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INTRENATIONAL WELDING TECHNOLOGIST
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.1 : GENRAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING TECHNOLOGY

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FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
CONTENTS
1. DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Welding......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Autogenous welding ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Fusion welding.............................................................................................................. 2
1.4. Fusion welding with pressure ....................................................................................... 2
1.5. Pressure welding .......................................................................................................... 2
1.6. Brazing and soldering................................................................................................... 2
1.7. Braze welding ............................................................................................................... 2
2. ENERGY ASPECT ............................................................................................................... 2
3. METALLURGICAL ASPECT ............................................................................................... 3
4. WELDING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................... 4
5. DISCRIMINATION IN THE USE OF THE PROCESSES..................................................... 9

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1. DEFINITIONS
1.1. WELDING
An operation by which two or more constituent parts of an assembly are united by means of heat or
pressure or both in such a way that there is continuity of the nature of the material between these parts
(i.e. metallic materials, plastics, glass, etc.). A filler material of which the melting point can be any
temperature may or may not be used.
1.2. AUTOGENOUS WELDING

Same definition as above, except that the filler material that may possibly be used has a melting
temperature of the same order as that of the parent material.
We should emphasise that the term “autogenous” does not apply solely or especially to the gas welding
process but to all processes producing a noticeably homogeneous joint as defined above.
Welding is used to designate the uniting operation and weld is the name of the joint resulting from this
operation.
1.3. FUSION WELDING

Welding using fusion to form the union, without the application of pressure.
1.4. FUSION WELDING WITH PRESSURE

Welding with fusion which employs static or dynamic pressure to complete the union.
1.5. PRESSURE WELDING

Welding which employs static or dynamic pressure to complete the union, but without fusion of the
constituent parts.
1.6. BRAZING AND SOLDERING

Operations in which metallic pieces are joined by means of a molten filler metal having a melting
temperature lower than that of the pieces to be joined and wetting the parent metal which does not
participate by fusion in the formation of the joint.
The two techniques are distinguished as follows:
ª With brazing, a very thin joint is produced using a filler metal with a melting point of over 450°C.
ª In soldering, the melting point of the filler metal is lower than 450°C.
1.7. BRAZE WELDING

Brazing method in which a joint is obtained step by step by an operating technique similar to fusion
welding. The melting point of the filler metal is higher than 450°C.
2. ENERGY ASPECT
From these definitions, it can be seen that welding requires the use of thermal, electrical or mechanical
energy sources, or any combination of such sources.
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To fuse the parent metal, the localised energy input must be higher than the energy losses in the
workpiece by radiation and conduction.
Initial input from the Loss in the workpiece

source of energy
Q JOULES > q (joules) + q (joules)

(radiation) (conduction)
Examples of energy sources:
* exothermic chemical reaction

* electric arc
* Joule effect
* friction
* radiation
* electron impact
* etc.
Apart from the energy aspect of the problem to be resolved, there is another very important question to be
taken into consideration: which means are to be used to avoid exposure to the ambient air in the course of
the welding process? Indeed such exposure at an elevated temperature leads to oxidation - or even
nitriding - which generally results in damage to the metallic materials.
3. METALLURGICAL ASPECT
Regardless of the process used, to obtain a fusion weld (the most frequent type) with satisfactory
properties, it is vital to:
ª use an energy source at elevated temperature to melt the metal,

ª have an appropriate contrivance to protect the metal from oxidation during fusion.
Apart from the various energy conditions (temperature, quantity of heat, pressure, etc.) required to
produce a welded joint, a number of other factors must also be taken into account including what is
certainly the most important: the metallurgical aspect of the joint.
The physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of the joint must obviously be in keeping with
those of the parent metal to meet the necessary quality requirements.
The grades of material used (parent and filler metals) must therefore be carefully studied and possibly
form the subject of a preliminary analysis in order to verify:
ª local weldability, which defines the physico-chemical changes in the metals joined by welding;
ª operational weldability, which establishes the practical feasibility of the joint,
ª overall weldability, determined by analysing all of the properties of a weldment and its sensitivity
to deformation and rupture under the effect of residual stresses.
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4. WELDING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

It can be seen from what has just been said that welding processes are numerous and varied. They can
be classified according to the way in which metallic continuity is achieved, as proposed by Mr Granjon,
according to the type of energy generated, etc.
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The following table summarises the various classifications:
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
TYPE OF
ENERGY
DESIGNATION Pressure
External Processing
Pressure + Temperature
medium method
Temp.
Exothermic Oxy-fuel gas or air-fuel gas Fusion R S
Chemical
Reaction Thermit Fusion R G
Forge Non-fusion O G
Mixed
Diffusion Non-fusion V G
Pressure (plastic def.) X O G
Explosive X O (G)
Mechanical
Friction X O G
Ultrasonic X O G
Interface
Stud welding R G
Between fusion
parts Interface
Rotating arc I G
fusion
Between 2 Atomic-hydrogen Fusion R S
electrodes Non-transferred plasma Fusion I S
1 consum.
electrode
Covered electrode Fusion R S
Graphite electrode Fusion O or R S
1 non-
consumable TIG Fusion I S
E A electrode
L R Transferred plasma Fusion I S
E C MIG Fusion I S
C
T MAG Fusion I+O S
R 1 wire
electrode Submerged Fusion R S
I
C Flux-cored wire w/o gas Fusion R S
A Flux-cored wire, active gas Fusion I+O S
L Spot,
Fusion O G
J E projection
O F Resistance Seam Fusion O S
U F
Interface
L E Flash O G
fusion
E C
T Interface
Induction O S or G
fusion
Electro-slag Fusion R S
Electron beam Fusion V S
Radiation
Laser beam Fusion O or I S
R = Reducing − O = Oxidising − I = Inert − V = Vacuum − G = Global – S = Step-by-step

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Standard ISO 4063 (02/00) establishes a nomenclature, with reference numbers, of welding, brazing,
soldering and braze welding processes.
Each process is identified by a numerical index. This index is also used for symbolic representation of
welds on drawings.
1 – ARC WELDING
11 – Metal-arc welding without gas protection
111: Metal-arc welding with covered electrode

114: Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding
12 – Submerged arc welding
121: Submerged arc welding with wire electrode

122: Submerged arc welding with strip electrode
13 – Gas-shielded metal-arc welding
131: MIG welding: metal-arc inert gas welding

135: MAG welding: metal-arc active gas welding
136: Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield
137: Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield
14 – Gas-shielded welding with non-consumable electrode
141: TIG welding: tungsten inert gas arc welding

149: Atomic-hydrogen welding
15 – Plasma arc welding
18 – Other arc welding processes
185: Rotating arc welding
2 – RESISTANCE WELDING
21 – Spot welding
22 – Seam welding
221: Lap seam welding

222: Mash seam welding
225: Seam welding with strip
23 – Projection welding
24 – Flash welding
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25 – Resistance butt welding
29 – Other resistance welding processes
291: High-frequency resistance welding
3 – GAS WELDING
31 – Oxy-fuel gas welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding

312: Oxy-propane welding
313: Oxy-hydrogen welding
32 – Air-fuel gas welding
321: Air-acetylene welding

322: Air-propane welding
4 – PRESSURE WELDING
41 – Ultrasonic welding
42 – Friction welding
43 – Forge welding
44 – Welding by high mechanical energy
441: Explosive welding
45 – Diffusion welding
47 – Gas pressure welding
48 – Cold pressure welding
7 – OTHER WELDING PROCESSES
71 – Thermit welding
72 – Electro-slag welding
73 – Electro-gas welding
74 – Induction welding
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75 – Light radiation welding
751: Laser beam welding
76 – Electron beam welding
78 – Stud welding
781: Arc stud welding

782: Resistance stud welding
9 – BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BRAZE WELDING
91 – Brazing
911: Infrared brazing

912: Flame brazing
913: Furnace brazing
914: Dip brazing
915: Salt bath brazing
916: Induction brazing
917: Ultrasonic brazing
918: Resistance brazing
919: Diffusion brazing
923: Friction brazing
924: Vacuum brazing
94 – Soldering
941: Infrared soldering

942: Flame soldering
943: Furnace soldering
944: Dip soldering
945: Salt bath soldering
946: Induction soldering
947: Ultrasonic soldering
948: Resistance soldering
949: Diffusion soldering
951: Flow soldering
952: Soldering with soldering iron
953: Abrasion soldering
954: Vacuum soldering
956: Drag soldering
97 – Braze welding
971: Gas braze welding

972: Arc braze welding
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5. DISCRIMINATION IN THE USE OF THE PROCESSES

As we have just seen, welding consists currently of a large number of processes which, as far as the
main ones are concerned, are classified according to the method of joining or possibly the sources of
energy applied.
In the case of arc welding in particular, the processes are extremely diversified due to several operating
aspects relating not only to the conditions under which the arc is produced but also to shielding methods.
Obviously, some of the processes listed above are used more widely than others. But the bases on
which the choice is made in welding applications are numerous and also change according to several
factors.
They include:
ª the nature of the materials to be assembled from the point of view of chemical composition,
thickness, the forms of the joints and their position;
ª types of manufacturing, in the shop or on site, and production according to the size of the series;
ª new structures or repairs;
ª economic problems of productivity (recouping the cost of equipment, production rate, cost of
labour, filler materials, etc.);
ª properties to be satisfied by the welded structures with regard to operational requirements in
terms of mechanical loads (static or dynamic), chemical stress (corrosion), leak tightness or
various physical characteristics.
The processes to be used must therefore be selected with full knowledge of the facts and taking account
of the result to be achieved and the conditions to be fulfilled. And yet in spite of the very wide choice
available, rather than being able to be freely substituted for one another, the welding processes listed
actually form an extremely useful range of complementary options.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.2 : OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING

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FORMATION OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING 1

PROFESSIONNELLE
PP FPT 0339 A rév 0 date: 19/06/03
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OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING
CONTENTS
1. - GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................................................................... 3

1.1. - History ............................................................................................................................................3
1.2. - Principle .........................................................................................................................................3
1.3. - Field of use ....................................................................................................................................4
2. - ACETYLENE (C2H2) ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1. - Acetylene production and storage..................................................................................................4
2.2. - Acetylene cylinders ........................................................................................................................5
2.3. - Pipes ..............................................................................................................................................6
2.4. - Safety.............................................................................................................................................6
3. - OXYGEN (O2).......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1. - Oxygen production and storage .....................................................................................................6
3.2. - Oxygen cylinders ...........................................................................................................................7
3.3. - Liquid oxygen .................................................................................................................................7
3.4. - Pipes ..............................................................................................................................................7
3.5. - Safety.............................................................................................................................................8
4. - CONTROL AND PROTECTING COMPONENTS .................................................................. 8
4.1. - Regulators......................................................................................................................................8
4.2. - Pressure limiting devices .............................................................................................................10
4.3. - Pressure-relief valves...................................................................................................................10
4.4. - Bursting disc ................................................................................................................................10
4.5. - Flame arresters ............................................................................................................................10
4.6. - Workshop plant ............................................................................................................................11
5. - BLOWPIPES ......................................................................................................................... 13
5.1. - Principle .......................................................................................................................................13
5.2. - The various types of blowpipe......................................................................................................13
5.3. - Blowpipe care ..............................................................................................................................15
6. - THE FLAME .......................................................................................................................... 16
6.1. - Properties of the oxyacetylene flame ...........................................................................................16
6.2. - Flame settings..............................................................................................................................17
6.3. - Comparison with other fuel gases................................................................................................18
6.3.1 Crylene ...................................................................................................................................18
6.3.2 Propane C3H8..........................................................................................................................18
6.3.3 Natural gas .............................................................................................................................18
6.3.4 Hydrogen H2 ...........................................................................................................................19
6.3.5 Traditional storage methods for gases used in flame processes............................................19
7. - HEALTH AND SAFETY........................................................................................................ 20
7.1. - Gas cylinders in general ..............................................................................................................20
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7.2. - Oxygen cylinders .........................................................................................................................20

7.3. - Acetylene cylinders ......................................................................................................................20
7.4. - Regulators....................................................................................................................................20
7.5. - Hoses ...........................................................................................................................................20
7.6. - Blowpipes.....................................................................................................................................20
7.7. - Individual protection .....................................................................................................................20
7.8. - Pressure regulating stations.........................................................................................................21
8. - OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR OXYACETYLENE WELDING ..................................... 21
8.1. - Supply pressures .........................................................................................................................21
8.2. - Nozzle flowrate ............................................................................................................................21
8.3. - Edge preparation .........................................................................................................................21
8.4. - Welding direction .........................................................................................................................22
8.5. - Implementation ............................................................................................................................22
9. - STANDARDS USED IN GAS WELDING ............................................................................. 22
10. - SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 22
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1. - GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. - HISTORY
1881 - Workshop application of forge welding.
1893 - Acetylene produced by calcium carbide
reaction (H. Moissan).
1901 - First oxyacetylene blowpipe (C. Picard).
1904 - First flux for welding aluminium.
1905 - Oxygen cutting (C. Picard).
1.2. - PRINCIPLE
Oxy-fuel gas welding is a welding process which
uses a flame as its heat source. The flame
ensures that the edges of the parts to be joined
and the filler metal are fused simultaneously.
The flame is produced by the combustion of a

mixture of oxygen and gas in well-defined
proportions. Figure 1
The weld pool is then shielded by the reducing

gases produced by the combustion of the gas mixture.
The extremely flexible flame technique can be used for numerous applications (welding, surfacing,
thermal spraying, cutting, cleaning, heat treatment and distortion correction).
Acetylene gives the best results of all fuel gases available for use. We shall therefore examine
Figure 3
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oxyacetylene welding in greater detail as this is by far the most effective of the oxy-fuel gas welding
processes.
1.3. - FIELD OF USE

In the field of welding, the flame has largely been superseded by the arc. Indeed, gas welding produces
a much wider heated zone and much greater deformations than arc welding.
This is why the field of use of this welding process is limited to a few applications:
• welding of plate less than 6 mm thick,
• butting of small diameter (< 50 mm) steel tubes.
Gas welding is mainly used for plumbing pipework.
2. - ACETYLENE (C2H2)
2.1. - ACETYLENE PRODUCTION AND

STORAGE
Acetylene is obtained using acetylene generators

(Figure 3) (or by cracking) into which the base
elements required to produce the gas by chemical
reaction are introduced.
Figure 4
In Figure 4, we have: a) tank; b) reaction chamber; c)
bell; e) draining device; f) carbide supply; g) water
supply; l) screen; m) overflow; o) infeed shaft; p) discharge tube.
Acetylene is obtained by a chemical reaction between the calcium carbide and water:
CaC2 + 2 H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Ca carbide water acetylene slaked lime
The reaction may be obtained:

either by dropping the carbide into the water,
or by dropping the water onto the carbide.
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In its liquid form, acetylene is very unstable.
In gaseous form, acetylene is unstable. In fact,

when subjected to high pressure, acetylene
decomposes which can lead to an explosion.
This is why it is only used in its gaseous form at
a pressure of less than 1.5 bar.
Figure 5
The only form in which acetylene is stable is as

a dissolved gas.
At atmospheric pressure, one litre of acetylene can be dissolved in one litre of water.
At atmospheric pressure, 25 litres of acetylene can be dissolved in one litre of acetone.
It has been seen that, at 12 bar pressure, 300 litres of acetylene could be dissolved in a litre of acetone
but although the risks of explosion were considerably
reduced by dissolving the gas, they were not
completely eliminated. The cylinders therefore had to
be filled with a very porous material used to prevent
the propagation of a detonation wave in the cylinder.
This is how acetylene is delivered to the user.
2.2. - ACETYLENE CYLINDERS
Depending on their size, cylinders of dissolved

acetylene (Fig. 5) contain 0.750 to 7 m³ of gas (at
atmospheric pressure) and have a maximum flowrate
of 1000 to 1200 l/h.
This allows the gas to be extracted normally from the
acetylene solution in acetone. For higher flowrates,
several cylinders can be coupled together (bundles).
These cylinders are fitted with a valve comprising a

stem square and a standardised outlet port designed
for a regulator.
Due to the presence of acetone, the valve must never

be opened with the cylinder laid down.
Acetylene cylinders are identified by the colour of their

shoulder: maroon.
a) valve guard; b) neck ring; c) top end; d) ferrule; e)

porous filler; f) base; g) foot.
Figure 6
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2.3. - PIPES
They can be made of galvanised steel. It should be emphasised that as far as rigid acetylene pipes are
concerned, alloys with over 70% copper content must not be used (formation of highly explosive copper
acetylide).
A periodical search for leaks (with soapy water) is strongly recommended.
Flexible pipes must also be frequently checked, particularly in the case of work carried out on site or in
containers.
Rigid acetylene pipes must be painted in an amber colour with maroon (tan) stripes.
Flexible acetylene pipes (rubber hoses) are identified by the colour red.
2.4. - SAFETY
The cylinders must be handled with care to prevent

damage to the shells and the porous filler inside.
When full, they must be stored in a cool place and

under no circumstances must a lit blowpipe be hooked
up to them.
Oxygen and acetylene cylinder valves have a special

port designed to take the corresponding regulators. It is
forbidden to alter these fittings or the mounting system.
The plug valve wrench must not be removed while the

cylinder is in service.
3. - OXYGEN (O2)
3.1. - OXYGEN PRODUCTION AND STORAGE
The composition of air is as follows:
- oxygen O2: 21%,

- nitrogen N2: 78%,
- sundry gases: 1%.
Oxygen is obtained by liquefying air at -183°C then

distilling to separate it from the nitrogen. The purity of
industrial oxygen obtained in this way is over 99%.
Figure 7
a) valve guard; b) neck ring; c) neck; d) shoulder, e)
shell; f) base; g) foot.
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Contrary to acetylene, oxygen is stable in gaseous and

liquid form. It can therefore be stored in both ways.
3.2. - OXYGEN CYLINDERS

Oxygen is stored in steel cylinders (Fig. 7) in the form of
compressed gas at 200 bars. One litre of oxygen at 200
bars will produce around 200 litres of oxygen once
reduced to atmospheric pressure.
Depending on cylinder size, the volume of gas

contained in the cylinders is therefore 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or
10 m³.
As in the case of acetylene, these cylinders can be

grouped together to form bundles or stations (Fig. 8).
These cylinders are fitted with a valve with a control

mechanism and a standardised outlet port on which a
regulator is mounted.
Figure 8
Oxygen cylinders are identified by the colour of their
shoulder: white.
Oxygen pressure regulating stations must comprise: cylinder hoses (A), manifolds (B), connecting pipes
(C), change-over pipes (D), a regulating change-over assembly (E), a backup circuit assembly (F), racks
(G) and a device (H) indicating when either of the two groups is empty.
3.3. - LIQUID OXYGEN
Liquid oxygen is stored at atmospheric pressure in

a cryogenic vessel (Fig. 9) at -182°C.
Oxygen gas is obtained in this case by evaporating

the liquid.
One litre of liquid oxygen will provide approximately

840 litres of gaseous oxygen once the gas has
been vaporised and reheated to ambient
temperature.
1) evaporator; 2) cryogenic valve; 3) atmospheric

heater; 4) valve.
3.4. - PIPES
Rigid oxygen pipes can be in copper or brass,
although they are generally in galvanised steel.
They must be painted in an amber colour with white
stripes.
Figure 9
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Flexible oxygen pipes (rubber hoses) are identified by the colour blue.
3.5. - SAFETY
The cylinders must be handled with care to prevent damage to the shells.
When full, they must be stored in a cool place and under no circumstances must a lit blowpipe be placed
on them.
Oxygen and acetylene cylinder valves have a special port designed to take the corresponding regulators.
It is forbidden to alter these fittings or the mounting system.
The valve key must not be removed while the cylinder is in service.
It is also strictly forbidden to grease any component in contact with the oxygen.
4. - CONTROL AND PROTECTING COMPONENTS

The gases required for oxyacetylene welding cannot be used at the pressure at which they are delivered.
Intermediate components are therefore necessary to make welding possible.
It should also be known that an acetylene content of 3% or more in air forms an explosive mixture. A
number of devices preventing the formation of such a mixture must therefore be provided on the welding
plant.
4.1. - REGULATORS
These are instruments that bring the gas storage
pressure, which varies with time, to a constant
service pressure suited to the type of blowpipe
used.
The use of high gas flowrates freezes regulators. In

this case, they must not be thawed with a flame but
with hot water or an electric heating device
provided for this purpose.
With oxygen regulators, the introduction of dust or

greasy substances into the regulator body on fitting
can cause its ignition.
The valve outlet channel must therefore be purged
before mounting.
As acetylene regulators are not affected by this

type of incident, care simply needs to be taken to
ensure that the fitting is free from leaks.
Figure 10
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Figure 11
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4.2. - PRESSURE LIMITING DEVICES

These are preset devices that release a certain
amount of gas out of the vessels on which they are
mounted to bring the pressure back to the preset
value when it exceeds an established threshold.
4.3. - PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVES

These are safety devices mounted directly on the
distribution circuits or on the gas production and
storage equipment to avoid excess pressure.
4.4. - BURSTING DISC

Figure 12
The bursting disc is a pressure limiting device that
operates by tearing when the internal pressure of
the vessel on which it is mounted exceeds a set limit.
It consists generally of a metal disc (lead, aluminium, etc.) of gauged thickness, clamped in an
Figure 13
appropriate rig.
After bursting, it is essential that the disc is replaced by an identical one with the same characteristics.
4.5. - FLAME ARRESTERS
These devices are mounted in the piping and allow the gas to flow in one direction only.
They must be mounted as close as possible to the blowpipe.
Mounting several flame arresters on the same line may prove detrimental. In any case, it leads to
significant pressure loss and this can be dangerous if a low-capacity check valve is mounted ahead of a
high-capacity check valve.
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Figure 14
4.6. - WORKSHOP PLANT
A welding plant generally includes the following components:
- an acetylene source,
- an oxygen source,
- regulation and safety appliances,
- distribution pipes,
- operating equipment.
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Figure 15
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5. - BLOWPIPES
5.1. - PRINCIPLE
Welding blowpipes are instruments used to obtain a suitable mixture of O2 and C2H2 and a flame of
particular power and properties.
A blowpipe consists of the following components:
Figure 16
1- the handle, comprising the two gas inlets and the control valves;
2- the gas mixing chamber;
3- the lance, conveying the gas mixture to the nozzle;
4- the nozzle, the gauge of which determines the maximum gas output;
5- a star, comprising several nozzles of different diameters.
5.2. - THE VARIOUS TYPES OF BLOWPIPE
To obtain a stable flame, the O2 and C2H2 mixture must have a pressure of around 0.1 – 0.2 bar.
Two categories of blowpipe are defined according to the gas supply pressure:
• high-pressure (HP) blowpipe: the C2H2 pressure is higher than that of the mixture;
• low-pressure (LP) blowpipe: the C2H2 pressure is lower than that of the mixture.
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Two types of blowpipe are also defined according to the form of gas mixing device:
• blowpipe without injector action: pressure of O2 and C2H2 similar;

• blowpipe with injector action: as the C2H2 has a lower pressure than the O2, it is drawn into the
mixing chamber by means of an injector.
Figure 17
The following blowpipes are found therefore according to the various scenarios:
• High-pressure blowpipes (Fig. 17)

• without injector action: O2 and C2H2 pressure = 0.25 to 0.75 bar,
• with injector action: O2 pressure = 1 bar,

C2H2 pressure = 0.4 bar.
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• Low-pressure blowpipes (Fig. 18)
They are all injector types.
- O2 pressure = 1 to 1.5 bar,

- C2H2 pressure = 0.015 to 0.1 bar.
This is the most common range of blowpipe

(blowpipe with variable injector).
Figure 18
Flame power is determined by the gas outputs,
especially the acetylene output.
The nozzles are therefore gauged to allow

maximum acetylene output, expressed in l/h.
Standard NF A 84-540 defines the range of outputs

for the various nozzles (in litres of C2H2 per hour):
10 – 16 – 25 – 40 – 63 – 100 – 160 – 250 – 315 – 400 –

500 – 630 – 800 – 1000 – 1250 – 1600 – 2500 –
4000.
The blowpipes are also classified according to their

range of accessible outputs:
Figure 19
Output
Blowpipe type
(litres of C2H2/h)
00 10 to 63
0 100 to 400
1 250 to 1000
2 1000 to 4000
3 > 4000
5.3. - BLOWPIPE CARE

Blowpipes consist mostly of brass parts. Care should therefore be taken when dismantling and refitting
to avoid damaging the bearing surfaces and bores which must not be altered under any circumstances
at the risk of compromising correct operation.
The parts can be cleaned in a 10% hydrochloric acid bath diluted with water.
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6. - THE FLAME
6.1. - PROPERTIES OF THE OXYACETYLENE FLAME
The flame can be broken down into several zones:
Figure 20
1: heating of the O2 and C2H2 mixture (inner cone).

There is no chemical reaction in this zone. The mixture is heated to the combustion
temperature.
2: combustion of the mixture (flame front)

This is the part of the flame in which primary combustion of the mixture takes place (3050°C).
C2H2 + O2 → 2 CO + H2
3: reducing zone (working zone)

The gases produced by primary combustion of the mixture are collected in this zone. They are
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) which are strong reducing gases. This is the zone
where we find both the maximum temperature (3100°C, 2-3 mm from the inner cone) and a
reducing atmosphere that will be used for welding.
4: flame envelope (oxidising zone)

This is also a combustion zone (2400°C) where the zone 3 gases (CO and H2) burn with the
oxygen in the air.
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
This part of the flame is oxidising and must not be used.

Generally the mixture ratio a is defined as the ratio between the volumes of oxygen and acetylene
entering the blowpipe:
a = VO2 / VC2H2
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For equivalent proportions of oxygen and acetylene, the temperature reached by the combustion of
these two gases is 3100°C.
An excess or a lack of one of these two gases causes a notable change in the temperature and chemical
properties of the flame.
Depending on whether a is higher or lower than 1, the flame is said to be oxidising or carburising.
6.2. - FLAME SETTINGS

The oxyacetylene flame can be:
• Neutral: this setting is obtained by
producing a mixture in equal volumes of
acetylene and oxygen. This is the flame most
often used. In practice, the mixture ratio is
increased to 1.1.
Figure 21
• Oxidising: an oxidising flame is due to

excess oxygen. The inner cone will become
shorter and sharper and the flame will hiss. When
welding steels, this flame will cause oxidation of
the metal and the formation of gas cavities.
It is however used for welding brasses for instance.

Figure 22
• Carburising: a carburising flame is due to

excess acetylene. It is characterised by a white
zone extending beyond the inner cone and
increasing the size of zone 2.
The use of a such a flame when welding steels

carburises the steel leading to embrittlement.
Figure 23
It can however be used in braze welding light alloys,
for example, and is recommended for certain
surfacing operations.
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6.3. - COMPARISON WITH OTHER FUEL GASES

Several other fuel gases can also be used in
welding.
6.3.1 CRYLENE
This is a mixture of acetylene C2H2 (23%), ethylene

C2H4 (72%) and propylene C3H6 (5%). It is supplied
in liquid form in cryogenic evaporators which,
compared with acetylene, allows a greater quantity
of gas to be stored in a smaller volume. It is a prime
fuel for all applications requiring high levels of both
performance and power, in total safety. Crylene
produces a flame with the closest characteristics to
those of acetylene. On a neutral flame setting, the
flame temperature is around 2930°C with a mixture
ratio of approximately 1.8.
Although little used for welding, its use is developing

in oxygen cutting.
6.3.2 PROPANE C3H8
This is a very stable gas that can be stored under

pressure in liquid form at ambient temperature.
Figure 24
On a neutral flame setting, the flame temperature
is around 2820°C with a mixture ratio of approximately 3.8. This leads to very high oxygen
consumption.
Although widely used for oxygen cutting and preheating, this gas with low specific power is practically
never used for welding.
6.3.3 NATURAL GAS

This is an inexpensive gas that has the advantage that it can be delivered via the town gas main
network.
On a neutral flame setting, the flame temperature is around 2800°C with a mixture ratio of
approximately 1.6.
As in the case of propane, its low specific power confines it to oxygen cutting and preheating
purposes.
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6.3.4 HYDROGEN H2
The little used oxy-hydrogen flame reaches a
temperature of approximately 2790°C with a
mixture ratio of 0.5.
Blowpipes using small units that produce the

hydrogen and a part of the oxygen required by
electrolysis of water exist for certain applications.
At the present time, hydrogen is especially used

for deep-water cutting.
- Other gas mixtures (Tetrene, MAPP, etc.). These
are mixtures with variable proportions of
methylacetylene C3H4, propadiene C3H4 (another
chemical compound) and propylene C3H6.
They are supplied in bottles and tanks as

pressurised liquid at ambient temperature.
On a neutral flame setting, the flame temperature

is around 2930°C with a mixture ratio of
approximately 3.5.
6.3.5 TRADITIONAL STORAGE METHODS

FOR GASES USED IN FLAME
PROCESSES
Figure 25
Physical Dissolved gas at High-pressure Liquid gas at Liquid gas at Main supply
state of the ambient compressed gas at low ambient
stored gas temperature ambient temperature temperature temperature p=f(t)
p=f(t)
Type of cylinder bundle cylinder bundle Evaporator Cylinder Tank
storage bundle
Acetylene X X
Crylene X (≈ - 100°C)
Propane x x
Natural gas x
Oxygen x x X ( ≈ -183°C/-
140°C)
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7. - HEALTH AND SAFETY
7.1. - GAS CYLINDERS IN GENERAL
In service, all cylinders, regardless of whether they are full or empty, must be protected from heavy
knocks and excessive heat, even localised.
As a result of heating, pressurised oxygen can cause the spontaneous ignition of several organic
substances (oil, grease, rubber, etc.) which burn fiercely. Consequently:
- never grease any component of the oxygen cylinder valves;
- comply with the instructions regarding use of the regulators;
- strictly forbid the use of oxygen in place of compressed air.
- Do not exceed the maximum flowrate.

- Use the cylinder upright or inclined to around 30°, never laid down.
- Close the cylinder valve completely when the cylinder is empty.
7.4. - REGULATORS
- Comply with the instructions regarding use of the regulators.

- Before using a regulator, check whether the maximum pressure level on the HP gauge is indeed
higher than the cylinder filling pressure.
- Should the regulators freeze, only use cloths soaked in hot water or equip the regulators with electric
heaters.
- Do not grease oxygen regulators.
7.5. - HOSES
- Attach them with hose clamps.

- Replace damaged hoses to avoid leaks.
- Do not leave the hoses in range of sparks and slag.
7.6. - BLOWPIPES
- Check the blowpipe for leaks before using.

- In case of popping or backfire, close both valves on the blowpipe and cool.
7.7. - INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION
- Wear suitable eye protectors for the job at hand.

- Wear boots or, failing that, leather gaiters fastened at the ankle.
- Avoid wearing flammable clothing (synthetics).
- Do not pass the hoses in service over your shoulders or around your legs.
- A head band must be worn by operators with long hair.
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7.8. - PRESSURE REGULATING STATIONS
The measures to be taken for this category of equipment depend on the system used. Follow the
instructions of the gas producer who built or installed the equipment.
8. - OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR OXYACETYLENE WELDING
8.1. - SUPPLY PRESSURES
The supply pressures displayed on the pressure regulators differ for oxygen and acetylene.
P O2: max. 1 bar

P C2H2: max. 0.5 bar
8.2. - NOZZLE FLOWRATE
The nozzle flowrate is determined according to the nature of the material to be welded, its thickness, the
welding position and the type of joint.
The flowrate is generally 100 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness for welding unalloyed steels. This can be
increased or decreased according to the nature of the materials to be welded:
- stainless steel: 75 l/h,

- copper: 300 l/h,
- light alloys: 75 l/h.
The welding position also causes the flowrate to be increased or decreased. For unalloyed steels, these
variations are as follows:
• butt welding:
- flat: 100 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness

- horizontal vertical: 70 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness
- upward: 70 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness
- overhead: 70 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness
• inside fillet welding:
• outside fillet welding:
8.3. - EDGE PREPARATION

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Preparations for butt welding are relatively simple:
- thickness (t) < 1 mm: flange butt,

- 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 mm: close square butt,
- 2 ≤ t ≤ 4 mm: open square butt,
- t > 4 mm: single 70° to 90° V-groove with a root face of approximately 1.5 mm.
8.4. - WELDING DIRECTION
Two welding techniques are used:
- leftward (push) welding: this is the most common technique.

The flame is directed towards the front of the weld pool. This method is essentially applied to
thicknesses up to 5 mm.
- rightward (pull) welding:
The flame is directed towards the rear of the weld pool, i.e. away from the welding direction.
This method is generally applied to thickness over 5 mm.
Figure 27
Figure 26
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8.5. - IMPLEMENTATION
•To butt-weld two 3 mm thick soft steel plates with a square butt in an upward vertical position.
Choice of nozzle: 60 l/h/mm thickness = 180 l/h

We shall therefore choose a nozzle with a flowrate relatively close to the calculated rate: 160 l/h.
Supply pressure: Oxygen: 1 bar.

Acetylene: 0.2 bar.
•To weld two 20/10 thick steel plates with an inside fillet in a flat position.


Acetylene: 0.2 bar.
•To butt-weld two 20/10 thick aluminium plates with a square butt in a flat position.


Acetylene: 0.2 bar.
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9. - STANDARDS USED IN GAS WELDING
A 84 440 (09.91): Equipment for gas welding and allied processes. Pressure reduction station for
compressed, dissolved and liquefied gas. Equipment. Setting up. Tests.
A 84 441 (12.91): Equipment for gas welding and allied processes. Gas distribution networks in a
workshop. Safety rules for design, realization and exploiting.
NF A 84 600 (03.90): Equipment for gas welding and allied processes. Oxyacetylene welding and
heating blowpipes. Nozzles and nozzle adaptors. Range of normal flowrates and
dimensions.
NF E 29 785 (10.90): Gas cylinders. Seamless steel gas cylinders. Periodic inspection and testing.
NF EN 559 (10.94): Gas welding equipment. Rubber hoses for welding, cutting and allied processes.
(T 47 220)
NF EN 585 (12.94): Gas welding equipment. Pressure regulators for gas cylinders used in welding,
cutting and allied processes up to 200 bar. (A 84 430)
NF EN 730 (07.95): Gas welding equipment. Equipment used in gas welding, cutting and allied
processes, safety devices for fuel gases and oxygen or compressed air. General
specifications, requirements and tests. (A 84 340)
NF EN 1327 (08.96): Gas welding equipment. Thermoplastic hoses for welding and allied processes.
(T 47 221)
NF X 08 100 (02.86): Colours. Rigid piping. Identification of fluids with conventional colours.
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10. - SUMMARY
Investment 2000 to 5000 francs.
Unalloyed and low-alloy steels − Light alloys − Copper alloys −

Weldable materials
Nickel alloys − Cast iron
Common
0.4 to 6 mm
thicknesses
Filler metal dia. t/2 to t/2+2 (t = thickness to be welded, in mm)
O2: 1 bar
Supply pressures
C2H2: 0.5 bar
Nozzle flowrate 70 to 130 l of C2H2/h per mm thickness
Linear welding
Example: flat, 1 mm thick: 20 cm/min
speed (cm/min)
Deposition rate
Example: flat, 1 mm thick: 0.250 kg/h
(kg/h)
Easy to use − Low equipment cost
Advantages
Versatility: brazing, braze welding, oxygen cutting, surfacing
Slow − Deformation − Preparation with thick workpieces − Use of flux
Drawbacks
to weld non-ferrous metals
Welder protection − Use of welding gases − Maintenance of safety
Health and safety
devices and equipment − Fume inhalation if brazing
Aviation − Ironwork − Heating (Brazing - Welding) − Gas − Bodywork −
Applications
Repairs − Maintenance
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Figure 1
Soudage oxyacéthylénique Oxy-acetylene welding

métal d’apport filler metal
panache flame envelope
dard inner cone
buse nozzle
métal fondu molten metal
métal de base parent metal
Figure 3
Comburant Oxidiser
Oxygène Oxygen
Combustible Fuel
Gaz Gases
acétylène acetylene
méthane methane
propane propane
hydrogène hydrogen
Flamme Flame
Etincelle Spark
Figure 5
Alimentation en carbure (trémie) Carbide supply (hopper)

Carbure de calcium Calcium carbide
Ouverture / fermeture automatique Automatic opening/closing
Sortie acétylène gazeux Gaseous acetylene outlet
(vers purification) (to purification)
Eau Water
Dégagement d’acétylène Acetylene release
Chaux éteinte Slaked lime
Figure 9
Centrale évaporateur Evaporating station
Figure 10
Détendeurs : schémas de principe Regulators: schematic diagrams
Figure 11
Ressort de fermeture Resisting spring

Clapet Valve
HP HP
Siège Seat
BP LP
Poussoir Valve lifter
Membrane Diaphragm
Plateau de membrane Diaphragm plate
Ressort de détente Regulator spring
Centre de ressort Spring centre
Vis de détente Regulator screw
Figure 12
Pressure-relief valve
a) plug; b) seat; c) diaphragm; d) valve pull ring; e) cap; f) spring adjuster nut; g) spring.
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Figure 13
Membrane Diaphragm
Figure 14
Filtre en métal fritté Sintered metal filter

Clapet Valve
Guide de ressort Spring guide
Figure 15
Schéma d’installation de distribution centralisée Centralised distribution plant layout
Figure 19
Tapered needle-type injector

a) acetylene infeed; b) injector; c) clamping nut; d) mixer; e) needle; f) seals.
Figure 24
Rapport (de) consommation Mixing ratio

Vol. comburant Vol. oxidiser
Vol. combustible Vol. fuel
Figure 25
acétylène acetylene
puissance spécifique pratique practical specific power
Figure 26 - 27
Soudage à droite ou en arrière Rightward or backhand welding

45 à 70° 45 to 70°
Soudage à gauche Leftward welding
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IWT
MODULE 1.3 : SPECIAL OXY-FUEL GAS PROCESSES

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FORMATION SPECIAL OXY-GAS PROCESSES

1
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SPECIAL OXY-FUEL GAS PROCESSES
CONTENTS
1. - PREHEATING ......................................................................................................................... 2
2. - FLAME STRAIGHTENING ..................................................................................................... 2
3. - GAS PRESSURE WELDING.................................................................................................. 3
4. - FLAME CLEANING ................................................................................................................ 4
5. - THERMAL CLEANING ........................................................................................................... 4
6. - OXYGEN LANCING................................................................................................................ 5
7. - HEALTH AND SAFETY.......................................................................................................... 6
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1. - PREHEATING
Preheating is an operation that consists of heating
the zone where welding is to take place to a
temperature of 100 to 300°C.
This conditioning:
• reduces the energy required for fusion (used on

thick workpieces with low specific energy Figure 1
processes)
• reduces the cooling rate, thereby limiting the
quenching effects on low-alloy steels
• limits heat losses on materials with high thermal conductivity (aluminium copper).
This can be done locally (Figure 1) with the welding blowpipe or globally over the whole workpiece by
means of burners or radiant panels.
Various fuel gases (acetylene, town gas, propane, butane, tetrene, etc.) can be used although an oxy-
propane flame is generally preferred as it has a larger flame envelope and ensures a greater spread of
the heat flow.
2. - FLAME STRAIGHTENING
This technique is used to correct distortion. It is
based on the phenomena of expansion and
shrinkage.
If a 20 mm thick plate, for example, is heated quickly,
a red zone is obtained on the upper face whereas the
lower face is much cooler.
By the laws of physics, the red-hot metal is forced to
expand but, as it is restricted by the colder
surrounding metal which is much less elastic, it can
only swell (slightly of course). On cooling, particularly
if this is done quickly, the “swelling” cannot be
absorbed and causes internal stresses that deform
the plate slightly and lead to “shrinkage”.
For the operation to be successful, localised heating Figure 2 - Correcting distortion by the thermal
and limited heat dispersion in the workpiece are technique
required. This is why distortion is difficult to correct
by a thermal technique on sheet aluminium.
Sometimes it is even necessary to cool the perimeter
of the zone to be straightened using external means (sprayed water, chilled cushions).
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3. - GAS PRESSURE WELDING

This is a butt welding process where the ends of the workpieces to be joined are heated to a high
temperature until the materials become plastic. Multiflame oxyacetylene burners are used for this
purpose. Pressure is then applied to obtain a weld by hot forging. Two methods are used: closed-joint
welding (Figure 3) and open-joint welding (Figure 4).
The surfaces to be joined must be clean and have a good finish (machining, grinding). The principle of
Figure 3 - Closed-joint welding
the welding process consists of bringing the two workpieces to be butted to a temperature slightly below
the melting point and applying pressure to the ends to forge them together.
The principle is identical to the previous one in that the heat source heats the two ends at the same time.
Figure 4 - Open-joint welding
The closed-joint process is especially used on hollow workpieces whereas the open-joint technique can
be used with solid workpieces.
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4. - FLAME CLEANING
Known as scarfing, this process is particularly used
in steelworks to clear slabs of scale and surface
Oxy-fuel gas flame
flaws before rolling.
In traditional flame processes, the necessary heat is
obtained by the combustion of a fuel gas (acetylene,
propane, butane, etc.) by oxygen. Oxygen jet
This technique differs slightly insofar as the fuel used

is no longer a gas but the iron itself (see also oxygen
cutting − module 1.14.).
Here the heat comes from a chemical reaction from
the combustion of iron by oxygen.
Figure 5 - Flame cleaning

2 Fe + O2 → 2 FeO + Heat
Nevertheless, this chemical reaction can only begin if the temperature is high enough (around 1300°C).
This is why the presence of preheating flames is required to start the reaction and then maintain it
correctly. The oxygen jet is also powerful enough to blow away the products of combustion, to obtain a
clean, non-oxidised surface.
This process had been abandoned when strand casting was brought into practice as it was supposed to
produce clean steel. But in spite of all of the efforts made in this respect, and as a result of pressure from
car manufacturers, this technique is making a strong comeback as it produces a very clean base metal.
5. - THERMAL CLEANING
5.1. - DESCALING OF STEEL
Here the thermal action of the flame is
supplemented by its chemical function. The flame
is powerful, reduces the metal oxides and detaches
them because of the difference in creep between
oxides and steels.
The surface of the workpiece is sound again and
ready to receive a coating if required.
Thanks to its chemical and thermal properties, the
oxyacetylene flame gives the best results for
descaling steel.
Figure 6 - Descaling steel plate

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5.2. - SURFACE FINISHING

The surface treatment of stone and granite is
designed to produce a rough surface finish to
enhance the natural texture of the stone,
particularly appreciated in the building and
highways sectors.
The thermal shock provided by the flames causes
the surface layer of the slab to shatter.
The result is even more successful if the energy
supply is rapid and concentrated.
6. - OXYGEN LANCING
This process is also known as “jet piercing” or
“thermal lancing”. Like flame cleaning, it uses the
energy produced by the combustion of iron by
oxygen. Figure 7 - Flame-treating granite
The tool consists of a tube, filled with iron rods,
through which oxygen flows.
In this process, the energy created by the
combustion reaction is used to melt all types of
materials (steels, cast iron, reinforced concrete,
etc.). It is used to cut through extremely thick
workpieces. On the other hand, it consumes very
large quantities of oxygen.
The reaction begins by “striking” the end with a
blowpipe, then it gradually consumes the whole
while giving off tremendous heat. The heat is
maintained either by the combustion of the
materials in the oxygen or by the lance itself.
Cutting is achieved by two simultaneous
processes:
• thermal shocks on poor heat conductors or

materials that are not combustible in oxygen
(concrete);
• combustion in oxygen (steel, concrete
reinforcing bars).
Figure 8 - Demolition by jet piercing

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
O2
Iron rods
O2
Figure 9 - Thermal lance

7.1. - GAS CYLINDERS IN GENERAL
In service, all cylinders, regardless of whether they are full or empty, must be protected from heavy
knocks and excessive heat, even localised.

