depending on both magnitudes and relative directions.
 Applied tensile stress (in service) will be enhanced by
residual tensile stress and vice versa. This means that
tensile fracture or compressive buckling of welded
structure may occur at lower applied stress.
 Residual stress reduces fracture strength of weldment
resulting in rapid, brittle fracture.
 Residual tensile stress can cause more damage than
residual compressive stress.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 857 of 1119

4.3.4 – 4.3.7. Types And Source of

Residual Stresses
 In general residual stresses can be classified into two
groups e.g., macro and micro stresses.
 Residual stress is also classified into three kinds:
 First: Near homogeneous across large areas, say
several grains of a material and are in equilibrium over
the bulk of the material,
 Second: Near homogeneous across microscopic areas,
say one grain or part of a grain, of a material and are
equilibrated across a sufficient number of grains.
 Third: Homogeneous across sub-microscopic areas of a
material, say some atomic distances within a grain and
are equilibrated across small parts of a grain.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 858 of 1119

4.3.8. Types Of Residual Stresses

+py

p3

p2

p1

P1 : macro stresses
P2 : micro stresses
-py P3 : submicro stresses
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 859 of 1119

Five factors affecting distortion

 Parent material properties play a big role in determining the
stress generated during welding
- coefficient of expansion
- thermal conductivity
 Amount of restraint – components without any restraint will
be free to distort.
 Joint design – improper joint and welding sequence design is
a major factor for distortion.
 Part/joint fit-up – improper fit-up and excessive joint gap
causes distortion
 Welding procedure – This influences the degree of distortion
mainly through its effect on heat-input
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 860 of 1119

Distortion will also depend on

 rate of heat input and resulting shape and size of weld

pool volume.
 geometry / configuration of weld joint (butt / fillet or T).
 type of weld joint preparation (single or double-V, etc.).
 arrangement of structural elements of the original weld
joint (leading to stiffeners / restraints).
 sequence of welds (multi-pass weld, double-V, starting
location of weld).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.9. Factors influencing

shrinkage and distortion

As the temperature increases

 Yield strength decreases
 Modulus of elasticity decreases
 Coefficient of thermal expansion increases

 Thermal conductivity decreases

 Specific heat increases
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.10. Factors Influencing Shrinkage

and Distortion

Other factors during welding :

 External clamping
 Internal restraint due to mass
 Stiffness of the steel plate
 Welding process
 Welding procedure
 Type and size of electrode
 Speed of travel
 Joint design
 Pre-heating and cooling rate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.13. Stress Relieving

 Vibratory stress relieving
 Thermal stress relief by
a. Furnace. B. Induction coil
 Mechanical tumbling
 Peening at the weldment by hammering with a
peening hammer
 Proof stressing by uniform heavy loading of
weldment
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.14. Measurement Of Distortion

Distortion resulting from longitudinal weld :

d = 0.005 ( A .d.2 L ) / I
Wherel : w

A = Total cross sectional area of all welds

w d = Distance between neutral axis and
centre of gravity of the weld
L = Length of member assuming full length
of weld
I = Moment of inertia of the member
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.15. Transverse Shrinkage

Transverse shrinkage measure is given by :

d = 0.10. (Total area of weld)/thickness t

= 0.10. Average width of weld

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.3.16. Angular Distortion

Angular distortion is measured by :

d = 0.02. w.W / t
1.3 2
Where :
a
w = flange width
W = Weld leg
T = Flange thickness
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Extent of Distortion allowed

Type of Type of weld Allowed weld

shrinkage shrinkage
Longitudinal Fillet 0.8 mm / 3m of
weld
Butt weld 3 mm per 3m of
weld
Transverse Fillet 0.8 mm per weld

Butt weld 1.5-3 mm per

weld
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of distortion

Transverse Shrinkage Longitudinal Shrinkage Angular Change

 Transverse shrinkage results in decreased plate width after

welding.
 Longitudinal shrinkage causes the plate to bow inward in
the vicinity of the ends of the weld.
 Angular distortion changes the alignment of the plates
from their original placement prior to welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of distortion

Rotational Distortion Longitudinal Bending Buckling

 Rotational distortion occurs when a long section has to be

welded – cylindrical pipe or pressure vessels welding.
 Longitudinal bending results in the bowing of the flat base
plate of a long fillet weld.
 In buckling, the material adopts a sinusoidal wave pattern in
response to welding stress – observed in the welding of thin
plate or panel material.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Design principles to control distortion

 Minimise the amount of weld metal

 Avoid over welding
 Place welds about the neutral axis
 Use intermittent welding in preference to continuous weld
pass
 Balance the welding about the middle of the joint using a
double-V joint in preference to a single-V joint for plates
above half inch thick
 Eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled
and / or extruded sections
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Prevention of Distortion by Design

Elimination of welding by
 Forming the plate,
 Use of rolled or extruded
sections,
 intermittent welds, attaching
stiffening plates,

Weld placement
 Place the welds around the
neutral axis,
 Balance welds intermittently
on either side of joint,
 Weld alternatively on opposite
sides of the joint,
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Prevention of Distortion by Design

Reducing volume of weld Metal
 Shrinkage is proportional to the
amount of weld deposit,
 Reduce angle of V – joint,
 Reduce no. of passes to reduce
angular distortion,
 Cross-sectional area of double –V
nearly half that of single-V,
Use of balanced welding
 The adjacent figure gives an
effective means of controlling
distortion in multi-pass butt
welding by arranging the welding
sequence
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Use of pre-setting & pre-bending

Pre-setting of parts
To achieve correct alignment
after welding in order to prevent
angular distortion in
a) fillet joints b) butt joints

Also pre-set Tapered gap to

prevent closure

Pre-bending of parts Using

press breaks and wedges to
accommodate angular distortion
in thin plates
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Use of restraint to prevent distortion

Welding jigs and fixtures Flexible clamps

Strong back with wedges Fully welded strong backs

Note : Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of
welds for restraint techniques, including pre-heat to avoid defects
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
Tack Welding
 Ideal for setting and
maintaining joint gap
 Alternative tack-welding
sequences (ref figure )
a) Tack-weld straight through
to end of joint
b) Tack-weld one end, then
use back-step technique for
tacking rest of joint
Tack space = 100 mm + 16T
c) Tack-weld the center, then
Tack length = 3T
complete the tack-welding
Thickness of plate = T by the back-step technique
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
 Longitudinal stiffeners welded along
each side of the butt-welded seam
prevents bowing
 Back-to-back assembly – clamping
two identical components back-to-
back for tacking and welding
 Use balanced welding about the
neutral axis
 Keep the weld deposit to the
minimum specified size
 Use MIG in preference to MMA
 Keep time between runs to a
minimum and deposit weld metal as
quickly as possible
 Use least number of runs to fill the
joints
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Distortion correction techniques

Mechanical techniques
 Hammering
 Pressing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Distortion Correction Techniques

Thermal technique by
localised Heating

 Spot heating – used mainly

to remove buckling in thin
sheet

 Line heating – components

heated along the line of weld
to correct angular distortion

 Restrict the area of heating

to avoid over-shrinkage of
the component
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Distortion Correction Techniques

Wedge shaped heating

 Used to correct distortion in
large complex fabrication
including box-shaped structures

 For the heat to penetrate evenly

through the plate thickness,
heat from the base

 Limit the temperature to 6500C

to prevent metallurgical damage
and to avoid over shrinkage
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Repair Welding
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.1. Repair Of Welds

 Every weld needs inspection before it is put to

use. There may be some defects or
discontinuities in the weld which may fail to
meet the specified standards.