As a result of heating, pressurised oxygen can cause the spontaneous ignition of several organic
substances (oil, grease, rubber, etc.) which burn fiercely. Consequently:
- never grease any component of the oxygen cylinder valves;
- comply with the instructions regarding use of the regulators;
- strictly forbid the use of oxygen in place of compressed air.
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PROFESSIONNELLE
PPFPT 0340 A rév 0 date: 19/01/00
RDT-ISS- AQ - 1202 - 2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 7

- Do not exceed the maximum flowrate.
- Use the cylinders upright or inclined to around 30°, never laid down.
- Close the cylinder valve completely when the cylinder is empty.
7.4. - REGULATORS
- Comply with the instructions regarding use of the regulators.
- Before using a regulator, check whether the maximum pressure level on the HP gauge is indeed
higher than the cylinder filling pressure.
- Should the regulators freeze, only use cloths soaked in hot water or equip the regulators with electric
heaters.
- Do not grease oxygen regulators.
7.5. - HOSES
- Attach them with hose clamps.
- Replace damaged hoses to avoid leaks.
- Do not leave the hoses in range of sparks and slag.
7.6. - BLOWPIPES
- Check the blowpipe for leaks before using.
- In case of popping or backfire, close both valves on the blowpipe and cool.
7.7. - INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION

- Wear suitable eye protectors for the job at hand.
- Wear boots or, failing that, leather gaiters fastened at the ankle.
- Avoid wearing flammable clothing (synthetics).
- Do not pass the hoses in service over your shoulders or around your legs.
- A head band must be worn by operators with long hair.
7.8. - PRESSURE REGULATING STATIONS

The measures to be taken for this category of equipment depend on the system used. Follow the
instructions of the gas producer who built or installed the equipment.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.4 : ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS REFRESHER

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FORMATION ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS REFRESHER

1
PROFESSIONNELLE date: 26/03/01
15
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS REFRESHER
CONTENTS
1. BASIC NOTIONS.................................................................................................................. 2
1.1. Structure of matter........................................................................................................ 2
1.2. Insulators and Conductors ........................................................................................... 3
1.3. Electric current.............................................................................................................. 3
1.4. Hydraulic analogy ......................................................................................................... 3
2. ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT............................................................................................... 4
2.1. Quantity of electricity and intensity............................................................................... 4
2.2. Energy, power and P.D. ............................................................................................... 4
2.3. Resistance and resistivity ............................................................................................. 5
2.4. Joule effect ................................................................................................................... 5
3. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT........................................................................................................ 6
3.1. Generators.................................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Receivers...................................................................................................................... 7
3.2.1. Resistance ....................................................................................................................7
3.2.2. Capacity........................................................................................................................7
3.2.3. Inductance ....................................................................................................................7
3.3. Kirchoff’s voltage law.................................................................................................... 8
3.4. Kirchoff’s current law .................................................................................................... 8
3.5. Results.......................................................................................................................... 9
4. SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING CURRENT ........................................................................ 10
4.1. Oscillogram................................................................................................................. 10
4.2. RMS current and voltage............................................................................................ 10
4.3. Phase difference......................................................................................................... 10
4.4. Mean power................................................................................................................ 11
5. ELECTROMAGNETISM..................................................................................................... 11
5.1. Magnetism .................................................................................................................. 11
5.2. Electromagnetic force................................................................................................. 12
5.3. Electromagnetic induction .......................................................................................... 12
5.4. Transformer ................................................................................................................ 12
6. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.......................................................................................... 13
6.1. Diode .......................................................................................................................... 13
6.2. Thyristor...................................................................................................................... 14
6.3. Transistor.................................................................................................................... 15
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1. BASIC NOTIONS
1.1. STRUCTURE OF MATTER
ª Layer arrangement
ª Number of electrons in the outer layer ≤ 8
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1.2. INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS

Conductors
ª The electrons of a conductor move quite readily from one atom to another.
Conductor electrons are free.
ª Number of outer electrons < 4.
Insulators
ª The electrons of a dielectric insulator have difficulty moving from atom to another.
Insulator electrons are bound.
ª Number of outer electrons < 4.
1.3. ELECTRIC CURRENT

If two oppositely charged conductors are linked by
a third conductor, the electric charges move
towards a balanced configuration:
ª equivalent charge distribution.
An electric current appears with the movement of

free electrons.
1.4. HYDRAULIC ANALOGY

ª Water current is the quantity of water
passing through a pipe per unit of time.
ª The higher the potential drop, the higher
the releasable energy and the stronger the
current will be.
ª The smaller the tube diameter, the higher
the resistance to the current and the
weaker the current will be.
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2. ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT
2.1. QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY AND INTENSITY
Quantity of electricity
The quantity of electricity Q could be given as a number of electrons but this unit is not big enough. The
preferred unit for the quantity of electricity is the coulomb:
1 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons

1 electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Intensity
The intensity of the current flowing through a conductor is given by the formula:
Q = quantity of electricity (C)
Q
I= I = intensity (A)
t
t = time (s)
2.2. ENERGY, POWER AND P.D.

When a quantity of electricity flows through any
receiver, that receiver consumes energy (W in
joules). The energy conservation law states that:
Wconsumed = WA - WB
Potential drop (P.D.) is defined as the energy

consumed per coulomb flowing through.
Q = quantity of electricity (C)
W
U= W = energy (J)
Q
U = voltage (V)
Consumed power is the energy consumed per unit of time.
P = power (W)
P=UxI I = intensity (A)
U = voltage (V)
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2.3. RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

If the receiver is a pure resistor, the voltage applied
across the receiver and the current flowing through
it abide by the linear law:
Ohm’s Law: U = R x I
The resistance of a homogeneous, purely resistive

wire dipole depends on the material (resistivity), its
section and its length.
ρ = resistivity (Ω.m)
ρ ∗l
R= l = length (m)
s
S = section (m²)
2.4. JOULE EFFECT

In the case of a purely resistive receiver, the total power consumed (in W) is dissipated by the Joule
effect:
Pconsumed = U x I = Pdissipated by Joule effect
As U=RxI (Ohm’s law)
it follows that Pdissipated = U x I = R x I²
Drawbacks
ª overheating and losses

ª current limitations in the conductors
Advantages
ª heating, furnaces
ª lighting
ª fuses
ª WELDING…
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3. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
3.1. GENERATORS
Ideal voltage source
ª Constant output voltage for any current.
Ideal current source
ª Constant output current for any voltage.
Real source
ª Flat characteristic, drooping characteristic,

etc.
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3.2. RECEIVERS
3.2.1. Resistance
(R in ohms)
3.2.2. Capacity
(C in farads)
3.2.3. Inductance
(L in henrys)
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3.3. KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

In a loop, the sum of the potential differences is nil.
For example:
The voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage

across R2.
3.4. KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

In a circuit, the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that node.
For example:
The current flowing through R1 is equal to the current

flowing through R2.
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3.5. RESULTS
Association of series resistors
R = R1 + R2
Association of parallel resistors
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R 2
For 2 resistors
R1 ∗ R 2
R=
R1 + R 2
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4. SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING CURRENT
4.1. OSCILLOGRAM
Sinusoidal current is:
ª bidirectional
ª alternating
ª symmetric
ª I = f(sin).
It is defined by:
ª its period T or its frequency f = 1/T

ª its peak value Î or its root-mean-square (rms) value.
4.2. RMS CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

The rms value of a variable current is equal to the intensity of a direct current that would result in the
same heat production in the same resistor in the same length of time.
Same definition for rms voltage.
When referring to the value of a sinusoidal current or voltage, it should always be expressed as an rms
value. As follow:
Ipic Upic
Irms = = 0,707 ∗ Ipic and Urms = = 0,707 ∗ Upic
2 2
Mains supply: U = 240 V (=> Urms).
4.3. PHASE DIFFERENCE

The introduction of capacitance or inductance into a
circuit powered by a sinusoidal alternating current
creates a time lag between the voltage and current.
This lag is expressed by:
- the phase angle ϕ
- or the value of cos.ϕ.
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4.4. MEAN POWER

In the case of a sinusoidal current out of phase with eff
the voltage by an angle ϕ, the mean power
consumed (in W) is given by the formula:
Pmean = Urms x Irms x cos ϕ Ieff

ª Do not confuse with the apparent power
given in VA:
Papparent = Urms x Irms
For example:
P = 1000 W
cos ϕ = 0.5
Urms = 250 V
Pmeans 1000
Irms = = = 8A
Urms ∗ cos ϕ 250 × 0,5
Ipic = 2 × Irms = 1,414 × 8 = 11,31A
ª Will a 10 Amp fuse blow? (answer at the end of this document)
5. ELECTROMAGNETISM
5.1. MAGNETISM
A magnet exerts an attractive force (or pull) on

magnetised or ferromagnetic material situated in its
close surroundings.
In this experiment, the compass needle lines up
with specific lines called magnetic field lines.
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5.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
In these two experiments, a wire through which an

electric current flows diverts the compass. Electricity
has therefore a magnetic action.
Use
By changing regularly the direction of current flow, the
compass is sometimes pulled and sometimes pushed.
This is the principle of an asynchronous motor.
5.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Conversely, the movement of a magnet in proximity
to a conductor induces an electric current in the
coil. Mouvement
Application
An induced sinusoidal current is generated by
rotating a magnet in relation to a coil. This is the
principle of an alternator.
5.4. TRANSFORMER
The transformer converts the sinusoidal
electromagnetic field induced by coil 1 (sinusoidal
current supply) into a sinusoidal current in coil 2.
An ideal transformer verifies the relation:
V1 n1
= or n1 ∗ I1 = n2 ∗I2
V 2 n2
where n1 = number of turns in coil 1
n2 = number of turns in coil 2
A transformer only works with variable currents.
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6. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
6.1. DIODE
The junction diode allows current to flow in a single direction.

It is used in welding to convert bidirectional current into unidirectional current.
Input current Output current

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6.2. THYRISTOR
The thyristor has a gate, which controls current flow. Current flow is stopped when it is switched to zero.
It is used in welding to adjust the rms value of the current.

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6.3. TRANSISTOR
The transistor is used to control current flow and stoppage or to modulate the current intensity value.
It is essentially used in welding to transform direct current into a current of some frequency or other.
Output current
Input current
Answer at the question page 11: no

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.5 : THE ELECTRIC ARC

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THE ELECTRIC ARC
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE PP FPT 0190A date : 28/03/01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 9
THE ELECTRIC ARC
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................................................................. 2

1.1. Thermal emissivity........................................................................................................ 2
1.2. Field effect .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Ionisation ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Arc phenomenon .......................................................................................................... 3
2. DESCRIPTION...................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Plasma.......................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Voltage distribution ....................................................................................................... 3
2.3. Arc characteristics ........................................................................................................ 4
2.4. Temperature distribution .............................................................................................. 4
3. IMPACT IN WELDING.......................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Anode-Cathode difference ........................................................................................... 5
3.2. Striking.......................................................................................................................... 6
3.3. Improving arc stability................................................................................................... 6
3.4. Nature of the welding current ....................................................................................... 7
4. SPECIFIC POWER ............................................................................................................... 7
5. CONSTRICTION................................................................................................................... 8
6. INFLUENCE OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ................................................................................ 9

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FORMATION 2
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 9
1. GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. THERMAL EMISSIVITY

ª The temperature of a body is closely linked to
the movement of particles (electrons) in the
material: this is known as thermal agitation.
ª As the temperature of the material rises, it will
have a greater tendency to free electrons: this
is known as thermal emissivity.
1.2. FIELD EFFECT

Between two parallel, electrically charged planes,
there is a uniform electric field.
Any electrically charged body placed in this field is
subjected to a force called Electrostatic Force:
F =qx E
where F = Electrostatic force in Newton

q = Electric charge in coulombs
E = Electric field in V / m
1.3. IONISATION
Any atom (and therefore any molecule) is capable of
releasing or accepting electrons.
This gives us an electrically charged atom (or
molecule) called an “ion”.
Ionisation can be produced by:
• a collision of particles
• an electric field (>Eionisation)
• temperature
• light…
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1.4. ARC PHENOMENON

This is an electric discharge in a gas. Arcs have a
wide variety of appearances depending on:
• the nature of the electrodes

• the shape of the electrodes
• the size of the electrodes
• the nature of the surrounding medium
• generator characteristics…
2. DESCRIPTION
2.1. PLASMA
The arc splits into three parts:
• a bright cathode spot

• a very bright anode spot
• a plasma column.
Three types of particle are moving in the plasma:
• electrons to the anode (v = 100 m/s)

• negative ions to the anode (v = 1 m/s)
• positive ions to the cathode (v = 1 m/s)
The majority of the current is transported by the electrons.
2.2. VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION

Three distribution zones can be distinguished:
ª a cathode drop almost independent of the arc

length and intensity;
ª an anode drop almost independent of the arc
length and intensity;
ª a plasma column drop dependent on the arc
length.
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2.3. ARC CHARACTERISTICS
ª For a set intensity, the arc voltage is almost

proportional to the arc length.
ª For a given arc length, the voltage increases in

proportion to intensity.
Note:
As an initial approximation, the arc can be considered
as behaving in the same way as a resistor. Ohm’s
law and the resistance-resistively relationship apply.
2.4. TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

The electric arc gives off energy in three main ways:
• Joule effect
- electric current in a conductor
• electron bombardment
- kinetic energy
• radiation
- molecule splitting-recombination
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FORMATION 5
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 9
3. IMPACT IN WELDING
3.1. ANODE-CATHODE DIFFERENCE
A positive electrode favours electrode fusion whereas a negative electrode favours penetration.
ª TIG: - negative electrode

- alternating current (aluminium cleaning)
ª MIG/MAG: positive electrode
ª Covered electrode, choice depending on:
- electrode type
- penetration or deposition rate.
Welding with a TIG tungsten electrode on aluminium

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3.2. STRIKING
Striking an arc
ª ionise the gas

ª take electrons from the cathode.
Solutions
ª adequate no-load voltage (U0>Eionisation)

ª strike ignition (Ô larc)
ª covering (Ò emissivity)
ª short-circuit ignition (Ò θelectrode)
ª auxiliary ignition source (H.F. with UÒ)
ª transferred pilot arc
ª ignition by contact breaking
ª etc.
3.3. IMPROVING ARC STABILITY

Purpose: to improve the operability of the process.
ª Size of the electrode (point effect)
ª Covering (directional effect)
ª Welding current stability (avoid extinguishing the arc due

to fluctuations in the welding current).
ª Dynamic characteristic of the source (sufficient reaction

time to maintain the arc: short circuit, variation in length,
etc.).
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3.4. NATURE OF THE WELDING CURRENT

ª Rectified current
• Exploits the energy generated by electron bombardment.
ª Sinusoidal current
• Current easy to produce.
• Used for cleaning and penetration.
ª Smoothed current
• Low-energy arc stability.
ª Square-wave alternating current

• Extremely rapid current reversal.
ª Pulsed current
• Control over instantaneous welding energy.
4. SPECIFIC POWER
The specific power of the arc is the power produced per unit of surface area in the arc column and on the
weld pool.
Heat flux distributions
Pspecific = Parc / Sarc = Heat Flux

It has an impact on the form of the weld pool and penetration.
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5. CONSTRICTION
Arc constriction is used to reduce the surface area of the plasma column:
ª plasma column resistance increased

ª arc voltage increased
ª power dissipated by the Joule effect increased
ª specific power of the arc increased.
Conventional GTAW Pneumatic constriction Mechanical constriction
The arc voltage can be increased by using gases with a high ionisation potential (helium).
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6. INFLUENCE OF A MAGNETIC FIELD

The welding arc is a flexible electrical conductor sensitive to magnetism.
The plates magnetised by the flow of welding current can have an effect on the arc. This is known as
magnetic arc blow.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.6 : WELDING CURRENT SOURCE

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FORMATION WELDING CURRENT SOURCE

1
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WELDING CURRENT SOURCE
CONTENTS

1.1. Transformation ............................................................................................................. 2
1.2. Conservation and degradation ..................................................................................... 2
1.3. Temperature rise .......................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Duty factor .................................................................................................................... 3
2. SOURCE CHARACTERISTIC.............................................................................................. 3
2.1. Static characteristic ...................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Dynamic characteristic ................................................................................................. 3
2.3. Operating point ............................................................................................................. 4
2.4. Constant intensity ......................................................................................................... 4
2.5. Constant voltage........................................................................................................... 4
3. SOURCE COMPONENTS.................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Transformer .................................................................................................................. 5
3.2. Magnetic shunt ............................................................................................................. 6
3.3. Rectifier......................................................................................................................... 6
3.4. Thyristor bridge............................................................................................................. 7
3.5. Inverter.......................................................................................................................... 7
3.6. Filtering ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.7. Generator...................................................................................................................... 8
4. SOURCE ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................. 8
4.1. Basic architecture ......................................................................................................... 8
4.2. Control loop .................................................................................................................. 8
4.3. Inverter to secondary circuit ......................................................................................... 9
4.4. Inverter to primary circuit.............................................................................................. 9
5. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................. 10
5.1. Starting device............................................................................................................ 10
5.2. Short-circuit management .......................................................................................... 10
5.3. Pulsed sources ........................................................................................................... 10
5.4. Smart sources ............................................................................................................ 11
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1.1. TRANSFORMATION
ELECTRICAL
It is possible to switch from one type of energy to ENERGY
another using energy converters.
batteries
generators
Converters are used for arc welding to obtain suitable electrolysers
electrical energy. motors
thermoelectric effect
Joule effect
The base energy may be chemical (battery), thermal MECHANICAL CHEMICAL
ENERGY ENERGY
(diesel engine), mechanical (generator) or quite
combustion
simply electrical (transformer). friction
Endothermic
reactions
I.C. engines
THERMAL
ENERGY
1.2. CONSERVATION AND DEGRADATION

When energy is converted from one form to one or more other forms, the sum of the quantities of energy
obtained is equal to the quantity of initial energy.
Wabsorbed = Wuseful + Wlost
During energy conversion from one form to another, thermal energy is always produced whether it is
wanted or not.
Wuseful / Wabsorbed < 1
Wa Converter Wu
Wl
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1.3. TEMPERATURE RISE

The operating temperature reached by an apparatus
is proportional to the energy converted.
An apparatus will be capable of converting greater
instantaneous energy, without the risk of destruction,
if the conversion is not continuous (periodical duty).
1.4. DUTY FACTOR

The duty factor is given by the ratio:
X= Up time
Up time + Down time
Continuous/periodical operation duty type
The following relation can be used to calculate the
current intensity accepted by a welding current source
used with a given duty factor, if the acceptable intensity for another duty factor is known.
X1 × I12 = X 2 × I22
For example:
50
Set 50% 300 A 300 ∗ = 245
75
operates at 75% 245 A
2. SOURCE CHARACTERISTIC
2.1. STATIC CHARACTERISTIC

The static characteristic of a source is obtained by
outputting the source to a variable resistor.
2.2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC

Reaction rate (rise time)
The reaction rate is the source’s capacity to adapt to
variation in the welding circuit characteristics (state of
the arc, etc.).
There are several possible types of welding current:
• Alternating
• Rectified
• Direct
• Pulsed
• etc.
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2.3. OPERATING POINT
The intersection between the static characteristic of

the source and the U-I characteristic of the electric arc
gives an operating point which is exclusive for strictly
identical working conditions.
2.4. CONSTANT INTENSITY

By maintaining constant intensity, it is possible to limit
the changes in the welding characteristics in the event
of variations in the arc length. Arc length increases
=> Constant intensity
Arc length decreases

=> Constant intensity
2.5. CONSTANT VOLTAGE

In the case of MIG/MAG welding, the current must
maintain a constant arc length (self-regulation) in spite Arc length increases Arc length decreases
of the continuous electrode wire infeed. Flat- => Intensity decreases => Intensity increases
=> Fusion rate decreases => Fusion rate increases
characteristic sources are used for this purpose. => Arc length decreases => Arc length increases
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3. SOURCE COMPONENTS
3.1. TRANSFORMER
The transformer is used to adapt the supply voltage to a voltage that is
safe and suitable for welding. It also provides full insulation between the
mains and the welding circuit.
It can have several input contacts allowing the output voltage to be
selected.
Note: The volume of a transformer decreases with the frequency of the
signal to be transformed.
Unpleasant Noise
noise eliminated
Transformer volume
Frequency
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3.2. MAGNETIC SHUNT

The magnetic shunt is used to modify the flat static
characteristic of a transformer into a drooping
characteristic and to adjust the short-circuit current.
Other systems fulfilling the same purpose include:
Adjustable
• adjustable core magnetic
• variable air-gap leakage
• transducer
• etc.
3.3. RECTIFIER
The rectifier is designed to transform a bidirectional current into a unidirectional current.
It is made from diodes mounted in a bridge circuit.
Positive half-wave Negative half-wave

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3.4. THYRISTOR BRIDGE

The thyristor bridge is designed to adjust the rms value of an alternating
current. It is used like a controlled switch letting through only a part of the
supply current.
3.5. INVERTER
The inverter is designed to convert a direct current
into a variable current by chopping the signal at a
Direct current Alternating current
selected frequency.
It is used to generate square-wave signals from a
DC source. It allows the rms value of the current to
be adjusted by modulating the waveform of the
square-wave signals. Clock Cyclic ratio
Note: By raising the frequency of the square-wave

signals, it is possible to reduce the transformer
volume required to adapt the mains voltage to
welding purposes.
3.6. FILTERING
A self-induction coil or a capacitor can be used to filter out the ripple in a current. This is known as the
smoothing effect.
Self-induction coil Capacitor

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3.7. GENERATOR
The generator and alternator convert mechanical energy (coil rotation in front of magnets) into electrical
energy.
The generator provides direct current and the alternator alternating current. They have a flat static
characteristic.
They can be driven by an electric motor or a diesel engine.
The alternator can be used as a frequency converter.
4. SOURCE ARCHITECTURE
4.1. BASIC ARCHITECTURE

The basic architecture consists of a transformer and an adjusting device.
It can be enhanced by a rectifier (AC/DC converter), a filtering device, a square-wave signal generator
(DC/AC converter), etc.
The basic architecture has a linear structure, rather than a loop architecture.
Example of a thyristor-controlled DC source.
4.2. CONTROL LOOP

A sensor measures the current
(current generator) or voltage
(voltage generator). Their value
is compared to the set point.
The difference (following error) is Set point Measurement
used as a power circuit control Power Welding
Control
signal. The result is a perfectly supply current
regulated output.
Comparator
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4.3. INVERTER TO SECONDARY CIRCUIT
Cyclic ratio control Welding current

measurement
Set point
4.4. INVERTER TO PRIMARY CIRCUIT
Cyclic ratio control Welding current

measurement
Set point
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5. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
5.1. STARTING DEVICE

To be able to strike the arc, sufficient voltage must be obtained from the
source to ionise the welding atmosphere.
For this purpose, the sources have either:
ª a high no-load voltage (>70 V)
ª a high voltage (>70 V) auxiliary source
ª a very high voltage (5 to 9 kV) high frequency source.
5.2. SHORT-CIRCUIT MANAGEMENT
In the case of a drooping characteristic, when the arc length is reduced, the current
intensity increases. The arc is easily maintained.
In the case of a vertical characteristic, certain generators are equipped with a short-
circuit voltage detector allowing current intensity to be reinjected. This system
helps to avoid stubbing problems.
5.3. PULSED SOURCES

Pulsed currents can be used to obtain welding energy equivalent to a
smooth current (equivalent effective current) with a variable
instantaneous current.
It is widely used in MIG/MAG welding to obtain a spray arc type with Irms
energy equivalent to a short arc or globular arc type.
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5.4. SMART SOURCES

Future generation sets are capable of controlling the transfer of metal through the arc by means of the
dynamic measurement of arc resistance. This information is processed by a digital control loop.
The operating strategy is recorded in the form of programs run by a microprocessor. These generators
are therefore attributed a certain amount of “intelligence”.
Set point Welding

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.7 : INTRODUCTION TO GAS-SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

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Introduction to Gas-Shielded Metal Arc Welding
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE date : 03/04/01
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INTRODUCTION TO GAS-SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
2. WELDING EQUIPMENT....................................................................................................... 3
3. FILLER METALS.................................................................................................................. 4
3.1. Standardisation............................................................................................................. 4
4. TIG AND MIG/MAG GASES ................................................................................................ 5
4.1. Argon ............................................................................................................................ 5
4.1.1. Use ...............................................................................................................................5
4.1.2. Role and characteristics in welding ..............................................................................5
4.1.3. Packaging .....................................................................................................................6
4.1.4. Safety............................................................................................................................7
4.2. Helium........................................................................................................................... 7
4.2.1. Use ...............................................................................................................................7
4.2.3. Packaging .....................................................................................................................7
4.2.4. Safety............................................................................................................................8
4.3. Hydrogen ...................................................................................................................... 8
4.3.1. Use ...............................................................................................................................8
4.3.3. Packaging .....................................................................................................................8
4.3.4. Safety............................................................................................................................8
4.4. Carbon dioxide ............................................................................................................. 9
4.4.1. Use ...............................................................................................................................9
4.4.3. Packaging .....................................................................................................................9
4.4.4. Safety..........................................................................................................................10
4.5. Oxygen ....................................................................................................................... 10
4.5.1. Use .............................................................................................................................10
4.5.2. Role and characteristics in welding ............................................................................10
4.5.3. Packaging ...................................................................................................................10
4.5.4. Safety..........................................................................................................................11
4.6. Nitrogen ...................................................................................................................... 11
4.6.1. Use .............................................................................................................................11
4.6.2. Role and characteristics in welding ............................................................................11
4.6.3. Packaging ...................................................................................................................11
4.6.4. Safety..........................................................................................................................11
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5. USE OF GASES AND GAS MIXTURES............................................................................ 12

5.1. Gases and gas mixtures used in TIG welding............................................................ 12
5.1.1. Unalloyed and low-alloy steels ...................................................................................12
5.1.2. Stainless steels...........................................................................................................13
5.1.3. Aluminium, Copper and Titanium ...............................................................................14
5.2. Gases and gas mixtures used in MIG/MAG welding ................................................. 15
5.2.1. Unalloyed and low-alloy steels ...................................................................................15
5.2.2. Stainless steels...........................................................................................................16
5.2.3. Aluminium and Copper ...............................................................................................17
6. CLASSIFICATION OF GASES AND GAS MIXTURES..................................................... 18
7. GAS STORAGE.................................................................................................................. 20
7.1. Gas cylinders.............................................................................................................. 20
7.2. Liquid .......................................................................................................................... 20
8. MEASURING GAS FLOWRATES ..................................................................................... 21
9. CYLINDER IDENTIFICATION............................................................................................ 22
9.1. Colour-coding per NF X 08-106 ................................................................................. 22
9.1.1. Single gases ...............................................................................................................22
9.1.2. Mixed gases................................................................................................................23
9.2. Colour-coding per NF EN 1089-3............................................................................... 23
9.2.1. Gas properties ............................................................................................................23
9.2.2. Specific gases.............................................................................................................24
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1. INTRODUCTION
In TIG and MIG/MAG welding, the weld pool is
shielded from oxidation and the consumable or non-
consumable electrode is protected by a gas, a liquid or
by creating an atmospheric vacuum. Shielding is
provided to avoid weld pool and electrode
contamination by agents in the surrounding air, such
as:
ª O2 (approximately 21% of air)

ª N2 (approximately 78% of air)
Fusion welding
ª H2 (contained in moisture: H2O)
Depending on the welding process used, the following gases are liable to be encountered:
ª Argon,
ª Helium,
ª Hydrogen,
ª Carbon dioxide,
ª Oxygen,
ª Nitrogen (backing).
They are used pure or in a mixture to improve the
productivity of the process and/or the quality of the
weld bead. If gas shielding is poor, the following
types of flaw appear:
ª Gas cavities, Gas shield

ª Nitride (appearing on ageing),
ª Metal oxides.
2. WELDING EQUIPMENT
The gas-shielded metal arc welding set must include the following components:
1. A current generator,
2. A control unit,
3. A filler metal feed system,
4. A welding gas supply,
5. A cooling device,
6. A torch or gun,
7. A welding harness.
Diagram of a MIG - MAG welding set
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3. FILLER METALS
The wires used in gas-shielded metal arc welding can produce either homogeneous or heterogeneous
welds (e.g. steel + steel or steel + stainless steel).
In the case of homogeneous welding, the composition of the wire is quite close to that of the parent
metals in order to obtain similar mechanical or metallurgical characteristics to those of the joined metals.
For heterogeneous joints, the composition of the filler wire will be selected according to the mechanical
and metallurgical criteria to be obtained.
Two types of wire are used:
- solid wires,
- tubular wires (in this case, they correspond to a tube filled with flux).
3.1. STANDARDISATION
Standards classify filler wires according to the mechanical characteristics of the all-weld metal and its
chemical composition. It is advisable to choose a wire whose weld zone characteristics are superior or
equal to those of the parent metals.
Example of a standardised designation:
- filler wires for tungsten inert gas welding of unalloyed steels.
NF EN 1668 (A 81-325) Rod EN 1668 - W 46 3 W3Si1
EN 1668: standard number,
W: rod for tungsten inert gas welding,
46: strength and elongation (cf. table contained in the standard),
W3Si1: chemical composition of the filler wire or rod (cf. table contained in the standard).
- filler wires for gas-shielded metal arc welding of unalloyed steels.