 In such cases the welds are to be repaired /

rectified through acceptable standard
procedures for acceptance.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.2. Weld Repair Procedure

Specification

The procedures to be applied to repair/

rectify the welds are:
 Visual and other inspection
 Locate and find extent of defect
 Remove defective part of weld
 Clean and prepare joint to weld
 Select and use proper consumable
 Inspect after welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.3 – 4.9.4. Visual Inspection

Visual inspection of the Following equipments

weld to locate external may be used in
discontinuities : visual inspection
process:
1. Under cut
1. Magnifying glass
2. Root defects
2. Dye penetrants
3. Spatter
3. Telescope
4. Irregular weld bead
4. Gauges
5. Surface cracks
5. Optical comparator.
6. Surface porosity
6. Boroscope
7. Unfilled craters

+
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.5. Internal Defects

Internal defects can be detected by

the following methods :
1. Ultra sonic tests
2. Magna-flux testing
3. Radiographic testing
4. Micro-hardness testing
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.6. Removal Of The Defective

Part Of Weld

Defective part of the weld can be removed by:

1. Flame cutting
2. Arc gouging
3. Chipping
4. Grinding
5. Machining
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.7. Cleaning And

Preparation Of Joint
The joint must be thoroughly cleaned
and dried to remove :
1. Dirt and dust
2. Oil and grease
3. Carbonaceous particles
4. Moisture
5. Inserts/spacers
6. Dye penetrant chemicals
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.9.8. Welding Of The Joint

Welding of the removed part of the joint

is to be done as per specification for the
original weld
 Check and set the gap
 Set the current as specified
 Pre-heat if required
 Weld as per approved procedure
 Apply post-weld heat treatment if required
 Inspect the weld
 Record the process, procedure and inspection
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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4.4.9. Procedural Qualifications

Procedural qualifications must be followed for

either welding or repair of welds. The
A.S.M.E. Section IX specifies use of:
 Welding procedure specification

 Procedure qualification record

 Welders performance qualification

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of

the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.S.K.Gupta
 Mr.A.Choudhuri
 Dr. Amitava De
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Thank You
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 14

The Welding Arc and

Power Sources
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contents

• The Welding Arc

• Arc Welding Power Sources

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc

 Arc = electrical discharge between two

bodies without physical contact
Electrode  Open circuit voltage = voltage without
the arc
 Breakdown voltage = the voltage required
for ionisation of the intervening medium.
Arc
 Arc voltage = Voltage drop across the arc.
The voltage depends on the arc-length.
Plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
Electrode  Ionisation = breaking down of atoms into
(+ve) electrons and +ve neucleus (ions)
 Plasma = Ions and electrons at high
temperature (>10,000 deg.C)
+
 Current = movement of electric charges
+
-
 Maintenance of arc through AC cycle is
Welding - + achieved by adding Sodium/potassium
Arc salt to electrode coating

+ +  Cellulosic electrodes release hydrogen

- which has higher breakdown voltage
consequently higher arc voltage which
Plate (-ve) results in a penetrating arc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
 Electrical discharge between two bodies without
physical contact

 Discharge takes place through ionized gas – plasma

 Resistive heating by flow of current through ionised

gas generates extremely high temperatures – More
than 10,000 degrees in the core of arc plasma

 When used for welding, one of the body is the

workpiece and therefore a plane surface, while the
other body is the electrode which approximates to a
point
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
ELECTRODES

 CONSUMABLE  NON CONSUMABLE

 Low melting point  High melting point

 MMAW, SAW, MIG  GTAW

 Compatible to parent metal  Tungsten and alloys

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
MMAW : Starting of the arc by “fuse blowing”

Consumable type electrodes:

To start the arc, the electrode tip is
touched to the job. The resistance
being highest at the tip, the electrode
tip melts during the short-circuit due
to initial surge of current, like blowing
of a fuse. The melting causes a gap
where the arc is initiated.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
GTAW : Arc starting by high frequency

Arc starting by HF :
HF is superimposed
with the welding
current and the HF
helps ionisation of the
intervening medium to
start the arc.
Electrode is never
touched to the plate
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc

Have you ever wondered why lightning always propagates in a thin line ?
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
Pinch Effect
Current Flow of current through arc results in
magnetic field enveloping the arc and
tends to compress it –‘pinch effect’.
Higher the current, higher the pinch.
The magnetic field also generates an
axial force which causes hot ionized gas
in the arc to be set in motion from the
electrode to the workpiece, and assists
Magnetic
field
to detach molten metal from the end of
the electrode and transport it to the
molten pool – even against influence of
gravity.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc

 These magnetic fields can interact with other

magnetic fields, generated by another arc operating
close by or due to residual magnetism of the plate
being welded.

 Such interaction causes deflection of the arcs and in

extreme cases, extinguishing of the arc which is
known as “arc blow”. This is a matter of concern
particularly in DC welding.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
AC The current supplied to an
arc is generally
Half wave DC straightforward AC or DC,
but some modern welding
Full wave DC power sources have square

SCR control DC
wave output or allow welding
current to be pulsed between
Square wave high and low values.
Pulsed DC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
 The initial arc formed in the manner just described will not
grow into a stable welding arc if the power source cannot
deliver the current required.
 Power sources must therefore have appropriate dynamic
responses.
 Once the arc has been established, it has to be maintained
during the current zero period if it is an AC arc and during
inadvertent arc length variations when the welding is in
progress.
 All other things being equal the voltage required by an arc
depends directly on its length or the gap between the
electrode and the molten pool in the workpiece.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Welding Arc
 The rate at which energy is applied to the workpiece
by the welding arc has an important influence on the
metallurgical properties of both weld metal and heat
affected zone.
 Heat input is generally defined as kilo-joules/mm of
weld-run, i.e.,
Current X Arc-Volts
Welding speed

 Actually only a portion 10-40 percent of the energy

generated in the arc never reaches the workpiece
because of radiation losses in the arc column, losses
in spatter etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Arc Welding
Power Sources
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Principles

 Input power from the mains is usually high

voltage and has low current availability

 Welding demands high amperage at a

relatively low voltage

 Usually this characteristic is achieved by

employing a step-down transformer.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Principles

The relationships between winding turns and input
and output voltages and currents in a transformer are
as follows:
N1 / N2 = E1 / E2 = I2 / I1
where :

N1 = no. of turns on primary winding

N2 = no. of turns on secondary winding
E1 = input voltage
E2 = output voltage
I1 = input current
I2 = output (load) current
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Principles

 Taps in the transformer secondary

windings are used to change no of
turns in secondary to vary open
circuit voltage.
Mains Supply

 As shown in the equation, primary –

secondary current ratio is inversely
proportional to primary – secondary
voltage ratio. Thus, large secondary
(welding) currents can be obtained
from relatively low line currents.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Arc Welding
Power Source

Static Dynamic
characteristics Characteristics
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Static characteristics or volt-ampere characteristics

Constant voltage power source : if the power source

characteristic is flat, i.e., if it is a constant voltage power
Arc voltage

source, there will be a proportionally greater swing in

current for the same voltage change. Such power sources
are suitable for GMAW or SAW but not for MMA
A
Note : For a small
variation in voltage, (A),
the change in current is
very large (B).
B Welding current
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Static characteristics or volt-ampere characteristics
Constant current power source, or power source with
drooping characteristics is usually selected for MMA
Arc voltage

where consistent arc-voltage may be difficult to achieve.