NF EN 440 (A 81-311) Rod EN 440 - G 46 3 M G3Si1
EN 440: standard number,
G: rod for gas-shielded metal arc welding,
46: strength and elongation (cf. table contained in the standard),
M: shielding gas,
G3Si1: chemical composition of the filler wire or rod (cf. table contained in the standard).
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4. TIG AND MIG/MAG GASES

The various gases used in TIG and MIG/MAG welding are specifically chosen according to their
chemical properties.
Furthermore, it is possible to mix certain gases to add specific properties of different gases and obtain
what cannot be achieved with a pure gas.
For example, to increase penetration or wetting and/or reduce gas cavities.
4.1. ARGON
Chemical symbol: Ar
Source: distillation of air (there is approximately 0.94% argon in air)
Density in relation to air: 1.38
Boiling point at atmospheric pressure: -186°C
Chemical property: chemically inert.
4.1.1. Use
Welding: TIG
PLASMA
LASER
Root cavities
Cutting: PLASMA
Base of most gas mixtures.
4.1.2. Role and characteristics in welding

a ) Advantages
Low ionisation potential:
• With the TIG process, very good wetting, penetration and welding speed is obtained, striking is
easy (due to low ionisation potential with argon) and the arc is more stable.
With the MIG process on unalloyed and low-alloy steels, argon can produce an erratic arc.
A pointed form of penetration, known as wineglass
penetration, can lead to:
• a risk of root porosity,

• a risk of stubbing and interpenetration
problems between passes.
In TIG or MIG processes, gas mixtures produce better
wetting, penetration, welding speed or spatter results.
Use on all metals.
Beware of interpenetration problems

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b ) Drawbacks
• Risk of cavity formation at the base of the bead
• It is an asphyxiating gas because, being heavier than air, it can replace the oxygen in the air
and reduce its proportion.
4.1.3. Packaging
ª Cylinders and cylinder bundles
ª Bulk: liquid in cryogenic evaporators.
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4.1.4. Safety
ª Inert.
ª Non-flammable.
ª Non-toxic.
ª Does not support life.
4.2. HELIUM
Chemical symbol: He
Source: natural gas fields where low quantities are present
Chemical property: inert.
4.2.1. Use
Welding: TIG
MIG
PLASMA

a ) Advantages
The arc is more energetic (penetration, wetting and
welding speed)
Good wetting and massive root
ª Improved wetting;
ª Broader penetration at the root:
ª Improved compactness,
ª Better interpenetration between passes,
ª Increased welding speeds.
b ) Drawbacks
Its low density requires higher flowrates.
High ionisation potential:
ª Arc difficult to strike (due to high ionisation potential with helium),

ª More energetic arc.
The use of pure helium in the MIG process produces an unstable arc.
4.2.3. Packaging
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4.2.4. Safety
ª Inert.
ª Non-flammable.
ª Non-toxic.
4.3. HYDROGEN
Chemical symbol: H2
Source: petrochemicals
Chemical property: reducing
4.3.1. Use
Only mixed with argon or argon and helium.
Welding: TIG
MIG
PLASMA
Constituent of mixtures used for cutting and plasma spraying.

a ) Advantages
Added to argon, it produces a more energetic arc and reduces oxides:
ª Increased performance (penetration and welding speed);

ª Bright bead with attractive profile.
b ) Drawbacks
ª Risk of gas cavities in multipass welding;
ª Risk of embrittlement of unalloyed and low-alloy steels.
4.3.3. Packaging
4.3.4. Safety
ª Highly flammable.
ª Non-toxic.
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4.4. CARBON DIOXIDE

Chemical symbol: CO2
Source: subsurface deposits
chemical synthesis
Chemical property: oxidising at high temperature (CO2 → CO + ½ O2)
4.4.1. Use
Welding: MAG
Used pure or mixed.

a ) Advantages
Stabilises the arc in MAG welding (formation of emissive oxides at the weld pool surface).
It increases weld pool viscosity and therefore:
ª Positional welding improved,

ª Wetting not as good.
It results in broader penetration at the root and
therefore:
ª Improved compactness,
Broad penetration and average wetting
ª Better interpenetration between passes.
b ) Drawbacks
ª Cannot be used with spray arc transfer in a
pure state as this leads to gas cavity formation;
ª Wetting is average hence a risk of
fatigue cracking;
ª Risk of increasing the carbon content of the
weld zone on low carbon steels (limit the CO2
content in the case of stainless steels) and/or
oxidising the deposited metal. Good interpenetration
4.4.3. Packaging
ª Cylinders and cylinder bundles.
ª Bulk: liquid in refrigerated tanks.
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4.4.4. Safety
ª Non-flammable.
ª Affects vigilance (narcotic effect) and respiration (above 2%).
4.5. OXYGEN
Chemical symbol: O2
Source: distillation of air (21% O2 in air)
Chemical property: oxidising.
4.5.1. Use
Welding: MAG
Cutting: PLASMA
LASER

a ) Advantages
ª When added to argon, it stabilises the arc in MAG welding (formation of emissive oxides at the
weld pool surface).
Stabilises the electric arc (oxides are highly emissive).
Favours spray arc transfer.
Increases weld pool fluidity:
ª Improved wetting,
ª Not so good for positional welding.
Pointed form of penetration:
ª Risk of root porosity,

ª Risk of stubbing and interpenetration problems between passes.
b ) Drawbacks
Increases wineglass penetration in mixtures.
Risk of gas cavities at the base of the bead.
Risk of stubbing on inside fillet welding.
4.5.3. Packaging
ª Bulk: liquid in a cryogenic evaporator.
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4.5.4. Safety
ª Energetic oxidising gas
ª Oil and grease ignite spontaneously in contact with pure oxygen.
ª Beware of oxygen enrichment.
4.6. NITROGEN
Chemical symbol: N2
Source: distillation of air (78% N2 in air)
Chemical property: non-reactive
4.6.1. Use
Forms part of the chemical composition of shielding gases for austenitic stainless steels and laser
cutting.

a ) Advantages
Used as a backing gas only in welding austenitic stainless steels (materials insensitive to nitrogen).
b ) Drawbacks
Deteriorates the mechanical properties of ferritic steels by forming metal nitrides.
4.6.3. Packaging
ª Bulk: liquid in cryogenic evaporators.
4.6.4. Safety
ª Inert, non-toxic,
ª Risk of death by asphyxia.
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5. USE OF GASES AND GAS MIXTURES
5.1. GASES AND GAS MIXTURES USED IN TIG WELDING

5.1.1. Unalloyed and low-alloy steels
Basic constituents
Compactness
All positions
Arc stability
Penetration
Ar He H2
Wetting
Aspect
Speed
100
1 1 2 1 2 3 3
97.5 2.5
1 2 2 3 3 3 3
95 5
1 1 2 2 2 3 3
80 20
2 2 3 3 2 3 2
30 70
2 2 3 3 2 2 2
75 20 5
3 3 3 3 3 2 2
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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5.1.2. Stainless steels
Basic constituents
Compactness
All positions
Arc stability
Penetration
Wetting
Ar He H2
Aspect
100 Speed
1 1 2 2 3 3 3
97.5 2.5
2 2 2 3 3 3 3
95 5
1 1 2 2 3 3 3
80 20
2 2 2 2 3 2 3
30 70
2 3 2 3 3 2 2
75 20 5
3 3 3 3 3 3 2
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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5.1.3. Aluminium, Copper and Titanium
Basic constituents
Compactness
All positions
Arc stability
Penetration
Ar He
Wetting
Aspect
100 Speed
1 1 3 1 2 3 3
95 5
1 1 3 2 2 3 3
80 20
2 2 3 2 3 3 3
50 50
3 3 3 3 3 2 2
30 70
3 3 2 3 3 2 2
100
3 3 2 3 3 1 1
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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5.2. GASES AND GAS MIXTURES USED IN MIG/MAG WELDING

5.2.1. Unalloyed and low-alloy steels
Basic constituents
All positions
Use for flux-

Arc stability
Penetration
cored wire
No spatter
Ar He CO2 O2
Wetting
Fumes
Speed
82 18
2 3 2 2 2 3 2 3
92 8
3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
95 5
3 1 3 2 2 1 3 1
90 5 5
3 2 3 3 3 2 3 1
96 3 1
3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2
85 5 10
3 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
100
2 3 1 1 1 3 1 2
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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5.2.2. Stainless steels
Basic constituents
Use for flux-

All positions
Penetration
Arc stability
No spatter
cored wire
Ar He CO2 O2 H2
Wetting
Fumes
Speed
98.5 1.5
2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2
98 2
2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2
96 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 3 2 1
81 18 1
3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2
56.5 40 2 1.5
3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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5.2.3. Aluminium and Copper
Basic constituents
Compactness
All positions
Arc stability
Penetration
Welding
Ar He
Wetting
speed
100
1 1 1 2 3 3
95 5
1 1 1 2 3 3
80 20
2 2 2 3 3 3
50 50
3 2 3 3 3 2
30 70
3 3 3 3 2 2
Source: Air Liquide
1 = Poor
2 = Good
3 = Excellent
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6. CLASSIFICATION OF GASES AND GAS MIXTURES

Standard NF EN 439 (11/94) (A 81-010) classifies shielding gases according to their chemical
properties. The nature and contents of pure or mixed gases are thus split into five classification groups:
R = Reducing gas mixtures;
I = Inert gases and gas mixtures in the arc;
M = Oxidising gas mixtures containing oxygen, carbon dioxide or both;
C = Strongly oxidising gases and gas mixtures;
F = Non-acting or reducing gases or gas mixtures.
The classification of a gas or gas mixture is then specified on the basis of the following table.
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The designation of the aforementioned gases can therefore be obtained from this standard. The table
below indicates these standardised designations, plus the trade names used by a few gas producers:
Designation Trade names

Ar He CO2 O2 H2 per
Air
NF EN 439 AGA Carboxyque Airgaz
Liquide
Nertal
100 I1 Argon Carboxar 5 Argon
Argon U
100 C1 CO2 CO2 Carboxar 2 CO2
95 5 I3 Arcal 31 - - -
80 20 I3 Inarc 6 Heliarc 7 Carboxar 21 -
50 50 I3 Inarc 8 Heliarc 5 - Argon He 50
30 70 I3 Inarc 9 Heliarc 2 Carboxar 22 Argon He 70
97.5 2.5 R1 Noxal 2 - - -
98 2 M12 Arcal 12 Mison 2 Carboxar 32 -
92 8 M21 Arcal 21 Mison 8 - Krygomag 8
82 18 M21 Atal 5 Migaz 20 - Krygomag 18
98.5 1.5 M13 Cargal 1 Atarc 12 - -
95 5 M22 Cargal 3 - Carboxar 41 -
75 20 5 R1(1) Arcal 11 - - -
81 18 1 M12(1) Arcal 121 - - -
85 5 10 M21(1) Eloxal 35 - - -
96 3 1 M14 Arcal 14 - Carboxar 46 -
90 5 5 M23 - Modion 20 Carboxar 44 Krygomix 10
56.5 40 2 1.5 M11(2) Arcal 112 - - -

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7. GAS STORAGE
Shielding gases can be stored in gaseous or liquid form as either pure
gas or a mixture.
When gas mixtures are prepared on site from their elementary gases,
the mixer must be designed and serviced to obtain and maintain the
mixing tolerances. It is therefore sometimes more practical to use gas
cylinders where the gases are ready mixed.
7.1. GAS CYLINDERS

All pure and mixed gases are in an entirely gaseous state when they are
delivered in gas cylinders.
These gas cylinders are filled to a set volume and pressure indicated by
the supplier. The actual pressure varies according to temperature. A
cylinder filled at 200 bar at 15°C will be at 240 bar at 50°C.
To determine the quantity of gas contained in a cylinder, we use the
relation P.V = constant.
Therefore, if a gas has a volume of 1 litre at 200 bars (P.V = 200), it will
occupy approximately 200 litres at atmospheric pressure, or 1 bar (P.V
= 200). A 50 l cylinder at 200 bars will therefore produce around 10000 l
of gas once reduced to atmospheric pressure.
To release the pressure, a suitable regulator will be fitted to the cylinder
before use. Storage in gaseous form
Cylinders can be used alone to supply a single welding set or in bundles

comprising several cylinders to supply a workshop gas network.
7.2. LIQUID
Liquefied gases can be supplied in one of two forms:
Low temperature (cryogenic) liquid stored in insulated
tanks at atmospheric pressure (Ar, He, O2, N2);
Compressed liquid stored in gas cylinders at ambient
temperature (CO2).
Liquefied gases must regasified before use.
Storage in liquid form is advantageous when gas
consumption is particularly high insofar as it helps to
reduce the actual volume stored.
For example, 1 l of liquid argon at –186°C will produce
825 l of argon gas at ambient temperature whereas 1 l
of argon at 200 bar pressure will only produce 200 l of
gas once the pressure has been released.
Liquid storage
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Nevertheless, as a general rule, this type of storage is restricted to pure gases.

To produce gas mixtures from liquefied gases, they must be converted to the gaseous phase before
mixing. Only argon-oxygen mixtures, gases with similar evaporating temperatures, can be stored ready
mixed in liquid form. They do not require the use of mixers for supply.
8. MEASURING GAS FLOWRATES

The flowmeter mounted on a pipeline must be calibrated for the gas flowing through the pipe. As gases
have different densities, it is in fact common for the displayed flowrate to differ from the actual flowrate. A
correction value therefore has to be applied.
If Q1 is the flowrate reading on the calibrated flowmeter with a given gas, of density ρ1, the actual
flowrate Q of the gas or mixture, of density ρ, is given by:
Qactual = Q1read × ρ 1 / ρgaz

Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure (23°C, Patm), the densities of the gases considered
are:
Air: ρ = 1.21 g/l
Ar: ρ = 1.65 g/l
He: ρ = 0.17 g/l
H2: ρ = 0.083 g/l
CO2: ρ = 1.87 g/l
O2: ρ = 1.32 g/l
N2: ρ = 1.16 g/l

Therefore, if a flowmeter calibrated for argon shows 10 l/min whereas helium is being used, the actual
flowrate will be:
Q = 10 × 1,65 / 0,17 = 31.6 l/min
The correction value here is therefore 3.16.

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The table below indicates a few correction values for various gases:
Gas used
Gas for which Ar He H2 O2 CO2 N2

the flowmeter
is calibrated
Ar 1 3.16 4.46 1.12 0.95 1.19
H2 0.22 0.71 1 0.25 0.21 0.27
O2 0.9 2.83 3.99 1 0.85 1.97
N2 0.84 2.64 3.74 1.12 0.79 1
Air 0.85 2.69 3.81 0.95 0.81 1.01
9. CYLINDER IDENTIFICATION
Gas cylinders are colour-coded on the shoulder of the cylinder.
The colours of the cylinders refer to their contents and are used as a back-up to the cylinder labels, the
primary method for indicating cylinder contents.
The colour of the cylinder is an important method of identifying the contents when the labels cannot be
read, particularly if a cylinder cannot be approached closely enough.
At the moment, there are two identification systems:
Standard NF X 08-106, which will be phased out in 2008
Standard NF EN 1089-3 (05/97) (E 29-771-3), which will be used in parallel to the previous standard for
ten years.
9.1. COLOUR-CODING PER NF X 08-106

9.1.1. Single gases
The shoulder of the cylinder must be colour-coded according to the gas contained in the cylinder, as
indicated in the table below:
Gas Colour
Argon Medium yellow
Nitrogen Black
Carbon dioxide Dark grey
Helium Medium brown
Hydrogen Bright crimson
Oxygen White
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FORMATION 23
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9.1.2. Mixed gases

As far as gas mixtures are concerned, the shoulder of
the cylinder must be coded with the colour
corresponding to the predominant gas in the mixture. If
the content of any other gases exceeds 1%, they are
identified by adding circular bands in the colour
corresponding to those gases.
9.2. COLOUR-CODING PER NF EN 1089-3

This is the standard that will supersede NF X 08-106.
Already implemented, it establishes a new cylinder
colour code according to the principal risk associated
with the gas contained in the cylinder.
This standard will be introduced over a ten-year period
from 1998 during which the old colours will be used in
parallel with the new ones.
To distinguish the new colours from the old ones, the
shoulders of the cylinders with the new colour code
must feature two diametrically opposite letter N’s
painted in a different colour to the shoulder colour.
9.2.1. Gas properties

The shoulder of the cylinder must be colour-coded
according to the risks generated by the gas or gas
mixture contained in the cylinder, as indicated in the
table below.
The majority of new gas cylinders will therefore be

identified by the colour green.
There are however a few exceptions.
Old and new colour coding
Risk Colour
Toxic and/or corrosive Yellow
Flammable Red
Oxidising agent Light blue
Inert Bright green

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9.2.2. Specific gases

For some gases, the colour code differs from the general rule. These gases are listed in the table below:
Gas Colour
Acetylene Maroon
Oxygen White
Argon Dark green
Nitrogen Black
Carbon dioxide Grey
Helium Brown
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§1
source de chaleur Heat source
Milieu Gazeux ou Liquide ou Vide Gaseous or liquid medium or vacuum
Métal liquide Molten metal
AIR AMBIANT AMBIENT AIR

PROTECTION SHIELD
§2
Schéma d’une installation MIG ou MAG Diagram of a MIG or MAG plant
Tube contact Contact tube
Fil électrode fusible (+) Consumable electrode wire (+)
Gâchette Trigger
Gaz de protection Shielding gas
Câble de masse (-) Ground cable (-)
Coupe d’un faisceau séparé de torche à Cross-section of a separate water-cooled torch
refroidissement par eau harness
Arrivée d’eau Water inlet
Fil électrode fusible Electrode wire
Commande gâchette Trigger control
Gaz Gas
Gaine extérieure Outer conduit
Gaine amenée fil Wire feed conduit
Câble de courant Current cable
Retour eau Water return
Coupe d’un câble coaxial… Cross-section of a coaxial water-cooled torch
cable
Conduit d’usure Wear conduit
Bobine Spool
Source de courant continu DC power source
§ 4.4.2.
Sans CO2 Without CO2
Avec CO2 With CO2
§ 7.2.
Centrale évaporateur Evaporating station
§8
Dans les formules, remplacer gaz par gas et remplacer les virgules par des points.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.8 : TIG WELDING

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FORMATION TIG WELDING 1

PROFESSIONNELLE
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TIG WELDING
CONTENTS
1. - GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................................. 0

1.1. - HISTORY .......................................................................................................................... 0
1.2. - PRINCIPLE ....................................................................................................................... 0
1.3. - FIELD OF USE ................................................................................................................. 4
1.4. - WELDING PLANT ............................................................................................................ 4
1.4.1 Manual torch components .......................................................................................................4
2. - THE GENERATOR .......................................................................................... 4
3. - THE CONTROL UNIT ...................................................................................... 4
4. - NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES............................................................. 4
4.1. - NATURE ........................................................................................................................... 4
4.2. - CURRENTS USED ........................................................................................................... 4
4.2.1 Direct current...........................................................................................................................4
4.2.2 Alternating current...................................................................................................................4
4.3. - ELECTRODE SHAPE ...................................................................................................... 4
4.4. - ACCEPTABLE INTENSITY.............................................................................................. 4
4.5. - STRIKING THE ARC........................................................................................................ 4
4.5.1 Striking by a high-frequency device ........................................................................................4
4.5.2 Striking by a “pilot arc” ............................................................................................................4
4.6. - EXTINGUISHING THE ARC............................................................................................. 4
4.6.1 Manual extinction ....................................................................................................................4
4.6.2 Crater filling device..................................................................................................................4
5. - GASES............................................................................................................. 4
5.1. - FACE SHIELDING............................................................................................................ 4
5.2. - NOZZLE DIAMETER AND GAS FLOWRATE................................................................. 4
5.3. - BACKING ......................................................................................................................... 4
5.4. - TRAILING GAS SHIELD AND GLOVE BOX................................................................... 4
6. - FILLER METALS ............................................................................................. 4
7. - MALFUNCTIONS............................................................................................. 4
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7.1. - CANNOT START UP........................................................................................................ 4

7.2. - ARC DISTURBANCE ....................................................................................................... 4
7.3. - ACCIDENTAL CONTACTS AND ABNORMAL ELECTRODE WEAR ........................... 4
7.4. - WELD BEAD DETERIORATION ..................................................................................... 4
8. - WELD DEFECTS ............................................................................................. 4

8.1. - EXCESSIVE ROOT POROSITY ...................................................................................... 4
8.2. - TUNGSTEN INCLUSION ................................................................................................. 4
8.3. - OXIDATION ...................................................................................................................... 4
8.4. - CRACKING....................................................................................................................... 4
9. - FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS........................................................................ 4
9.1. - EDGE PREPARATION..................................................................................................... 4
9.2. - SURFACE PREPARATION ............................................................................................. 4
9.3. - WELDING INTENSITY ..................................................................................................... 4
9.4. - SET-UP METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 4
10. - SUMMARY..................................................................................................... 4
11. - DERIVATIVE PROCESSES .......................................................................... 4

11.1. - PULSED TIG................................................................................................................... 4
11.2. - ORBITAL TIG ................................................................................................................. 4
11.3. - DOUBLE-FLOW TIG ...................................................................................................... 4
11.4. - HOT WIRE TIG ............................................................................................................... 4
12. - MULTICATHODE TIG.................................................................................... 4

12.1. - A-TIG .............................................................................................................................. 4
13. - HEALTH AND SAFETY................................................................................. 4

13.1. - ELECTRICAL PROTECTION......................................................................................... 4
13.2. - RADIATION PROTECTION ........................................................................................... 4
13.3. - FUME PROTECTION ..................................................................................................... 4
13.4. - ELECTRODE DUST PROTECTION .............................................................................. 4
13.5. - UNDER-OXYGENATION IN WELDING OPERATIONS................................................ 4
14. - BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................ 4
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Nomenclature: 141 (per ISO 4063:1990)

French designation: TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
Soudage à l’arc électrique sous protection de gaz inerte avec électrode
réfractaire.
American designation: GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding)
1. - GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1. - HISTORY
The first patents were filed in the United States by Devers and Hobart in 1924. Developed industrially in
the United States during the Second World War, this process was introduced into France from 1948 by
SAF.
1.2. - PRINCIPLE
The heat source used to obtain simultaneous fusion of the edges of the workpieces to be joined and the
filler metal is an electric arc formed in an inert atmosphere between the workpiece to be welded and a
non-consumable electrode. The purpose of the inert gas is to shield the weld pool, not only in its liquid
state but also on cooling to a solid state, and the tungsten electrode to avoid its combustion in air (Figure
1).
Figure 1 (Air Liquide doc.)

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Heat source: arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece
Filler metal: optional - fed separately (rods), either manually or automatically
Weld pool shield: argon and/or helium-based inert gas.
1.3. - FIELD OF USE

TIG welding is characterised by the high quality of the resulting welds. The weld pool is calm with no
spatter and little fumes.
This process can be used on all weldable metals and alloys, including the most difficult such as titanium,
zirconium or molybdenum.
However, the welding speed and volume of metal deposited are low. Although commonly used to weld
thicknesses of 0.5 to 8 mm, TIG welding is limited to root runs on thicker sections with another process
being used for filling.
The main areas of application of TIG welding are the manufacture of chemical and food equipment,
stainless steel boiler making, the aviation and space industries and, more generally, industries using
stainless steels and light alloys.
Manual or automatic techniques can be used for this process.
1.4. - WELDING PLANT

A TIG welding plant (Figure 2) comprises:
ª a generator transforming AC mains power into DC or AC welding power;

ª a control unit allowing the various circuits used for the welding operation - welding current,
shielding gas and torch cooling - to be remote-controlled via the torch handle;
ª a gas cylinder storing the welding gas;
ª a remote ignition device delivering 6000 V at high frequency. This voltage is superimposed on the
Figure 2 (SAF doc.)

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welding circuit and ionises the gas column between the electrode and the workpiece;
ª a cooling device: water-cooled torches are used for current intensities over 80–100 A. This system
will either have a closed circuit or be connected to the wastewater drain;
ª a welding torch (see § 1.4.1) with contactor, tungsten electrode and shielding gas feed nozzle;
ª a ground return cable to close the welding circuit;
ª a sleeve containing the current feed cable, the cables connected to the control unit, the gas pipe
and the water pipes if the torch is water-cooled.
1.4.1 Manual torch components
1- Back cap.
2- Back cap seal.
3- Gasket (7).
4- Collet.
5- Collet body and gas lens (8) - possibly with a filter (9).
6- Nozzle (10)
11-Electrode.
Figure 3 - EXPLODED VIEW OF TORCH (SAF doc.)

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2. - THE GENERATOR
Generators suited to TIG welding deliver current
intensities ranging from 10 to around 400 A, with no-
load voltages U0 of the order of 60 to 90 V.
There are two types of generator:
ª Drooping characteristic generators. The welder

must control the arc length to maintain constant
settings. The weld pool can be controlled by
varying the arc length.
ª Vertical characteristic generators. Solid-state
units provide vertical characteristics.
The intensity remains constant regardless of the arc
length (cf. Figure 4).
Conventional welding voltage:
U2 = 10 + 0.04.I2 for I2 ≤ 600 A

U2 = 34 V for I2 > 600 A

3. - THE CONTROL UNIT
The control unit is built into the welding station. It includes the components required to activate the
various phases of the welding cycle:
ª opening the gas feed (pre-gas) to purge the line,

ª opening the water flow (on cooled torches),
ª striking the arc,
ª establishing the welding current,
ª if the plant is suitably equipped, gradual reduction of the welding intensity (slope-down) to limit the
end crater (at the end of the run),
ª delayed closure of the gas feed (post-gas) to shield the end of the bead and the still-hot electrode.
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4. - NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES
4.1. - NATURE
The electrode must be able to withstand the heat produced by the arc. Tungsten, with a melting point of
3410°C, is the metal which best tackles the problem. Furthermore, it has the particularity that it readily
emits electrons.
To increase the electrode melting point and reinforce its emissivity, particularly to facilitate arc striking,
oxides of Thorium (ThO2), Zirconium (ZrO2), Lanthanum (LaO2) or Cerium (CeO2) are added in quantities
ranging from 0.15 to 4.2%.
To distinguish them, the electrodes are colour-coded on the end.
Classification of the various types of electrode is given in standard NF EN 26848 (07.91) (A 81 011):
ADDED OXIDE
CODING COLOUR CODE
Nature %
WP --- --- GREEN

WT4 0.35 – 0.55 BLUE
WT10 0.80 – 1.20 YELLOW
WT20 ThO2 1.70 – 2.20 RED
WT30 2.80 – 3.20 PURPLE
WT40 3.80 – 4.20 ORANGE
WZ3 0.15 – 0.50 BROWN
ZrO2
WZ8 0.70 – 0.90 WHITE
WL10 LaO2 0.90 – 1.20 BLACK
WC20 CeO2 1.80 – 2.20 GREY
Diameters are standardised as follows:

0.5, 1, 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3.2, 4 and 5 mm.
Lengths are also standardised:
50, 75, 150 and 175 mm.
As thorium is naturally radioactive, efforts are being made to replace it with cerium or lanthanum
although arcs are not struck as readily.
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4.2. - CURRENTS USED

4.2.1 Direct current
In DC TIG welding, the electrode is always negative

polarity (DC-). The emitted electron beam heats the
workpiece to a high temperature and produces a
stable, high-energy arc forming a deep, narrow weld
pool (cf. Figure 5).
Figure 5
Positive polarity (DC+) produces a weld pool with low
penetration and leads in particular to overheating of
the electrode suffering the electron bombardment (cf.
Figure 6). In practice, this supply is used very little in
TIG welding.
In DC-, 2% thoriated tungsten is particularly used for
welding stainless steels, carbon steels, Cu, Ti and
almost all metals.
The only exceptions are aluminium alloys for which an
AC power supply is used.
4.2.2 Alternating current Figure 6

An AC power supply is only used for welding aluminium
alloys.
These highly oxidisable alloys are always coated in a layer of oxide: alumina (Al2O3). A particular feature
of alumina is that it melts at around 2000°C whereas aluminium melts around 660°C. Because of this, we
find ourselves with a film of alumina covering the weld pool.
Negative polarity, with the electron beam coming from the electrode, has great difficulty penetrating this
film.
On the other hand, with positive polarity, the emission of electrons from the plate to the electrode cracks
the heat-resistant layer of alumina. This is therefore the polarity that should be used but it has been
shown that the electrode is quickly damaged in this case.
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This is why aluminium alloys are welded with an AC

power supply (cf. Figure 7) as a compromise. With an
AC power supply with a frequency of 50 Hz, the
electrode switches from positive to negative 100 times
per second.
ª In an electrode positive period, the layer of

alumina is dispersed but the electrode heats up.
ª In an electrode negative period, penetration is
obtained but the electrode, no longer
bombarded, cools down.
When the intensity crosses zero, arc stability problems

are avoided as follows:
ª Use of continuous high frequency to maintain a Figure 7 (Air Liquide doc.)

permanently ionised atmosphere to avoid
unforeseen arc extinction.
ª Use of a “Square Wave” voltage cycle to avoid extinguishing the arc. Polarity is changed instantly
with no variation in intensity. The waveform can be symmetric or asymmetric to favour one polarity
or the other, to increase either the cleaning or penetration power.
ª When the workpiece is connected to the negative pole, electron emission is considerably lower
than that of the tungsten electrode. To offset the imbalance linked to the nature of the parent metal,
and therefore electron emissivity, spark dischargers are used. When the electrode is positive,
these dischargers boost the electrons to improve arc stability.
Pure tungsten and zirconiated tungsten (melting point approximately 4000°C) are used to weld light
alloys with an AC power source. Thoriated tungsten is not suitable for welding with an AC supply
because it does not allow an emissive molten ball to form at the end of the electrode as in the case of
pure tungsten.
4.3. - ELECTRODE SHAPE

The shape of the electrode tip is an important element in a successful TIG welding operation. Incorrect
sharpening leads to arc instability and rapid destruction of the electrode. The shape depends essentially
> 1,5 x ∅
Figure 8 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.)

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on the type of power supply used:
a) DC supply
The electrode must be ground to a point to favour electron emission. It must therefore form a taper with
an angle of 30 to 60°. A similar result can be achieved if the tip height is 1.5 times the diameter. Grinding
marks must be arranged lengthways to avoid creating spurious arcs due to an incorrect grinding
direction. The two extremes - i.e. an excessively sharp
or blunt electrode - must also be avoided.
One will become damaged very quickly and the other
will produce a flared, less stable arc.
b) AC supply
As the electrode is periodically bombarded, its tip
melts slightly and takes on a rounded shape (a taper
with a tip angle of 90° facilitates the formation of the
hemisphere).
Figure 9 (IS doc.)
4.4. - ACCEPTABLE INTENSITY
The electrodes can accept a certain welding intensity depending on their diameter.
The table below indicates the intensity range for common electrode diameters (per ISO 6848).
Maximum intensity (A)

DC- AC
Electrode dia.
Thoriated W (red) Pure W (green)
1 10 – 75 15 – 55
1.6 60 – 150 45 – 90
2 100 – 200 65 – 125
2.5 170 – 250 80 – 140
3.2 225 – 330 150 – 190
4 350 – 480 180 – 260
To have a stable arc, it is preferable to use the electrode at the top end of the current scale that it is able
to support.
To estimate maximum acceptable intensity for electrodes of 1 to 4 mm, the following approximation can
be used.
With a DC supply: 100 A per mm of electrode diameter.
With an AC supply: 60 A per mm of electrode diameter.
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4.5. - STRIKING THE ARC

With a DC or AC supply, the arc can only be produced by a short circuit between the electrode and the
workpiece if no intermediate devices are used. In many cases, such contact between the electrode and
workpiece leads to contamination of the parent metal and/or the electrode (e.g. on striking or lifting).
To avoid such drawbacks, a remote device should be used to initiate the arc.
4.5.1 Striking by a high-frequency device

A current with a high frequency (a few kHz) and a high voltage (approx. 6000 V to 9000 V) is introduced
into the welding circuit when the generator is switched on. HF sparks are produced between the
electrode and the workpiece, ionising the gas under the electrode and thereby striking the arc, even if
the electrode is far from the workpiece.
In DC welding, this HF current is cut as soon as the arc is struck.
In AC welding, HF emission is constant to reignite the arc on each positive/negative changeover.
However the disturbance that high frequency may cause to nearby electronic equipment, or even radio
and television broadcasts in the surrounding area, must be taken into consideration.
4.5.2 Striking by a “pilot arc”

As a remedy to HF problems, it is possible, with a DC power supply, to use a low-power arc (pilot arc)
initiated between the electrode and an auxiliary electrode built into the nozzle. The ionisation of the gas
facilitates the spontaneous ignition of the main arc on approaching the workpiece.
4.6. - EXTINGUISHING THE ARC

4.6.1 Manual extinction
Most often, the arc is immediately extinguished on releasing the trigger contactor. In this case, a crater is
formed at the end of the weld bead on final solidification of the weld pool. The drawback of such a
sudden stoppage is that it leads to the formation of a typical fault, known as a shrinkage cavity. The
welder can avoid this by pulsing the trigger or using a crater filling device.
4.6.2 Crater filling device

The crater filling device is designed to avoid the formation of a crater when the arc is suddenly
extinguished. Such craters are a source of cracking.
These drawbacks are overcome by reducing the welding current intensity gradually instead of stopping
instantly.
The gas shield must be maintained while the tungsten electrode and the weld are cooling.
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5. - GASES
5.1. - FACE SHIELDING

The primary function of the gas is to protect the tungsten electrode and the weld pool from the oxidising
agents in the surrounding air. An inert gas must be used for this function.
Argon: The most commonly used inert gas, either on its own or in a mixture (density/air: 1.38).
Helium: This inert gas gives a more energetic arc for increased performance (speed, penetration).
As it is more expensive than argon, it is generally used in the form of an argon-helium mixture
(density/air: 0.14).
However, it is worth noting that automatic welding of aluminium alloys can be carried out using a DC
power supply with electrode negative (DC-) under a pure helium shield. Unlike welding with an AC
supply, there is no electronic cleaning of the layer of alumina. The energy of the arc in a helium
environment is high enough to melt the alumina film and guarantee a good workpiece bond.
Hydrogen: Reducing gas added to argon to increase the energy of the arc and improve performance
(speed, penetration) (density/air: 0.07).
Certain gases or gas mixtures are preferred according to the materials to be joined:
Aluminium
Chemical composition Carbon steel Stainless steel Copper
Titanium
Ar • • •
He •
Ar 80% He 20% • • •
Ar 30% He 70% • • •
Ar 97.5% H2 2.5% • •
Ar 95% H2 5% • •
Ar 90% H2 10% •
Ar 75% He 20% H2 5% • •
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5.2. - NOZZLE DIAMETER AND GAS FLOWRATE

A given thickness to be welded requires a specific intensity. The higher the intensity, the larger the
nozzle diameter must be.
Each nozzle diameter has a corresponding optimum flowrate for efficient weld pool protection.
Exceeding this flowrate by too much causes turbulence in the gas flow which in turn encourages air
entrainment and leads to poorer quality of protection.
A simple rule therefore states that the argon flowrate must not exceed 1 l/min per mm of nozzle
diameter. The low density of mixtures with a high helium content may however require this limit to be
exceeded.
Specific types of join may also require the nozzle diameter and/or the flowrate to be modified (cf. Figure
10).
The most commonly used diameters are 6, 8, 10, 12 and 15 mm, although other diameters may also be
used for specific applications.
5.3. - BACKING
The torch only shields the face side of the weld pool. In the case of a full-penetration weld, the back
remains prone to the action of the air. If the welded material is sensitive to oxidation, a backing gas is
necessary otherwise root porosity will occur.
A backing gas, generally argon, is strongly recommended for stainless steels, alloyed steels and noble
metals such as titanium.
For austenitic stainless steels, nitrogen or a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen can be used.
Aluminium welding does not require backing as this is provided by the layer of alumina which reforms
instantly.
Similarly, backing is not essential for unalloyed steels although its presence improves the surface finish
and the profile of the back bead.
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5.4. - TRAILING GAS SHIELD AND GLOVE BOX

Certain materials (titanium, tantalum, zirconium, etc.) are still sensitive to high-temperature oxidation
after solidification. The solidified, but still-hot metal must therefore be protected at the rear of the bead.
A trailing gas shield is added for this purpose.
If this is not possible due to accessibility problems, the work may have to be done in a glove box in an
argon atmosphere.
6. - FILLER METALS
In TIG, like any other welding process, the filler metal must be selected to produce a bead with the same
chemical composition and mechanical characteristics as the parent metal.
It must be remembered that this process does not create a transfer of metal in an arc but a simple fusion
under the heat of the arc. The temperature reached by the filler metal is therefore much lower than that
of a metal transferred in an arc and the risk of oxidation is nil due to the inert atmosphere.
As a result, the transfer of alloying elements is much better than with MIG, for example, as losses by
fusion only concern the most volatile elements, when there are any. Except where the metal is not killed
(certain mild steels), the Si and Mn contents, for example, do not need to be as high as for a MAG wire.
In manual TIG processes, rods are used whereas coils are used in automatic systems. The standards
generally used for filler materials are as follows:
NF EN 1668 (09/97 ) (A 81 325): Rods, wires and deposits for tungsten inert gas welding of non-alloy
and fine grain steels.
NF A 81 313 (10/90 ) (A 81 313): Filler materials for welding stainless steels.
NF A 81 331 (05/84 ) (A 81 331): Filler materials for welding aluminium and aluminium alloys.
In practice, either gas welding rods or MIG wire coils are used. For manual welding, rods can be cut from
coils and straightened. In the most extreme cases, filler metal can be obtained by cutting small strips
from the plate to be assembled. This guarantees that the nature of the filler metal is the same as the
parent metal.
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7. - MALFUNCTIONS
7.1. - CANNOT START UP
INCIDENTS OR PROBLEMS CAUSES WHAT TO DO
“Test” entire plant and check

Cannot ignite the arc Faulty current infeed circuit
electrical connections.
Check general water supply and

Lack of water pressure.
In spite of the plant starting up safety filter.
correctly, the control unit fails to
work. Check wire connections from
Trigger wire broken.
control unit outlet to torch.
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7.2. - ARC DISTURBANCE
Striking problems:
The arc is ignited and Insufficient striking voltage. Use an appliance with a higher
extinguished frequently. no-load voltage.
Arc instability Contaminated discharger Clean the electrodes and refit

electrodes. with the appropriate spark gap.
Change them if necessary.
Electrode diameter too large or Choose smaller diameter or

intensity insufficient. increase intensity to obtain
optimum current density.
Electrode too sharp or too blunt. Sharpen the electrode correctly.

Arc instability
Poor ground or magnetic blow- Make good ground contact as
out in certain cases. close as possible to joint.
Faulty electrical circuit. Check entire plant.
Supply power cut. Check fuses and test entire

plant if necessary.
Arc interrupted in course of
Variation in water pressure. Check plant water pressure.
welding
Stabilising system (spark Set discharger electrodes to
discharger) put out of service. appropriate spark gap.
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7.3. - ACCIDENTAL CONTACTS AND ABNORMAL ELECTRODE WEAR
Accidental contacts:
Electrode coming into contact Lack of operator experience. Train the welder.
with weld pool. Unsteady actions. Check visual acuity.
Lack of precision in metal Same remarks as above and

feeding. make sure that movements are
precise.
Filler metal touching
Electrode sticking out too far Adjust electrode stickout
electrode.
beyond nozzle. according to type of joint and to
welding method if applicable
(electrode fully retracted in case
of positional welding).
Abnormal electrode wear:
Electrode breaking up in spite Electrode positive. Connect torch to negative pole

of correct setting. (−).
Excessive current density. Decrease intensity or increase

electrode diameter.
Nature of electrode unsuited to Select appropriate electrode:

Electrode melting. grade of material to be welded.
– thoriated tungsten: stainless
steels,
– pure tungsten: light alloys.
Electrode contamination – Inadequate electrode – Search for possible leaks.

shielding by argon.
– Increase argon flowrate.
– Argon flowrate too low.
– Set time-circuit relay.
– Incorrect timing setting.
– Break off contaminated tip
and sharpen.
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7.4. - WELD BEAD DETERIORATION
Leak in argon line (air intake) Check argon circuit.
Weld oxidised Draught at torch. Protect workstation with

curtains, screens, etc.
Gas flow interrupted too quickly Set control unit timer to increase
at end of weld. gas flow time.
Deficient cleaning (on light Incorrect plant setup. Connect a capacitor bank with
alloys) an appropriate rating in the
circuit.
Workpieces or filler metal not Clean edges to be welded and
properly cleaned. filler metal properly. Do not
Black marks on each side of the touch primed parts with fingers.
weld
(on light alloys). Oxidised electrode. Eliminate part concerned.

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8. - WELD DEFECTS
Among the defects encountered in welding (shapes and dimensions, underfill, poor plate edge
alignment, stubbing, incomplete penetration…), the faults analysed below are primarily encountered in
TIG welding.
8.1. - EXCESSIVE ROOT POROSITY

Weld beads with excessive root porosity appear as metallic foam.
In TIG welding, chiefly on stainless steels, it is due to excessive oxidation caused by the argon flowrate
being too high or too low and must not be tolerated under any circumstances. In oxyacetylene welding,
root porosity is particularly marked on welding rimming steels. An incorrect choice in the grade of filler
metal can also lead to this phenomenon.
8.2. - TUNGSTEN INCLUSION

Characteristic fault of TIG welding.
It is caused by grinding the electrode tip too sharp, using current densities that are too high or accidental
contact with the weld pool.
8.3. - OXIDATION
This is the characteristic fault of TIG welding.
Oxidation appears on either side of the weld bead as a halo, the darkness of which depends on its
degree of seriousness.
It may be due to an argon flowrate that it is too low or too high, or to a too small nozzle diameter. An
incorrect torch hold can also cause weld bead oxidation due to a lack of shielding. Beware of draughts.
8.4. - CRACKING
The causes of this defect are as numerous as they are varied. Here we shall restrict ourselves to the
main ones.
It should be noted that cracks can appear in the deposited metal or in the parent metal near to the joint.
Their appearance may be due to:
– a lack of energy on the first pass when welding thick plates;
– poor joint design;
– an incorrect choice of filler metal.
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9. - FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS
9.1. - EDGE PREPARATION

For a TIG weld to be compact and even, the edges
must be carefully prepared. The shape of the
groove and the gap must therefore be regular.
TIG welding is generally limited to 6 mm. On thicker
sections, it is only used for the first pass with
another process being used for filling (stick or MIG
welding, for instance).
Preparations for butt welding are as follows:

On high-alloy steels:
¾ thickness (t) < 0.5 mm: close flange butt (Figure

11),
¾ 0.5 ≤ t < 3 mm: open square butt, the gap
between the plates will depend on the thickness
to take account of weld shrinkage (Figure 12),
¾ t ≥ 4 mm: single-V, double-V or single-U

groove.
The type of groove will be chosen according to the

nature of the material, the thickness to be welded,
accessibility, the quality of the weld, etc.
The angle values shown in Figure 13 are therefore
provided as an indication only.