Note: For the same variation in voltage, (A),

the change in current is relatively small (B).

A
Also note, higher the droop,
lesser the change in current

Welding current
B
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of Power Sources

Arc Welding
Power Source

AC power DC power sources

sources - Rectifier
- SCR controlled
- MG sets
- Inverter
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of AC Power Sources

AC sources are almost without exceptions
of the constant current or drooping type.
Various means are adopted to achieve the
volt-ampere characteristics. Most popular
types are indicated below:
– Moving coil
– Moving Iron
– Tapped reactance
– Magnetic amplifier
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC Power Sources
Moving Coil
When the primary coil is
away from the secondary
coil, the magnetic coupling
becomes “loose”

A lead screw mechanism

is used to move the
primary coil steplessly

When the primary coil is

brought close to the
secondary coil, the magnetic
coupling is “strong”
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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AC Power Sources
Moving Iron or Moving Core

A shunt core when fully

introduced, “shunts” and
does not allow the flux from
the primary coil to reach the
secondary coil

A lead screw mechanism

is used to move the shunt
core in and out steplessly

When the shunt core is

completely out, all the
fluxes from primary coil
reach the secondary coil
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Types of DC Power Sources

Motor Generator Sets
 Moving / Rotating machines – so very high
running & maintenance costs
 No load power loss very high
 Very high weight-to-power ratio
 High capital cost

Inverters
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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DC Power Sources
 Unidirectional flow of current ensures better arc stability
 Easier arc starting & Maintenance
 Improved dynamic control
 More efficient melting of consumable electrodes
 Higher deposition rate
 Lower spatter
 Possibility of using all types of electrodes
 Can be used for welding non-ferrous metals
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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DC Power Sources
Basic configuration
Transformer rectifier type– mainly comprised of 2 parts : Step-
down transformer, and Rectifier bank which converts AC to DC.
In the earlier models, bulky selenium rectifiers were used. Now
silicon diodes are invariably used which are compact and more
efficient. Using a diode “bridge” enables full wave rectification.
Mains Supply

Half wave DC

Full wave DC
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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DC Power Sources
Thyristor (SCR) controlled power source
Thyristor type comprises of 3 parts: Transformer, The rectifier
(SCR bridge), and the firing control circuit. By changing the firing
angle θ, stepless current control is achieved.
Thyristor Bridge SCR control DC

_ + θ θ θ
Mains Supply

No Conduction

Full conduction
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics
 Dynamic characteristic describes instantaneous
variations or those that occur during short intervals such
as 0.001 seconds
 Most welding arc operate in continually changing
conditions. In particular, transients occur during striking
of the arc, rapid changes in arc length, metal transfer
across the arc and in case of AC welding during arc
extinction and re-ignition at each half-cycle. The power
source must respond to these demands.
 There is no universally recognized methods by which
dynamic characteristics can be specified.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics

 The static volt-ampere characteristics have little significance

in determining dynamic response of an arc welding system.
 Among the arc welding power source design features that
do have an effect on dynamic characteristics are those that
provide:
– Local Transient energy source such as parallel capacitance
circuits or DC series inductance
– Feedback controls on automated regulated systems
– Modifications of waveform or circuit operating frequencies.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics
The use of reactor or choke in the power source circuit is to
delay the rise or fall of current in a coil in an exponential manner
as a result of the building up and decay of the magnetic field.
Thus sudden changes in current is resisted which results in
smoother arc & prevents explosive starting.

Welding current
Mains Supply

Time
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Inverters
Basic Principles

• Inverter basically converts DC to AC

• DC derived by rectification of AC voltage with high value
electrolytic capacitors as filters
• These DC is converted to AC by high frequency solid state
switching (in KHz)
• A small ferrite core is sufficient for converting several
kilowatts of power
• Output of this ferrite transformer is rectified by high
frequency diodes and smoothened by a DC choke
• The output is controlled with sensors & suitable closed-
loop electronic circuitry to achieve required static and
dynamic characteristics.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Inverters
1) Mains voltage is rectified to DC
2) The Inverter converts the to high frequency AC by HF switching
circuits using IGBT
3) A small transformer using a ferrite core, changes the HF AC to suitable
welding voltage.
4) The AC is rectified back to DC.
5) Filters remove the disturbing frequencies and ripples (EMI) in the DC.
6) The entire process is monitored by a control circuit. The output is
controlled with sensors & suitable closed-loop electronic circuitry to
achieve required static and dynamic characteristics.
7) A DC voltage is available for welding purpose.
8) Microprocessor based real time adaptive process control can improve
output further for optimum performance.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Mains supply Inverters

1 2 3 4 5
7
ARC

AC>DC DC>HFAC HV>LV AC>DC Filter

Feedback
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Why Inverters
Following are the advantages compared to traditional power
sources :
 Lower weight, due to high frequency of operation (>50 KHz)
 Smaller volume, occupying less workspace
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Why Inverters
 Low energy consumption
No load looses for different types of similar capacity
1400

1200

1000
Watts

800

600

400

200

0
Converter (MG Set) Thy. Rectifier Transformer Inverter
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Why Inverters
 High efficiency
Energy Consumption (kWh / year)

14000

12000
Energy consumption
per year for different
10000
types of MMA-welding
8000
power source. The
6000 differences depend on
4000 different efficiency
2000 and No-load losses.
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Actual Welding Current (A)
Converter Transformer Inverter
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Why Inverters
 Excellent dynamic response resulting in higher spatter
level & higher current stabilizing time
8 600

Average Starting Time

7 500
% of welding spatter

(milliseconds)
6 400
5 300
4 200
3 100
2 0
80A/17.2V 155A/18.8V
1
Thy. Rectifier Inverter
0
The time elapsed from the tip of the
Transformer Thy. Rectifier Inverter wire touching the work piece until a
stable welding arc is established. Wire
Spatter level in welding dia. 1.0mm with 80:20 Argon/CO2
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Features Of
Inverter Power Sources
• Very light and compact - portable
• Power consumption reduced by 40-50 %
• Can quickly modify static and dynamic output
characteristics for multi-process capability.
• Excellent arc stability, can TIG weld at 1 amp
• Hot start and adjustable arc force for SMAW
• For GMAW-P and synergic MIG possible to achieve spray
transfer at lower currents
• High switching frequencies of >50,000 hertz facilitates
microprocessor based real time adaptive process control.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Requirements of Welding Power Sources

• General
– Availability of current at required voltage
– Volt–Amp characteristics
– Adequate open circuit voltage
– Control of output
– Control of spatter
• MMA Power Sources
– Limit on short circuit current
– Sufficient OCV to strike & maintain arc
• MIG / MAG Power Sources
– Efficiency of metal transfer
– Slope & dynamic response
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Some General Terms to Understand

 Rating – Denotes the power capacity available from
the machine. Usually specified in Amperes.
 Duty Cycle – A ratio of the ‘load on’ time allowed to a
specified test interval time. This is expressed as a %,
the maximum time the power source can deliver at its
rated output during each of a number of successive
intervaluty

TON Current
Duty cycle = X 100
T
TON TOFF Time
T
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Some General Terms to Understand

 Power Factor – Ratio of active power used to the total
power drawn from the system.
 Efficiency – Power utility factor of the machine
expressed as a % output to input. It accounts for losses
in the system particularly transformer losses. In welding
power sources ‘no load’ loss is a very important criteria
because power source arc-on time is hardly 25% in a
shopfloor situation .
PO
PIN = PO+ [(Hysteresis+Eddy) + Copper] ; Efficiency = P X 100
IN

 Insulation class – The temperature withstanding

capability of the insulation materials (insulation cover,
varnish etc.) used in the power source.
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Some General Terms to Understand

Ingress Protection – IP Classes
 IP classes define the degree of protection provided by the
enclosure and is indicated by various 2-digit numbers such
as 22, 23, 54 etc.

 The first digit defines the degree of protection with respect

to persons and solid ingress. The degrees range from 0-6
where 0 means no protection & 6 means Dust Proof.

 The second digit defines the degree of protection with

respect to harmful ingress of water. The degrees range
from 0-8 where 0 means no special protection & 8 means
protection against submersion (hermetically sealed).
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Power Source Selection Criteria

General :
• Copper or Aluminium conductors – A total non-issue
• Class of insulation – A total non-issue
• Distance of welding point from the power source
• Input power – 3 phase or 2 lines of 3 phase
• Duty cycle
• Rating
• IP class
• Power factor
• Efficiency
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 936 of 1119

Power Source Selection Criteria

MMAW :
• Type of welding current – AC or DC or Both
• Amperage range –determined by size & type of
electrodes
• Open circuit voltage (OCV) – High OCV desirable
from standpoint of arc initiation & arc maintenance.
But electrical hazard factors & high cost are to be
considered
• Volt-ampere characteristics
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 937 of 1119

Power Source Selection Criteria

SMAW :
• Type of welding current – AC or DC or Both

• Amperage range –determined by size & type of

electrodes

• Open circuit voltage (OCV) – High OCV desirable from

standpoint of arc initiation & arc maintenance. But
electrical hazard factors & high cost are to be considered

• Welding positions – If vertical & overhead welding are

planned, slope adjustments of the V-A curve is desirable
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 938 of 1119

Power Source Selection Criteria

MIG / MAG :
• Maximum & minimum electrode wire dia
• Welding job thicknesses
• Welding position
• Joining materials
• Criticality of joints – Pulsed / non-pulsed
• Preciseness of parameter control – step-controlled or
stepless
• Dip Transfer / Spray Transfer
• Shielding Gas
• Inductance level required
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 939 of 1119

Safety
Protection Protection
Recommendation
of from
IR, UV Radiation, Use correct goggles
Eyes
Spatter (shade # 6-14)
IR, UV Radiation, Wear leather gloves
Skin
Spatter, Hot metal, Burn & apron
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Ear Sound Use ear plug
Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes
Follow safety
Body Electric shock
instructions
Ventilate, use
General Toxic Fumes
extractor
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 940 of 1119

Safety
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contributors to this presentation

1) Aloke Mitra

2) S. Ghoshal
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Thank You
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Insufficient reinforcement
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Burn-through
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Lack Of Penetration
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Incomplete Fusion
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Tungsten inclusion
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Cracks
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Cracks
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Porosity - Types
Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified
weld bead.
• Single Pore
• Uniformly Scattered
• Cluster
• Linear
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Porosity
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Clustered Porosity
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 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – module 16

Quality Assurance of
Welded Structures
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1038 of 1119

Business Scenario

 Open market policy

– free availability of imported product
and opening up of export business

 New technology

 Competition
–from domestic & international
manufacturers, at home and abroad
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1039 of 1119

Quality is the USP

 Product quality

 Communication with customer

 Meeting delivery commitments

 Post delivery responsibilities

 Competitive Price
In order to meet the competition one should naturally be
at par or better than the competitors
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1040 of 1119

How to achieve Quality ?

 Inspection ?

 It is a method for segregating good and

bad products
 The cost of bad/rejected products add
to the good product

 Operation of a Quality Management

System
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1041 of 1119

Some reasons of quality failure

 Understanding customers requirements (Review)

 Proper planning of production, monitoring & inspection,
etc. (Quality plan)
 Following the right procedure as per plan (process sheets,
process validation)
 Monitoring & measurements (product, process, customer
satisfaction)
 Appropriate knowledge & skill (Training)
 Learning from experience (CAPA)

Operation of a Quality Management System can reduce

rejection, rework, cost, and ensure better products & services.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1042 of 1119

Quality Management System

(Deming cycle PDCA)
CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
OF QMS CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER
AND OTHER
AND OTHER 5 Management INTERESTED
Responsibility
INTERESTED PARTIES

PARTIES
8 Measurement
6 Resource
Analyses
Management Improvement SATISFACTION

REQUIREMENTS 7 Product Realisation PRODUCT

Value Adding Activities

Information Flow
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1043 of 1119

ISO 9001
Quality Management System
 The system addresses all aspects of business
that can affect quality
( Review, Planning, Design, Process validation & control,
manufacturing, Monitoring & measurements, Training,
CAPA, etc.)

 It is a generic Standard i.e., the Standard can

be applied to any organisation alike.
( such as manufacturing, education, trading, service
providers, etc., etc,)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1044 of 1119

Industry Specific Standard

 ISO 9001 does provide all the basic requirements

of any organization.

 Nevertheless, industry specific Standards came

into practice in order to focus on the specific and
critical requirements of the specific industries.

 Thus we see emergence of industry specific

standards such as ISO 13485 (medical device
industry), QS 9000 (auto industry), ISO 3834
(fabrication by welding), ISO TS 29001(oil&gas)
etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1045 of 1119

Welding – a Special Process

and Need for ISO 3834
 In many companies various welding processes are
the “ Key “ feature of production. These processes
exert a profound influence on the cost of
manufacture and quality of product.

 It is essential, therefore, to ensure that these

processes are carried out in the most effective way
and that appropriate control is exercised over all
aspects of the operation.

 Because the quality of these processes cannot be

readily verified, they are considered to be “Special
Processes” as noted by ISO 9001:2000.

February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 9
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Special Process

 A special process is where the conformity to the

requirement of the resulting product cannot be
“verified by subsequent monitoring or measurements
and as a consequence the deficiencies become
apparent only after the product is in use”.
 In the Standard ISO 9001: 2000, section 7.5.2, there
is a requirement of “Process Validation” for such
special processes.
 Welding, by this definition, is a special process and
must be validated as per ISO 9001. However, the
Standard does not go into details of validation
requirements.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1047 of 1119

Failure of Pressure Vessel during

Hydro-test

11
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Effect of improper PWHT

 The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that

failed during its hydraulic test.
 The vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts
of it did not reach the required temperature and
consequently did not experience adequate tempering.
 This coupled with a small hydrogen crack, was
sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test
conditions.
 It is therefore important when considering PWHT or
its avoidance, to ensure that all possible failure modes
and their consequences are carefully considered
before any action is taken.