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Finally, a lapped preparation is used for fillet welding

(Figure 14).
On light alloys:
¾ t < 1.5 mm: close flange butt, with or without a backing strip
¾ 1 ≤ t < 4 mm: square butt with the back slightly bevelled up to 3 mm and heavily bevelled on 4 mm
thick plates; both sides are bevelled on 5 mm thick plates. This principle ensures a correct form of
penetration and avoids a lack of fusion.
¾ t ≥ 4 mm: V-groove with an angle of approximately 70° for greater visibility and to allow the torch to
go to the root of the groove for better gas shielding. A 2 to 2.5 mm root face will simplify weld pool
control and enable correct penetration without collapse (cf. Figure 16).
Figure 15 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.) Figure 16 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.)
9.2. - SURFACE PREPARATION

The workpieces must be perfectly clean and free from grease and traces of oxidation. They will need to
have been degreased and mechanically cleaned (scraper, stainless steel brush), or pickled in the case
of light alloys (alkaline etching with caustic soda).
9.3. - WELDING INTENSITY

The welding intensity is determined by the grade of the materials to be joined, plate thickness and the
position of the joint. Therefore, for flat welding with an argon shield, the following rules can be used:
On stainless steel:
- butt welding: 25 to 30 A/mm thick
- inside fillet welding: 25 to 30 A/mm thick +10%
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On light alloys:
ª butt welding: 30 to 40 A/mm thick

ª inside fillet welding: 30 to 40 A/mm thick +10 to 20%
For positional welding, the above values will be reduced by 10 to 20% so as to weld with a narrow weld
pool and, consequently, better control of the pool by the welder during the welding operation.
9.4. - SET-UP METHODOLOGY

To butt-weld two 2 mm thick stainless steel plates in
an upward vertical position (Figure 17):
ª Determining the intensity: a rate of 25 A per mm

of non-oxidising material thickness gives us
25×2≈ 50 Amps.
ª Determining the electrode diameter: a rate of
100 A per mm diameter gives us a diameter of
1 mm.
ª Determining the nozzle diameter: as we have a
horizontal vertical butt joint in stainless steel, we
shall make sure that a maximum shield is
provided with a diameter of at least 10 mm, or
even 12 mm.
Particular attention shall be paid to the position of the
torch in the plane perpendicular to the plane formed by
the two plates, and to the torch angle. The filler metal
will be in the same plane as the torch with an angle of
10 to 20° in relation to the plates.
To butt-weld two 1 mm thick aluminium plates in a flat
position (Figure 18):
ª Determining the intensity: a rate of 30 A per mm

of non-oxidising material thickness gives us
30×2≈ 60 Amps.
ª Determining the electrode diameter: a rate of 55
A per mm diameter gives us a diameter of
1.6 mm.
ª Determining the nozzle diameter: as we have a
horizontal vertical butt joint in aluminium, we
shall make sure that a maximum shield is
provided with a diameter of at least 10 mm.
Positioning requirements are identical to the previous
example. But if the edge if not bevelled correctly,
there is a risk of incorrect penetration. Figure 18 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.)
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10. - SUMMARY
Investment 5 000 to 30 000 Francs
All types of steel, light alloys, copper and copper alloys, titanium,
Weldable materials
zirconium, molybdenum, etc.
Common 0.5 to 8 mm
thicknesses over 8 mm, only as a root pass
Generator
Drooping or vertical
characteristic
DC with electrode negative
Current types
AC for light alloys
Minimum no-load 60 V with argon shield
voltage U0 75 V with helium shield
Welding voltage 8 to 15 V
U2 U = 10 + 0.04.I
Welding intensity 10 to 400 A
I2 Simplified rule: 25 to 50 times the thickness to be welded
Most common dia. 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2
Efficiency (%) 95
Duty cycle (%) 30
Linear welding
5 to 20
speed (cm/min)
Deposition rate
Intrinsically nil
(kg/h)
Gas (l/min) 3 to 10
Good bead profile

Advantages
Good workability
Workpiece preparation necessary
Drawbacks Slow processes
Deformations
Health and safety Usual risks + asphyxia by inert gas
Applications Aviation, space, food processing and nuclear industries

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11. - DERIVATIVE PROCESSES
11.1. - PULSED TIG

In the case of delicate welding operations, such as on
very thin workpieces, with difficult-to-join metals and
alloys or on tubes in position, we need the greatest
possible control over welding energy, the volume of
the weld pool and penetration.
This is obtained with generators using electronics that
are capable of emitting current pulses with variable
waveform, amplitude, length and frequency.
A pulsed current can therefore be used to weld:
ª heavy metals with a DC supply,

ª light alloys with an AC supply.
Pulsing devices are either optional or built into the

welding generators.
Pulsed current has a number of advantages:
ª lower welding energy can be used than with a

smooth current on the same joint;
ª a small, narrow weld pool can be used for easier
control and welding in all positions;
ª continuity of penetration is better controlled with
current peaks;
ª much thinner workpieces can be welded than is
the case with a smooth current.
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11.2. - ORBITAL TIG
-{}-
This is a specific variant of tube butting or tube-to-

tube plate welding techniques.
This is a fully automated process where the motor-
driven torch, mounted on rails, moves around the
tube (Figure 21). The filler metal is supplied by a
spool of wire and a feeder.
11.3. - DOUBLE-FLOW TIG Figure 21 (SAF doc.)
Compared with conventional TIG welding, the

double-flow TIG process helps to increase welding
performance by contracting the arc by a second gas
flow (Figure 22). The annular gas and the shielding
gas may be the same or different gases.
Plates up to the following thickness can therefore be

welded in a single pass, without preparation:
5 mm, on stainless steel,
6 mm, on light alloy. Figure 22 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.)
Welding intensity is lower for a given thickness than in

the case of conventional TIG welding, thereby reducing the volume of the weld pool.
This results in a narrow bead, a limited heat-affected zone and fewer welding deformations.
11.4. - HOT WIRE TIG

To increase the deposition rate of the conventional
TIG process, it has been proposed to heat the filler
wire, by a Joule effect, using an auxiliary AC source to
avoid arc formation (cf. Figure 23).
Deposition rates three to four times higher (up to
3 kg/h) than with a cold wire (approximately 1 kg/h)
have been achieved using this process.
By comparison, values of around 300 g/h are
achieved manually.
This process can only be used in automatic welding.
Figure 23 (SAF doc.)

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12. - MULTICATHODE TIG

Three of four small TIG heads placed in a line a short
distance apart, each with its own welding current
supply, form a single weld pool. The first electrode is
designed to provide preheating, the middle one or two
provide(s) penetration and welding, and the final one
makes the cosmetic pass (cf. Figure 24).
It is possible to combine TIG, dual-shield TIG and
plasma processes.
This special equipment is practically only used for the
automatic longitudinal welding of thin stainless steel
or light alloy tubes, with welding speeds of up to
several metres per minute.
12.1. - A-TIG Figure 24 (INSTITUT DE SOUDURE doc.)
This technique consists of depositing a thin film of

surface active flux, composed essentially of metallic oxides (TiO, TiO2, Cr2O3,…) and fluorides, to the
workpieces to be joined. The TIG welding plant is not altered in any way.
When the arc is established, the components of the flux vaporise and produce a constricted arc effect.
This results in an increase in the specific power of the arc and improved penetration.
Example: welding 6 mm thick stainless steel
I = 200 A, U = 12 V, Vw = 10 cm/min, Gas = Argon
As this technique requires a very stable arc length, it is only used in automatic welding.
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13.1. - ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

Safety instructions relative to the current generators used in TIG welding are identical to those applying
to stick welding appliances, i.e.
ª use of insulated conductors,

ª grounding of appliances,
ª installation of automatic power-off functions in the event of a grounding fault.
Additional electrical protection includes:
ª the wearing of insulated gloves during welding,

ª the use of insulated boxes or supports on which to place the torch between welding operations.
13.2. - RADIATION PROTECTION
Much less radiation is emitted by the arc in TIG welding than in stick welding.
Ultraviolet: 4 times less.
Infrared: 1.5 times more intense.
The operator’s sight must therefore be protected against such radiation with the aid of a protective eye
filter selected according to the nature of the materials and the welding intensities.
For head protection, a helmet will be used in preference to a mask because of the need to have both
hands free to hold the torch and the filler metal.
13.3. - FUME PROTECTION

TIG welding is the process that produces least welding fumes. The only fume emissions possible in TIG
welding come from poorly cleaned or degreased workpieces or accidental contact between the weld pool
and the tungsten electrode.
Particular care should therefore be taken to ensure that the surfaces are properly cleaned and
degreased with the statutory products (e.g. no traces of paint, no use of trichloroethylene).
13.4. - ELECTRODE DUST PROTECTION

The maximum percentage of thorium oxides contained in thoriated tungsten electrodes is 4.2% by
weight. The natural radioactivity of thorium is relatively high but remains below the specified limits for
welders.
Due to the nature of the radiation generated, the external radiation hazard in storage, on welding or on
elimination of the solid waste is totally negligible.
On the other hand, on grinding the tip of the electrodes, there is an undeniable risk of suspension of
radioactive dust in the air, and therefore a risk of internal exposure by inhalation; even if it is minor, a
pulmonary hazard does exist. A dust extractor is therefore required at the grinding source,
complemented if necessary by individual respiratory protection equipment.
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13.5. - UNDER-OXYGENATION IN WELDING OPERATIONS

It should be pointed out that, while argon is a non-toxic gas, if large quantities are inhaled, it can cause
asphyxia due to oxygen deficiency. As argon is heavier than air, special monitoring will be carried out
during welding operations in tank bottoms, for example, to prevent a stagnant layer of argon from
forming in the lower sections.
In particular, the oxygen content in the air becomes depleted leading to a risk of dizziness or even
asphyxia. This phenomenon is more marked with TIG and MIG processes using argon which, as we
have said, is heavier than air.
14. - BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Photo credits: - SAF.
- AIR LIQUIDE.
- INSTITUT DE SOUDURE.
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Figure 1
Buse Nozzle
Métal d’apport Filler metal
Gaz inerte Inert gas
Electrode réfractaire en tungstène Non-consumable tungsten electrode
Arc Arc
Métal de base Parent metal
Bain de fusion Weld pool
Zone fondue Weld bead
Figure 2
Baguette de métal d’apport Filler rod

Torche Torch
Gaz de soudage inerte Inert welding gas
Commande à distance Remote control
Figure 3
Version for welding difficult-to-reach joints
Figure 4
Points de fonctionnement Working points

I constant I constant
Figure 7
Polarité de l’électrode Electrode polarity

Temps Time
Figure 10
Débit et diamètre… Flowrate and nozzle diameter according to joint

Débit normal Normal flowrate
Augmenter le débit Increase the flowrate
Prendre une buse… Take a smaller diameter nozzle and reduce the
flowrate
Figure 11
e < 0,5 mm t < 0.5 mm

Bords relevés non subsistants Flange butt without backing
h = 2,5 e h = 2.5 t
Bords relevés subsistants Flange butt with backing
h=3à4e h = 3 to 4 t
Figure 12
3 mm > e > 0,5 mm 3 mm > t > 0.5 mm

g = quelques 1/10 suivant e g = few tenths according to t
em thickness
sm root face
variable en fonction de la position variable according to position
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Figure 15
3 mm > e > 1 mm 3 mm > t > 1 mm

Carres légèrement abattues Slightly bevelled
e = 4 mm t = 4 mm
Carres fortement abattues Heavily bevelled
Figure 16
e = 5 mm t = 5 mm
Carres fortement abattues des 2 côtés Heavily bevelled on both sides
e ≥ 6 mm t ≥ 6 mm
S = 2 à 2,5 mm S = 2 to 2.5 mm
Chanfrein à 60° et carres abattues 60° groove and bevelled
Figures 17 et 18
10° to 20° (etc.)
Figures 19 et 20
I peak
I base
Figure 22
Gaz annulaire Annular gas

Inox SS
Alu Al
Figure 24
15 to 25 mm
Figure 25
Conventional TIG
A-TIG
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.9 : MIG-MAG WELDING

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VOCATIONAL MIG - MAG WELDING

1
TRAINING date: 25/01/02
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 31
MIG - MAG WELDING
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL INFORMATION...............................................................................................................3
1.1. History ......................................................................................................................................3
1.2. Principle....................................................................................................................................3
1.3. Field of use...............................................................................................................................4
1.4. Welding plant............................................................................................................................4
2. INSTALLATION ................................................................................................................................5
2.1. The generator...........................................................................................................................5
2.2. Characteristics..........................................................................................................................5
2.3. Self-regulation ..........................................................................................................................6
2.4. Polarities...................................................................................................................................6
2.5. The control unit.........................................................................................................................6
2.6. Torch or gun .............................................................................................................................7
2.7. The wire circuit .........................................................................................................................7
2.8. Wire feed ..................................................................................................................................8
2.8.1. Push......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.8.2. Pull........................................................................................................................................... 8
2.8.3. Push-pull .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.8.4. Separate .................................................................................................................................. 8
3. THE VARIOUS TRANSFER MODES ...............................................................................................9
3.1. Short-circuiting (short arc) ........................................................................................................9
3.2. Spray arc (long arc)................................................................................................................10
3.3. Globular transfer.....................................................................................................................10
4. GASES ............................................................................................................................................11
4.1. Classification ..........................................................................................................................11
4.2. Uses .......................................................................................................................................11
4.3. Accessible transfer modes .....................................................................................................12
4.4. Flowrates................................................................................................................................12
4.5. Backing...................................................................................................................................12
4.6. Precautions ............................................................................................................................13
4.6.1. Storage in gaseous form ........................................................................................................ 13
4.6.2. Storage in liquid form ............................................................................................................. 13
4.6.3. Pipes ...................................................................................................................................... 13
4.6.4. Safety..................................................................................................................................... 13
5. MIG/MAG WIRES............................................................................................................................14
6. FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS .......................................................................................................14

6.1. Edge preparation....................................................................................................................15
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6.2. Surface preparation................................................................................................................15

6.3. Arc voltage U2 ........................................................................................................................15
6.4. Welding intensity I2 .................................................................................................................15
6.5. Wire feed rate.........................................................................................................................16
6.6. Wire diameter .........................................................................................................................16
6.7. Stickout...................................................................................................................................17
6.8. Inductor ..................................................................................................................................17
6.9. Welding direction....................................................................................................................17
6.9.1. Pull welding............................................................................................................................ 17
6.9.2. Push welding.......................................................................................................................... 18
6.10. Practical application ...............................................................................................................18
7. EDGE PREPARATION ...................................................................................................................19
7.1. Steel welding: flat, upward and overhead welding. ................................................................19
7.2. Downward welding .................................................................................................................20
7.3. Aluminium alloy welding .........................................................................................................21
8. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................22
9. DERIVATIVE PROCESSES............................................................................................................23
9.1. Flux-Cored Arc Welding .........................................................................................................23
9.1.1. Flux-cored self-shielded wire.................................................................................................. 24
9.1.2. Flux-cored gas-shielded wire ................................................................................................. 24
9.1.3. The various types of wire ....................................................................................................... 25
9.1.4. Gases used............................................................................................................................ 25
9.2. Pulsed MIG.............................................................................................................................25
9.2.1. Principle ................................................................................................................................. 25
9.3. Benefit and field of use of pulsed MIG welding ......................................................................26
9.3.1. Advantages: ........................................................................................................................... 26
9.4. Two-wire, two-generator welding ...........................................................................................27
9.5. Rotary arc...............................................................................................................................27
9.6. Controlled short arc ................................................................................................................28
9.7. Forced short arc .....................................................................................................................28
9.8. Electrogas process.................................................................................................................29
9.8.1. Advantages: ........................................................................................................................... 29
9.8.2. Drawbacks ............................................................................................................................. 29
9.8.3. The wires ............................................................................................................................... 29
9.8.4. Field of use ............................................................................................................................ 29
9.9. MIG plasma process ..............................................................................................................30
9.9.1. Installation.............................................................................................................................. 30
9.9.2. Advantages / Drawbacks........................................................................................................ 30
9.9.3. Field of use ............................................................................................................................ 30
10. HEALTH AND SAFETY ..................................................................................................................31
10.1. Electrical protection ................................................................................................................31
10.2. Radiation protection ...............................................................................................................31
10.3. Fume protection .....................................................................................................................31
10.4. Over and under-oxygenation in welding operations ...............................................................31
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Nomenclature: MIG 131 (per ISO 4063:1990)

MAG 135 (per ISO 4063:1990)
French designation: Soudage à l’arc électrique en atmosphère gazeuse avec électrode fusible
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
MAG (Metal Active Gas)
American designation: GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
1.1. HISTORY
MIG welding developed in the United States from 1942. It was used there on an industrial basis from
1948 and introduced into France in 1951.
The MAG process appeared around 1960 with CO2 and Ar + CO2 mixtures replacing argon. Unalloyed
carbon steels could now be welded.
1.2. PRINCIPLE
Gas-shielded metal arc welding is a process in which the heat source used to obtain simultaneous fusion
of the edges of the workpieces to be joined and the filler metal is an electric arc formed in an inert or
active atmosphere between the workpieces to be welded and a consumable electrode (Figure 1).
Figure 1 (SAF doc.)
Heat source: arc struck between a fusible wire electrode and the workpiece
Filler metal: fusible wire electrode from a spool
Weld pool shield: inert or active gas
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1.3. FIELD OF USE

MIG/MAG welding is a semi-automatic process covering practically the vast field of application of the
SMAW process, while ensuring greater productivity. It also permits welding on a wider range of materials
(light alloys, copper alloys).
This process can be used on light-duty workpieces (from 0.5 mm thick).
It is used for metal frameworks, fabricated structures, rolling stock, farm equipment, motor vehicles, etc.
Its use is more limited under difficult worksite conditions because of the gas shield.
It is a fully automatable process that can be used in robotics.
It is widely used as seen in the fact that MIG/MAG wires represent around 50% of the tonnage in filler
metals used across all processes.
1.4. WELDING PLANT

Diagrammatically, a MIG/MAG welding plant (Figure 2) comprises:
- a generator,
- a control unit, usually built into the generator,
- a feeder device feeding the wire at a regular rate,
- a gas supply,
- a water cooling device when using intensities higher than 300 A,
- a torch or gun guiding the end of the electrode wire, directing the arc and supplying the shielding gas
through a nozzle,
- a harness containing the guided electrode wire in a conduit, the current feed cable, the cables
connected to the control unit, the gas pipe and the water pipes if the torch is water-cooled.
Figure 2 (SAF doc.)

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2. INSTALLATION
2.1. THE GENERATOR

In principle, the generator consists of:
- a three-phase transformer adaptable to the mains voltage and to the secondary voltage adjusted by
the welder;
- a bridge rectifier, allowing DC power to be obtained, with or without a cooling fan;
- an inductor, which has an important role particularly in a short-arc system. It smoothes the current
and therefore modifies the short-circuit frequency and hence the energy in the arc;
- a contactor, connected to the primary winding of the transformer, controlled by the torch push-button.
It switches the power source (and therefore the wire) on or off;
- a fan cooling the transformer and the bridge rectifier;
- an auxiliary transformer supplies low-voltage power to the feeder, fan, voltmeter and/or ammeter.
2.2. CHARACTERISTICS
Generators suited to MIG/MAG welding deliver
current intensities ranging from 30 to 450 A. Certain
automatic units can however reach intensities of the
order of 800 A.
These generators have a flat or horizontal
characteristic (Figure 3).
The high short-circuit intensity provides instant arc
ignition.
No-load voltages U0 vary from 40 to 80 V.
U2 = 14 +0.05.I2 for I2 ≤ 600 A

U2 = 44 V for I2 > 600 A
Figure 3
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2.3. SELF-REGULATION
To ensure stable welding conditions, the fusion rate
of the wire should be equal to the feed rate.
This can be achieved thanks to the flat
characteristic of the generator.
When the arc voltage varies (when the welder
moves the torch nearer to or away from the weld),
the intensity also varies in proportion (Figure 4).
If the arc is lengthened, the voltage increases and
the intensity drops. The wire therefore melts less
quickly and the arc length diminishes until it regains
its initial balanced position.
Conversely, if the arc length is diminished, the
voltage drops and the intensity increases. The wire Figure 4
melts faster and the arc lengthens until it regains its
initial balanced position.
2.4. POLARITIES
As MIG/MAG welding always uses a DC supply, the welding arc is established with the fusible electrode
connected to the positive pole (DC+). The wire is therefore subjected to electron bombardment which
encourages its fusion. This polarity ensures better arc stability.
An electrode negative connection (CC-) is less favourable as the wire is not heated as much. The drops
of metal are larger and fewer. This results in a convex weld seam. This polarity is not used with a solid
wire.
2.5. THE CONTROL UNIT

The control unit is generally built into the welding station. It includes the components required to activate
the various phases of the welding cycle:
- opening the gas feed (pre-gas) to purge the line,
- opening the water flow (on cooled torches),
- switching on,
- feeding the wire,
- stopping the wire,
- interrupting the welding current,
- delayed closure of the gas feed (post-gas) to shield the still-hot weld pool and electrode.
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2.6. TORCH OR GUN

The angled torch (Fig.5) and the straight gun (Fig.6)
are the welding tools used by a manual welder.
They bring together all the elements supplied by the
cables and pipes needed to produce the arc:
- Wire → conduit and contact tube,
- Current → welding cable and contact tube,
- Gas → pipe, lance and nozzle, Figure 5 (SAF doc.)
- Water → supply and return pipes,
- Control → control cable and push-button.

The electric current is transferred to the wire in the
torch via a copper tube called a contact tube. The
diameter of the contact tube must be adapted to
the diameter of the wire used. The current infeed is
supplied by a sliding contact (friction) which
illustrates the need to use perfectly gauged wires
and the corresponding contact tubes.
The torch also includes a nozzle to channel the
welding gas. Common nozzle diameters vary from
10 to 25 mm.
Figure 6 (SAF doc.)
2.7. THE WIRE CIRCUIT

It contains all of the components required to bring the wire (Figure 7) to the arc:
- a spool of wire (generally 15 kg) mounted on an insulated, braked spindle;
- a feed system comprising a variable-speed electric motor allowing several rolls to draw the wire
through a generally metal conduit;
- a conduit leading to the torch where the welding current is transferred to the wire by friction in the
contact tube.
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Figure 7
2.8. WIRE FEED

The feeder draws the electrode wire from the spool
to the contact tube. It plays an important role as it
must ensure a constant feed rate.
The wire is drawn by means of pinch rolls driven by
a motor (Figure 8). Depending on the spool-torch
distance and the nature of the wire, several
different methods of wire feed can be found.
2.8.1. Push
The wire is pushed through the conduit by the rolls.
This is the most frequent solution for short harness
lengths (< 4 m). Figure 8
2.8.2. Pull
The wire is pulled from a gun. Used particularly with soft or small diameter wire, it also allows the
harness length to be extended.
2.8.3. Push-pull
A combination of the above two systems, this
solution is suitable for soft or small diameter wires
with greater harness lengths (> 8 m).
2.8.4. Separate
The feed system, near to the torch, is separate from
the welding unit. Long harnesses that used to
generate considerable friction in the conduits are no longer a cause for concern.
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3. THE VARIOUS TRANSFER MODES

As current densities are very high (up to 200 A/mm²), the wire is melted on the one hand by the heat of
the arc and, on the other, by a joule effect in the electrode stickout extending beyond the tip of the
contact tube.
Fusion will not always be performed in the same way. Metal transfer across the arc can take several
forms according to the voltage, intensity and gas used.
There are basically three transfer modes:
- Short-circuiting, or short arc
- Globular
- Spray arc.
3.1. SHORT-CIRCUITING (SHORT ARC)

This transfer mode is obtained with relatively low
voltage and intensity values corresponding to short
arcs.
- Low voltage (15 – 22 V),
- Low intensity (50 – 200 A)
In this mode, the arc is so short that as the drop
forms, it comes into contact with the weld pool
(Figure 9). This results in a short circuit during
which the intensity rises quickly, creating a pinch
effect due to electromagnetic force which makes
the drop easier to detach. Once detached, the arc
is re-established and the cycle starts again.
Figure 9 (Lincoln doc.)
The cycle is repeated 50 to 200 times per second.
The very high short-circuiting current can result in a considerable amount of spatter. To prevent
excessive current fluctuations, a variable inductor is placed in the welding circuit.
Advantages: - light-duty welding in all positions,
- penetration passes for heavy-duty welding.
Drawbacks: - spatter,
- stubbing.
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3.2. SPRAY ARC (LONG ARC)

This transfer mode is obtained with relatively high
voltage and intensity values corresponding to long
arcs.
- High voltage
- High intensity
The arc is long and stable. The electrode wire melts
in fine droplets that are easily detached under the
action of electromagnetic force (Figure 10). They
are then projected at high speed into the weld pool
resulting in a high level of penetration.
Advantages: - little spatter, Figure 10
- no stubbing,
Drawbacks: - heavy-duty welding (> 5 mm thick),
- flat welding.
3.3. GLOBULAR TRANSFER

This transfer mode is obtained with relatively
moderate voltage and intensity values
corresponding to arcs of moderate length.
- Moderate voltage
- Moderate intensity
This is in an intermediate arc type in which the drop
grows slowly (Figure 11). Here the pinch effect is
insufficient to detach the drop. It continues to grow
therefore and is only detached under the force of
gravity. It then follows a random path which can
end up outside the groove.
Advantages: - groove filling
Drawbacks: - considerable spatter,
Figure 11
- low penetration levels.
This transfer mode is to be avoided for MAG welding if minimum spatter is a priority, but can be used in
MIG for its minimum welding energy.
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4. GASES
4.1. CLASSIFICATION
Many gases are used in MIG/MAG welding. They are classified in terms of atmosphere:
PURE INERT: Ar, He, Ar + He PURE ACTIVE: CO2, O2
ACTIVATED: mixture of two, three or more components: Ar + CO2, Ar + O2, Ar + CO2 + O2…
MIG corresponds to the use of a pure inert atmosphere. MAG corresponds to the use of a pure active or
activated atmosphere. Although the gases can be used pure or in a mixture, each type of gas will have a
different influence on the molten pool.
- Argon: quite deep, narrow penetration.
- Carbon dioxide: average wetting and wide penetration.
- Oxygen: good wetting and quite narrow, but deep penetration.
- Helium: good wetting, deep, narrow penetration and a wide weld metal zone.
- Hydrogen: only used on non-hardening and austenitic steel.
- Nitrogen: only used as a backing gas on austenitic steels.
4.2. USES
Aluminium
Chemical composition Carbon steel Stainless steel
Copper
Ar •
CO2 •
Ar 82% CO2 18% •
Ar 98.5% O2 1.5%
•
Ar 96.5% O2 3.5%
•
Ar 95% O2 5%
•
Ar 92% CO2 8%
• •
Ar 80% He 20% •
Ar 30% He 70% •
Ar CO2 5% O2 4.5% •
Ar CO2 10% O2 4.5% •
Ar CO2 15% O2 5% •
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4.3. ACCESSIBLE TRANSFER MODES

Each pure gas or gas mixture will have an influence on arc characteristics and the transfer mode. It has
been shown that short arc or spray arc transfer modes are not accessible with certain gases.
These findings are summarised in the following table:
Transfer
Short arc Globular Spray arc
Atmosphere
Pure inert NO YES YES
Activated YES YES YES
Pure active YES YES NO
4.4. FLOWRATES
Depending on the intensity and the welding position, the gas flowrate varies from 15 to 25 l/min. Make
sure that the nozzle is cleaned regularly as it can get fouled up or even blocked by spatter.
4.5. BACKING
As in TIG welding, a lack of backing during the full-penetration welding of stainless steel can lead to
excessive root porosity.
The following gases are commonly used for backing:
For austenitic stainless steels: N2 or N2 + H2.
For other stainless steels: Ar or gas used for face shielding.
For unalloyed steels: no shielding.
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4.6. PRECAUTIONS
4.6.1. Storage in gaseous form
The gas or gas mixture is stored in steel cylinders
(Figure 13) in the form of compressed gas at
approximately 200 bars. One litre of oxygen at 200
bars will produce around 200 litres of oxygen once
reduced to atmospheric pressure.
Depending on cylinder size, the volume of gas
contained in the cylinders is therefore 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
or 10 m³.
These cylinders are fitted with a valve with a control
mechanism and a standardised outlet port on which
a regulator is mounted.
Gas pressure regulating stations must comprise:
cylinder hoses (A), manifolds (B), connecting pipes
(C), change-over pipes (D), a regulating change-
Figure 12
over assembly (E), a backup circuit assembly (F),
racks (G) and a device (H) indicating when either of
the two groups is empty.
4.6.2. Storage in liquid form

Gases stored in liquid form at approximately -182°C
and atmospheric pressure in a cryogenic vessel
(Figure 14) are sometimes used to produce
mixtures on site in case of high consumption.
The gaseous state is obtained in this case by
evaporating the liquid.
1) evaporator; 2) cryogenic valve; 3) atmospheric
heater; 4) valve.
4.6.3. Pipes
Rigid pipes can be in copper or brass, although
they are generally in galvanised steel.
4.6.4. Safety
The cylinders must be handled with care to prevent
damage to the shells. Above all, they must not be
used when laid down.
Figure 13
When full, they must be stored in a cool place and
under no circumstances must a lit blowpipe be hooked up to them or a source of heat be brought in
proximity to the shell.
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5. MIG/MAG WIRES
These are solid, drawn and gauged wires supplied in spools or on drums.
Diameters are standardised as follows: 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4 and 3.2 mm.
The choice of wire depends on the nature of the metals to be welded and the nature of the controlled
atmosphere.
In fact, the results obtained with a wire with a given chemical composition will differ according to the gas
used. Some gases (or mixtures) will have a favourable effect and others not. A variation in bead
geometry (build-up), penetration, wetting and a slight drifting of the electrical parameters may be noted.
The standards generally used for filler materials are as follows:
NF EN 440 (12/94) (A 81 311): Wire electrodes for gas-shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and
fine-grain steels.
NF A 81 313 (10/90) (A 81 313): Wire electrodes, wires and rods for arc welding of stainless and
heat-resisting steels.
NF A 81 331 (05/84) (A 81 331): Filler materials for welding aluminium and aluminium alloys.
6. FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS
The successful completion of a MIG/MAG process hinges on the balance between the wire feed rate and
the fusion rate. For a given wire and gas, this balance depends on:
- the arc voltage U2,
- the welding current intensity I2,
- the wire feed rate (Vf),
- the arc length,
- the stickout.
Other parameters may then affect the bead appearance:
- welding direction,
- edge preparation,
- surface preparation,
- welding speed,
- torch angle, etc.
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6.1. EDGE PREPARATION

In theory, there are no thickness limits for MIG/MAG welding. For very thick workpieces, grooves may
need to be machined to minimise the quantity of filler metal required (see Appendix).
Preparations for butt welding are generally as follows.
On steels (unalloyed or stainless):
t ≤ 1.5 mm: close square butt,
1.5 < t ≤ 4 mm: open square butt,

4 < t < 12 mm: single V-groove,
t ≥ 12 mm: double V-groove, if access is possible on the back,
t ≥ 12 mm: single V or U-groove, if access is not possible on the back.

On light alloys:
1.5 ≤ t ≤ 6 mm: square butt,
6 < t ≤ 12 mm: single V-groove,

t > 12 mm: double V-groove, if access is possible on the back,
t > 12 mm: single V or U-groove, if access is not possible on the back.
When welding aluminium, it is preferable to bevel the back for a correct form of penetration.
6.2. SURFACE PREPARATION

The workpieces must be perfectly clean and free from grease and traces of oxidation. They will need to
have been degreased and mechanically cleaned (scraper, stainless steel brush), or pickled in the case
of light alloys (alkaline etching with caustic soda).
Cleaning is optional, however, for MAG welding of
unalloyed steels.
6.3. ARC VOLTAGE U2

U2 and I2 determine the transfer mode for a given
wire diameter and for a given arc length (Figure
15).
Therefore, for given wire diameters, we have
optimum voltage setting ranges to obtain a certain
transfer mode.
6.4. WELDING INTENSITY I2

Welding intensity depends, amongst other things,
on the thickness of the workpieces to be joined and Figure 14 (SAF doc.)
the welding position.
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A given wire diameter provides access to a certain range of intensities:
Wire diameter
Intensity range
(mm)
0.6 40 – 100
0.8 60 – 180
1 120 – 320
1.2 150 – 380
1.6 220 - 700
It is also possible to use the following simple rule: I2 = 100 to 300 A per mm2 of section.
6.5. WIRE FEED RATE

Welding intensity is determined by the wire feed rate which can be found by examining the fusion curve
(Figure 16).
Obviously as the wire feed rate increases, the more
wire is added to the weld pool. A higher intensity is
therefore needed to melt the additional quantity of
wire.
6.6. WIRE DIAMETER

Globally, the wire diameter depends on the
intensity used and also on the job at hand.
If all other parameters remain constant, an increase
in the wire diameter leads to a rise in the arc
voltage.
Various wire diameters therefore generate several
fusion curves.

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6.7. STICKOUT
As a general rule, the stickout varies between
seven and fifteen times the wire diameter (Figure
17).
The electric current is transferred to the wire at
contact tube height, then runs through the wire to
the arc. The wire therefore heats up by a Joule
effect due to the resistance of the wire (R = ρl/s). As
the wire is hot, its fusion rate increases and the
fusion curve is modified as a result.
This stickout is generally controlled by the welder
with the contact tube-to-plate distance (Pt + h;
Figure 12), which is of the order of 15 mm for
common wire diameters.
6.8. INDUCTOR Figure 16 (SAF doc.)
Inductance is used in short-arc transfer where its setting affects spatter and weld appearance. If set too
high, it can lead to stubbing. If set too low, it can cause increased spatter.
6.9. WELDING DIRECTION

A “pull” or a “push” method can equally be adopted, except when welding aluminium alloys which can
only be done using a “push” technique. However, the characteristics specific to these two methods must
be emphasised.
6.9.1. Pull welding

Penetration and build-up are greater (Figure 18). Progress is slower than with the push technique due to
the lack of vision caused by the nozzle hiding the joint. This method is to be used when working with the
spray arc transfer mode as it produces high deposition rates.
Figure 17
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6.9.2. Push welding

Penetration is not as great as with the pull technique and build-up is quite insignificant (Figure 19). The
progress rate is higher. The welder has a full view of the joint.
Figure 18
6.10. PRACTICAL APPLICATION

ª To weld two 4 mm thick mild steel plates in an upward vertical position with a 1 mm diameter
wire, the setting will be done empirically with several tests on samples:
• Determining the intensity and the wire feed rate: with a voltage of 18.5 V, we shall have a wire
feed rate of approximately 3.5 M/min.
• The gas flowrate will be around 20 L/min. due to the welding position.
ª To weld two 6mm thick aluminium plates in a flat position with a 1.2 mm diameter wire, the
setting will be done empirically with several tests on samples:
• Determining the intensity and the wire feed rate: with a voltage of 24.6 V, we shall have a wire
feed rate of approximately 9.2 M/min. corresponding to an intensity of around 130 A.
• The gas flowrate will be around 18 L/min. due to the welding position.
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7. EDGE PREPARATION
7.1. STEEL WELDING: FLAT, UPWARD AND OVERHEAD WELDING.

t ≤ 1,5 mm 1,5 mm < t ≤ 4 mm 4 mm < t ≤ 6 mm 6 mm < t < 12 mm
60° bevel
(1) single V single V

(2) (4)
(3)
(1) (4)
(1) (4)
no special preparation
(1)
(4)
no special <preparation
(1) These single-pass joints present definite operational difficulties due to the high welding speed. Moreover,
welding over the spots leads inevitably to a lack of penetration in the case of butt and outside fillet joints. It is
therefore advisable to produce these joints on plates flanged in suitable jigs or to grind the spots to a taper.
(2) Bevelling to mid-depth makes it possible to weld in a single pass but there is a risk of stubbing at the root. The
60° groove eliminates these risks but requires an extra pass.
(3) With 5 and 6 mm thick workpieces, two-pass welding must sometimes be envisaged where the wire diameter is
insufficient.
(4) Several passes are required for these joints.
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7.2. DOWNWARD WELDING

t ≤ 1,5 mm 1,5 mm < t ≤ 4 mm 4 mm < t ≤ 6 mm 6 mm < t < 12 mm
60° bevel
single V singleV
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7.3. ALUMINIUM ALLOY WELDING

Pulsed MIG generators are recommended for aluminium alloys to produce quality welds.
1,5 mm ≤ t ≤ 4 mm 4 mm < t ≤ 6 mm 6 mm < t ≤ 12 mm t > 12 mm
deep bevelling on both single V and deep

slight bevelling on back
sides bevelling on back
bevelling on back bevelling on back bevelling on back bevelling on back
The second side is bevelled to avoid a lack of fusion.

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8. SUMMARY
Unalloyed, low-alloy and high-alloy steels

Weldable materials
Ni, Cu, Al
Short arc: 0.5 to 6 mm
Common thicknesses
Spray arc: over 6 mm thick
Generator
Flat
characteristic
Current types DC+
Minimum no-load
Non-significant
voltages U0
Short arc: 14 to 22 V
Welding voltages
Spray arc: 25 to 35 V
U2
U = 14 + 5 I/100
Short arc: 30 to 200 A
Welding intensities I2 Spray arc: > 200 A
Simple rule: 100 to 300 A/mm²
Most common filler
0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6 and 2
metal diameters
Stickout 7 to 15 times wire diameter
Efficiency (%) 83
Linear welding speed

20 to 40
(cm/min)
Deposition rate (kg/h) 0.7 to 6
Gas 5 to 20 l/min
High deposition rate compared with stick welding

Good bead appearance
Advantages
Little or no slag
Little spatter
Gas shield required
Drawbacks Deformations
Risks of stubbing with short-arc transfer mode
Welder protection against:
Health and safety
Electricity, radiation, heat, fumes, gas
Site work and fabrication in areas ranging from the automotive industry to
Applications heavy construction
Represents around 50% of all metal deposited in France
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9. DERIVATIVE PROCESSES
9.1. FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING

Also known by the abbreviation FCAW.
Flux-cored wires are formed by a metal sheath filled with various types of powder (metallic or mineral)
and drawn like a conventional wire (Figure 20).
Figure 19
The principle of flux-cored arc welding is the same as MIG/MAG welding. A DC power supply is always
used but the electrode may be negative or positive depending on the nature of the core. As in the case
of covered electrodes, rutile or basic flux-cored wires are found.
Welding is always rightward using a pull technique.
In the standard nomenclature per ISO 4063, FCAW splits into a number of categories:
ª Flux-cored self-shielded wire 114 (per ISO 4063:1990)

ª Flux-cored gas-shielded wire - active 136 (per ISO 4063:1990)
- inert 137 (per ISO 4063:1990)
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9.1.1. Flux-cored self-shielded wire

This process is also called INNERSHIELDTM
(Figure 21).
As in SMAW, the weld pool is shielded by the
decomposition of the flux core which has a number
of effects:
ª arc stabilisation,
ª deoxidisation,
ª gas emission shielding the metal transfer
and the weld pool,
ª production of slag shielding the molten
metal while cooling,
ª addition of alloying elements. Figure 20 (Lincoln doc.)
The stickout is greater than in MIG/MAG welding
(10 to 25 X wire diameter).
Use of these wires is advantageous on site where it
is difficult to have a gas supply, and particularly
because it is less sensitive to wind than gas-
shielded welding processes.
9.1.2. Flux-cored gas-shielded wire

Here, the gases produced by the decomposition of
the flux core are insufficient to shield the liquid
metal transfer and the weld pool. An additional
shielding gas is therefore required (Figure 22).
The flux-cored wires used here can be split into two
categories:
ª flux-cored wire with slag

ª no-slag flux-cored wire (metallic powder
core).
The essential roles of these types of wire are as
follows:
ª arc stabilisation,
ª deoxidisation,
ª addition of alloying elements,
ª increased deposition rate,
ª greater penetration due to the high intensity used.
These wires are especially used in the workshop.
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9.1.3. The various types of wire

As in the case of covered electrodes, flux-cored wires are classified according to the nature of the
deposited metal:
NF EN 758 (05/97) (A 81 350): Tubular cored electrodes for metal arc welding with and without a gas
shield of non-alloy and fine-grain steels.
A 81 352 (10/86) (A 81 352): Tubular cored electrodes for gas-shielded metal arc welding of high-
strength steels.
A 81 354 (09/86) (A 81 354): Tubular cored electrodes for gas-shielded metal arc welding of creep-
resisting steels.
A 81 356 (10/86) (A 81 356): Bare flux-cored wires depositing a low-temperature steel weld metal.
A 81 358 (10/86) (A 81 358): Tubular cored electrodes for metal arc welding with and without a gas
shield of stainless and heat-resisting steels.
9.1.4. Gases used

In the case of gas-shielded flux-cored welding, active gases are generally used:
CO2
Ar + CO2
Ar + CO2 + O2
Ar + O2
9.2. PULSED MIG

9.2.1. Principle
Pulsed MIG welding combines the advantages of
short-arc transfer (workable, low-volume pool,
working in position and/or with light-duty
workpieces) and spray arc transfer (no spatter,
weld profile, wetting) (Figure 23).
To do this, a pulsed current source is used to form
and detach a drop of metal from the end of the wire
during high-intensity periods (a few ms) and to keep
the arc ignited without wire fusion during low-
intensity periods. Figure 22
In this way, the average intensity remains low while
obtaining a transfer similar to the spray arc technique.
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Pulsed MIG welding parameters (Figure 24):
ª peak I,
ª base I,
ª peak U,
ª base U,
ª peak time,
ª base time,
Other parameters: wire feed rate, welding gas, wire
grade, wire diameter.
For a wire of given grade and diameter and a Figure 23
chosen gas and wire feed rate, the pulsing
parameters need to be adjusted precisely to obtain a good result.
As soon as any one of the parameters changes (e.g. the wire feed rate), the balance is lost as the
parameters are all linked.
This complexity has encouraged manufacturers to develop “synergic” welding generators which are
programmed with preset parameter sequences corresponding to the most traditional applications.
The welder then selects the wire diameter and grade and the gas used and has only the wire feed rate to
control. If the feed rate is modified by the welder, the other parameters change automatically.
The welder will therefore be able to use several forms of welding current with the current source, such
as:
ª manual smooth current used by old plant,

ª synergic smooth current,
ª manual pulsed current (beware of difficult setting),
ª synergic pulsed current.
9.3. BENEFIT AND FIELD OF USE OF PULSED MIG WELDING
The main benefit of this process is that it allows thin light alloy and stainless steel workpieces to be
welded (impossible or very delicate with conventional MIG welding). It also permits welding in position
thanks to weld pool workability, combined with a quality, spatter-free bead appearance.
It allows for very fine parameter adjustment in the case of special applications (such as difficult
weldability or delicate materials: nickel base or titanium alloys).
Its main drawbacks are plant costs and the complexity of settings with anything other than traditional
materials, and therefore outside the range of the preset synergy programmes.
9.3.1. Advantages:
- narrow pool (good weld pool control),
- easier welding in position,
- can be used to weld thin workpieces,
- low welding energy.
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9.4. TWO-WIRE, TWO-GENERATOR

WELDING
Sometimes called Tandem MIG, this is a variant
that uses two wires. Each wire has its own
generator but only one weld pool is used (Figure
25).
Given the high intensities involved, there is a risk of
mutual interference between the two arcs. To
overcome this problem, two synchronised, pulsed
generators with separate regulation are used. In
this way, when one wire is at peak intensity, the
other is at base intensity.
This process has been developed primarily for the
high-speed welding (up to 350 cm/min) of thin
plates (≤ 6 mm). It is designed for mechanised and
automated industrial applications, such as the
automotive industry, shipbuilding, railway
construction and tank manufacturing.
9.5. ROTARY ARC

Beyond traditional MIG/MAG welding limits, a fourth Figure 24
transfer mode is possible. At very high current
densities, the flow produced by the spray arc
process begins to rotate under the effect of
electromagnetic forces. This results in shallower,
wider penetration than is the case with the spray
arc mode (Figure 26).
This is a high-energy process (intensity up to 650
A, voltage up to 55 V, wire feed rate up to 30
m/min) that achieves deposition rates of the order
of 13 to 25 kg/h.