12
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1049 of 1119

What is ISO 3834?

 It is an international standard created by

welding professionals to guide the
manufacturer in managing his welding
fabrication process

 It encourages a proactive, process

orientated approach to managing and
controlling welding product quality in a
workshop or on site
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 13
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1050 of 1119

Why ISO 3834 ?

 While ISO 9001 covers all basic requirements,

ISO 3834 additionally identifies all factors at
all stages of welding that could affect the
quality of welded product and which need to
be controlled, before, during and after.
 ISO 3834 therefore complements ISO 9001
and does not replace it.
 A company already operating ISO 9001 will
have much less to add to its quality system in
order to conform to ISO 3834
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1051 of 1119

What are the main welding

requirements covered in ISO 3834?

 Review of requirements & Technical review

 to understand parent material specification and welded joint
properties, quality and acceptance requirements, etc.
 Subcontracting
 Supplier to be treated as extension of manufacturers facility
 Welding personnel
 Welders and welding operators, Welding coordination
personnel (Qualification as per ISO 14731)
 Inspection & testing personnel
 Welding Inspection personnel; Non-destructive testing
personnel (Qualification as per ISO 14731 & ISO 9712 )
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1052 of 1119

What are the main welding

requirements covered in ISO 3834?

 Equipment
 Production and testing equipment; Suitability of
equipment; Equipment maintenance
 Welding and related activities
 Production planning; Welding procedure
specifications (WPS); Process Qualification of the
welding (WPQR); Work instructions;
 Welding Consumables
 Batch testing; Storage and handling
 Storage of parent materials
 Avoidence of damage and mixup

 Post-weld heat treatment ( As per ISO/TR 17663 )

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1053 of 1119

What are the main welding

requirements covered in ISO 3834?

 Inspection and testing

 Inspection & testing before, during & after welding;
Inspection & test status
 Non-conformance and corrective actions
 Learning from experience
 Calibration of measuring, inspection and testing
equipment
 For correct monitoring & measurement at all stages
 Identification & traceability
 Enabling any failure to be traced back to process for
learning
 Quality records
 Arising out of additional requirements as above
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Welding Quality System

Page 1054 of 1119

Control Measures
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1055 of 1119

Application of ISO 3834

 Certification of companies in
accordance with ISO – 3834 Parts 2, 3
or 4

 Certification of personnel in
accordance with ISO 14731
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1056 of 1119

Who Can Certify ?

ACCREDITATION BOARD (AB)
International Institute of Welding

Application for Applicable standard: Audit by LA of

accreditation by CB IAB guidelines accreditation body (IIW)

CERTIFICATION BODY (CB)

ANB-Company Certification

Application by Applicable standard: Audit by LA of

company for ISO 3834, certification body
certification IAB guidelines (CB) ANBCC

INDUSTRY
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

International Institute of
Page 1057 of 1119

Welding - IIW
 As a member of the International Union of Technical
Associations and Organisations (UTAO), IIW is a part of
the International Council for Engineering and Technology
(ICET), one of the twelve key formal umbrella organisations
associated with UNESCO.

 The experts of International Institute of Welding (IIW) have

supplied the technical basis of the great majority of welding
standards issued by the International Standards Organisation -
ISO.

 Since 1989, IIW has been recognised by ISO as an

International Standardisation Body to prepare the final texts of
international welding standards.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1058 of 1119

Manufacturers Certification for

compliance with ISO 3834

 The International Institute of Welding ( IIW ) by virtue of its

unique international experience has developed an integrated
and specialised certification scheme to assure companies
compliance with ISO 3834

 The scheme is titled IIW Manufacturers Certification

Scheme for the Management of Quality in Welding

 Companies are certified after thorough audit of their activities

as per requirements of ISO 3834
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1059 of 1119

Quality levels specified under

ISO 3834
 ISO 3834: 2005 “Quality requirements for fusion welding
of metallic materials” consists of 6 parts:

 ISO 3834-1:2005, Criteria for the selection of the

appropriate level of quality requirements
 ISO 3834-2:2005, Comprehensive quality
requirements
 ISO 3834-3:2005, Standard quality requirements
 ISO 3834-4:2005, Elementary quality requirements
 ISO 3834-5:2005, Applicable documentation (not full title)
 ISO/TR 3834-6:2007, Guidelines on implementing ISO
3834
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1060 of 1119

ISO 3834-2
Comprehensive Quality Level

 Applied to constructions in which the failure

of welds may lead to total product failure
with successive significant financial
consequences and a major risk of human
injury

 The product may be subject to pronounced

dynamic loading in addition to high static
loading

 Manufacture would require enhanced

controls to avoid the occurrence of harmful
imperfections
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 24
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

ISO 3834-3 – Standard

Page 1061 of 1119

Quality Level

 Applied to constructions in which the

failure of welds could impair the intended
use of the construction & the operational
unit in which it forms a part.

 The product would have a normal safety

risk & the financial consequences would
not be extreme.

 Manufacture would be conventional

without reliance of high performance
materials & the production processes
would be well established.
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 25
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1062 of 1119

ISO 3834-4 – Elementary

Quality Level

 Applied to constructions in which the failure

of welds would not fundamentally impair the
intended use of the constructions.

 Failure would not be expected to have any

adverse effects on the safety of people &
would only have minor financial
consequences.

 The materials used would be simple as well

as the manufacturing technique.

February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 26
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1063 of 1119

Comparison of Welding quality requirements with

regard to ISO 3834-2, 3834-3 And 3834-4

Elements ISO 3834-2 ISO 3834-3 ISO 3834-4

Contract review Full documented Less extensive review Establish that capability and
review information is available
Design review Design for welding to be confirmed
Subcontractor Treat like a main fabricator Shall comply with all requirement
Welders, Operators Approved in accordance with ISO 9606
Welding coordination Welding coordination personnel with appropriate Not required but personal
technical knowledge responsibility of manufacturer
Inspection personnel Sufficient and competent personnel to be Sufficient and competent third parties
available access are needed
Production equipment Required to prepare, cut, weld, transport, lift, No specific requirement
together with safety equipment and
protective clothes
Equipment maintenance Shall be carry out, No specific requirements, No requirement
maintenance shall be adequate
plan
necessary
Production plan Necessary Restricted plan necessary No requirement
Welding procedure Instruction to made available to welder No requirement
specification
(WPS)
Welding procedure In accordance with the appropriate part of ISO No specific requirement
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Comparison of Welding quality requirements with

Page 1064 of 1119

regards to ISO 3834-2, 3834-3 And 3834-4

Elements ISO 3834-2 ISO 3834-3 ISO 3834-4
Work instructions Welding procedure specification (WPS) or No requirement
dedicated work instructions to be available
Documentation Necessary Not specified No requirement
Batch testing of Necessary Not specified No requirement
consumables
Storage and handling of According to supplier’s recommended minimum
welding consumables
Storage of parent Protection required from influences by the No requirement
materials environment, identifications to be maintained
Post-weld heat Specification and complete Confirmation to No requirement
treatment record necessary specification
necessary
Inspection before, As required for specified operations Responsibilities as specified in
during and after welding contract
Non-conformances Procedures shall be available
Calibration Procedures shall be Not specified
available
Identification Required when appropriate Required when Not specified
necessary
Traceability Not specified
Quality records Shall be available to meet the rules for product As required by contract
liability
Retained for 5 years minimum
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1065 of 1119

How important are welding

personnel?
 A key feature of ISO 3834 is the requirement to ensure
that people with welding responsibilities are competent
to discharge those responsibilities

 This is achieved by incorporation of another standard,

namely, ISO 14731 “Welding coordination – Tasks and
responsibilities”

 The specifying of minimum requirements for personnel

dealing with welding coordination and welding
inspection personnel in the Standard indicates the
importance.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1066 of 1119

ISO 14731 Requirements for

Welding Co-ordination Personnel
 Welding Co-ordination :
 Manufacturing operations for all welding and welding
related activities
 The sole responsibility of the manufacturer
 May be sub-contracted
 May be carried out by more than one person

 Welding Co-ordinator
 Responsible and competent person
 Specified tasks and responsibilities
 Qualified for each task

 Welding Inspection
 Is part of welding co-ordination
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1067 of 1119

Role of the Responsible Welding

Co-ordinator

 The company shall nominate at least one Responsible Welding

Co-ordinator ( RWC )
 The RWC must be competent to make decisions and sign on
behalf of the manufacturer.
 The RWC must be authorised with the overall responsibility for
monitoring welding activities as well as taking action when
welding has not been correctly performed.
 The RWC may also be responsible for the work of other welding
co-ordinators in the in the same department / site.
 RWC maybe to an individuals normal job title eg, Technical
Manager, QC Manager, Production Manager etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1068 of 1119

Welding Inspection
 It is part of Welding Coordination
 Inspection personnel should be qualified as per IIW-
IWIP of required level or have other equivalent
qualification and demonstrated experience consistent
with current production by means of a Certification (e.g
National, TWI, AWS etc.)
• 3834 does not specify criteria for organisations
performing inspection & test but based on objective
evidence to confirm satisfactory process control.
National Accreditation of a laboratory is considered one
acceptable criteria.
• NDT Personnel qualification to conform to requirements
of ISO 9712 and destructive tests should conform to the
applicable ISO standards
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Knowledge Requirements for Page 1069 of 1119

Welding Coordination Personnel

Comprehensive Technical Knowledge
 Full technical knowledge for planning, executing, supervising and testing
of all tasks and responsibilities in welding fabrication, construction, repair,
maintenance etc.
 Example: Broad range of materials, processes, thicknesses, procedures
& NDT requirements is involved, where a wide variety of products are to
be manufactured to differing codes, major fabrication projects etc.
Specific Technical Knowledge
 Technical knowledge is sufficient for planning, executing, supervising and
testing of the tasks and responsibilities in welding fabrication within a
selective or limited technical field.
 Example: Where welding processes, procedures, materials and products
do not change significantly etc.
Basic Technical Knowledge
 Technical knowledge is sufficient for planning, executing, supervising and
testing of the tasks and responsibilities within a limited technical field
involving simple welded constructions
 Example: Welding processes and procedures, materials etc. do not vary,
the welds produced are not critical from safety aspects etc.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1070 of 1119

IIW International Diploma Qualifications

for Welding Co-ordination Personnel

• International Welding Engineer ( IWE )*

• International Welding Technologist ( IWT )*
• International Welding Specialist ( IWS )*
• International Welding Practitioner ( IWP )*
• International Welding Inspection Personnel (IWIP)*
• International Welded Structure Designer ( IWSD )
• International Welder ( IW )* – Diploma awarded for
Specific process and material
* ANB-India authorised to award the above diplomas
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1071 of 1119

Benefits of ISO 3834

 Local and international recognition
 More assurance of contract delivery dates
 Greater assurance of the quality of welded products
 Less rework, reduction in rejection and its cost
 Reduced third party inspection, significant savings
 Increased opportunities and capability to bid on jobs,
national and international
 Prerequisite for EU & International product regulations that
call up ISO 3834 (CE marking–mandatory for selling in
EU), and the CEN Product Standards.
 Entry of the company's details on International Web site
register - improves visibility to potential clients.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1072 of 1119

Who can go for

ISO 3834 certification?

 Fabrication companies
 Construction companies - on-site work
 Repair and maintenance contractors
 Manufacturers of welded products
 Welding workshops on sites under the
same technical and quality management
 Owners of plant with their own
workshop(s)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Concept of QA & QC
Page 1073 of 1119

Some Definitions

 Quality- The totality of features and characteristics of a

product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated
and implied needs.
 Quality Management- That aspect of overall management
functions that determines and implement Quality System &
Policy.
 Quality System- The organisational structure,
responsibilities, procedures, processes and resources for
implementing Quality Management.
 Quality Assurance- All those systematic actions
necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product
or service will satisfy given requirement for quality.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Concept of QA & QC
Page 1074 of 1119

Some Definitions

 Quality Control- The operational techniques and activities

that are used to fulfill requirements for quality.
 Quality Document- All necessary papers required to
produce Quality Product/Service duly approved by
respective authorities.
 Quality Records- All necessary papers to demonstrate
the achievement of required quality and the effective
operation of the quality system.
 Quality Plan- A document setting out specific quality
practices, resources and sequence of activities relevant to
a particular product, service contract or project.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1075 of 1119

Normative Documents

 Normative Document : Document that provides rules,

guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results. The
term Normative document is a generic term that covers such
documents as standards, technical specifications, codes of
practice & regulations.
 Standard : Document, established by consensus & approved
by a recognized body, that provides, for common & repeated
use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their
results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of
order in a given context.
 Code of practice : Document that recommends practices or
procedures for design, manufacture, installation, maintenance
or utilization of equipment, structures or products.
 Specification : The document that prescribes the
requirements with which the product or service has to
conform.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Normative Documents contd

 Technical Specification : Document that prescribes

technical requirements to be fulfilled by a product, process or
service.
 Regulation : Document providing binding legislative rules,
that is adopted by an authority.
 Procedure : Specified way to perform an activity.
 Procedure : A written description of all essential parameters
& precautions to be observed when applying inspection or a
test method to specific item or quantity of items , following an
established standard, code or specification.
 Instruction : Provision that conveys an action to be
performed.
 Written Instruction : A detailed written description of the
inspection(s) or test(s) to be performed.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1077 of 1119

Construction codes for

Fabrication
 Codes are necessary to assure reliability and safety
of equipment and structures
 The codes provide rules to design, manufacture ( by
forming / welding ) inspection and testing of
fabricated equipment and structures
 Examples of codes
- ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code
- AWS Structural Welding code
- API pipe welding code / Norsolk M101
 Welders have to be approved and certified to work
on any coded fabrication

Indian Institute of Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1078 of 1119

Why Codes and Standards

 We use codes and standards to

manufacture many things that have
been built many times before.
 The lessons of failure, over and under
design are generally incorporated into
the next revised edition.