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9.6. CONTROLLED SHORT ARC

The major drawback of short arc transfer is that it often generates spatter and/or causes stubbing. To
eliminate this problem, generators have been perfected to control the current during the short-circuit
phase (Figure 27).
This process is particularly suited to:
- welding thin plates,
- penetration passes on tubes or plates in a downward vertical position.
With an equivalent weld quality, this technique is two to three times quicker than TIG welding.
9.7. FORCED SHORT ARC

When welding with short-arc metal transfer, if the welding speed is increased, the bead becomes
narrower and less penetrated. To keep the same level of penetration, the welding energy needs to be
increased but we then switch to the unstable globular mode.
To retain short-arc transfer, a transistor generator is used which imposes a current variation similar to
that of short-circuiting at globular mode wire feed rates. This forces the occurrence of short circuits in a
mode where they would only naturally appear in an erratic manner.
This technique is mainly used to increase welding speeds on thin workpieces (up to 150 mm/min).
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9.8. ELECTROGAS PROCESS

In this “moulded” welding process, the weld pool
(held by the two open-butt plates and two copper
shoes) rises gradually, supplied by a MIG-MAG arc
(Figure 28).
ª The wire feeder and torch with angled

contact tube and no nozzle (the gas is fed
through a port machined in the mobile shoe)
are conveyed upwards by a chain or a
screw/nut system, etc.
ª The copper shoes are generally water-
cooled and sprung to press them against
the plates. As they are milled with a rounded Figure 27
profile, the beads have a slight convex form.
One of the shoes has two temperature
gauges and the position of the weld pool in relation to these two sensors is used to control the
upward speed of the welding head automatically.
ª As a general rule, the plates to be welded have a square butt although a single-V groove is also
possible.
ª The process is begun on a starting tab that brings together the two butts and is stopped on a
runoff tab.
ª The weld pool is wider than the gap between the butts, approximately 5 to 20 mm depending on
plate thickness.
9.8.1. Advantages
ª high deposition rate,
ª very simple edge preparation,
ª guaranteed penetration. Good bead profile,
ª good mechanical characteristics of the deposit,
ª easy setting and working of the welding operation.
9.8.2. Drawbacks
ª weldable thicknesses >15 mm but ≤ 40 mm approximately (single wire)
ª highly specialised machine. Automatic welding only.
9.8.3. The wires

Normally used conventional MIG-MAG wires are suitable although results can be improved by using flux-
cored wires. As far as the gases are concerned, they are the same as those used with bare or flux-cored
wires.
9.8.4. Field of use

Heavy sheet metal work (plate joining) and shipbuilding (joining of hull sections).
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9.9. MIG PLASMA PROCESS

This process consists of maintaining a MIG arc (between a wire and the workpiece) inside a concentric
plasma arc formed between a carbon ring nozzle and the workpiece.
- Very high deposition rate and penetration,
- Very mild, spatter-free MIG transfer.
9.9.1. Installation
- Each arc has its own source:
• plasma source (250 A) with a vertical static characteristic.
•MIG source (400 A at 100%) with a horizontal static characteristic.

- A special water-cooled torch due to the high concentration of heat generated by the two arcs.
- A conventional high-speed MIG wire feeder.
- A console comprising the electronic control, monitoring and ignition circuits, solenoid valves, etc.
9.9.2. Advantages / Drawbacks

- Well suited to welding stainless steels and copper alloys, plating and hardfacing.
- Complex machine demanding thoroughly trained operators.
- Automatic welding only.
9.9.3. Field of use

Shipyards, heavy sheet metal work, etc.
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10. HEALTH AND SAFETY
10.1. ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

Safety instructions relating to the current generators used are:


10.2. RADIATION PROTECTION
High levels of radiation are emitted by the arc in MIG-MAG welding.
For head protection, a helmet will be used in preference to a mask because of the need to have both
hands free.
10.3. FUME PROTECTION

Effective protection against harmful fumes can be provided by good ventilation.
This depends on several factors which means that each case may be specific and should be examined
in minute detail. The following factors should be considered:
- the nature and volume of the fumes,
- the volume, shape and nature of the workpieces,
- the volume and shape of the workshop in which the operation is carried out.
10.4. OVER AND UNDER-OXYGENATION IN WELDING OPERATIONS

The welder may unwittingly find himself or herself in a critical situation in the course of work, due to a
change in the surrounding atmosphere.
In particular, the oxygen content in the air becomes depleted leading to a risk of dizziness or even
asphyxia. This phenomenon is more marked with TIG and MIG processes using argon which, as we
have said, is heavier than air.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.10 : MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING

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FORMATION SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

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MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
CONTENTS

1.1. Standardised designation............................................................................................. 3
1.2. History........................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Principle ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.4. Field of use ................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Traditional electrode composition................................................................................. 4
1.6. Welding plant................................................................................................................ 4
2. ARC CHARACTERISTIC ..................................................................................................... 5
3. THE GENERATOR ............................................................................................................... 6

3.1. Various sources of welding current .............................................................................. 6
3.2. Static characteristic of a power source ........................................................................ 6
4. THE COVERINGS ................................................................................................................ 7
4.1. Roles of the covering.................................................................................................... 7
4.1.1. Electrical roles ..............................................................................................................7
4.1.2. Mechanical roles...........................................................................................................7
4.1.3. Metallurgical roles.........................................................................................................7
4.2. The various coverings .................................................................................................. 8
4.2.1. Acid covering (A) ..........................................................................................................8
4.2.2. Rutile covering (R) ........................................................................................................8
4.2.3. Cellulosic covering (C)..................................................................................................8
4.2.4. Basic covering (B).........................................................................................................9
4.2.5. Drawbacks of the covering ...........................................................................................9
4.2.6. Oven drying of the electrodes.......................................................................................9
4.3. Electrode production................................................................................................... 10
4.4. Electrode handling and storage.................................................................................. 10
4.5. Electrode classification ............................................................................................... 10
5. FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS .......................................................................................... 11
5.1. Edge preparation ........................................................................................................ 11
5.2. Edge preparation diagram.......................................................................................... 12
5.3. Welding method.......................................................................................................... 15
5.4. Welding intensity ........................................................................................................ 20
5.5. Application and typical problem.................................................................................. 20
5.5.1. Scope of the problem..................................................................................................20
5.5.2. Conclusions ................................................................................................................20
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6. HEALTH AND SAFETY ..................................................................................................... 20

6.1. Electrical protection .................................................................................................... 20
6.2. Radiation protection.................................................................................................... 21
6.3. Burn protection ........................................................................................................... 21
7. SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................... 22
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1.1. Standardised designation
French designation SAEE (Soudage à l’Arc avec Electrode Enrobée)
American designation SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
Nomenclature n° 111
1.2. History
The first covered electrode was developed by the Swede KJELLBERG in 1907. Industrial development
dates back to the 1920s-1930s, partly due to improvements in the sources of power supply.
In France, after representing over 60% of deposited metal by weight in the 1950s-70s, it still represents
around 35% today.
1.3. Principle
Metal arc welding is a process in which the heat source used to obtain simultaneous fusion of the edges
of the workpieces to be joined and the filler metal is an electric arc formed between the electrode and
the workpiece to be welded (Figure 1).
The filler metal consists primarily of the consumable electrode.
The metal in the liquid state is protected by gases and slag produced by the decomposition of the
electrode covering.
Figure 1
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Heat source: arc struck between the fusible electrode and the workpiece
Filler metal: fusible covered electrode
Weld pool shield: gas produced by the volatilisation of the covering
slag produced by the fusion of the covering
1.4. Field of use

SMAW (aka stick welding) is a multipurpose process that is very easy to set up and is used at every
level in all types of industry: site work, sheet metal work, nuclear power, shipbuilding, offshore,
petrochemical industries, crafts…
In manufacturing, although this process faces stiff competition from others that are easier to automate or
have a higher deposition rate (MAG with solid or flux-cored wire), it is still widely used.
It is particularly found in cases of difficult weldability and/or on series of high-quality welds.
1.5. Traditional electrode composition
∅ (mm) L (mm)
1.6 200
2 to
2.5 350
3.2
300
4
to
5
450
6 Figure 2
The core is formed by a solid, cylindrical metal wire of standardised diameter and length which, under
the effect of the heat of the arc, melts evenly and transfers filler metal in droplets to the weld pool. The
core is generally of a similar nature to that of the parent metal (e.g. unalloyed steels, stainless steels) but
may be totally different (e.g. Ni core for welding cast iron).
The covering consists of a coating of mineral and/or organic material surrounding the whole length of
the core except for the end (minimum 15 mm) to ensure good electrical contact with the collet. The tip is
ground into a frustum to generate a short circuit with the workpiece and therefore facilitate ignition
(Figure 2).
1.6. Welding plant

Diagrammatically, a SMAW plant is very simple and comprises:
ª a generator,
ª a collet,
ª a power supply cable,
ª a ground cable.
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Figure 3 (SAF doc.)
2. ARC CHARACTERISTIC
Use is made of the intense thermal effect created by
the passage of the current in the space of a few
millimetres separating the electrode and the part to be
welded (Figure 4).
With a DC supply, the highest temperature in the arc
is near the anode (electrode connected to +).
Two connections are possible:
ª workpiece connected to positive and electrode

to negative to favour penetration;
ª electrode connected to positive and workpiece
to negative to favour the fusion of the Figure 4
electrode and/or the covering. In practice, the
deposition rate is improved in this case.
In most cases, the manufacturer’s recommendations
given in the electrode description are to be followed.
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3. THE GENERATOR
The role of the generator is to transform mains current (unsuitable for arc welding) so that it complies
with arc welding requirements. The generators have a drooping or vertical characteristic and deliver a
constant intensity regardless of the arc length.
3.1. Various sources of welding current

Transformers or rectifier transformers are mainly used:
ª Transformers deliver AC power. They are always single phase.

ª Rectifier transformers are usually three-phase transformers, with the rectifier a thyristor bridge.
Some appliances use the technique of inverters and choppers.
Rotary current sources using an electric motor or internal combustion engine to drive a rotary welding
current generator deliver an AC and DC supply (their manufacture stopped in 1980, but some are still
found occasionally in workshops).
Generators suited to stick welding deliver current intensities ranging from 20 to around 500 A, with no-
load voltages U0 of the order of 65 to 80 V.
(The no-load voltage is the voltage across the generator when the welder is not welding).
3.2. Static characteristic of a power source

For any power source, there is a relationship
between the voltage U and the drain current in
steady state for a given current setting position
(Figure 5).
The curve illustrating the relationship between U
and I has a drooping form.
The welder must control the arc length to maintain
constant settings.
The weld pool can be controlled in relatively low
proportions by varying the arc length.
A conventional welding voltage is established to
compare or calibrate power sources.
U2 = 20 + 0.04.I2 for I2 ≤ 600 A Figure 5 (SAF doc.)
U2 = 44 V for I2 > 600 A

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4. THE COVERINGS
4.1. Roles of the covering

Such is the importance of the covering that it can be said that the operational characteristics (workability,
arc behaviour, etc.) and the quality of the deposited metal depend essentially on the choice of covering.
4.1.1. Electrical roles

ª Low-temperature insulation.
ª Arc striking and stability: the presence of certain elements in the covering (carbonates,
silicates…) benefits arc striking and stability due to their ionising nature.
4.1.2. Mechanical roles

ª Guiding of the arc and filler metal: as fusion of the covering occurs slightly later than that of the
core, a crater is formed which guides the arc and the transfer of droplets to the weld pool.
ª Weld pool maintenance: as the slag solidifies quicker than the molten metal, it forms a sort of
mould for the still liquid or mushy metal which prevents it from collapsing, making welding in
position much easier.
ª Arc blow: a part of the covering volatilises as gas which eliminates the ambient air while exerting
pressure on the weld pool.
ª Improved bead form: the presence of the slag gives the bead a more even, attractive profile and
a very gradual bond with the parent metal (wetting).
4.1.3. Metallurgical roles

ª Protection against oxidation: the gases produced by the covering protect the drops of liquid metal
during transfer as well as the weld pool. In its slag form, the covering protects the molten metal
while cooling.
ª Weld pool deoxidisation: reducing elements (Si, Mn) present in the covering capture the oxygen
present in the weld pool. The oxides thus formed rise in the slag which will be eliminated.
ª S and P elimination: the S and P present in certain steels are found in the weld pool where they
have a harmful effect. The carbonates contained in some coverings capture this S and P. The
products of the reaction are then transferred to the slag.
ª Volatilisation compensation: Cr, Fe and Ni losses during arc transfer can be compensated by the
addition of these elements (in the form of ferroalloys) in the covering. The deposited metal can
therefore regain its initial composition.
ª Controlled intake of elements: on the same principle as compensation, other alloying elements
(Cr, Ni, Mo, etc.) can be added to affect the chemical composition of the deposited metal which
can then be very different to that of the core. The addition of iron powder to the covering can
increase the deposition rate of these electrodes which, as a result, generally exceed 100% and
can even be as high as 250% for some electrodes.
ª Reduction of the solidification rate: the slag slows down the solidification of the molten metal
which improves the compactness of the deposition by improved gas emission.
ª Reduction of the cooling rate: after solidification, the presence of slag slows down bead cooling
which reduces the risk of formation of fragile structures.
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4.2. The various coverings

Standards currently in force in Europe recognise eight categories of covering:
ª Acid,
ª Rutile (R), heavy-coated rutile (RR), rutile-cellulosic (RC), rutile-acid (RA) and rutile-basic (RB)
ª Cellulosic,
ª Basic.
4.2.1. Acid covering (A)

Composition: Fe and Mn oxides + blend of ferromanganese and other deoxidising agents.
Quality of the covering: medium to heavy coating.
Mechanical properties of the bead: good.
Welding positions: essentially flat; electrodes sensitive to cracking on overhead or inside fillet welding.
4.2.2. Rutile covering (R)

Composition: titanium oxide (rutile).
Quality of the covering: medium to heavy coating, good adhesion to the metallic core.
Slag: easily removed.
Mechanical properties of the bead: good with attractive bead profile.
Welding positions: all (with certain exceptions).
Welding currents: DC with electrode negative or AC.
Minimum no-load voltage with AC supply: 45 to 50 V.
Main applications: maintenance and craft work, metalworking, ironwork; accounts for approximately 70%
of the electrodes used in France.
4.2.3. Cellulosic covering (C)

Composition: Combustible organic matter.
Quality of the covering: light to medium coating; gives off a powerful, penetrating arc while producing a
lot of fumes and spatter.
Slag: low volume, easily removed.
Mechanical properties of the bead: quite good, mediocre bead profile.
Welding positions: all, but primarily used in a downward vertical position for tube butting.
Welding currents: DC with electrode positive or AC.
Main applications: welding of gas or oil pipelines.
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4.2.4. Basic covering (B)

Composition: calcium carbonates + ferroalloys + fluorspar.
Quality of the covering: heavy coating, friable, fragile.
Storage: as the covering is extremely hygrophilous, basic electrodes must be oven-dried before use
(350°C for two hours), and stored at 120°C.
Slag: quite easily removed.
Mechanical properties of the bead: excellent.
Welding positions: all (with certain exceptions).
Welding currents: DC with electrode positive or AC.
Main applications: joining of high-strength structures (shipbuilding, railways, sheet metal work, piping,
framework, etc.).
4.2.5. Drawbacks of the covering

ª The weld must be cleaned to remove all traces of slag after each pass and whenever reworking
is necessary.
ª The covering limits the deposition efficiency of the welding operation enormously (approximately
25%).
ª Basic coverings regain moisture readily.
4.2.6. Oven drying of the electrodes

At high arc temperature, water breaks down into O and soluble H. On cooling, a part of the hydrogen
remains in solution in the steel (residual hydrogen) and escapes creating micro-fissures, particularly in
hardened structures, under the action of residual stresses.
To maintain a low water content, the electrodes must be oven-dried at a high temperature then kept in
storage ovens at a temperature of over 100°C.
When the worksite is far from the oven, the welder can use a portable oven, also known as a quiver,
which works under the same conditions as storage ovens.
Drying conditions are specified by the electrode manufacturers. The following values are typical.
350°C for two hours before use and permanent storage in an oven at 110°C.
If moisture is reabsorbed, the electrodes can be dried again at 350°C for two hours.
To overcome high storage and drying costs, manufacturers have developed electrodes with a very low
H2 level (≤ 2 to 3 ml/100g) and a very low moisture absorption rate which are sold vacuum-packed.
These electrodes can be oven-dried in the same way as the others if they are not consumed within four
to eight hours of the pack being opened, depending on the quantity of hydrogen that the structure can
accept.
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4.3. Electrode production

Covered electrodes are manufactured by extruding a paste (the covering) at high pressure around the
core.
The main phases of manufacture are as follows:
ª paste preparation: the paste is made by blending the various powders that make up the covering
and mixing with liquid binders;
ª pressing: the homogeneous paste is pressed to form cakes that are loaded into the
extrusion press;
ª metallic core preparation: the cores are drawn, descaled, straightened and cut, and then placed
in loaders feeding the extrusion press;
ª extrusion: in the press, the cake of paste is extruded at high pressure around the cores fed
continuously from the loader;
ª inspection of appearance and centring;
ª brushing of the ends;
ª drying, baking;
ª marking;
ª packing in normal or airtight packs.
4.4. Electrode handling and storage

Electrodes are more or less sensitive to moisture depending on the type of covering. The more
hygroscopic types must be stored and transported in a dry place.
4.5. Electrode classification

Electrodes are classified according to the nature of the metal deposited, each class being covered by a
specific standard:
NF EN 499 (01/95) (A 81 309): Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and
fine-grain steels.
NF EN 757 (05/97) (A 81 340): Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of high-strength
steels.
NF EN 1600 (10/97) (A 81 343): Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of stainless and
heat-resisting steels.
NF EN 1599 (10/97) (A 81 345): Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of creep-resisting
steels.
NF A 81 347 (06/79 ) (A 81 347): Manual metal arc welding electrodes depositing a metal for use at
low temperatures.
NF ISO 1071 (12/87) (A 81 342): Covered electrodes for cast iron.
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5. FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS
5.1. Edge preparation

Shielded metal arc welding is used on products over
1.5 mm thick.
In theory, there are no thickness limits. The actual
limit is defined by economic conditions.
For filler passes, the use of a covered electrode is
rarely considered economic beyond 15 - 20 mm.
Below 4 mm, it is used for square-butt welding plates,
i.e. with no preparation. A gap of 2.5 to 3.5 mm must
be kept between the plates after tacking.
Grooves are required on thicker workpieces.
For very thick workpieces, grooves may need to be Figure 6
machined to minimise the quantity of filler metal
required. On average, the groove angle is 70°.
Preparations for butt welding are as follows:
ª From 5 to 15 mm
• Single V-groove.
ª From 15 to 40 mm
• Double V-groove, if back is accessible.
• Single V-groove, if back is not accessible.
ª Over 40 mm:
• Double V-groove, double V with two slopes, K or double U if the back is accessible,
• Single V with one or two slopes or U-groove, if back is not accessible.
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5.2. Edge preparation diagrams
Figure 7
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Figure 8
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Figure 9
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5.3. Welding method

We shall limit single V-groove preparations, valid in principle for workpieces up to 15 mm thick, for
positions other than flat welding.
a) Flat welding
Figure 10
NB: In all cases, the electrode is held at 70°-80° in the welding direction.
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Figure 11
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b ) Upward welding
Several operating techniques can be used for upward welding on thick workpieces:
ª stringer beads,
ª weaving,
ª triangular method.
Figure 12
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c) Horizontal welding
STRINGER BEADS ONLY ARE USED FOR HORIZONTAL WELDING
Figure 13
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d ) Overhead welding
Stringer beads and weaving methods can be used.
Figure 14
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5.4. Welding intensity

Intensity is not set according to the thickness of the workpieces to be welded but according to electrode
diameter, in other words the diameter of the metallic core.
The selected electrode diameter will always be less than the thickness.
The intensity can be roughly set using the following formula:
I = 50 x (electrode diameter – 1)
The welder then increases or reduces the intensity according to the thickness, the nature of the covering,
the welding position, etc.
Depending on these various parameters, an intensity setting range can also be determined according to
whether a flat or positional welding technique is used: 30 to 40 A per mm diameter.
5.5. Application and typical problem

5.5.1. Scope of the problem
ª To butt-weld two 4 mm thick mild steel plates in a flat position with a 2.5 mm dia. electrode.
• Open square-butt preparation with a 2.5 mm gap
• Intensity: (∅-1)×50=(2.5-1)×50≈75 to 80 amps
• Gap between plates: 2.5 mm (plus or minus 0.5 mm)
ª To weld a penetration pass on a grooved 10 mm thick mild steel assembly in a horizontal position
with a 2.5 mm dia. electrode.
• Single V-groove preparation with 2.5 mm root face and 2.5 mm gap
• Welding intensity: 30A×2.5mm = 75A
5.5.2. Conclusions
A lower intensity is used for positional welding than is the case with flat welding or filling.
The welder will have greater control over a narrow weld pool in position than a voluminous weld pool that
will collapse under the effect of gravity.
6.1. Electrical protection

Safety instructions relating to the current generators used are:

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The nature of the electric current can lead to different physiological effects.
Direct current
Leads to burns and an instinctive recoiling of the body. The consequences of the recoil movement can
be serious when working at height. A 0.3 A current passing through the human body for one second is
considered fatal.
Alternating current
Acts on the nervous system and tends to paralyse the victim. It leads to heart trouble that can result in
death.
The intensity of the current considered fatal is much lower than the DC intensity (0.1 A for one second).

6.2. Radiation protection
High levels of radiation are emitted by the SMAW arc.
Ultraviolet radiation:
This radiation leads to “snow blindness” which can cause eye trouble (conjunctivitis).
Visible radiation:
This form of radiation is only harmful when the light source is extremely intense. In this case, it can
cause lasting retina damage.
Infrared radiation:
This form of radiation causes headaches and watering eyes. It has a slow, cumulative effect which, in
time, can tend to cause lens opacity.
6.3. Burn protection

By its very nature, welding requires the use of products heated to a high temperature. It is advisable
therefore to protect oneself against the risks of burns caused by:
ª the actual workpieces,

ª spatter of molten metal,
ª slag fragments shattered and projected during cooling.
The vast majority of industrial accidents caused by a welding operation involve burns.
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7. SUMMARY
Investment 5000 to 9000 francs.
Unalloyed, low-alloy and high-alloy steels

Weldable materials
Cast iron, Ni, Cu and Al
Common thicknesses From 1.5 mm with no upper limit.
Generator
Drooping
characteristic
DC+
Current types DC-
AC
Minimum no-load Rutile electrodes: 45 V
voltages U0 Basic electrodes: 70 V
Welding voltages 20 to 35 V
U2 U = 20 + 4 I/100
From 20 to 500 A
Welding intensities I2
Simple rule: I = 50 x (electrode dia. – 1) or 30 to 40 A per mm dia.
Most common dia. 2.5, 3.15, 4, 5 and 6.3
Efficiency (%) 70
Linear welding speed

15 to 30
(cm/min)
Deposition rate (kg/h) 0.5 to 2
Gas _
Simple to use
Advantages
Low equipment cost
Workpiece preparation required
Slow process
Drawbacks
Presence of slag
Deformations
Welder protection against:
Health and safety
Electricity, radiation, heat, fumes and noise
Site work, nuclear power, shipbuilding, offshore, petrochemicals, crafts, etc.
Applications
Represents around 35% of all metal deposited in France.
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Figure 1
électrode electrode
enrobage covering
laitier slag
arc arc
âme core
cordon bead
Figure 2
cône frustum
âme core
enrobage covering
Figure 3
Source de courant… DC or AC power source (single or three-phase
supply)
Câble primaire Primary cable
Générateur Generator
Câbles secondaires Secondary cables
Masque Mask
Electrode enrobée Covered electrode
Pièce Workpiece
Prise de masse Ground clamp
Figure 4
Usual temperature distribution of welding arcs
Figure 5
Working points
Figure 6
2.5 - 3 mm
Figure 7
e t
Accès d’un seul côté Access from one side only
Accès des 2 côtés Access from both sides
Figure 8
Assemblages en angle Corner joints
Assemblages en T Tee joints
Figure 9
Préparations mixtes Mixed preparations
Préparations à recouvrement Lap joints
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Figure 10
En angle intérieur Inside fillet welding
passes 1 et 5 passes 1 and 5
mouvement transversal pour les passes 2 et 3 cross motion for passes 2 and 3
passe 1 pass 1
Exécution de la première passe Welding the root pass
70° à 80° 70° to 80°
Figure 11
Bout à bout Butt welding
2,5 mm 2.5 mm
Passes étroites Stringer beads
Passes larges Weaving
Passes 1 - 2 et 7 Passes 1, 2 and 7
Passes 3 et 5 Passes 3 and 5
Passes 4 et 6 Passes 4 and 6
Mouvement transversal pour les passes 2 et 3 Cross motion for passes 2 and 3
70° à 80° 70° to 80°
Figure 12
2,5 mm 2.5 mm
Méthode par passes larges Weaving method
Méthode par passe triangulaire Triangular pass method
Figure 13
35° à 40° 35° to 40°
2 à 3 mm 2 to 3 mm
passes 1 - 2 et 6 passes 1, 2 and 6
70° à 80° 70° to 80°
Figure 14
En angle intérieur Inside fillet welding
passe 1 pass 1
Bout à bout Butt welding
2,5 mm 2.5 mm
70° à 80° 70° to 80°
NOTA… NOTE: The electrode is held at 70°-80° in the
welding direction for all passes.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.11 : SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

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FORMATION SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 1
PROFESSIONNELLE date: 10/00
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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
CONTENTS

1.2. History........................................................................................................................... 3
2. PRINCIPLE ........................................................................................................................... 3
3. FIELD OF APPLICATION OF THE PROCESS ................................................................... 4

3.1. Advantages of the process........................................................................................... 4
3.2. Drawbacks of the process ............................................................................................ 4
3.3. Description of the plant................................................................................................. 5
3.3.1. Current source ..............................................................................................................5
3.3.2. Control and regulating unit............................................................................................5
3.3.3. Welding head................................................................................................................6
3.3.4. Automatic welder ..........................................................................................................6
3.3.5. Flux extractor ................................................................................................................6
4. WELDING PARAMETERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ........................................................ 7
5. STRIKING THE ARC ............................................................................................................ 8
6. NATURE AND USE OF THE WIRE ..................................................................................... 8

6.1. Wire fusion curve.......................................................................................................... 9
7. NATURE AND USE OF THE FLUX ................................................................................... 10
7.1. Fused flux ................................................................................................................... 10
7.2. Bonded flux................................................................................................................. 10
7.3. Influence of the thickness of the flux layer ................................................................. 11
7.4. Flux packaging ........................................................................................................... 11
7.5. Flux drying .................................................................................................................. 11
7.6. Wire / flux combination ............................................................................................... 11
7.6.1. a) Choice of wire / flux combination............................................................................12
7.6.2. b) Wire/flux combination standard ..............................................................................12
7.6.3. Chemical composition.................................................................................................13
7.6.4. Mechanical characteristics..........................................................................................13
8. WELDING ........................................................................................................................... 14
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8.1. Joint design ................................................................................................................ 14

8.1.1. Single or multipass preparation ..................................................................................14
8.1.2. Preparation on a consumable strip .............................................................................15
8.1.3. Preparation on a cooled strip......................................................................................15
8.1.4. Preparation on a powder bed .....................................................................................15
8.1.5. Preparation on adhesive backing ...............................................................................15
8.1.6. Joggled lap joint preparation.......................................................................................15
8.2. Welding methods........................................................................................................ 17
8.2.1. Flat or multipass welding ............................................................................................17
8.2.2. Welding with a sealing run..........................................................................................17
8.2.3. Inside fillet welding......................................................................................................17
8.2.4. Outside fillet welding...................................................................................................18
8.2.5. Fillet welding ...............................................................................................................18
8.2.6. Lap welding.................................................................................................................18
8.2.7. Horizontal welding ......................................................................................................19
8.2.8. Examples of preparation.............................................................................................20
9. DERIVATIVE PROCESSES ............................................................................................... 21

9.1. Welding with two fine wires ........................................................................................ 21
9.2. Welding with hot filler wire.......................................................................................... 21
9.3. Surfacing with a strip electrode .................................................................................. 22
10. PERFORMANCE SUMMARY ............................................................................................ 23
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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

1.1. STANDARDISED DESIGNATION
Soudage à l’arc sous flux en poudre avec fil –

French designation
électrode ou électrode en bande
Submerged arc welding with wire electrode or
American designation
with strip electrode
With wire electrode: 121
Nomenclature n°
With strip electrode: 122
1.2. HISTORY
The original patent filed by Union Carbide dates back to 1935 under the name of the Unionmelt process.
It was introduced into France by the Soudure Autogène Française company just before the Second
World War.
2. PRINCIPLE
Submerged arc welding uses one or more bare wires or a fusible strip. The energy used to make the
joint is produced by the passage of an electric current between the electrode and the workpiece, through
an environment formed by slag resulting from the fusion of powder flux covering the end of the wire, the
arc and the weld pool. This is an automatic process with the welding head guided by a gantry or a
welding bench.
Figure 1
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3. FIELD OF APPLICATION OF THE PROCESS

Submerged arc welding applies mainly to the
welding of ferritic and austenitic steels.
Because of its great penetration, high productivity,
cost price, etc., it is intended for heavy-duty
workpieces (> 5 mm thick). For example, thanks
to the high welding energy, close grooved 15 mm
thick steel can be butt-welded in a single pass.
Main applications are found in the area of metallic
framework, shipbuilding, heavy sheet metal work
and the offshore industry.
However, with its reliable penetration, welding
speed, the quality of the deposition and bead
profile, it can be worth applying to thinner
workpieces (≥ 2 mm thick approximately). For
instance: compressed gas (butane / propane)
cylinders, welding benches, etc. In this case, we
work either on a backing strip or with a joggled lap
joint.
It is also used to deposit coverings by welding. In
these applications, to increase the deposition rate,
multiwire sets or strip electrodes are generally
used.
3.1. ADVANTAGES OF THE PROCESS Figure 2
This process is useful for depositing large

quantities of metal. The depositions are of good
quality particularly when using a basic flux.
It is used at high intensity: 250-400 A with a single wire or up to 1500 A with a multiwire electrode or a
strip.
Fast welding speeds are possible (up to 3 m/min.) and the deposition rate is high (2.5 to 12 kg/h with a
single wire).
It has high penetration power which simplifies edge preparation operations.
The arc is not visible and this process generates neither spatter nor welding fumes.
3.2. DRAWBACKS OF THE PROCESS

Due to the presence of flux, this process can only be used for welding flat or in a horizontal position.
Although there are a few rare semi-automatic applications, the majority of plants are fully automatic. In
addition to the plant, which is in itself relatively expensive, turning gear, gantries or welding benches are
also necessary. Provision should also be made for a flux extractor and possibly drying and recycling
devices.
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3.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

3.3.1. Current source
Although the technology is similar to other processes, specific generators are generally used for
submerged arc welding as the voltage and intensity must be able to be controlled separately.
AC generators are single-phase transformers. Up until the early 1980s, DC sources were generators
driven by a three-phase AC motor. Since that time, such generators have gradually been replaced by
thyristor-controlled rectifier transformers.
The static electrical characteristics of generators and single-phase transformers are always drooping.
Up to 450 A, rectifier transformers with a flat static characteristic tend to be used as they provide the
benefit of automatic arc length regulation, as in MIG or MAG welding. In this case, the wire feed rate is
governed by intensity. Additionally, this type of generator ensures easy starting and remarkable arc
stability even at low current densities. For higher intensities, transformers with a drooping or vertical
characteristic are preferred; intensity adjustment is independent. The voltage is generally determined by
the wire feed rate.
The no-load voltage of the generators is 50 to 70 volts. The intensity that the generator should deliver
depends on the job at hand and the diameter of the wire used: 250 to 500 Amps for single-wire
electrodes, depending on the thickness of the wire, and 700 to 1500 Amps for multiwire electrodes and
strips.
Most of the time, direct current is used for welding; polarity depends on the flux. With an AC supply, it is
advisable to weld at a minimum of 450 Amps. Below this value, the arc becomes very unstable or
requires specific conditions of use: high arc voltage, workpiece preheating, etc.
For welding in excess of 1200 Amps, AC is preferred to limit the harmful effects of magnetic blowout.
3.3.2. Control and regulating unit
This unit powers the wire feed motor as it contains an

electronic regulator.
The front panel contains all of the controls required for
welding: on/off, weld, slow/fast manual wire feed, slow
manual lift, emergency stop.
ª Wire feed rate control

ª Flux intake solenoid valve control
ª Generally an ammeter and a voltmeter
ª Possibly a remote control to adjust generator
voltage and intensity.
Figure 3
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3.3.3. Welding head

The welding head comprises:
ª a variable-speed gear motor unit. The speed must be kept constant because it determines the wire
feed rate,
ª the contact tube for current infeed,
ª the flux tube that may be concentric with the contact tube,
ª possibly a joint probe or monitoring device,
ª possibly an oscillator for welding using a weaving technique or for covering,
ª the wire feed device, possibly with the wire spool support,
ª linear oscillator.
3.3.4. Automatic welder

Submerged arc welding is almost exclusively an
automatic process. You must therefore:
a) Either move the welding head

This is done using
ª gantries with arm/carriage movement,
ª blank welding benches,
ª rail-mounted carriages,
ª worksite trolleys.
b ) Or move the workpiece

This is done using
ª turning gear
ª manipulators,
ª motor-driven mandrels,
ª welding lathes: horizontal or vertical, Figure 4
ª rotators,
ª special machines.
3.3.5. Flux extractor

The welding plant is supplemented by a device used to collect spent flux. There are several types of
apparatus on the market.
The simplest consist of an extractor only. The excess flux is mixed with bits of solidified slag. The
gathered products must then be sorted.
With some extractor appliances, it is possible to recycle the flux. In these devices, the flux is extracted
and then separated from the slag, the dust is removed and then the flux is mixed with new flux and
stored in a tank which keeps it at a temperature of approximately 100°C if the flux is basic. The
combined flux is then pumped back to the welding head.
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4. WELDING PARAMETERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE

In single-wire welding, the results depend primarily on intensity, arc voltage, welding speed, wire
diameter and polarity.
a) Influence of intensity
Penetration increases as intensity increases, but this has little effect on bead width and build-up.
Figure 5
b) Influence of arc voltage

If the arc voltage increases, the bead width, flux consumption and risk of undercut increase.
Figure 6
c) Influence of welding speed

A higher welding speed leads to a narrower bead and shallower penetration.
Figure 7
d) Influence of wire diameter

With all other parameters constant, penetration increases as the wire diameter decreases.
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e) Influence of polarity
With a DC supply, the electrode is generally connected to the (+) terminal, but if it is connected to the
(−) terminal:
ª penetration decreases,
ª the arc is less stable,
ª the speed of fusion and deposition rate increase.
f) Influence of stickout
Generally the stickout is equal to five to seven times the wire diameter. If this length increases,
penetration decreases and the arc is less stable. On the other hand, the deposition rate increases.
5. STRIKING THE ARC

If a flat characteristic power source is used, the short-circuit current (which can be as high as three times
the current rating) is sufficient to obtain immediate striking. The parameters stabilise very quickly
afterwards.
If a drooping characteristic set is used, the short-circuit current is too low for immediate striking. An
additional device is required. If the welding head does not have a special ignition device with a HF
ioniser or a “retract” system (momentary inversion of the wire feed direction), place a small steel wool
“cushion” at the end of the wire. This will volatilise on striking.
It is however possible to start on the fly. With the wire in slight contact with the workpiece, the carriage is
started and then the current is applied. Due to the carriage movement, the wire does not stick to the
workpiece. This solution is often adopted for frequent starts if the bead starting position is not vital or if
starting on a tab.
6. NATURE AND USE OF THE WIRE

The electrode wire is selected according to:
ª the material to be welded (grade or quality),

ª the thickness,
ª the method of operation.
There are several possible diameters (mm): 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3.2, 4.0 and 5.0 (and, less frequently, 0.8
and 6.0 mm).
There is a direct relationship between the diameter of the wire and the arc current that it can take.
As a general rule: the approximate average current values that the electrode wire can take can be
calculated as follows:
y lower limit: electrode diameter (mm) x 100,

y upper limit: electrode diameter (mm) x 200.
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Example in the case of an unalloyed steel
∅ (mm) INTENSITY RANGE (IN AMPS)
2.0 160 – 400

little used
2.4 180 – 220 – 500 – 520
3.2 250 – 320(*) – 650 – 700

often used
4.0 400 – 460 – 800 – 900
5.0 450 – 550 – 1100 – 1200 little used
1.2 650 MAX

2x
1.6 850 MAX
(*) The underlined figures indicate the normal working range.