Indian Institute of Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1079 of 1119

Code

 A Code of Practice is generally

considered as a legally binding
document, containing all obligatory
rules to design, build and test a
specific product.
 As per English dictionary, A code is a
set of laws or rules that shall be
followed when providing a service or a
product.

Indian Institute of Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1080 of 1119

Standard

 A standard will generally contain or

refer to all the relevant optional and
mandatory manufacturing, testing and
measuring data.
 An Application Standard is a level of
quality or specification to which
something may be tested.

Indian Institute of Welding

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1081 of 1119

Various Quality related

Standards in Welding

 Basic Standard for QMS - ISO 9001 -

2000
 Special Basic Standard - ISO 3834
 Manufacturing Standards
 Personnel Standards
 Procedures
 Quality Standards
 Testing standards
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 45
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1082 of 1119

Manufacturing Standards as per

ISO 3834
Product manufactured Standard
EN 13445
Manufacturing Un-fired Pressure Vessels (Parts 1-7)
EN 13480
Manufacturing Metallic Industrial Piping (Parts 2-7 )
Manufacturing simple Un-fired Pressure
EN 286-1
Vessels to contain air and nitrogen
Steel Pipelines and Pipe-works for gas
EN 12732
supply systems
Fabrication of steel and aluminium EN 1090
structures ( parts 1-3 )
Fabrication of Railway vehicles and
EN 15085
components
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 46
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1083 of 1119

Quality requirements for

Personnel as per ISO 3834
Welder Other Personnel
Standard Standard
Qualification Qualification

EN 287-1 Welding
Steel Co-ordination EN ISO 14731
(ISO 9606-1) Personnel
ISO 14732
Aluminium ISO 9606-2 Welding Operator (EN 418)
ISO 9712
Copper ISO 9606-3 NDT personnel (EN 473)
Nickel ISO 9606-4
Titanium &
ISO 9606-5
Zirconium
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 47
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1084 of 1119

Process Validation

 Personnel qualification
 ISO 14731 and ISO 9606
 Process qualification
 WPQR – ISO 15614 Parts 1-13
 Defined procedure for carrying out the
process
 WPS – ISO 15607 & 15609
 Equipment qualification
 Welding machine and consumables
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 48
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1085 of 1119

WPS,PQR and WPQ

 WPS  Welding Procedure Specification is a written

document to provide direction for making
production weld to the code requirement.

 PQR  Procedure Qualification Record is a record of

the welding data used to weld a test coupon. It
is also contains the test results of the test
specimen.
 WPQ  Welding Performance Record determines the
ability of the welder/welding operator to achieve
the minimum requirement specified for an
acceptable weldment.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1086 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1087 of 1119

WPS, PQR & WPQ – ASME Section IX

WPS PQR WPQ
Specify : Record: Record : Specify :
value range
Welding Application tested qualified
Variable ranges Actual Values
Essential Variables Essential Variables Record tests and
Nonessential Variables Tests & Results results
Other directions Other data
PQR provides a record of WPQ provides record of
WPS provides direction for
What will be the variables welded, the the variables welded, tests
making welds by describing
recorded test used and the test used, test results and
what is to be welded and how
results range qualified
List of ranges of variables List of ranges of variables List of ranges of variables
Ranges of Variables
which the welder must use used in the test coupon used and ranges qualified

What this concerns How to weld Properties Depositing sound welds

Ranges acceptable for Code
What is documented
Welds
A WPS is prepared by listing
what is to be welded, how it is
Documentation to be welded and specifies
ranges for each variable on
the WPS
Proof that procedures can Proof of Welder's ability to
produce required properties make sound welds
A Welder is qualified by
A WPS is qualified by
welding test coupons,
welding a test coupon,
prepairng test specimens,
preparing test specimens
recording rest and results
& recording tests and test
and ranges qualified on a
results on a PQR
WPQ
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1088 of 1119

Nine Essential Variables of

Welding

 1) Joints
 2) Base metal
 3) Filler metal
 4) Position
 5) Pre-heat
 6) PWHT
 7) Shielding Gas
 8) Electrical Characteristics
 9) Technique
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Welding Procedures Specifications &

Page 1089 of 1119

Procedure Approval
Applicable Standards (ISO/EN)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1090 of 1119

Standards for Quality levels

and Testing as per ISO 3834
Quality level Standard NDT Standard
Fusion welding - ISO 17635
ISO 5817 General Rules (EN 12062 )
Steel
Fusion welding - ISO 17637
EN ISO 10042 Visual (EN 970 )
Aluminium
Beam welding - ISO 17636
EN ISO 13919-1 Radiographic (EN 1435 )
Steel
Beam welding - ISO 17640
EN ISO 13919-2 Ultrasonic (EN 1714 )
Aluminium
Destructive
Cutting EN ISO 9013
Tests
Joint preparation - ISO 5173
EN ISO 9692 – 1&2 Bend tests (EN 910 )
steel
Joint preparation ISO 9017
EN ISO 9692 - 3 Fracture tests (EN 1320)
– Aluminium
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 54

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX
and ISO- Scope
 As per ASME Sec. IX
 The rules in this section
apply to the preparation of
WPS, PQR and qualification
of welders and welding
operators for all types of
manual and machine
welding permitted in this
section.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1091 of 1119
 ISO 15609 covers
preparation of WPS
 ISO EN 15607 – 15614
covers welding procedure
tests for different processes
and different materials
 Parts -1 to 6 of ISO 9606 /
EN 287 specifies
requirements and
certification for approval
testing of welder
performance for the welding
of steels and other materials.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1092 of 1119

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX

and ISO 9606/ EN 287 - Variables
 As per ASME Sec. IX  As per ISO 9606-1:1994

 Joints ( QW-402)  Welding Processes

 Base Metal ( QW-403)  Joint Type
 Filler Metal ( QW-404)  Material Group
 Position ( QW-405)  Filler metal, Shielded gas
 Preheat (QW-406) and flux
 Postweld Heat Treatment (QW-  Dimensions
407)  Welding position
 Gas ( QW-408)
 Electrical Characteristics ( QW-
409)
 Technique (QW-410)
Note- Varies with different welding
processes
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1093 of 1119

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX

and ISO 9606- Material Grouping

 As per ASME Sec. IX  As per ISO/TR 15608

 Steel & Steel alloys  Steels

 Aluminium & Al. base
alloys
 Copper & Cu. base alloys
 Nickel & Ni. base alloys
 Titanium & Ti. base alloys
 Zirconium & Zr. base
alloys
 Aluminium and Al alloys
 Copper and Cu alloys
 Nickel and Ni alloys
 Titanium and Ti alloys
 Zirconium and Zr alloys.
 Cast Irons
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1094 of 1119

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX

and ISO 9606- Position-Plate-Butt

 As per
ASME
Sec IX

 As per
ISO
9606
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX

Page 1095 of 1119

and ISO 9606- Position-Plate-Fillet

 As per
ASME
Sec IX

 As per
ISO
9606
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1096 of 1119