N.B. – For certain applications, it may be necessary to weld with higher current densities than the
recommended range.
For instance: for a 3.2 mm dia. wire, 1000 A when welding with three electrodes.
6.1. WIRE FUSION CURVE

This measures the fusion rate and mainly depends on:
ª the wire diameter,

ª the nature of the current: DC or AC,
ª the intensity applied,
ª the stickout,
ª DC polarity: electrode + or −,
ª the nature of the wire: mild steel or stainless steel.
However, it differs little from one powder to another.
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Examples:
The fusion curves obtained with stainless steel wires are clearly different to those obtained with the
same diameter of carbon steel wire, at equal intensity:
STAINLESS STEEL FUSION RATE ≠ MILD STEEL FUSION RATE x 1.2
7. NATURE AND USE OF THE FLUX

Fluxes consist of a mixture of several products in which manganese oxides, complex lime silicates,
alumina, magnesia, rutile and calcium fluoride feature strongly. There are two groups of flux:
7.1. FUSED FLUX

This is a mixture of minerals fused in an electric oven, cast on a cooled hearth, crushed, ground and
sifted. It has a granular structure with a vitreous or crystallised appearance. The size of the grains
contained in the mixture is standardised. For example, 1250 x 80 (denomination of the former standard
NF A 81 319) means that the grain passes through a screen with a 1.25 mm mesh but not through a 0.8
mm mesh.
The choice of particle size depends on:
ª the type of flux,

ª the intensity,
ª the shape of the joint.
Flux particle size has a profound influence on operative weldability:
ª A finer particular size leads to:
• improved wetting (influence on the bead profile),
• more shallow penetration,
• easier fillet welding with a large groove,
• increased flux consumption.
ª With a coarser particle size, degassing is easier.
Fused flux:
• has a vitreous appearance,

• contains very little water: low moisture pick-up,
• is homogeneous: each particle will have the same analysis due to the fact that the flux is in the
liquid state in the crucible,
• stands up well to recycling,
• produces little dust,
• can be used for welding with higher intensities (limit: 1400 A with a single wire).
7.2. BONDED FLUX

Obtained by bonding minerals and metal powders by means of a binder, and then baking to dry the flux.
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In this case, the flux is presented in the form of compacted grains. This flux is produced using a
continuous process: round-the-clock operation.
Particle size: There is only one particle size for this type of flux: 1400 - 200 (French standard).
Precautions: Oven drying is essential for certain jobs requiring a low diffusible hydrogen content
(NFA 81 307). The minimum temperature is 200°C for two hours. (According to the standard, however, it
can also be 400°C for one hour with a maximum of 600°C for one hour).
Bonded flux:
• consists of compact grains. In this type of flux, certain elements can be provided in the form of
ferroalloys which, in this case, occur as very finely ground and bonded particles,
• produces a gentler fusion than fused flux,
• form easily removed slag, even at the weld root.
7.3. INFLUENCE OF THE THICKNESS OF THE FLUX LAYER

The layer must be sufficiently thick to ensure adequate protection of the liquid weld pool and avoid
spatter, visible arcs, etc. In practice, the aim is to have the flux bed just above the contact tube.
7.4. FLUX PACKAGING

There are two standard types of packaging:
ª for fused flux:

• 50 kg paper sacks,
• 100 kg drums
ª for bonded flux:
• 50 kg paper sacks.
7.5. FLUX DRYING

For welds where there is a risk of cold cracking, “low hydrogen” bonded flux is used. This means that the
flux is not liable to produce a diffusible hydrogen rate in excess of 5 ml per 100 g of molten metal. Before
use, this type of flux must be oven-dried under similar conditions to basic electrodes.
Example of oven-drying conditions:
• 200°C for two hours.
• 400°C for one hour.
7.6. WIRE / FLUX COMBINATION
In welding (and surfacing), an association is made between a wire and a flux. However the
characteristics of a joint do not just depend on the wire and flux used, but on the triple combination:
Parent metal ½¾ Wire ½¾ Flux

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7.6.1. a) Choice of wire / flux combination

This depends on:
ª the grade of the plate,

ª the number of passes,
ª edge preparation,
ª the welding process (welding energy, single or dual-wire),
ª the need for post-heating or not.
All of these parameters will condition the chemical and mechanical characteristics of the joint to a greater
or lesser extent. Supplier catalogues propose wire/flux combinations to simplify the identification task.
7.6.2. b) Wire/flux combination standard

Standard NF A 81 322-323 has been applicable since 1981.
Example 1: for the SAF AS 36 / AS 589 combination
FP / B4 – FB 1 – SA4 – 51 – 05 (and) 04
KCV 50 J/cm2 at – 40°C
KCV 35 J/cm2 at −50°C
Rm: 510 N/mm2
2% Mn wire: AS 36
DC and AC
Flux: basic fluoride
Particle size distribution: 1400 x 100

Symbol: bonded B
fused F
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Example 2: for the AS 40 / AS 89 combination for heat-resisting steel

FP / F4 – CS 2 – SA4 MO – 55 – 03
KCV 35 J/cm2 at −30°C
Rm: 550 N/mm2
2% Mn wire: 0.5% Mo
(requires heat treatment on mould: 620°C for one hour.
DC
Calcium silicate
Particle size distribution: 1400 x 100

Fused flux
7.6.3. Chemical composition

In welding, an exchange of elements occurs in the arc. The chemical composition of the deposited metal
depends on the wire, the flux and the welding parameters (I and U).
As a general rule:
ª if the intensity increases, the exchanges decrease (diagrammatically, we tend to find the
composition of the wire),
ª if the voltage increases, the wire/flux exchanges increase.
7.6.4. Mechanical characteristics

These vary according to edge preparation.
a) Fine sheet: welding is generally carried out without preparation or with a slight groove
to avoid build-up. In this case, dilution can reach approximately 70%.
The mechanical characteristics of the joint take account of the triple combination:
Parent metal ½¾ Wire ½¾ Flux

Example: A42 AP steel.
The standard requires a KCV of – 20°C. In this case, we shall opt for a combination of AS 35 or
S 4T 2 AR S2Mo with single-pass or two-pass welding.
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b) Thick plate
Multipass welding: In this case, the edges are generally grooved. As a result, there is little dilution of the
parent metal.
The mechanical characteristics originate essentially from the metal deposited by the WIRE/FLUX
combination.
Example: A42 FP steel.
The standard requires: min. rupture 420 daN/mm2
KCV – 40°C 35 J/cm2
8. WELDING
8.1. JOINT DESIGN

Reminders:
ª This process can only be used for flat or possibly horizontal work.
ª It can only achieve partial penetrations: welding without backing.
Examples:
Figure 8
To obtain total penetration, backing is required such that the considerable volume of the weld pool is
maintained in one of the following ways:
ª by a copper or ceramic strip,

ª by a steel strip with the same chemical composition as the parent metal, providing permanent or
temporary backing,
ª by the workpiece itself (Fig.14).
8.1.1. Single or multipass preparation

Preparation for single or multipass, manual or automatic welding, with or without access to the back of
the bead:
• with either an SMAW or MIG process,

• or a TIG or plasma welding process.
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8.1.2. Preparation on a consumable strip(*)
The thickness of the consumable strip depends on the

thickness to be welded.
The permanent backing will remain visible if it does
not prevent workpiece operation.
It will be machined if necessary. Figure 9
8.1.3. Preparation on a cooled strip
Use of a cooled backing strip will be recommended in

the case of joints where a high energy level is
reached.
Figure 10
8.1.4. Preparation on a powder bed

An inflatable bladder is used to press the powder
against the back of the bead.
Remember to clean off the slag formed by the backing
flux.
Figure 11
8.1.5. Preparation on adhesive backing

In this case, adhesive backing is used to hold the powdered flux against the plate.
8.1.6. Joggled lap joint preparation

This type of preparation is commonly used for light-
duty workpieces (2 to 4 mm thick).
Especially for the manufacture of gas cylinders
(butane – propane) (Figure 13).
Figure 12
(*)
The strip participates in the fusion process.
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And occasionally, with a narrow groove.
Figure 13
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8.2. WELDING METHODS

8.2.1. Flat or multipass welding
To make the welds easier to deslag when using a

multipass technique, it is preferable to make “small”
passes offset to the edges rather than large central
passes.
Figure 14
8.2.2. Welding with a sealing run
Figure 15
8.2.3. Inside fillet welding
Positioned or non-positioned with one or more

passes.
Figure 16
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8.2.4. Outside fillet welding
Figure 17
8.2.5. Fillet welding
Figure 18
8.2.6. Lap welding
Figure 19
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8.2.7. Horizontal welding
Figure 20
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8.2.8. Examples of preparation

Preparations vary according to the thickness of the plates to be joined. Here are a few examples for butt
welding.
Figure 21
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9. DERIVATIVE PROCESSES
9.1. WELDING WITH TWO FINE WIRES

This technique consists of using two wire electrodes with the same welding set. The two wires are fed
simultaneously by a gear motor unit in a single guiding and power supply device. The current delivered
by a single generator is shared on each wire.
a) Position of the two wires on the joint: this is to be
defined according to the intended result.
ª Tandem position: in this case, the action of

the two wires is successive. This position
corresponds to an extension of the heat
source along the joint, the effect of which can
be slightly countered by the mutual attraction
of the two arcs with the same polarity. This
arrangement can be used to increase the
welding speed by up to 50%. Example: spiral
tubes.
ª Transverse: each arc column attacks one
edge of the joint with no cumulative effect
down the centre line of the joint. This
arrangement can be used to weld with a less
thorough joint preparation. Example: fuel oil
tanks.
Figure 22
ª Semi-transverse: This is an intermediate
position of the above two that can also be
adopted. Most applications are in the 1.5 to 4 mm thickness range.
9.2. WELDING WITH HOT FILLER WIRE

This welding process offers a high deposition rate.
Principle:
In addition to the welding wire, this technique uses a
fine wire heated by a Joule effect from an AC supply
to a state verging on fusion (the most suitable
diameter is 1.6 mm).
The hot wire is fed to the front of the weld pool and an
AC supply selected to reduce the magnetic effect of
this current on the main arc to a minimum. Figure 23
The hot wire metal is intimately mixed with the parent

metal and the fused electrode wire.
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9.3. SURFACING WITH A STRIP ELECTRODE

In this process, the traditional wire electrode is
replaced by a continuous-feed strip electrode.
The low current densities used and the rapid
propagation of the arc over the entire section of the
strip between the end of the strip and the workpiece
avoid localised heating and limit penetration. On the
other hand, it generates quite marked deformations
which restrict its use to plates over 16 mm thick.
In spite of the high current intensities required, direct
current is still used, often with electrode negative
polarity which gives a less attractive finish than
electrode positive but limits the risk of inclusion in the
remelt zones of two consecutive passes.
The strips used are generally 60 mm wide. Although
120 mm strips do exist, they are used less often
because of the intensity required (1500 Amps) and the
difficulty in maintaining a movement strictly parallel to
the surface to be covered.
Occasionally 30 mm wide strips are used to cover
forged bottoms.
Figure 24
The strips are either in the same kind of steel as the
parent metal for repair operations, or a different kind,
for example low-carbon austenitic stainless steel for
corrosion-resistant coverings inside tanks (chemical and nuclear industries).
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10. PERFORMANCE SUMMARY
All steels,
Weldable materials
Nickel
Common From 5 mm. Penetrations up to 10 mm deep can be obtained with
thicknesses this process.
Generator Up to 450 A, flat characteristic (DC supply)
characteristic After, drooping characteristic
Direct current, polarity according to flux type
Current types
Alternating current for high intensities
Minimum no-load Direct current: 50 to 70 V
voltage U0 Alternating current: 70 to 80 V
22 to 40 V
Welding voltage
U = 14 + 0.04.I
U2
U = 20 + 0.04.I
Direct current: 200 to 600 A or up to 1500 A for coverings
Welding intensity I2
Alternating current: 450 to 1500 A
Stickout 5 to 8 times wire diameter
Most common dia. 1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 4, 5 and 6.3
Efficiency (%) 98
Duty cycle (%) 70
Linear welding
Usually 2.5 to 12, maximum 300
speed (cm/min)
Deposition rate
Usually 2.5 to 12, maximum 18
(kg/h)
Gas Not applicable

High deposition rate
Advantages Good bead profile
Excellent mechanical characteristics (basic flux)
Flat welding only
Drawbacks Joint difficult to monitor
Automatic work only
Health and safety Little risk, no fumes, no radiation
Framework, fabrication, offshore, large tubes, pressure vessels,

Applications
surfacing of large areas.
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Figure 1
1. Flux
2. Flux hopper
3. Current supply slides
4. Drive rolls
5. Wire
6. Slag
7. Weld bead
8. Sources of current
9. Cover plate or backing
Figure 3
Bobine de fil Spool of wire
Boîtier de commande Control unit
Frein Brake
Trémie de flux Flux hopper
Panneau de contrôle Control panel
Obturateur électrique Electric shutter
Ouverture manuelle Manual opening
Buse Nozzle
Ensemble de dévidage Wire feed assembly
Ajustement horizontal Horizontal adjustment
Redresseur de fil Wire straightener
Ajustement vertical Vertical adjustment
Contrôleur de vitesse Speed governor
Système de déplacement Travel system
Figure 7
120 cm/min.
80 cm/min.
30 cm/min.
Figure 11
Bladder
Figure 14
1/2 thickness
Figure 17
Non-positionné Non-positioned
Positionné Positioned
Figure 18
Copper strip
Figure 22
e mm t mm
sur support envers en 1 passe single pass on backing
sans support without backing
2à5 2 to 5
latte cuivre copper strip
e t
latte perdue consumable strip
sur lit de poudre 3 mm minimum on minimum 3 mm powder bed
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non retenu… not adopted or with partial penetration

t = 3, 4 and 5 mm
support manuel manual backing
support backing
poudre pour powder for
en bi-passes two passes
passe manuelle ou auto manual or auto pass
soudage à deux fils two-wire welding
1ère passe en position transverse 1st pass in transverse position
2ème et 3ème passes en tandem 2nd and 3rd passes in tandem
Soudage monofil bi-passes Two-pass single-wire welding
e = 25 à 40 mm t = 25 to 40 mm
passe de soutien backing pass
reprise en automatique automatic sealing run
Figure 25
Rouleau feuillard Strip roll
Moteur Motor
Flux Flux
Flux fondu Fused flux
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.12 : RESISTANCE WELDING

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PROFESSIONNELLE PP FPT 0386A date: 09/04/01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
RESISTANCE WELDING
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL INFORMATION ON RESISTANCE WELDING ................................................. 3

1.1. Field of use ................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Principle ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.4. Effect of the contact resistances .................................................................................. 4
1.5. Effect of pure resistances............................................................................................. 5
1.6. Weld spot formation mechanism .................................................................................. 5
2. COMPOSITION OF A SPOT WELDING MACHINE............................................................ 6
2.1. The clamp ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. The transformer ............................................................................................................ 7
2.3. The electronic switch .................................................................................................... 7
2.4. The sequencer.............................................................................................................. 7
2.5. The cooling device........................................................................................................ 9
2.6. The welding electrodes ................................................................................................ 9
2.6.1. Role of the electrodes...................................................................................................9
2.6.2. Electrode materials .......................................................................................................9
3. VARIOUS TYPES OF SPOT WELDING MACHINE.......................................................... 10

3.1. Welding presses ......................................................................................................... 10
3.2. Welding guns with integrated transformer.................................................................. 10
3.3. Welding guns with remote transformer ...................................................................... 10
3.4. Multiple spot welding machines.................................................................................. 10
3.4.1. Parallel double spot welding machines.......................................................................11
3.4.2. Series double spot welding machines ........................................................................11
3.5. Seam welding machines ............................................................................................ 12
4. WELDING PARAMETERS................................................................................................. 12
4.1. Spot size ..................................................................................................................... 12
4.2. Adjusting current intensity .......................................................................................... 12
5. SETTING THE WELDING CYCLE ..................................................................................... 13
5.1. Simple welding cycle .................................................................................................. 13
5.2. Compound welding cycle ........................................................................................... 14
5.3. Area of weldability ...................................................................................................... 15
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6. WELDABLE MATERIALS.................................................................................................. 15
6.1. Unalloyed steels ......................................................................................................... 15
6.2. High-yield steel used in bodywork.............................................................................. 15
6.3. Stainless steels........................................................................................................... 16
6.4. Alloyed steels ............................................................................................................. 16
6.5. Welding coated steels ................................................................................................ 16
6.5.1. Zinc-coated or galvanised plate..................................................................................16
6.5.2. Lead-coated plate .......................................................................................................16
6.5.3. Painted or plastic-coated plate ...................................................................................16
6.5.4. Tinned plate ................................................................................................................16
6.6. Bimetallic welds .......................................................................................................... 16
7. PROJECTION WELDING................................................................................................... 17
7.1. The various types of projection .................................................................................. 18
7.1.1. Natural projections......................................................................................................18
7.1.2. Artificial projections.....................................................................................................18
8. DERIVATIVE APPLICATIONS........................................................................................... 19
8.1. Capacitor discharge welding ...................................................................................... 19
8.2. Three-phase rectified current welding........................................................................ 19
8.3. Resistance butt welding ............................................................................................. 19
8.4. Flash welding.............................................................................................................. 20
8.5. Resistance soldering .................................................................................................. 20
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1. GENERAL INFORMATION ON RESISTANCE WELDING
1.1. FIELD OF USE

Resistance welding was discovered in 1877 by Elihu Thomson of the United States. His invention was
patented but did not have any significant application for quite some time. Around 1920, when the use of
wood was being phased out in the motor car manufacturing and aircraft construction industries, a quick,
lasting means of joining - other than riveting and screwing - needed to be found. Aircraft manufacturers
such as NIEUPORT in the USA and POTEZ and MORANE in France began to use Thomson’s invention.
Yet it was during the second world war that the Americans’ strong industry made this technology really
take off. It is worth remembering however that as a technique that consumes vast quantities of electricity,
it only prospered in countries where the generation and distribution of alternating current were mastered.
1.2. STANDARDISED DESIGNATION

The standardised denomination is given in NF EN ISO 4063 of April 2000:
French designation Soudage par résistance par point
American designation Resistance welding
21: Spot welding

Nomenclature n°
22: Seam welding
23: Projection welding
24: Flash welding
25: Resistance butt welding
1.3. PRINCIPLE
The principle of resistance welding combines the
principle of pressure welding with the effect of
converting electrical energy into heat energy.
load electrode
This principle is known by the name of induction or the
Joule effect. nugget
The heat energy produced is proportional to:
• the sum of the resistances through which

the electric current passes; load electrode
• the square of the intensity of the current

passing through the resistances; Figure 1
• the time that the current is applied.
In short, this law is expressed by the formula:
W = R x I2 x t
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Metallic continuity is obtained by the simultaneous application of the electric current and a forging force.
This force (E in Figures 2 and 3) is applied at the machine electrodes which are also used to convey the
electric current and evacuate the heat.
The current flowing between the electrodes is held up by a
resistance R. Apart from the intrinsic resistance of the
electrodes, resistance R is the sum of five resistances:
• R1, R3 and R5 are contact resistances

• R2 and R4 are the pure or intrinsic resistances of the
workpieces.
Each of these resistances delivers heat energy that can be
calculated using the formula below.
The total energy dissipated in the workpiece will equal:
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 + W5
The weld spot will only develop between the two workpieces if
R3 is greater than all the other resistances, which is the usual
case. Should a resistance be higher than R3, more heat would Figure 2
be provided here than at R3 and the fusion of the workpieces
would begin at this resistance. The weld spot would not be
produced correctly.
The necessary measures will therefore need to be taken to ensure that R3 always remains the greatest
resistance. Unfortunately, as we shall see, R3 drops systematically when the weld is made whereas R1
and R5 increase when the electrodes heat up or deteriorate. When R1 and R5 approach R3, the weld will
no longer be able to be made and the process will have to be stopped for the electrodes to be dressed.
1.4. EFFECT OF THE CONTACT RESISTANCES

A contact resistance is always greater than a pure resistance.
It depends on the nature of the metals (hardness and
resistivity), surface condition (roughness, treatment, oxides
and processing), temperature and, above all, the force applied
by the electrodes.
It must be remembered that contact resistance varies with
force.
For the nugget to form, more energy needs to be applied than
the workpiece can dissipate, regardless of time. The power Figure 3
supplied must therefore be higher than the heat load dissipated
in the workpiece.
This power is equal to R x I2.
As the force E rises, resistance R decreases. The current I must therefore be increased to have the
same power.
For a low force (high R3), a low current will be able to be used. The force must however be high enough
to keep the workpieces in proper contact.
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1.5. EFFECT OF PURE RESISTANCES

The intrinsic resistance of the material is approximately equal to the resistance of the cylinder between
the two electrodes. Like all pure resistances, its value is determined by the formula:
l
R= ρx where
s
ª ρ is the resistivity of the metal. This a constant that is specific to each metal (in µΩ / cm),
ª l is the length of the resistance. In this case, it will be the thickness of the workpiece (in cm),
ª s is the section of the active part of the electrode (in mm2).
This value is generally low, of the order of 10 µΩ for 1 mm thick sheet steel.
However, ρ increases with temperature according to the formula ρ = ρ0 (1 + α (θ - 20)) where
- ρ0 is the resistivity at 20°C,

- α is the material’s coefficient of linear expansion,
- θ is the temperature considered.
1.6. WELD SPOT FORMATION MECHANISM

As soon as the current begins to flow, resistance R3 at
the interface of the plates causes a local rise in
temperature due to induction.
Very quickly, the heat generated leads to an increase
in plate resistances R2 and R4 in the contact zone.
This will favour the formation of small volume of
molten metal (cf. Figure 4). Figure 4
Then the heat will spread and the following half-waves

will contribute to the development of the weld zone
forming the nugget. This nugget is surrounded by (cf.
Figure 5):
ª firstly, cold metal called a plastic crucible

which acts like a cold mould,
Figure 5
ª and secondly, electrodes in contact with the
plates.
The volume of the nugget is the result of local welding conditions:
ª the effect of the stacked contact resistances

(R1 to R5), the mechanical squeeze and the
stiffness of the plates,
ª the energy provided by induction,
ª heat losses by the cooled electrodes and by
the mass of the plates.
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During the plastic phase, the electrodes penetrate the

skin of the plates and leave an imprint called an
indentation.
When the current is no longer applied, the plastic
crucible cools very quickly which leads at the end of
solidification to the formation of a shrinkage cavity
measuring up to several millimetres, sometimes with
cracking. A forging phase (force maintained during
cooling) limits these faults and helps to improve the
metallurgical quality of the joint by encouraging grain Figure 6
refinement.
2. COMPOSITION OF A SPOT WELDING MACHINE
2.1. THE CLAMP

The electrode clamping force is obtained by the action of a device that produces a constant force
throughout the welding cycle or a variable force. This force is created by the action of:
ª either a pneumatic clamp,

ª or a hydraulic clamp,
ª or an electric motor.
In a great many machines, the pressure is created by a pneumatic clamp fed by the factory’s
compressed air network. The clamping force is given by the formula: F = P x S where P is the pressure
(generally in bar) set by the operator using a regulating valve and S is the section of the piston.
When the pressure is too low, the regulating valve
fails to give regular pressure and therefore the
clamping force can vary from one spot to another.
Moreover, two clamps supplied by the same air
pressure will only apply the same force if the surfaces
of the pistons are identical.
To find out the contact force of the electrodes on the
workpiece, it must be measured with a dynamometer.
An analog (spring or hydraulic) or electronic
dynamometer can be used.
As air is a compressible gas, the piston needs a
certain amount of time to move. This is why
machines with hydraulic clamps are sometimes Figure 7
preferred.
Modern machines are equipped with a clamping device activated by an electric motor. A variation in the
intensity of the motor leads to a variation in torque and therefore a variation in clamping force. With such
devices, the clamping force can easily be varied and controlled and the machine can even be driven by a
remote computer.
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2.2. THE TRANSFORMER

The transformer is the hub of the welding machine. This is what determines the power of the machine
and therefore its performance in terms of welding thickness.
The vast majority of machines use a single-phase AC supply.
As these machines are relatively high-powered, there will be a big problem in balancing the factory
network which is always three-phase.
The transformer is a step-down transformer. The primary voltage is the voltage of the factory mains (380
volts) whereas the secondary voltage is around 10 Volts.
2.3. THE ELECTRONIC SWITCH

The switch controls the flow of current into the transformer. This
switch uses the working principle of a thyristor.
A thyristor is insulating as long as an electric pulse is not applied
to the gate.
It then lets the current flow through insofar as it is in the right
direction, like a diode.
It will return to an insulating state when the intensity is nil.
A full wave can therefore be passed with two thyristors arranged
head-to-foot. This is why the unit of time used in the field of
resistance spot welding is an AC period of 20 milliseconds.
Figure 8
2.4. THE SEQUENCER
The sequencer or control unit is used to control the welding set. It
sets up all the actions required for successful spot welding. These settings include:
• squeeze time,
• welding cycle time,
• welding intensity or the percentage of machine power,
• forging time and possibly the force,
• time and power of the annealing cycle, if provided,
• interval between two spots, if necessary.
Sequencers have various degrees of complexity. They can have a single program, entered directly by
the operator for each action, or several programs. Some sequencers are programmable by computer
and designed for self-adapting welding. The control buttons are identified by standardised pictograms.
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Figure 9
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2.5. THE COOLING DEVICE

A water cooling device is used to cool the electrodes,
transformer and electronic switch. If the machine does
not have a self-contained cooling device, it will be
replaced by the plant’s industrial water supply in a
single-use system. Some factories have a collective
air conditioning and welding machine cooling water
installation.
Manufacturers set the flowrate of their machines in
litres per minute.
For example:
- Thyristor 1 to 2 litres/min,
- Transformer 4 to 6 litres/min,
- Electrodes 6 litres/min
2.6. THE WELDING ELECTRODES

2.6.1. Role of the electrodes
Most electrodes have a taper fit. They must be able to be easily removed for dressing. Some electrodes
are solid, others have a removable tip.
The electrodes have three major roles:
ª Electrical:
They must have good conductivity, although pure copper is not recommended as its mechanical
characteristics are too weak. In most cases, a chromium-copper alloy with greater resistivity and higher
mechanical characteristics is used.
ª Mechanical:
They squeeze the workpieces, hold the plastic crucible and forge after welding. The electrode must be
able to withstand the pressure increase for each spot weld.
ª Thermal:
The electrodes evacuate the heat produced by the application of welding energy and help to limit the
expansion of the plastic crucible.
2.6.2. Electrode materials

As wear parts, electrodes form a large part of the cost price of a spot weld. Today, chromium-copper
alloy electrodes are mainly used for welding ferrous metals. Copper ensures a high degree of thermal
dispersion during the welding operation as well as a good current flow while chromium increases the
mechanical strength of the electrode when it heats up.
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Composition Hardness (HB) Use

Chromium copper 83 Steel, alloyed nickel, bronze
Cadmium copper 70 Aluminium, magnesium, tinned sheet
Dispersion-strengthened copper Galvanised steel
Copper cobalt beryllium 100 Stainless steel, hard metals
Tungsten, tungsten carbide 70 Bronze, copper alloy
3. VARIOUS TYPES OF SPOT WELDING MACHINE
3.1. WELDING PRESSES

Resistance welding presses are massive, fixed machines. It is therefore the workpiece that moves during
the welding operation.
The clamp generally acts on the upper electrode.
3.2. WELDING GUNS WITH INTEGRATED TRANSFORMER

Welding guns with integrated transformer are self-contained machines with the same components as
welding presses.
A part of their weight is supported by a hoist allowing the operator to position the electrodes at the spot
where the weld is to be made. These machines are always more fragile than presses. Due to their
necessary handiness, these machines are limited in terms of power and can only weld one spot at a
time.
3.3. WELDING GUNS WITH REMOTE TRANSFORMER
Welding guns with remote transformer are used on

robots or automatic machines. The secondary current
must be conveyed by cables with generally low
impedance. These cables are water cooled. Their
position on the machine must be optimised to limit the
impedance of the secondary electric circuit.
3.4. MULTIPLE SPOT WELDING MACHINES

Some machines are capable of welding several spots at the same time. There are several types:
ª parallel double spot welding machines,

ª series double spot welding machines,
ª indirect spot welding machines.
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3.4.1. Parallel double spot welding machines

Parallel double spot welding machines are designed
to weld two spots at the same time. This method
obviously saves time but poses a number of
problems:
ª Squeeze: The compressive force of each

electrode must be strictly equal for the contact
resistances to be identical.
ª Intensity: The total intensity to be supplied by
the machine is equal to the intensity of each
spot multiplied by the number of spots to be
made. As a result, the machine is sized in
proportion to the number of spots to be made.
In practice, these machines must be equipped with a
device to balance the pressure on the upper
electrodes.
Figure 10
In the example illustrated in Figure 10, there are only
two electrodes in parallel. This principle can be
extended to a greater number of electrodes as long as the squeeze force is controlled and sufficient
intensity is available to weld the corresponding number of spots. Some multiple spot welding machines
can provide an intensity of several hundred amps.
3.4.2. Series double spot welding machines

Series double spot welding machines differ from the
parallel versions by the fact that the two spots are
welded by the same current.
The transformer is connected to each of the two
electrodes. The workpieces are laid on a copper table
through which the current passes.
On the other hand, the current diverted in the upper
plate must be compensated by an over-current which
depends on the spacing between the two spots.
This process used to be widely used in the
automotive industry but it is being phased out as it is
prohibited for welding safety points.
Figure 11
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3.5. SEAM WELDING MACHINES

Seam welding machines are basically continuous spot
welding machines. The electrodes of a conventional wheel
press are replaced by copper wheels which rotate at a force
set speed. rotation
nugget separate spots
A conventional programmer establishes the welding
cycle and the spot rate. The speed of disc rotation and
the spot rate determines whether the spots overlap or
rotation
not. overlapping spots
force
The spots already made, particularly in the case of wheel
overlapped welding, deviate a large part of the

current. The machine will therefore have to be Figure 12
capable of offsetting the effects of this deviated
current by much greater power than would have been
needed for a single spot.
4. WELDING PARAMETERS
4.1. SPOT SIZE

The spot size is limited to the zone heated by the electric current.
All of the electric current passes through the workpiece by the shortest route between the two
electrodes. The heated zone will be limited to the cylinder with a section equal to the smaller section of
the two electrodes and a height equal to the thickness of the two workpieces.
In actual fact, due to heat losses, the diameter of the spot weld will always be smaller than this cylinder.
Heat losses depend on the thickness of the plates being welded. For the thickness (e) of each plate
being welded, the electrode diameter can be calculated from two empirical formulae:
∅ = 5 × e for steel, or ∅ = 2e + 3mm.
4.2. ADJUSTING CURRENT INTENSITY

Current intensity is set by adjusting the angle of the thyristors. The longer the trigger pulse on the
thyristor gate is delayed, the less current the thyristor will let through. Consequently the rms current - in
other words, the heat energy - will be limited by as much.
A setting in terms of a percentage of machine power can be set on the control console. It is not directly
graduated in amps because the actual intensity depends on the shape and nature of the loop forming the
secondary circuit. Current intensity can vary significantly with new electrodes and contaminated
electrodes. It will also vary considerably if steel is introduced (by the workpiece being welded) inside the
secondary loop.
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5. SETTING THE WELDING CYCLE
5.1. SIMPLE WELDING CYCLE

The simple welding cycle is characterised by three phases:
ª Squeeze,
ª Weld,
ª Hold.
Simple welding cycles

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5.2. COMPOUND WELDING CYCLE

Compared with the simple cycle illustrated in Figure A , the cycle can be made more complex.
ª Cycle type B: With some metals, the spot needs to be recompacted. This is achieved by
increasing the force once the spot has been made. In this case, additional forging has a
beneficial effect on the grain size.
ª Cycle C: When welding at high current, an advantage may be gained by increasing the intensity
gradually (up slope). After welding, the cooling rate can be reduced by decreasing the intensity
gradually (down slope).
ª Cycle D: Rather than a very long welding cycle (over twenty pulses), it is preferable to weld in
sequences of three to five pulses with a cool time in between. The heat penetrates the workpiece
more evenly and better control of the size of the weld spot can be achieved. The cool time is two
to three times shorter than the heat time.
Figure 13
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5.3. AREA OF WELDABILITY

Depending on the load, current and time settings, three different situations can be obtained:
ª A successfully completed spot weld of the required size,

ª A stuck spot weld with no mechanical strength,
ª An area with excessive spatter.
Diagrams of the type illustrated in Figure 14 are often determined when defining parameters for the
qualification of the welding procedure.
The various areas are established after destructive examination of the joints following slug and peel
tests.
Figure 14
6. WELDABLE MATERIALS
6.1. UNALLOYED STEELS

The welding of unalloyed steels (mild steel) does not pose any problem when they have a carbon
content of less than 0.18%. Over that, the quenching effect becomes noticeable and a welding cycle with
post-heating must then be used.
Common thicknesses range from 0.5 mm to 3 mm. Rusty or scaly plates are still weldable but lead to
premature electrode wear.
6.2. HIGH-YIELD STEEL USED IN BODYWORK

Compared with mild steel plate of the same thickness:
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• The load must be increased by 30 to 50%,

• The time must be increased by 20 to 30%,
• The current must be increased by 10 to 20%.
6.3. STAINLESS STEELS
In the field of resistance welding, we find:
ª 16 to 17% chromium ferritic steels which do not weld too well. Longer time and a cycle with pre
and post-heating are required.
ª Austenitic steels that have the shortest possible weld time and a longer hold time.
ª Martensitic steels that are not welded without overall post-welding heat treatment.
6.4. ALLOYED STEELS
ª Reinforcing iron (TOR steel): cross or butt welding.
ª Copper-phosphorus, Corten steel (“semi-stainless” steel): weld well despite the quenching effect
on cooling.
ª Free-cutting steels (sulphur and lead steel): brittle welds and leakage problems (tanks).
6.5. WELDING COATED STEELS
6.5.1. Zinc-coated or galvanised plate
The thickness of the zinc determines weldability:
ª 3 to 7 µm for electrolytic zinc-coated plate,

ª 20 to 30 µm for galvanised plate.
In all cases, the electrode is quickly fouled by the zinc and deteriorates quickly. It needs cleaning and
changing often (approximately every 2000 spots).
Compared with a steel plate of the same thickness, the following are more or less required:
• 10% greater load,

• 10% longer time,
• 20 to 30% higher current.
6.5.2. Lead-coated plate

Lead-coated plate welds well (generally by seam welding).
6.5.3. Painted or plastic-coated plate

They are welded with very short weld times (0.5 period) to avoid damage to the coating. As a general
rule, lanced projections are used.
6.5.4. Tinned plate

Can be welded in spite of electrode fouling by the tin. In seam welding, it is preferable to insert a copper
strip between the plate and the electrode wheel.
6.6. BIMETALLIC WELDS

The welding of two different materials does not pose any particular problems as long as the spot weld
can easily be made and centred between the two plates.
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For this to occur:
ª the contact resistance between the two plates must be much higher than all of the others,
ª the resistivity of one workpiece must not be much higher than the other,
ª heat dispersal must not be much greater in one plate than the other.
7. PROJECTION WELDING
In this joining procedure, the electrodes no longer carry out the function of concentrating force and
current. This role is fulfilled by a local deformation in
the plate called a projection.
Projections can be hemispheric (the most common
form), oblong or ring-shaped.
With this welding process, it is possible to:
• weld several projections in a cycle,

• locate the weld spots exactly,
• weld without deformation,
• eliminate indentation on one of the plates,
• have low electrode wear - an appreciable
factor when welding coated steels,
• add mechanical elements to the plate
(screws, nuts, etc.). Figure 15
However, this process requires:
• high-power machines with robust, rigid frames,

• low-inertia mobile pressure components to follow the projection through its collapse phase,
• often large positioning equipment,
• precise machining electrodes that are either massive or in several parts.
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7.1. THE VARIOUS TYPES OF PROJECTION

7.1.1. Natural projections
We refer to natural projections whenever we find

ourselves in a situation where the current is normally
channelled by the geometry of the workpieces. This
will be the case for example with:
• crossed wires,
• screws,
• welding of tube plugs.
Figure 16
7.1.2. Artificial projections
Artificial projections are specially made.
They are often produced by drawing or die-stamping.
Some projections are lanced. This means that they can be welded onto painted or coated plates which
will be able to be pierced by the projection.
Figure 17
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8. DERIVATIVE APPLICATIONS
8.1. CAPACITOR DISCHARGE WELDING

The principle of this machine consists of:
ª charging a capacitor bank to a set, adjustable

voltage,
ª discharging the energy accumulated (1/2 CU2)
in the primary of a transformer.
These welders offer the following advantages:
• even for high energies, the inrush current to Figure 18

the network is low but prolonged to meet the
bank charging time;
• the energy supplied to the welding circuit is repetitive.
Some machines of this type run with a three-phase transformer.
8.2. THREE-PHASE RECTIFIED CURRENT

WELDING
These generally high-capacity machines offer the
following advantages:
• balanced distribution of power over the

three phases of the network,
• the introduction of magnetic materials into
the secondary circuit area, deformation.
Figure 19
8.3. RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING
Resistance butt welding closely resembles spot
welding insofar as it uses an identical welding
sequence. Both operations comprise a squeeze, weld, load
hold and forge phase.
The workpieces are gripped in the jaws of the
machine. One of the jaws is fixed while the other is
mobile, being mounted on a device designed to carry
out the squeezing and forging operations. It is moved
1 2 3 4
either manually or automatically. presentation contact heating forging
The welding operation is as follows:

Figure 20
a) Preparation
Before welding, the surfaces to be joined are faced
and matched up to obtain the best possible contact at the joint.
b ) Squeezing
The workpieces are clamped in the jaws of the machine and brought together until contact is made.
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c) Heating
An electric current is passed to heat the workpieces. Unlike spot welding, the electric current will be
interrupted before the fusion line melts. It will be cut off when the temperature is high enough to soften
and forge the metal.
d ) Forging
Once the current has been cut off, strong forging pressure is applied to the heated part by the movement
of the jaws of the machine.
8.4. FLASH WELDING

Although the machine is quite similar to a resistance
butt welding machine, flash welding is not strictly
speaking an induction resistance welding process load
since the workpiece is heated by a series of micro-

arcs which occur when the surface irregularities of the
metal come into contact.
Compared with resistance butt welding, this process
dispenses with the need to machine the surfaces to 1 2 3 4
be welded beforehand. presentation contact flashing forging
Applications are found in the automotive industry.

Figure 21
8.5. RESISTANCE SOLDERING
To carry out a soldering operation, a good capillary action of the alloy is necessary. For this purpose, the
following five rules must be complied with:
ª Clean surfaces and wetting by the liquid,

ª Presence of a flux that protects the surfaces and the liquid,
ª A sufficient amount of liquid filler,
ª Liquid wetting temperature,
ª Sufficient clearance for the liquid to travel.
Resistance welding machines are sometimes used as heating equipment as they are particularly well
suited to certain applications.
The drawback of this method is that it is difficult to control the clearance and that solid flux must be used
due to the presence of a significant clamping force.
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Fig. 7
Hydraulic dynamometers
Fig. 8
Conduction period
Fig. 9
Soudage point par point Single spot welding
Réglage de phase Phase control
Soudage à la volée On-the-fly welding
Nombre de pulsations thermiques Number of heat pulses
Soudage à la molette discontinue Stitch seam welding
Temps froid Cool time
Temps d’accostage Squeeze time
Cycle avec courant croissant Upslope cycle
Temps de soudage Weld time
Cycle avec courant décroissant Downslope cycle
Temps de maintien Hold time
Réglage du temps de croissance Upslope time setting
Temps d’arrêt Dwell time
Réglage du temps de décroissance Downslope time setting
Soudage sans variation d’effort Welding without variation in force
Cycle sans courant de soudage Cycle without welding current
Soudage avec variation d’effort Welding with variation in force
Cycle avec courant de soudage Cycle with welding current
Refroidissement par eau Water cooling
§ 5.1.
Appui boutons Buttons pressed
Appel EV pneumatique Pneumatic SV activated
Début comptage Counting begun
Coupure EV SV deactivated
ACCOSTAGE SQUEEZE
Nombre de périodes Attente entre Number of Wait periods between
appel EV SV activation
début soudure start of weld
Bonne application de l’effort Good application of force
SOUDURE WELD
Nombre de périodes Number of periods
Valeur en % Value as %
Conduction des THYRISTORS THYRISTOR conduction
Temps de passage de I Current flow time
Valeur de I en kA Value I in kA
MAINTIEN HOLD
Nombre de périodes Attente entre Number of Wait periods between
fin de soudure end of weld
coupure EV SV deactivation
Refroidissement du point Spot cooling
Ex/ e.g.
périodes periods
à 60 % at 60%
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Fig. 13
Accos Squeeze
Soud Weld
Maintien Hold
Cadence Rhythm
Forgeage Forge
Slope croissant Up slope
Slope décroissant Down slope
3 pulsations 3 pulses
Pré-chauf. Pre-heat
Post-chauf. Post-heat
Fig. 14
Effort Force
Projections Spatter
Collage Sticking
Fig. 18
Alim. mono ou tri Single or 3-phase supply
Transfo. élévateur de tension Step-up transformer
Redresseur Rectifier
Condensateur Capacitor
Thyristor Thyristor
Transfo de soudage Welding transformer
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.13 : SUNDRY PROCESSES

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FORMATION SUNDRY PROCESSES

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SUNDRY PROCESSES
CONTENTS
1. PLASMA ARC WELDING (15)............................................................................................. 2
2. ELECTROSLAG WELDING (72) ......................................................................................... 3
3. ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (76) ..................................................................................... 4
4. LASER BEAM WELDING (751)........................................................................................... 5
5. FRICTION WELDING (42).................................................................................................... 6
6. ROTATING ARC WELDING (185) ....................................................................................... 7
7. ULTRASONIC WELDING (41) ............................................................................................. 8
8. EXPLOSIVE WELDING (441) .............................................................................................. 9
9. DIFFUSION WELDING (45) ............................................................................................... 10
10. THERMIT WELDING (71)................................................................................................... 11
11. HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING (291) ....................................................... 12
12. COLD PRESSURE WELDING (48) ................................................................................... 13
13. ATOMIC-HYDROGEN ARC WELDING (149) ................................................................... 14

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1. PLASMA ARC WELDING (15)
non-consumable
electrode
plasma
gas
cooling
outer nozzle
shielding gas
inner nozzle arc
The plasma state is considered as the fourth state of matter and can be defined as a highly ionised,
conductive, globally neutral gaseous medium. This state can be obtained by sharply constricting a gas
column in line with an arc struck between a tungsten electrode (cathode) and an anode formed by either
the nozzle of a torch, or by the workpiece. Very high temperatures are reached (20 000°C).
In the first case, we refer to a non-transferred arc. Here the arc is expelled in the form of a “flame”. This
type of arc is primarily used in thermal spraying. In fact it was an experimental torch of this type that was
developed in 1922.
In the second case, we refer to a transferred arc. To start such an arc, a very low energy auxiliary arc
needs to be established between the electrode and the nozzle. The transferred arc is used for cutting
and welding.
For welding, we need to use both a plasma gas (argon or helium or a mixture of argon and either
hydrogen or helium) and a shielding gas (generally an argon-hydrogen mixture) which plays the same
role as in TIG welding.
In view of the high temperatures, the torch is always cooled by water. Welding is always carried out
using a direct current supply with electrode negative polarity.
Plasma welding with a transferred arc offers two possibilities:
ª Low-energy “mini-plasma” welding used for thicknesses ranging from 1/100 to 8/10 mm with
current intensities from 0.2 to 10A and plasma gas flowrates of 1 to 3 l/min.
ª High-energy welding for workpieces up to 10 mm thick, used with current intensities as high as
500 A and plasma gas flowrates of the order of 15 to 20 l/min.
High-energy welding is used in automatic setups whereas low-energy welding can be either manual or
automatic.
Finally it should be noted that all materials that can be welded using the TIG process can also be welded
with a plasma arc torch, with the exception of aluminium.
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2. ELECTROSLAG WELDING (72)
A technique developed around 1953 by the Paton Institute of Kiev on the basis of submerged arc
welding, ES welding is widely used in Russia and Europe mainly for butt welding heavy-duty workpieces.
The operation consists of making a weld in a single pass on workpieces placed vertically and between
which a gap has been arranged without any special edge preparation.
The filler wire or wires, which are stationary or move in a horizontal travelling motion along the weld line,
are dipped in a slag pool where they fuse due to a Joule effect. ES welding is not an arc welding process
although this technique is necessary for a few seconds at the start.
The weld pool and the supernatant slag pool are held in the joint by cooled copper shoes, positioned on
either side of the workpieces, which move upwards as the weld is completed. It should be noted that the
depth of the molten slag pool which acts as a heat source and protects the metal against oxidation is
approximately 40 to 60 mm.
The presence of such a large volume of slag implies that run-on and run-off tabs must be used at each
end of the bead and that resumption of the welding process is difficult if it happens to be interrupted.
Either a DC supply (positive polarity) or an AC supply is used for welding which is generally carried out
on workpieces ranging from 20 mm to 2 m thick. Preference is given to alternating current to avoid
electrolysis of the slag. For workpieces over 100 mm thick, several wires oscillating along the weld line
must be used.
ES welding is used for welding steels and choice applications are found in shipbuilding and heavy sheet
metal work.
Finally it should be pointed out that the welding cycle, although favourable with regard to deformations
and the risk of cracking, produces a coarse structure which it is often necessary to regenerate by heat
treatment.
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3. ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (76)
filament
Wehnelt
anode
to vacuum
focusing pump
coil
beam
Electron beam welding was developed in 1954 by Mr Stohr, an Engineer at the Saclay Nuclear
Engineering Centre in France.
The principle of the technique consists of using an electron beam, focused on the joint to be welded, in a
vacuum (10-3 to 10-5 Torr). The kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat energy as they
impact the workpieces, leading to fusion.
The electrons, produced by heating a cathode (filament), are accelerated by a very high potential
difference (50 to 150 kV) maintained between the Wehnelt and an anode located some distance away.
The electron beam obtained is concentrated by an electromagnetic focusing coil. A beam with a spot
size of approximately 1 mm is obtained at the workpieces.
This concentration of electrons leads to instant, extremely localised fusion of the workpieces with no filler
required.
The main applications of electron beam welding are found in the automotive, aviation and space
industries. It has a number of advantages:
ª possibility of joining workpieces ranging in thickness from a few millimetres to over 50 mm on

practically all metals,
ª possibility of producing welds with a depth-to-width ratio that can vary from 20 to 1,
ª metallurgical benefit inherent in the narrowness of the heat affected zone,
ª quality welds due to welding in a vacuum,
ª automatic welding process allowing high rates,
ª very little deformation.
But this technique also has a few drawbacks:
ª high equipment cost,

ª requires excellent joint face alignment,
ª limitations in the size and shape of the parts due to the fact that welding is done in a vacuum
chamber.
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4. LASER BEAM WELDING (751)
10 000 V
mirror mirror
turning
mirror
beam
focusing
cooling
Helium-Nitrogen-CO2 shielding gas

mixture
(pressure: 10 Torr)
The word LASER is actually an acronym that stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is in fact the transformation of electrical energy into luminous energy. The principle was
defined by Einstein in 1917 but it wasn’t until 1960 that Maiman developed the first ruby laser. There are
two types of energy laser: solid-state lasers and gas lasers. Solid-state lasers emit in pulses whereas
gas lasers emit continuously.
In a gas laser used for welding, the physical phenomena that give rise to laser emission laser exist, in
part, in the “neon tubes” used for lighting. These tubes, as laser sources, contain a gas mixture at a
reduced pressure in which an electric discharge is maintained. The excitation thus obtained produces an
emission of light (photons) without amplification.
In a laser source, on the other hand, the light is amplified by a chain reaction; the photons produced
stimulate the emission of other photons by impacts with already excited gas molecules. The photons
produced in this way always have the same direction and the same wavelength as the photons that
created them.
To obtain a workable beam, as many excited molecules as possible must be brought into contact as
often as possible with photons moving parallel to the tube axis (all of the others create unusable
luminous energy which is dissipated by the tube cooling system). To do this, parallel mirrors are placed
at each end of the tube; one of them is semi-transparent and allows a part of the emitted light to be
recovered. This light is then concentrated by focusing and the power density may reach 70 kW/mm.
A laser source can be used to weld, cut, bore and perform surface heat treatment simply by changing
the focal length.
The majority of materials can be worked (metals, wood, textiles, etc.). High power levels are needed for
materials with a high coefficient of thermal conductivity (AI, Cu, Ag, Au, etc.).
By way of an indication, a 300 W laser source can be used to butt weld 1 mm thick stainless steel at a
speed of 20 cm/min. and 0.5 mm stainless steel at 60 cm/min.
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5. FRICTION WELDING (42)
load
1 2 3 4
rotation friction forging
Process discovered simultaneously in the United States and the Soviet Union in 1950, although friction
welding machines did not appear in Industry until 1961.
The generally revolving workpieces are pressed against one another, then one is rotated such that the
friction generates the heat necessary for welding at the interface. When the joint area becomes
sufficiently plastic, under the effect of the rise in temperature, rotation is stopped and the axial load is
increased to forge the workpieces.
The two essential parameters in friction welding are pressure and speed of rotation. For mild steel, a
circumferential speed of 75 to 150 m/min. is selected regardless of the workpiece diameter. Below 30
cm/min, again on steel, the upset metal is irregular; it is minimised for maximum speeds compatible with
the workpieces to be welded. Pressure is the predominant factor (ranging from 150 to 750 bar on steel)
as it has an impact on the temperature at the interface and on the resisting torque value.
When the pressure increases, plastic deformation is obtained at a lower temperature, the temperature of
the plastic area at the interface is reduced and the resisting torque value increases.
Friction welding, a rival technique to flash welding, is widely used in mechanical production and forging.
The specific features of this fusion-free, dilution-free method of welding allow it to be used to unite
metallic materials where other processes would involve difficulties of a metallurgical nature.
Finally, it is worth noting that friction welding is applicable to thermoplastics.
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6. ROTATING ARC WELDING (185)
A B
C D
Rotating arc welding is used for butting hollow and closed sections, with or without an axis of symmetry
(tubes, car axles, compressed air tanks, fire extinguishers, etc.).
It is carried out in several stages:
ª Initial state (A)

The two workpieces to be welded are clamped in the jaws of two electrodes each connected to
the terminals of a DC power source. The arc control coil surrounds the welding zone.
ª Start of welding (B)
The two workpieces that were in contact are separated (0.3 to 1.5 mm apart) until an arc is
struck. The intensity of the welding current created can vary from 50 to 1000 A. A direct current (5
to 15 A) is fed through the control coil producing a radial magnetic field. A shielding gas is
propelled during welding.
ª Welding (C)
Under the effect of the magnetic field, the arc is driven in a rotational movement (200 to 300
revolutions per second). This movement is continued until the ends of the workpieces begin to
fuse in the mushy zone.
ª End of welding
The upsetting operation then takes place. The welding current, magnetic field and shielding gas infeed
are cut off.
This process has a number of industrial applications. They relate in particular to mild or low-alloy steel
workpieces with a circular section on which diameters range from 5 to 300 mm and thickness from 0.8 to
5 mm.
The cycle is extremely fast and rates of 10 to 200 workpieces per minute can be reached.
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7. ULTRASONIC WELDING (41)

In 1950, in the course of research in the
United States to improve resistance load
welding conditions through the use of
ultrasonic waves, it was discovered that
such waves could be used alone to weld sonotrode booster transducer
joints.
Ultrasonic welding is a cold pressure vibrations
welding process in which the atoms at the
interface to be joined combine due to
interatomic attractive forces.
The join is made by lap welding. The
workpieces are pressed against each anvil
other between an “anvil” and a
“sonotrode” which produces transverse
vibrations and localised friction which clean the surfaces and raise the temperature until the weld is
formed.
The setup has the appearance of a resistance welding set and consists of:
ª an electronic generator providing HF electrical energy to vibrate the welding head;

ª a welding head comprising:
• a transducer
• an amplifier
• a sonotrode
The transducer transforms the electrical energy from the HF generator into vibratory energy. As the
vibrations are too weak to be used for welding, they are amplified by a titanium or duraluminium booster
tuned to the transmitter frequency.
During welding, although the components that are being joined apparently remain cold, a study of the
bond mechanism shows that a tiny volume of metal is actually at recrystallisation temperature. It is
therefore a friction weld on a skin-thin scale.
This technique can be used in many cases of uniting metals thanks to the fact that the welding operation
takes place in a few hundredths of a second and that, during the operation, there is neither sufficient
time for diffusion nor fusion nor overheating.
ª Examples of applications:
• spot welding of stainless steel from 0.2 to 0.4 mm thick and from 0.3 mm thick by seam
welding,
• spot welding of aluminium from 2 to 3 mm thick and from 0.5 mm thick by seam welding with a
600 W machine at a rate of 10 m per minute,
• welding of toothpaste tubes after filling,
• welding of digits onto watch faces.
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8. EXPLOSIVE WELDING (441)
parallel detonation angled detonation
explosive
damper
jet of metal cladding
parent metal
Discovered by chance in 1957 in the course of explosive forming operations, explosive welding uses the
energy released by an explosive charge to cause a collision between two surfaces to be joined. The
collision is directed to ensure regular displacement of the impact point throughout the explosion.
The explosive charge, of uniform thickness, covers the cladding arranged either parallel or at an angle to
the substrate (an angled detonation can only be used for long lengths because an excessively large gap
is quickly obtained leading to welds of inferior quality).
The detonation accelerates the coating onto the substrate and a thin jet of plasticised metal spurts out
ahead of the impact point. This jet strips away any contaminating oxides and produces the perfectly
clean surfaces required to obtain a quality joint.
A rubber or PVC damper is placed between the explosive and the cladding to protect it from surface
deterioration during the detonation.
Explosive welding is especially used in manufacturing plated materials, welding tubes onto tube plates
and producing bimetallic components.
As it is more costly than roll bonding, explosive cladding is only applied to difficult bonds:
ª metallurgically dissimilar metals (AI – steel)

ª metals that are alterable at high temperature (Ti – Ta – Zr)
ª workpieces that do not support rolling, either because of their shape or the brittleness of the
substrate.
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9. DIFFUSION WELDING (45)
chamber
heating
load system
filling under to vacuum

controlled atmosphere pump
ram
Diffusion welding, a technique developed by the Soviets, was created as a result of incidents observed
on aerospace vehicles where unintended welding occurred in the space vacuum.
In this process, which involves static, pressure welding contrary to friction or ultrasonic welding, the
workpieces are held in contact under a given load and brought to a set temperature for a monitored time.
As a result of local plastic deformations of the surfaces, these working conditions lead to the intimate
contact of the surfaces and the diffusion of atoms between the components to be united thereby
obtaining the continuity of the material. Volume diffusion takes place in the metal either according to a
process that takes advantage of crystal lattice vacancies or along grain boundaries.
Diffusion welding is particularly suited to metals and alloys that dissolve their own oxides, and to noble
metals in general.
Diffusion welding has been used on 50 mm thick steel. The possibility of welding together different kinds
of metals or welding to non-metallic materials is one of the most important features of this technique (for
example: Kovar + glass where the essential diffusion agent is the metal oxide).
As a general rule, diffusion welding work is carried out in quite exceptional circumstances on small-size
workpieces.
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10. THERMIT WELDING (71)
The first thermit weld was produced in Germany by Goldschmidt in 1894.

This welding technique consists of creating a reaction between a mixture of metal oxide and aluminium
powder in a crucible.
As far as steel is concerned, the best results are obtained with iron oxide. The reaction gives off
substantial heat which melts the products of the reaction and produces liquid iron which is poured into a
mould containing the ends of the workpieces to be joined. In addition to a pouring gate and vents, this
mould comprises one or more gates for the workpieces to be preheated because, although the reaction
temperature reaches 2450°C, the quantity of heat given off is insufficient to ensure a good bond.
The charge, which can be as much as three metric tons for large workpieces, is placed in a crucible
above the mould. The reaction which only starts over 1300°C requires the use of a small quantity of
ignition powder. The reaction only lasts from 30 to 120 seconds regardless of the volume of the charge.
At the end of the reaction, the liquid metal lies in the bottom of the crucible under a supernatant alumina
slag pool. The liquid metal now just needs to be drawn off and poured into the mould.
Used in manufacturing and repair work, its first and foremost application is the butting of rails.
It is also used a lot in shipbuilding and heavy industry. It also applies to the welding of copper alloys with
other charge compositions.
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11. HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING (291)
pressure rollers
field circuit
weld
This welding process is also known under the name of induction welding.
In induction welding, heating is produced by induced currents flowing through the workpiece. It is in fact
possible to use low, medium and high frequency currents.
With low and medium frequency currents (4000 to 5000 Hz), heating is obtained by a Joule effect and
welding takes the form of a resistance butt welding process, with upsetting to ensure a good bond.
For high frequency currents (250 to 500 000 Hz), the induced currents are localised in the skin over a
few tenths of a millimetre and a film of liquid metal forms on the edges to be joined. In this case, the
bond is produced with quite low clamping pressure and reduced upsetting.
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12. COLD PRESSURE WELDING (48)

Welding is carried out at ambient temperature. There is no input of external heat.
This form of welding is only possible with highly ductile materials (aluminium, copper, etc.).
To obtain a good bond, the surfaces to be joined must be very clean and degreased.
Lap welding produces deformations ranging from 60 to 85%.
ei ef
ei − ef
Deformation (%) d = x 100
ei
Butt welding is used to join tubes or wires.
L L≈∅
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13. ATOMIC-HYDROGEN ARC WELDING (149)
The “atomic-hydrogen” process consists of establishing an arc between two tungsten electrodes in a
hydrogen atmosphere surrounding the electrodes, thus forming unconstricted hydrogen plasma.
The recombination of the dissociated hydrogen in the arc gives a very high temperature (3750°C) at the
end of the inner cone of the atomic hydrogen “flame”.
Although very hot, the welding flame is soft. It produces a calm pool and permits the welding of thin steel
plate (2 to 10 mm thick). As this flame is highly reducing, weld pool oxidation is not an issue.
The welding set must have a high no-load voltage of the order of 300 V to permit arc striking. An AC
supply ranging from 20 to 100 A is used.
The hydrogen flowrate is 350 to 800 l/h.
This process has given way to TIG welding and is little used.
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Figure 2
tête de soudage welding head

fil wire
bain de laitier slag pool
bain de fusion weld pool
refroidissement cooling
patin de cuivre copper shoe
appendice d’amorçage run-on tab
Figure 10
poudre d’allumage ignition powder

CREUSET CRUCIBLE
charge charge
trop plein de laitier slag overflow
trou de coulée pouring gate
trou de préchauffage preheating gate
écoulement de la cire wax runoff
MOULE MOULD
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.14 : CUTTING AND EDGE PREPARATION PROCESSES

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FORMATION CUTTING AND EDGE PREPARATION PROCESSES

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CUTTING AND EDGE PREPARATION PROCESSES
CONTENTS
1. - INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 3
2. - OXYGEN CUTTING ................................................................................................................ 3
MECHANISM OF ACTION .............................................................................................................................3
WORKING TOOLS ......................................................................................................................................4
FLUIDS USED ............................................................................................................................................5
2.3.1. - CUTTING GAS ............................................................................................................................5
2.3.2. - FUEL GAS ..................................................................................................................................5
FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS ........................................................................................................................6
SPECIAL PROCESSES ................................................................................................................................7
2.5.1. - OXYGEN CUTTING OF REFRACTORY METALS ...............................................................................7
2.5.2. - UNDERWATER OXYGEN CUTTING. ...............................................................................................7
PLASMA CUTTING.................................................................................................................................8
MECHANISM OF ACTION .............................................................................................................................8
WORKING TOOLS ......................................................................................................................................9
FLUIDS USED ..........................................................................................................................................10
FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS ......................................................................................................................10
3. - LASER CUTTING ................................................................................................................. 11
MECHANISM OF ACTION ...........................................................................................................................11
WORKING TOOLS ....................................................................................................................................11
FLUIDS USED ..........................................................................................................................................12
4. - WATER CUTTING ................................................................................................................ 13
MECHANISM OF ACTION ...........................................................................................................................13
WORKING TOOLS ....................................................................................................................................13
FLUIDS USED ..........................................................................................................................................13
5. - RESPECTIVE FIELDS OF USE OF THE PROCESSES ..................................................... 14
STEELS...................................................................................................................................................15
METALS OTHER THAN UNALLOYED AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS ......................................................................16
OTHER MATERIALS (LEATHER, CARDBOARD, PLEXIGLAS, FIBRES, ETC.) .....................................................16
6. - CUTTING DEFECTS............................................................................................................. 17
EDGE MELTING........................................................................................................................................17
TORN SURFACE .......................................................................................................................................17
EXCESSIVE DRAG ....................................................................................................................................17
HOLLOW AT THE TOP ...............................................................................................................................17
LOCAL IRREGULARITIES ...........................................................................................................................18
DEFORMED CUT FACES ...........................................................................................................................18
FLASHES ................................................................................................................................................18
GOOD CUT ..............................................................................................................................................18
7. - HEALTH AND SAFETY........................................................................................................ 19
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AIR POLLUTION .......................................................................................................................................19

NOISE POLLUTION ...................................................................................................................................19
SIGHT POLLUTION ...................................................................................................................................19
8. - OTHER PROCESSES .......................................................................................................... 20
ARC AIR GOUGING ...................................................................................................................................20
OXY-ARC CUTTING ..................................................................................................................................21
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1. - INTRODUCTION
There are a number of cutting processes in use. They include the so-called “mechanical” processes
generally based on material shearing (press punching, shear cutting, etc.) or stripping (by grinding or
parting off).
Cutting techniques also exist where there is no contact between the cutting tool and the workpiece.
These techniques are oxygen cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting and water cutting.
The first three are generally grouped together under the term of thermal cutting but the fourth can
obviously not be classified under this same designation. In actual fact, all four of these processes share
the notion of “fluid jet cutting”:
oxygen cutting oxygen jet,
plasma cutting plasma jet,
laser cutting photon jet (light),
water cutting Ultra High Pressure water jet.
2. - OXYGEN CUTTING
MECHANISM OF ACTION
Oxygen cutting uses thermochemical energy
combining a chemical reaction (combustion/
oxidation of iron) and the physical action of blowing
slag out of the kerf by the kinetic energy of the
oxygen jet. The presence of preheating flames is
required to start the chemical reaction and then
maintain it correctly.
For oxygen cutting of a metal to be possible, three
fundamental conditions must be fulfilled:
• The combustion of the metal in question by the

oxygen must be sufficiently exothermic.
2 Fe + O2 → 2 FeO + Heat
The heat given off by the reaction must be sufficient

to keep the metal at a temperature where this
reaction can continue (ignition temperature).
• The ignition temperature of the reaction must be

lower than the melting point of the metal in
question.
Figure 1
The melting point of iron is 1535°C whereas the
combustion of iron by oxygen starts at around
1300°C.
• The oxide produced must have a melting point lower than the melting point of the metal.
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The melting point of iron is 1535°C whereas the

melting points of the various iron oxides range from
1370 to 1597°C.
In practice, only iron, or more generally mild and
low-alloy steels, meet these three conditions.
After obtaining an adequate temperature for ignition
on the upper face of the workpiece to be cut, the
phenomenon of oxidation (or combustion) of the
iron can begin although, as surprising as that may
seem, there will never be direct contact between
the oxygen and the metal, regardless of whether
the metal is in a liquid or solid state.
Starting with the cutting oxygen, the cylindrical jet of
which passes through the thickness of the plate, we
shall encounter in succession:
• a film of oxides;
• a film of liquid metal due to the very violent
Figure 2
heating linked to the phenomenon itself, insofar
as the calories given off cannot be diffused in
the plate quickly enough to avoid this fusion;
• the solid metal.
WORKING TOOLS
The working tool is a cutting blowpipe fed by the appropriate gas supplies (oxygen and fuel gas). Its
construction is derived from that of traditional welding blowpipes.
Cutting blowpipes fall into two categories:
- Manual blowpipes comprising, like the welding blowpipe, a handle or body held by the operator,
including the supply lines, circuits and control valves for the oxidising gas (oxygen) and the fuel gas
(acetylene, propane, Tetrene, Crylene, etc.) and, in addition, a cutting oxygen circuit leading to a
head support and cutting head.
Figure 3
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- Machine blowpipe comprising the same gas circuits contained in a shaft and ending with a cutting
head. The shaft is designed to be mounted on the blowpipe holder of the machines.
Figure 4
The face of all cutting heads features:

- a precisely gauged central port for the cutting
oxygen jet;
- a series of ports arranged in a ring around the
central port for the formation of the heating flames.
The choice of cutting head will be made on the basis
of the torch, the fuel and the thickness to be cut. Figure 5
FLUIDS USED
2.3.1. - CUTTING GAS

Oxygen is obviously used. This gas is generally supplied with a guaranteed impurity content of less than
0.5% (oxygen content > 99.5%) which is adequate for this process. A higher oxygen content could
improve the working speed but this is not industrially viable because of the additional cost of the gas.
On the other hand, the use of a gas containing less than 98% oxygen would lead to a reduction in the
working speed. Dropping below 96% would prevent clean industrial oxygen cutting at an acceptable
speed.
2.3.2. - FUEL GAS
The heating flame has a limited but nonetheless fundamental role: heating the metal locally to an
adequate temperature (around 1300°C) to start the reaction between the iron and the oxygen and then
maintain it.
If the temperature required for the reaction can be obtained with all fuel gases, some achieve this more
easily and with a better level of performance than others. They are of course combined with oxygen as
an oxidising gas but from a different supply than the cutting oxygen.
The calculated maximum flame temperatures (at the inner cone) of the main fuel gases are as follows:
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high-performance gas but

acetylene C2H2 3170°C necessitating a few precautions
in use
safer gas to use but more
propane C3H8 2840°C modest performance
A compromise has been sought with the marketing of synthetic gases produced by the petrochemical
industry, such as: MAPP (Dow Chemical), APACHI (Air Products), TETRENE (Air Liquide), FLAMEX
(Aga), CRYLENE (Air Liquide), etc., which have an intermediate flame temperature and a good level of
safety. Finally, for the record, we should also mention natural gas, sometimes used for particular reasons
of availability in spite of its modest performance (2730°C).
FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS
They only take on their full meaning in machine cutting situations since, in manual cutting, the main one -
travel speed - depends solely on the operator and is a little irregular.
The main parameters are as follows:
• the travel speed which must balance the progression rate of the iron combustion reaction on the kerf
front. The thicker the workpiece to be cut, the
lower the cutting speed will be;
• the cutting head gauge, essentially the nominal
diameter of the cutting oxygen injection
channel. The thicker the workpiece to be cut,
the greater this diameter will need to be;
• the pressure of the cutting oxygen: thicker
plates can be cut by increasing the oxygen
flowrates;
• the power of the heating flame: the high fuel
rating of the oxyacetylene flame gives the best
results; Figure 6
• the head/plate distance (secondary parameter).
All of these parameters can vary either way by 15

to 20% compared with the figures given by
manufacturers.
When making grooves, where two or three
blowpipes can be used, their angle of inclination
and arrangement are important factors:
• angle of inclination: this obviously has an effect

on the actual thickness cut through. It also leads
to more pronounced fusion on one of the two
edges. Every effort should therefore be made to
ensure that this fusion is on the offcut; Figure 7
• blowpipe arrangement: their order and spacing
are important:
• Y-groove
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A = 20 to 40 mm
• double V-groove
Figure 8
• K-groove
Figure 9
SPECIAL PROCESSES
2.5.1. - OXYGEN CUTTING OF

REFRACTORY METALS
Some materials are not receptive to oxygen cutting

because the combustion reaction does not produce
sufficient heat. This is the case of stainless steels.
To overcome this problem, the cutting oxygen jet
contains iron powder which, as it is consumed, will
provide the additional heat required.
2.5.2. - UNDERWATER OXYGEN CUTTING.
The most commonly used gas in this case is MAPP

as it can be used with relatively high pressure
levels. With this method, it is possible to cut - or
rather separate - plates at depths of several metres.
Figure 10
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PLASMA CUTTING
MECHANISM OF ACTION
Plasma cutting uses concentrated energy in the
form of a plasma jet at very high temperature (15000
to 20000°C) which melts the metal at its point of
impact (by a thermal effect) and blows the molten
metal out of the kerf by its kinetic energy. This
plasma jet is generated by an electric arc established
between an electrode inside the torch and the
workpiece.
Furthermore, this arc is placed in a gas current which
generates the plasma but which can only escape out
through the small diameter port (a few millimetres at
most). This constricts the plasma jet and results in its
fineness, rigidity and high speed.
Figure 11
Contrary to oxygen cutting, here there is no chemical
reaction between the gas and the material to be cut.
For plasma cutting, the materials to be cut simply have to be conductive. It can therefore be used to cut
all metallic materials (unalloyed, low-alloy or high-alloy steels, aluminium and alloys, copper and alloys,
etc.).
Figure 12
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WORKING TOOLS
The basic tool is the cutting torch and its technology
is similar to that of TIG or plasma welding torches
(Figure 13).
The cutting torch is supplied by an electric
generator (generally a rectifier transformer
assembly) with drooping characteristics providing
DC power.
The torches can be classified in one of two quite
distinct groups according to the nature of the
plasma gases used.
. Laminar flow torches:
These torches are equipped with a pointed
tungsten electrode and use argon/hydrogen
mixtures or occasionally nitrogen (for low-power
torches) as plasma gas. The gases are injected
parallel to the electrode which does suffer any
particular oxidation stress since argon and nitrogen
are inert and hydrogen is reducing.
. Vortex flow torches:
These torches are equipped with a flat-end
electrode containing a small, highly emissive metal
insert which stabilises the source of the arc (Figure
14).
This insert may be in tungsten when nitrogen is
used as plasma gas, zirconium with air, or hafnium
with oxygen. Figure 13
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As air is an oxidising mixture (it contains 21%

oxygen), the flat electrode and the use of a vortex
(i.e. the tangential, and therefore swirling, injection
of gas) are designed to put the source of the arc,
wherever possible, outside the gas stream to
prevent it from being oxidised and destroyed too
quickly.
This type of torch may be supplemented by a water
post-injection device, also in a vortex, which
improves performance somewhat (partial
dissociation of the water molecules and
recombination in the kerf while giving off heat).
The power applied ranges from a few kilowatts to
150 kW, or a little more.
Figure 14
FLUIDS USED
The gas (or possibly an additional fluid, water in
general) used to generate the plasma is selected according to the nature of the work envisaged.
For unalloyed or low-alloy steels, air or nitrogen, possibly supplemented by a post-injection of water, are
most often used. Pure oxygen can also be used but with moderate power levels for cutting at very high
speed on light-duty workpieces (20 m/min on 0.4 mm thick sheets).
On the other hand, for cutting stainless steels and non-ferrous metals (aluminium and copper/brass),
argon/hydrogen mixtures are generally preferable.
Contrary to oxygen cutting, certain parameters are already established by the choices made on
purchasing the equipment. They include:
• Choice of plasma gas (according to metals to be cut).

• Choice of electrode type (resulting from choice of gas).
• Choice of power level used (in kW).
• Choice of outlet nozzle gauge (resulting from choice of power level).
It is indeed possible to adjust the level of power used by the current source but as the travel speed is
closely conditioned by this, it is most often set to maximum.
In actual fact, the power and nozzle gauge are also almost considered as technological choices made on
purchasing the equipment too.
The only truly variable parameters left are:
• Choice of plasma gas flowrate.

• Choice of travel speed.
On a given thickness, widely varying speeds can be used for cutting according to the power used.
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3. - LASER
CUTTING
MECHANISM OF
ACTION
Laser cutting uses
radiant energy in the form
of a beam of
concentrated,
monochromatic, coherent
light. The absorption of
this energy by the
workpiece at the precise
location of the tiny point
of impact (generally less
than 1 mm²) causes the Figure 15
material to melt/vaporise.
Fumes and liquefied
elements are blown from the kerf by an
additional axial gas stream.
The cutting head is supplied by a laser
radiation generator and a blowing gas
source.
WORKING TOOLS
By analogy with plasma cutting or
oxygen cutting, we shall include under
“tools” the assembly placed in proximity
to the workpiece and performing the
following functions:
• to focus a collimated beam emitted

by the laser source to concentrate
the radiation on as small a surface
area as possible;
• to blow out the kerf using a
pressurised gas supply to remove
the products of fusion/vaporisation
and combustion of the cut material.
The power level used is between 50
and 100 kW approximately for a head
output power of 1500 to 2000 W (very
low efficiency).
Figure 16
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FLUIDS USED
The supply for the laser radiation source is
independent from that of the cutting tool.
Remember that CO2 lasers, by far the most popular
today, require a mixture of CO2, nitrogen and
helium in precise proportions, although these can
vary from one manufacturer to another.
As far as the blowing or expelling gas injected into
the cutting head is concerned, in principle a purely
physical action is required. It follows, in theory, that Figure 17 - 3 mm 304L stainless steel.
any gas could do the job but in practice, a
significant “boost” in performance is obtained by
choosing the gas carefully.
• Oxygen is used for cutting common metals, adding an “oxygen cutting” effect to the laser effect on
ferrous metals.
• Oxygen is also used for cutting copper and aluminium alloys. For brass, oxygen or argon is used. It
should be remembered, however, that copper and aluminium are difficult to cut because of their high
reflecting power.
• Nickel and nickel alloys are cut either with
oxygen or with CO2, depending on the
circumstances.
• Chromium alloys, particularly when the
chromium content becomes significant, require
the use of a neutral gas (nitrogen or argon, for
example), to avoid the formation of highly
refractory chromium oxides in the kerf.
Like water cutting, in most cases this process is not
used in preparing workpieces for welding, its cost
(and power) tending to devote it to more noble
tasks.
It is therefore never used under the same
conditions as oxygen cutting or plasma cutting.
For pure information purposes, the main functional
parameters are as follows:
• Nature of the laser radiation (solid ruby or

gaseous CO2), i.e. its wavelength. Figure 18 - Functional parameters
• Modulation of this radiation (continuous, pulsed,
etc.) according to workpiece shape problems.
• Focal length of the cutting head used (depending on thickness).
• Cutting speed (according to thickness).
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4. - WATER CUTTING
MECHANISM OF ACTION
Water cutting uses a “simple” jet of water that is very fine (a few tenths of a millimetre in diameter) but
powered at an exceptional speed by a very high injection pressure of 3000 to 5000 bar. The kinetic
energy of this jet is then capable of making fine cuts not only in all materials, but also on a wide variety of
products. This kinetic action of pure water is sometimes reinforced - for cutting very hard metals or alloys
- by the addition of abrasives to the water.
WORKING TOOLS
The actual cutting tool is relatively simple and comprises an outlet nozzle, generally of sapphire,
connected to the pressurised water supply line. The assembly is occasionally supplemented by an
Figure 19
abrasive powder injection device, especially for cutting metals or hard materials in generally.
As in the case of laser cutting, the fundamental element is the pressurised water generator assembly
which must deliver the water at a pressure of 3000 to 5000 bar.
FLUIDS USED
To limit the problems posed by the sealing components of the pumping unit, carefully filtered deionised
water must be used.
If abrasive is to be added to the water, one of the following products can be adopted:
• a pulverised silicate slag;

• powdered olivine (volcanic rock);
• garnet, corundum or silicon carbide powder.
The above abrasives are listed in increasing order of hardness and, at present, prices are following more
or less the same pattern.
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We shall make the same preliminary remark as for laser cutting, particularly as water cutting can be
carried out on materials that have nothing at all to do with metals and welding (cardboard, fabric,
honeycomb structures, composites, foods, etc.).
On metals, pressure is almost not a variable because it is determined by the pumping equipment.
Speed would be a variable depending on the thickness and the material to be cut.
It can be increased considerably by including post-injected abrasives.
5. - RESPECTIVE FIELDS OF USE OF THE PROCESSES

Historically, oxygen cutting was the only possible process for a long time, but speeds were modest.
Plasma, laser and water cutting appeared more recently but the investments to be made were - and still
are - much higher than for oxygen cutting.
Precision with oxygen cutting and plasma cutting is of the order of a millimetre whereas laser cutting and
water cutting are more accurate (within tenths of a millimetre). Of course, these figures relate to machine
cutting because with manual cutting, the notion of precision depends almost solely on the skill of the
operator.
Besides, manual cutting can only be envisaged with oxygen cutting and plasma cutting.
Lasers and water jets must be implemented on a machine.
The following diagram provides an insight into industrial performance levels on unalloyed and low-alloy
steels and stainless steels.
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Figure 20
Process Oxygen cutting Plasma cutting Laser cutting UHP water cutting
Mild steels: 3 to 20 mm All metals

Mild and low-alloy steels
Primary fields of use Stainless steel: 3 to 150 mm All materials Non-metallic materials
5 to 600 mm
Al: 3 to 200 mm 1 to 3 mm
Mild and low-alloy steels All metals Very hard metals if

Possible fields of Mild and low-alloy steels
3 to 5 mm < 1 mm abrasives are added to
use 20 to 150 mm
600 to 2 000 mm 3 to 6 mm the water jet
STEELS
From an industrial and practical aspect, essentially in machine cutting, the fields of use are as follows:
• Below 2 mm
Only laser cutting is possible in spite of its high cost. Punching or nibbling may prove to be a viable
alternative if allowed by the nature of the metal and if the quality of the cuts is acceptable.
Water cutting can be used on special metals, carbides, etc.
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It is also worth noting in passing that manual plasma cutting can be used on very thin workpieces, up to
0.5 mm for example (bodywork repairs).
• From 2 to 4 mm
Plasma can provide an alternative to laser. Speeds are of the same order but investments are lower for
plasma.
Quality of cut and accuracy are clearly superior with laser and water. Punching or nibbling can again be
used with the same conditions as above.
• From 3 to 6 mm
Laser, plasma and oxygen cutting are possible, at least on mild steels.
Speed, quality of cut and precision are obviously inversely proportional to investment. Nevertheless, as
the thickness increases, cutting speeds drop notably for laser which makes plasma more attractive
above a thickness of approximately 6 mm.
• From 6 to 20 mm
Plasma and oxygen cutting compete on unalloyed and low-alloy steels. Plasma is quicker but the cut
edges are not always perfectly square.
- Over 30 mm
Oxygen cutting is now the most attractive as the speed advantage of plasma is eliminated.
METALS OTHER THAN UNALLOYED AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS

Water and laser, for light-duty workpieces, and plasma for the others are the only processes to consider.
OTHER MATERIALS (LEATHER, CARDBOARD, PLEXIGLAS, FIBRES, ETC.)