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX

and ISO 9606- Position-Pipe-Butt

 As per
ASME
Sec IX

 As per
ISO
9606
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1097 of 1119

Comparison – Range of qualification for

procedure tests on Butt-welds
As per ISO 15614 - 1 As per ASME Sec IX
Thickness Range of qualification Range of Max thicknes ( t )
of test piece thickness (T ) of deposit weld
(t) of Base metal metal qualified
Single run Muti-run qualified (mm)
(mm)

t≤3 0,7t to 1.3t 0.7t to 2t Min Max

Less than 1.5 T 2T 2t
3 < t ≤ 12 0.5t ( 3 min ) 3 to 2t 1.5 to 10 incl 1.5 2T 2t
to 1.3t T >10 but < 19 5 2T 2t
12 < t ≤ 100 0.5t to 1.1t 0.5t to 2t 19 to less than 5 2T 2t
38

T > 100 Not 50 to 2t 38 to 150 incl 5 200 2t when t < 19

200 when t ≥ 19
applicable
> 150 5 1.33T 2t when t < 19
1.33t when t ≥ 19

Comparison Between ASME Sec. IX and ISO 9606-
Expiry or Renewal of Qualification
 As per ASME Sec. IX
 When the welder has not welded
with a process during a period of 6
months or more, his qualifications
for that process shall expire;
unless, within the six months period
to his expiration of qualification
a) A welder has welded using a manual
or semiautomatic welding which will
maintain his qualification for manual
and semiautomatic welding with
that process.
b) A welding operator has welded
using a machine or automatic
welding which will maintain his
qualification for machine and
automatic welding with that
process.
 There shall be no specific reason to
question the welder’s skill and
knowledge
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1098 of 1119
 As per ISO 9606-1:1994 / EN 287 - 1
 A welder’s approval shall remain valid
for a period of 2 years providing that
the relevant certificate is signed at six-
months intervals by employer/co-
ordinator and that all following
conditions at fulfilled
a) The welder shall be engaged with
reasonable continuity on welding work
within the current range of approval.
An interruption for a period no longer
than 6 months is permitted.
b) The welder’s work shall be in
accordance with the technical
conditions under which the approval
test is carried out.
 There shall be no specific reason to
question the welder’s skill and
knowledge
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1099 of 1119

Inspection of Welds

 Definition of Inspection as per ISO Std. –

 Inspection is that quality control action by

means of examination, observation or
measurement to determine the conformance of
material parts, components, system,structures
as well as processes and procedures with
predetermined quality requirements.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)

Inspection
Page 1100 of 1119
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1101 of 1119

Inspection Before Welding

 1) Application Standard
 2) WPS,PQR,WPQ
 3) Drawings
 4) Material Composition
 5) Condition of Material
 6) Type of edge preparation,method & finish
 7) Consumables
 8) Welding process
 9) Clearance dimensions,Type of backing(if
any)
 10) Alignment, Tack welds,Presets etc.
 11) Pre-heat (if any)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1102 of 1119

Inspection During Welding

 1) Welding Process Parameter

 2) Inter pass Temperature
 3) Filler metal/Electrode condition
 4) Inter pass cleaning
 5) Distortion
 6) Flux /Shielding gas flow
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1103 of 1119

Inspection After Welding

1) Dimensional accuracy
2) Visual inspection of the weld
3) Post Weld Heat Treatment (if any)
4) Evaluation of internal and surface defects with
or without the aid of Destructive/Non-
destructive testing.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1104 of 1119

Testing

 It is defined as the physical performance of

operations to determine quantitative
measure of certain properties of a process
– It aim to determine quantity i.e. to
discover facts regardless of the implication
of the result.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1105 of 1119

Types of Destructive & Non-

destructive Testing

 Destructive  Non-destructive

 Tensile Test  Ultrasonic Test (UT)

 Macro Test  Magnetic Particle Test (MPT)
 Charpy Test  Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT)
 Fracture Test  Radiography Test (RT)
 Bend Test  Visual Test (VT)
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1106 of 1119

Weld Quality

Discontinuity
 An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as a
lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics.
 A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect but all defects are
discontinuities.

Defect
 A defect is a rejectable discontinuity, which occurs in an amount
great enough to render a particular object or structure unsuitable
for its intended service based on criteria in the applicable code.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1107 of 1119

Classification of Defects

 Planar defects / Two dimensional defects --

E.g. cracks, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, are
crtical in nature and are not tolerated to any extent.
 Voluminar defects / Three dimensional defects --
E.g. slag inclusion, cavities, porosities, etc are
tolerated to a certain extent depending on the
product class and applicable code.
 Geometric defects-- E.g. excess reinforcement,
underfill, root suckback, distortion are also permitted
to a certain extent.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1108 of 1119

Arc-welded joints in Steel – Guidance on

Quality Levels for Imperfections – ISO 5817

Level Symbol Quality Levels for

weld imperfections

D Moderate

C Intermediate

B Stringent
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1109 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1110 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003 contd.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1111 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003 contd.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1112 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003 contd.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1113 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003 contd.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1114 of 1119

Defects and their Limits as per ISO 5817 -2003 contd.

 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1115 of 1119

Visual Inspection Acceptance Criteria as per AWS D 1.1

Discontinuity Category Static Loaded Dynamic Loaded All Loads

&Inspection Criteria (Nontubular) (Nontubular) (Tubular)

Underrun-In fillet weld upto 1.6 mm Applicable Applicable Applicable

subject to it does not exceed 10% of the
weld length. No underun is permitted for
web-to-flange welds of girder

Undercut-Upto 1 in. not to exceed 1mm. Applicable Not-Applicable Not-Applicable

For an accumulated length of 2inch in any
12 inch for material above 1in. Undercut
above 1.6mm not allowed.

Porosity-No porosity in the butt weld Applicable Not-Applicable Not-Applicable

traverse to tensile strength. In other butt
welds and for fillet weld the size of
1mmin linear inch of weld and shall not
exceed 19 mm in 12 in length of weld

Porosity-In fillet weld the frequency of Not-Applicable Applicable Applicable

porosity shall not exceed one in 100mm
of weld length and the maximum diameter
shall not to exceed 2mm.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1116 of 1119

Visual Inspection Acceptance Criteria

Discontinuity Category Static Loaded Dynamic Loaded All Loads

&Inspection Criteria (Nontubular) (Nontubular) (Tubular)

Crack- The weld shall have no crack Applicable Applicable Applicable

Weld/Base-Metal Fusion-Through fusion shall Applicable Applicable Applicable

exist between weld metal to weld metal and
base metal

Crater- All crater shall be filled up to the full Applicable Applicable Applicable
cross section except for the ends of the
intermittent fillet welds outside the effective
length

Weld Profiles-Weld profiles shall be in Applicable Applicable Applicable

conformance to 5.24

Time of Inspection- Immediately after the Applicable Applicable Applicable

completed weld reaches the ambient temp.For
ASTM A514,A517,A709 not less than 48 Hrs.
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1117 of 1119

Visual Inspection Acceptance Limit-Piping

 As per BS 5289
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1118 of 1119

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.A.K.Bose
 Mr.N.Sadasivan
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.Hiren patel
 Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1119 of 1119

Thank You