There is competition between the laser and water jet techniques. Investments are approximately of the
same order, but the laser causes the cut edge to char slightly. If this is unacceptable, the water jet is
preferable.
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6. - CUTTING DEFECTS
Defects that can occur in the cut, and their causes, are indicated by the following illustrations.
EDGE MELTING
The heating flame is too powerful, or possibly
the travel speed is too low.
TORN SURFACE
The travel speed is too low and combined with a
heating flame of insufficient power.
EXCESSIVE DRAG
The travel speed is too high (and the oxygen
flowrate insufficient).
HOLLOW AT THE TOP

Excessive oxygen pressure combined with over-
powerful heating flame.
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LOCAL IRREGULARITIES
This is due to compactness defects in the metal.
DEFORMED CUT FACES

The cutting nozzle is fouled up.
FLASHES
The cutting gas flowrate is too low.
GOOD CUT
A perfect cut is characterised by a slight drag as
illustrated by the drag lines on the cut surface.
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AIR POLLUTION
• Risks: pulmonary intoxication
Oxygen cutting produces a lot of carbon dioxide (CO2) and although the gas itself is not hazardous, the
possible reduction in the oxygen content in the air might be. However, a large part of the cutting jet does
not react with the iron and this helps to reoxygenate the atmosphere. A few metallic fumes are
sometimes given off accompanied by traces of nitrogen oxides (NOx). This does not pose a real hazard
unless working in a confined space.
Plasma cutting produces metallic fumes, especially on aluminium, as well as significant quantities of
nitrogen oxides (NOx) of which the maximum tolerable concentration in air is 9 mg/m3. Metallic fumes
are “set” by the use of a water-table cutting surface where the workpieces (and the tip of the torch) are
submerged by a few centimetres. However, care should be taken as nitrogen oxides, which are
colourless and insoluble in water, are given off.
Appropriate ventilation is necessary in addition to the water table which stops all cutting fumes and a
considerable part of the noise and arc radiation, but not the nitrogen oxide emissions. These emissions
are to be eliminated either by extraction at the point of emission (minimum flowrate around 1000 m3/h),
or by general renewal of the air (3000 to 3500 m3/h) per workstation. The right compromise between
sufficient extraction and an acceptable temperature (in winter) for the operators is difficult to determine.
Laser cutting is non-contaminating although fumes connected to the material being cut may be
produced. Steel produces a little amount of fume but the cutting of certain plastics gives off chlorine due
to their chemical composition, hence the need for a fume extractor (see above paragraph).
Water cutting releases a considerable amount of fog under the workpiece. This fog needs to be
captured although it is only of concern due to the solid particles that it is carrying, i.e. workpiece debris or
premixed abrasive. Stainless steel balls are often arranged under the workpieces, which absorbs the
kinetic energy of the jet and limits fog emissions.
NOISE POLLUTION
• Risks: hearing damage.
Oxygen cutting is not particularly noisy but, on the other hand, plasma cutting involving clearly
supersonic output speeds sometimes exceeds the toleration threshold, except for very low power levels
(a few kilowatts). Working on a water table solves this problem completely, otherwise operators must
wear ear protectors.
Laser cutting is relatively quiet.
Water cutting, in spite of a whistling noise, does not pose any problem either.
SIGHT POLLUTION
• Risks: dazzling, conjunctivitis or skin burns.
Oxygen cutting is not particularly hazardous in this area. At most, there is a risk of dazzling by the
heating flame. This problem is solved by wearing tinted goggles.
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With plasma cutting, on the other hand, protection is essential unless, once again, the cutting operation
is performed on a water table which stops all harmful ultraviolet radiation. Without this provision,
protection ranging from simply wearing goggles with filter lenses for very small installations to the
traditional arc welder’s helmet, in addition to screens to protect people in the vicinity, are necessary.
Note: workshop experience shows that overhead crane operators in their cabs are often forgotten. Given
that they are not protected by side screens and that they overlook the entire worksite, it is highly
desirable that they wear non-tinted goggles with filter lenses and side cups.
Laser cutting could be hazardous due to the nature of laser radiation but the laser is systematically
enclosed in a shell and the head works practically in contact with the workpiece. The operator is
therefore - normally - protected from such a risk.
No pollution is involved in water cutting.
8. - OTHER PROCESSES
ARC AIR GOUGING
Strictly speaking, arc air gouging is not a cutting
process. Nevertheless, it relies on a thermal
process to remove metal and is used to prepare
metallic elements prior to welding.
Using electrical energy, the process consists of
establishing an arc between a practically non-
consumable electrode (carbon rod) and the
workpiece to be gouged. This arc causes the partial
fusion of the workpiece and the molten metal is
blown away by jets of compressed air streaming
down the carbon electrode. It is therefore a purely
thermal, then mechanical, action and as such has a Figure 21
number of points in common with plasma cutting
(whereas oxygen cutting relies on the chemical
reaction of combustion/oxidation of the iron).
Removal of metal by fusion/blowing is essentially a technique designed for all types of gouging although
the process can also be used for texturing, grooving or even cutting as required.
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OXY-ARC CUTTING
Oxy-arc cutting is similar to oxygen cutting except
that the heating flames are replaced by an electric
arc.
The arc is established between an iron powder
electrode, in which there is a channel for the
oxygen to flow through, and the workpiece to be
cut.
Figure 22
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22
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Figure 1
Jet d’oxygène Oxygen jet
Oxyde liquide Liquid oxide
Métal fondu Molten metal
stries profile
retard drag
scories slag
Figure 3
Porte-tête Head support
Tête de coupe Cutting head
oxygène oxygen
combustible fuel
Figure4
Tête de coupe Cutting head
fût shaft
Oxygène de chauffe Heating oxygen
Oxygène de coupe Cutting oxygen
combustible fuel
Figure 7
A = 20 to 40 mm
Figure 9
or
1 precedes 2 and 3 by about 1 m
Figure 15
Gaz inerte… Inert or non-reactive gas for fusion cutting or
Oxygen for oxygen cutting
Faisceau du laser Laser beam
Lentille Lens
Buse de coupe Cutting nozzle
Sortie de gaz Gas outlet
Figure 16
Source laser Laser source
Alimentation électrique Electrical power supply
Groupe de refroidissement Cooling unit
Station de gaz lasants Lasing gas station
Station de gaz d’assistance Support gas station
Tête de découpe Cutting head
Commande numérique Numerical control
Table de découpe avec chargement Cutting table with load/unload functions
déchargement
Machine de découpe Cutting machine
Chemin optique Optical path
CFAO CAD/CAM
Figure 18
Puissance émise Radiated power
Emission continue ou pulsée Continuous or pulsed emission
Longueur focale de l’optique Focal length of optics
Gaz : nature et quantité Gas: nature and quantity
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Position du point de focalisation Position of focal point

Buse : pression, débit de gaz Nozzle: gas pressure and flowrate
Distance buse - pièce Nozzle - workpiece distance
vitesse de coupe cutting speed
Figure 19
Eau pure Pure water
Eau + abrasif Water + abrasive
Figure 20
Vitesse (cm/min) Speed (cm/min)
Epaisseurs (mm) Thickness (mm)
Oxycoupage Oxygen cutting
Coupage plasma 200 A Plasma cutting, 200 A
Coupage plasma 600 A Plasma cutting, 600 A
Coupage laser Laser cutting
Coupage à l’eau Water cutting
Figure 21
Arc électrique Electric arc
Jet d’air comprimé Compressed air jet
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.15 : THERMAL SPRAYING AND WELD SURFACING

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FORMATION Thermal spraying and weld surfacing 1

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THERMAL SPRAYING AND WELD SURFACING
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3
2. THE MAIN TYPES OF WEAR.......................................................................... 3

2.1. METAL-ON-METAL CONTACT WEAR .......................................................................... 4
2.1.1. SLIDING FRICTION .......................................................................................................................4
2.1.2. ROLLING FRICTION ......................................................................................................................4
2.1.3. IMPACTS .....................................................................................................................................4
2.2. ABRASIVE WEAR........................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1. GOUGING ...................................................................................................................................4
2.2.2. HIGH-STRESS GRINDING..............................................................................................................4
2.2.3. LOW-STRESS ABRASION ..............................................................................................................5
2.2.4. EROSION ....................................................................................................................................5
2.3. WEAR DUE TO THE ENVIRONMENT............................................................................ 5
2.3.1. THERMAL FATIGUE ......................................................................................................................5
2.3.2. CORROSION ...............................................................................................................................5
3. SURFACING BY THERMAL SPRAYING ........................................................ 5

3.1. PRINCIPLE ...................................................................................................................... 5
3.2. THERMAL SPRAYING EQUIPMENT ............................................................................. 6
3.2.1. FLAME EQUIPMENT .....................................................................................................................6
3.2.2. ELECTRIC ARC EQUIPMENT..........................................................................................................6
3.2.3. PLASMA ARC SPRAYING WITH A NON-TRANSFERRED ARC ..............................................................6
3.3. NATURE OF THERMALLY SPRAYED DEPOSITIONS................................................. 7
3.4. SURFACE PREPARATION FOR THERMAL SPRAYING ............................................. 7
4. WELD SURFACING ......................................................................................... 8

4.1. PRINCIPLE ...................................................................................................................... 8
4.2. POSSIBLE WELD SURFACING PROCESSES ............................................................. 8
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4.2.1. OXYACETYLENE SURFACING........................................................................................................8

4.2.2. TIG SURFACING ..........................................................................................................................8
4.2.3. MANUAL METAL-ARC SURFACING .................................................................................................9
4.2.4. PLASMA TRANSFERRED ARC SURFACING .....................................................................................9
4.2.5. GAS-SHIELDED METAL ARC SURFACING .......................................................................................9
4.2.6. LASER SURFACING ....................................................................................................................10
4.2.7. LINEAR FRICTION SURFACING ....................................................................................................10
4.2.8. SUBMERGED METAL ARC SURFACING .........................................................................................11
4.3. SURFACING METHODS ............................................................................................... 11
4.3.1. SURFACING USING A STRINGER BEAD TECHNIQUE ......................................................................11
4.3.2. SURFACING USING A WEAVE TECHNIQUE....................................................................................12
4.3.3. RESURFACING USING ALTERNATE STRINGER BEAD AND WEAVE TECHNIQUES ..............................12
4.3.4. SURFACING USING MOULDS.......................................................................................................12
4.3.5. SURFACING OF CIRCULAR WORKPIECES.....................................................................................13
4.3.6. EDGE SURFACING .....................................................................................................................13
4.3.7. WEAR BEADS ............................................................................................................................13
4.4. FILLER MATERIALS..................................................................................................... 13
4.4.1. PRESENTATION OF THE MATERIALS ...........................................................................................13
4.4.2. NATURE OF THE MATERIALS ......................................................................................................14
4.4.3. SUMMARY TABLE OF MATERIALS USED FOR WELD SURFACING ....................................................15
4.5. FILLER METAL COMPATIBILITY WITH THE SUBSTRATE ...................................... 15
4.5.1. DILUTION ..................................................................................................................................15
4.5.2. APTITUDE TO CRACKING ............................................................................................................15
4.5.3. EMBRITTLEMENT RISKS .............................................................................................................15
4.5.4. METHODS OF AVOIDING EMBRITTLEMENT ...................................................................................15
5. BRAZE WELDED COATING ......................................................................... 15

5.1. PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................... 15
6. SURFACING BY DEPOSITION AND REMELTING ...................................... 15
7. OTHER COATING TECHNIQUES ................................................................. 15

7.1. ROLL BONDING............................................................................................................ 15
7.2. EXPLOSION WELDING ................................................................................................ 15
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1. INTRODUCTION
In the past, “surfacing” immediately brought to mind
the notion of repair. It was thought a shame to scrap
large parts for a few grammes of damaged material.
Gradually the notion of “build-up” was enhanced by
the fact that, if the grade of the filler metal was chosen
carefully, the behaviour in service of the repaired part
could be improved.
Subsequently this notion of build-up was designed-in
to limit areas where the metal must have particular
properties (hardfacing or corrosion-proof surfacing, for
example) and use cheaper materials for the rest of the
structure. We have therefore moved on from a
remedial action to a preventive action.
Figure 1
Surfacing may be carried out over vast areas; in this
case, we refer to coating. In practice, the distinction
between surfacing and coating is therefore a question of the relative size of the surface area compared
with the area covered by the deposit. Of course, the coating is always thin and never contributes to the
mechanical strength of the assembly.
The various surfacing techniques can be differentiated by the method used to bond the overlay to the
substrate.
Such methods include
• Thermal spraying: mechanical bonding

• Thermal spraying + remelting: bonding by diffusion;
• Welding: bonding by dilution;
• Braze welding: bonding by diffusion.
Other methods:
• Roll bonding;
• Explosive welding,
• Electroplating,
• Hot immersion surfacing.
2. THE MAIN TYPES OF WEAR
The various types of wear can be categorised in one of three main groupings: wear by metal-on-metal
contact, abrasive wear and wear due to the environment.
As a general rule, wear on a part is not the result of a single process. We must also avoid confusing
wear with other types of destruction caused, for example, by the effect of temperature, the load
supported and impacts endured by the equipment which also restrict the use of a surfacing material.
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2.1. METAL-ON-METAL CONTACT WEAR

2.1.1. Sliding friction
If similar or identical materials are in contact, local adhesion is formed. If one material is transferred to
the other, there is a risk of seizure. If the link is fragile, adhesive failure occurs causing surface abrasion
and an increase in friction.
If the materials in contact have a low adhesion tendency, wear can occur by surface fatigue; the
selection criterion of alloys is high compressive strength.
In addition to metals in contact, wear depends on the relative speed of the parts and the load at the
interface. The more irregular the contact surface, the greater the friction.
2.1.2. Rolling friction

The interface stress is higher than on sliding, leading to plastic deformation of the wheels and/or tracks.
The surfacing materials must therefore have a high yield strength to withstand plastic deformation.
2.1.3. Impacts
The main effect of impacts is repeated plastic deformation of the surface over a wide area.
Consequently, hard facing must be selected to avoid such deformation. However, materials that are too
hard crack easily and offer little resistance to the fatigue created by repeated impacts; toughness is
therefore another requirement. Moreover, high temperatures are generated on the edges of the parts on
impact. In certain cases, this can have an effect on surfacing properties.
2.2. ABRASIVE WEAR

By definition, abrasive wear is the erosion of material produced by the displacement of hard particles.
This includes:
• Gouging,
• High-stress grinding,
• Low-stress abrasion,
• Erosion.
2.2.1. Gouging
This is the wear between two bodies when there is relative movement of the two surfaces. The rough
parts of the harder component “work” the softer component. The particles removed are large and jagged.
As a result, high levels of stress are developed (load under heavy pressure, impact). Deep grooves are
formed on the surface due to the simultaneous movement and pressure.
The choice of surfacing material depends on the predominant phenomenon:
• If there is a high degree of impact, a ductile alloy is required.

• If there is high pressure, the material has to be very tough.
• If there is heavy abrasion, it has to be very hard.
2.2.2. High-stress grinding

This covers two distinct cases:
• Wear in the presence of two bodies with a stationary or barely mobile abrasive (for example, earth in
a power shovel).
• Three-body wear. One of the body forms the disposable abrasive (for example, a ball mixer).
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In both cases and compared with gouging, the impact level is lower and the dominant phenomenon is
surface cutting by abrasive particles.
The surfacing alloy must have a high hardness level. However, we must also take account of the risk of
brittle fracture in one of the following forms:
• Surface cracks originating from the deformation caused by abrasion

• Surface deformation and fatigue caused by the grinding of abrasive grains (in the case of soft
materials).
2.2.3. Low-stress abrasion

This type of abrasion is obtained by causing the low-velocity displacement of particles originating from a
medium with high mobility (sand) or relatively low mobility (damp earth). In this case, the pressure is low
and impact nil. The dominant phenomenon is abrasion with the formation of surface scratches.
Surfacing alloys must therefore contain very hard components suited to the abrasive.
2.2.4. Erosion
Wear is generated by the collision of abrasive particles contained in a fluid (water, air) with the wearing
surface. The abrasive materials are in a powder form (sand, cement, etc.). The particles have a low
mass and a high velocity.
The angle of incidence is of prime importance. If it is near to normal, flaking occurs due to surface
fatigue. At low angles, we get an abrasion phenomenon with maximum wear at an angle of 45°C.
2.3. WEAR DUE TO THE ENVIRONMENT

2.3.1. Thermal fatigue
Thermal fatigue is due to rapid fluctuations in the surface temperature of a part. It can lead to cracking
due either to repeated change in the structure or to repeated plastic relaxation causing stress variations
and mechanical fatigue.
2.3.2. Corrosion
For the majority of parts concerned by surfacing, corrosion refers to dry corrosion and therefore its
origins are purely chemical (such as high-temperature oxidation). Weld surfacing is not commonly used
to combat wear due to the environment where this is the only form present. However it must be taken
into consideration, particularly in cases of wear problems caused by metal-on-metal contact where we
can find either mechanical parts working in a corrosive or hot atmosphere (valves) or localised heating
(tooling).
3. SURFACING BY THERMAL SPRAYING
3.1. PRINCIPLE
With thermal spraying, the overlay metal is melted by a heat source. It is sprayed onto the part to be
surfaced by a pressurised gas. The substrate, on the other hand, is not fused and therefore does not,
from a metallurgical point of view, take part in bonding. The bond is formed mechanically by a carefully
determined degree of roughness and surface condition.
It should be noted that neither the deposited materials nor the substrate are necessarily metallic. These
processes can therefore be used to coat a wide variety of surfaces with dissimilar materials contrary to
arc processes which require metallurgical compatibility between the substrate and the filler material.
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3.2. THERMAL SPRAYING EQUIPMENT

3.2.1. Flame equipment
The gun (cf. Figure 2) has three distinct inlets that
are combined at the entrance to the nozzle:
• a fuel gas that can be acetylene or a gas of

organic origin,
• oxygen to ensure energetic combustion of the
fuel gas,
• air used to project the molten filler material.
A filler material inlet that can be
• a powder distributor
• a wire driven by an electric or pneumatic motor
feeder. Figure 2
This process can be used on various substrates
that are not necessarily metallic. Filler materials
include unalloyed or low-alloy steels, refractory metals, nickel bases, cobalt bases and ceramics.
3.2.2. Electric arc equipment

This equipment should not be confused with
welding equipment that can also be used for
surfacing purposes. In this case, it involves thermal
spraying. The material to be sprayed needs to be a
conductive wire. The energy used to liquefy the
material is the electric arc created by the two filler
wires connected to each terminal of a DC
generator. The metal droplets are projected by a jet
of compressed air.
The substrate is not necessarily conductive. The
filler wires are either solid or flux-cored.
3.2.3. Plasma arc spraying with a non- Figure 3

transferred arc
The operating principle of this process is based on
the formation of a plasma column maintained by an
electric arc between a refractory cathode and the
torch nozzle. The plasma arc thus created releases
very high density energy and reaches a very high G
temperature. The torch must be cooled by water
circulation. R
The filler materials are always powders introduced

through a bush at the nozzle and projected at
supersonic speeds. The work is always carried out powder inlet
in automatic mode. Due to the very high plasma

temperature (12000°C), refractory materials can be Figure 4
used for spraying.
Substrates vary: carbon or alloyed steels, light
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metals, plastics, etc.

This is an extremely noisy process (120 dBA). Special measures to protect the operators are therefore
necessary.
3.3. NATURE OF THERMALLY SPRAYED DEPOSITIONS
USE MATERIALS
Cold atmospheric Polyethylene, polyamide, zinc, aluminium, tin,
corrosion brass, copper, zinc-aluminium alloy
Hot corrosion Aluminium with or without diffusion treatment
Metal alloys (Cr, Al, etc.)
Chemical corrosion Tin, lead, nickel, chromium, nickel aluminide
Fretting corrosion Copper alloy, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten and
chromium carbide, oxide
Friction Polyamides, antifriction alloys, nickel aluminide,
brass, bronze, copper, chromium oxides,
chromium and tungsten carbides.
Cold abrasion Chromium oxide, tungsten carbide
Hot abrasion Aluminium and chromium oxides
Electrical insulation Aluminium oxide
Thermal barrier Aluminium, titanium and zirconium oxides
Calcium and magnesium zirconates
3.4. SURFACE PREPARATION FOR THERMAL SPRAYING
For the overlay to bond, surface preparation treatment

must be carried out on the substrate. Contrary to an
overlay deposited by welding where there is metallic
continuity between the substrate and the overlay, here
it is bonded mechanically by incrustation of the
sprayed material in the cavities of the substrate. These
cavities are either natural or produced mechanically.
Two methods are used: shot blasting and machining.
Figure 5
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4. WELD SURFACING
4.1. PRINCIPLE
The various welding processes can be used for
surfacing provided that the filler metal can be
conditioned correctly. Compared with hot surfacing,
weld surfacing does not require special preparation as
seen above. Bonding occurs by the partial fusion of
the substrate and the rebuilding of a crystal lattice
common to the two materials.
This method of bonding offers guarantees of solidity
as there is metallic continuity between the two
materials. On the other hand, the metallurgy of the
bond must be fully controlled because, for the bond to
be successful, the materials must be metallurgically
compatible and the dilution rate must be controlled for Figure 6
the properties of the deposited metal and the base
metal not to be modified to a significant extent.
In certain cases, several layers with different chemical compositions will have to be deposited to absorb
the adverse effects that would result from the upper layers coming into contact with the substrate.
4.2. POSSIBLE WELD SURFACING PROCESSES

4.2.1. Oxyacetylene surfacing
This process is identical to oxyacetylene welding. It is essentially a manual process with a relatively low
deposition rate. On the other hand, the installation is inexpensive and does not require electricity. It is
limited by the low specific energy of the process which cannot be used on solid workpieces for this very
reason. Substrates are mainly unalloyed and low-alloy steels, stainless steels and grey pig iron. Steels,
cast iron and cobalt and cobalt-tungsten alloys are used for the overlay.
4.2.2. TIG surfacing

The TIG process produces low dilution levels. It is used on parts where surfaced areas must be sound
and have an even appearance regardless of the mass of the supporting workpiece. This is not feasible
with flame equipment, for example, because the mass makes the workpiece impossible to swage even
with additional sources of heat.
Its field of application is similar to that of the oxyacetylene blowpipe. It is more extensive, however,
because it provides greater specific energy and offers better weld pool protection. On the other hand, its
use requires a source of electricity.
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4.2.3. Manual metal-arc surfacing

Manual metal-arc surfacing can be applied to a variety
of workpieces regardless of mass, although dilution is
greater than with TIG or flame welding. The bead
surface is more irregular however. The weld pool is
shielded by slag that will need to be eliminated.
Substrates consist of practically all steels, grey pig
iron and cobalt bases, nickel and copper alloys, etc.
A wide range of filler materials can also be used:
steels, cast iron, cobalt bases, nickel bases, copper
bases, etc.
Figure 7
4.2.4. Plasma transferred arc surfacing

The operating principle of this process is based on the
formation of an argon plasma column maintained by
an electric arc between a refractory cathode and the
workpiece to be surfaced. The plasma arc thus
created releases very high density energy and
reaches a very high temperature.
This plasma arc is surrounded by a reducing sheath of
argon gas (possibly including hydrogen) which shields
the molten alloy, and the workpiece, from oxidation by
the oxygen in the air.
The metal used in this type of surfacing is obtained by
atomising a homogenous liquid alloy: all alloy grains Figure 8
have therefore the same chemical composition. The
finely powdered alloy is held in suspension in a
distributor before being transferred into the torch nozzle where it is melted by the plasma arc.
Substrates are carbon and alloyed steels.
Cobalt-base alloys, nickel bases and high-alloy steels are used as filler materials.
4.2.5. Gas-shielded metal arc surfacing

For this surfacing process, the filler materials must be conductive and be able to be easily drawn. It is
used where high deposition rates are required. This can be increased by the high electrical resistivity of
certain wires. Constant or pulsed current and solid or flux-cored wire can be used. The shielding gas is:
• either inert (MIG process) mainly used for stainless steels, light alloys and copper-base, nickel-base
or cobalt-base alloys;
• or active or activated (MAG welding) used for unalloyed or low-alloy steels, chromium alloy cast iron,
etc.
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4.2.6. Laser surfacing

In this surfacing technique, the laser beam remelts
the substrate. The surfacing material is transported
into the weld pool in powder form.
Although costly in terms of investment, this process
has the advantage of producing very small weld
pools very quickly.
Small, localised areas can therefore be surfaced
while limiting the heat-affected zones.
This process has a number of advantages:
• localised work on machined workpieces;

• deposition of materials with a low affinity with
the substrate;
• rapid completion;
• usable with highly refractory materials;
• possibility of obtaining very fine, hard Figure 9
structures.
The substrates are alloyed steels or nickel bases and are often machined.
The filler materials are powders composed of cobalt bases, refractory compounds and Ni-Cr-B-Si alloys.
4.2.7. Linear friction surfacing

A consumable bar is rotated at a defined speed then brought into contact with the fixed substrate while
exerting axial pressure.
An initial period of friction is required to form a plasticised layer on the consumable. The substrate is then
set in motion resulting in the deposition of a uniform layer of the filler metal on the surface.
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4.2.8. Submerged metal arc surfacing

If the thickness, area to be surfaced and workpiece
mass are high, deposition using a submerged arc
welding technique with solid wires can be envisaged.
This process produces significant deposition rates
particularly since two-wire, oscillating two-wire or strip
arrangements can be used.
To increase the deposition rate of the submerged
process, the fusible wires can be replaced by a 30, 60
or even 120 mm wide strip. A very large quantity of
surfacing material is deposited at a very high AC
intensity of 1500 A. This is the process used to
deposit corrosion-proof coatings in two layers up to
8 mm thick on nuclear reactors or for petrochemical
applications. When the base metal is self-hardening,
which is generally the case with low-alloy steels for
pressure vessels, it is advisable to carry out pre- and
post-heating operations. Figure 10
The flux very often requires oven-drying (as for basic

electrodes).
Substrates are unalloyed and low-alloy steels. The filler materials are carbon or stainless steels and
cobalt-base cast iron.
4.3. SURFACING METHODS

4.3.1. Surfacing using a stringer bead technique
This is a deposit that, depending on thickness,
requires one or more layers of filler metal. If the
thickness exceeds a few millimetres, several layers
need to be deposited.
The beads will be contiguous. It is advisable to
apply each bead against the previous one so as to
remelt around a third of it.
If several layers are necessary, it is preferable to
deposit the next layer at right-angles to the
previous one.
It should be noted that this type of deposition
generates a high degree of transversal Figure 11
deformation.
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4.3.2. Surfacing using a weave technique

This method is identical to the previous one. The
passes produced by weaving must not be more
than three to four times the nominal diameter of the
electrode.
As in the case of the stringer bead technique, a
part of the previous pass must be remelted.
With automatic processes, weaving can be
performed by multiplying the number of wires (two-
wire process) or by oscillating the welding head.
Contrary to stringer beads, this deposition method
generates a high degree of longitudinal Figure 12
deformation.
4.3.3. Resurfacing using alternate stringer bead and weave techniques
This method differs from the previous ones only by the

way each layer is produced. We begin by depositing a
series of stringer beads at a reasonable distance apart
and then fill the gap between them using a weave
technique.
This method offers the advantage of being fast
although it has the drawback, as does the weave
method, of spreading the heat more in a particular
area of the workpiece and is therefore not always
applicable.
Figure 13
4.3.4. Surfacing using moulds

Generally made of copper or graphite, the moulds
used in surfacing are designed to favour the
localisation of the overlay and limit the volume of
metal consumed. Three examples are given in Figure
14
:
• Blade surfacing: here the mould is used to

eliminate heat in order to reduce deformation as
much as possible and to surface the tip of the
blade.
• The second drawing illustrates a mould designed Figure 14

to limit the volume of filler metal deposited on a
small pin.
• The third drawing shows the surfacing of a valve face in which the degree of deformation and the
volume of filler metal are limited.
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4.3.5. Surfacing of circular workpieces

Circular workpieces are surfaced according to the methods indicated previously, by using passes parallel
to the axis of the workpiece or circular passes.
4.3.6. Edge surfacing

It is important to emphasise that corners or sharp edges should not be surfaced as this would lead to
increased dilution.
Figure 15 Figure 16
4.3.7. Wear beads

The wear bead is produced using the techniques described above. As a general rule, there are no
operative weldability problems. However, as the filler metal is generally different in nature to the
substrate, it is advisable to check the metallurgical compatibility of the two materials and use a welding
process that is compatible with these requirements which are mainly seen in terms of welding energy.
4.4. FILLER MATERIALS

4.4.1. Presentation of the materials
The filler materials used for surfacing are in the form of powder, bare wire, covered rods or flux-cored
wire.
a) Powder
Powders or powder blends can have various forms - angular, spherical or sintered - depending on how
they are produced. The parameters to be considered are they type of furnace, the atmosphere and the
method of flow.
b ) Bare wire
Solid wire for surfacing is produced in exactly the same way as wire designed for joints provided that the
materials used can be easily drawn. If this is not the case, flux-cored wire must be used instead. When
submerged arc welding is used, the characteristics of the deposition will depend on the wire/flux pairing.
c) Covered electrodes
Covered electrodes designed for surfacing are produced in the same way as those used in welding. If
the materials cannot be drawn, the electrode core is replaced by a soft steel tube containing the filler
material in a sintered powder form.
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The coverings are similar to welding electrode coverings. They fulfil the same role as in welding. They
may contain alloy products that cannot be included in drawn products.
d ) Flux-cored wire
There are two main groups of flux-cored wire: crimped
or seamed (cf.) and tubular.
Crimped cored wire is most commonly used although joining
tubular cored wire does have a number of overlapping

closed butt
advantages:
• as it does not get damp, it is easy to store,

• it is less sensitive to crushing by the rollers,
• it has a non-greasy, copper surface finish and
slides smoothly in the sleeves.
Figure 17
4.4.2. Nature of the materials
a ) Steels
Perlitic steels
Strong and inexpensive. They are mainly used to resolve problems of metal-on-metal wear.
Low-carbon austenitic steels
These steels are used to produce corrosion-resistant overlays. The most commonly used are X2 Cr Ni
17-12 (304L) or X2 Cr Ni 18-8-03 (316 L). To use these steels on low-alloy steels, a sublayer of X2 Cr Ni
23 13 (309 L) must be deposited to overcome dilution problems.
Austenitic manganese steels
These are strong, cold-workable steels. They are especially used for their good impact strength.
Low-carbon martensitic steels
Withstand both impacts and compression. On the other hand, they are ineffective with regard to
abrasion.
Tool steels
Provide the best compromise between tenacity and resistance to deformation when working at medium
temperature (200 to 500°C).
Martensitic stainless steels
Their properties are in between those of austenitic stainless steels and tool steels.
High-carbon martensitic steels
The hardest of steels but only resistant to abrasive wear.
b ) Chromium-alloy white cast iron

This is the most frequently used type of cast iron. It is exclusively used for its resistance to abrasive
wear. Its main characteristic is its hardness due to the presence of chromium carbide, the density of
which varies according to grade and application.
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The table below summarises the effect of carbide density.
Chromium carbide density Ò

Chromium carbide hardness Ò
Overall hardness of cast iron Ò
Resistance to fine abrasives Ò
Impact strength Ô
It should be noted that chromium-alloy cast iron with a carbon content of over 4.3% (hypereutectic) plus
a high content of elements such as tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium or niobium is a special case as its
matrix has the structure of tool steel and its abrasion resistance is maintained up to around 500°C.
c) Cobalt alloys
These alloys are especially used to surface tools and parts subject to high degrees of friction. They have
low coefficients of friction. At high temperatures, they provide good corrosion resistance and retain their
mechanical properties to a large extent; their maximum working temperature is around 850°C. They
include:
Co-Cr-Mo superalloys: tough and creep resistant at high temperatures.
Hypoeutectic Co-Cr-W alloys: tough but less impact resistant than cobalt superalloys. They are harder
however.
Hypereutectic Co-Cr-W alloys: inferior mechanical characteristics to the other cobalt alloys but
particularly hard and resistant to abrasion.
d ) Nickel alloys
These are primarily tough Ni-Cr-Fe superalloys that resist oxidation and creeping at high temperature.
They are used exclusively as a surfacing material against metal-on-metal wear.
e) Copper alloys
These are the most commonly used materials for coating rubbing parts. Apart from the good resistance
to erosion and cavitation (impact of vapour bubbles in a liquid) of aluminium bronze, copper alloys are
used especially for their resistance to metal-on-metal wear.
They mainly include:
Phosphor bronzes (6% Sn): mild and corrosion-resistant.
Aluminium bronzes: tough and resistant to erosion and cavitation.
Complex aluminium bronzes containing manganese: These are the copper alloys offering the
highest level of performance. They resist metal-on-metal wear, erosion, corrosion and cavitation.
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4.4.3. Summary table of materials used for weld surfacing
Alloy family HRC hardness

Perlitic steels 32
Austenitic manganese steels 20; 52 after cold-working
Austenitic stainless steels 21
Low-carbon martensitic steels 40
Tool steels 60
Martensitic stainless steels 38
High-carbon martensitic steels 67
Hypoeutectic Cr cast iron 55

Eutectic Cr cast iron 57
Hypereutectic Cr cast iron 60
Complex Cr cast iron 68
Co-Cr-Mo alloys 36
Hypoeutectic Co-Cr-W alloys 46
Hypereutectic Co-Cr-W alloys 56
Ni-Cr-Fe alloys 38
Phosphor bronzes 110)

Aluminium bronzes 130) HB hardness
Complex aluminium bronzes 220)
4.5. FILLER METAL COMPATIBILITY WITH THE SUBSTRATE

4.5.1. Dilution
Dilution of the substrate metal in the filler metal diminishes overlay properties. With hardness, for
example, this effect occurs especially on the first pass. Hardness decreases from the surface of the
overlay to the substrate; consequently, the more wear progresses, the quicker the wearing rate
becomes. Furthermore, dilution increases with welding current. To limit this effect, either a minimum
number of weld passes must be deposited or a sublayer must be inserted.
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First pass dilution depends largely on the process used.
PROCESS DILUTION
Blowpipe < 5%
Metal arc (covered electrode) 30 to 50%
TIG (non-consumable electrode) 8 to 20%
Constant current MIG / MAG (consumable electrode) 15 to 40%
Pulsed current MIG / MAG (consumable electrode) 5 to 15%
Submerged arc (wire) 20 to 30%
Submerged arc (strip) 10 to 25%
Laser 0.5%
4.5.2. Aptitude to cracking

The aptitude of the overlay to cracking depends on the compatibility between the overlay metal and the
substrate metal.
a) Metallurgical compatibility
Precautions must be taken against the risks of hot formation of fragile intermetallic compounds such as
sigma phases or chromium carbides.
b ) Mechanical compatibility
The majority of surfacing materials are hard. This implies low tensile and shear strength. If the elastic
limit of the substrate is too low, there is a risk of workpiece deformation leading to traction on the overlay
which in turn generates risks of cracking and separation. The substrate material must therefore have a
relatively high elastic limit compared with the overlay so that it acts as an “elastic cushion” absorbing the
stress. If the metal is unsuitable, a sublayer will need to be provided between the overlay and the
substrate.
c) Thermal compatibility
If the dilution coefficients of the filler metal and the base metal are too different and if the workpiece
works at a high temperature, stress will appear in service and the overlay will be affected.
4.5.3. Embrittlement risks

a ) Embrittlement of the overlay
The overlay may be embrittled by the presence of a temper structure, oxides, porosity or cracks. Cracks
are especially formed on cooling due to the low ductility that typifies most surfacing materials.
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b ) Embrittlement of the heat-affected zone

Local embrittlement due to the formation of a
martensitic zone under the surfacing is particularly
hazardous when the part is subject to impacts, fatigue
or high stress. This martensitic zone can then cause
cracking or fissures leading to the separation of the
overlay. Furthermore, whereas cracks in the overlay
may be tolerated in certain cases, cracks in the
substrate are in principle to be avoided as they have
more serious consequences.
There is a risk of cold embrittlement when the
following three phenomena are all present. Figure 18
• Temper structure: This occurs when the cooling

rate is higher than or equal to the critical quenching speed which depends on steel grade and
workpiece geometry. Steels temper more easily, the richer they are in carbon and alloying elements
such as nickel and, to a lesser extent, chromium. The higher the mass and volume of the
workpiece, the higher the cooling rate (and therefore the risk of temper) will be.
• Stress: Stress increases as the temperature of the workpiece decreases. This is the same stress as
welding stress. However it is often higher in surfacing as we have a deposited metal often with a
very different coefficient of expansion to the base metal.
• Hydrogen: The risk linked with the presence of hydrogen stems from the fact that hydrogen is more
soluble in austenite than in ferrite. As a result, when the steel becomes ferritic again on cooling, an
unacceptable quantity of hydrogen is trapped in the metal which increases the stress level
considerably. The hydrogen liable to enter the molten metal comes from the air in the case of a
poorly shielded weld pool, or from the water contained in the coverings or powder flux. Special
attention must therefore be paid to the flowrate of the shielding gas and to the oven-drying of certain
filler materials.
4.5.4. Methods of avoiding embrittlement

a ) Modification of the thermal cycle
Preheating
This refers to the heating of the workpiece before welding and the possible holding of the temperature in
the course of the operation. It helps to reduce the cooling rate and therefore:
• Avoid martempering, if preheating is conducted correctly (the more tempering and massive the
steel, the higher the temperature and the longer the heating time required).
• Reduce shrinkage by reducing the temperature gradient.
Furthermore, this treatment facilitates degassing, homogenises grain size and simplifies operative
weldability.
Post-heating
This refers to heating the workpiece while it is still hot. As in the case of preheating, it is designed to
reduce the cooling rate and facilitate degassing. It is used when it is considered that there is a risk of
cold cracking or that preheating is inadequate when the substrate is particularly self-hardening, the
overlay offers little ductility and the workpiece is large in size.
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b ) Deposition of a sublayer or buttering

The insertion of a sublayer of ductile, relatively non-hardening metal (for example, a nickel alloy or
austenitic-ferritic stainless steel) has two metallurgical effects:
• dilution of the parent metal in the overlay is avoided,

• the heat-affected zone concerns the sublayer instead of the parent metal.
This is particularly beneficial for substrates that are especially sensitive to hardening. As for surface
wear, the effect on dilution does not in itself justify using the method. It is in fact more economical to do
several passes. When this sublayer is produced on one of the parts in a bimetallic resistance weld, this
coating is referred to as “buttering”.
5. BRAZE WELDED COATING
5.1. PRINCIPLE
The deposited metal is fused but the substrate remains in a solid state. The bond is made by the surface
diffusion of the filler alloy in the substrate without actual fusion of the substrate (contrary to welded
coatings). The filler metal must therefore have a lower melting point than the parent metal. The
technique is identical to the braze welding process used to join workpieces.
The filler alloy elements must have a metallurgical affinity with the substrate for diffusion to take place.
6. SURFACING BY DEPOSITION AND REMELTING

This type of surfacing is carried out in two stages:
During the spraying operation (first phase), only the
flame is used. The filler material is fused quickly
without overheating, while the parent metal is not
brought quickly to temperature.
During the remelting operation (second phase),
several sources of energy can be used: a flame
(most common), but also vacuum radiation heating or
induction heating.
In no case are the filler material or the parent metal

overheated. The heating rate is relatively slow with
flame and radiation heating; induction heating is
quicker. Figure 19
Different or identical equipment can be used for
deposition and remelting. Commonly used remelting
equipment includes oxyacetylene blowpipes, induction furnaces and vacuum furnaces.
Irrespective of the process used, the dilution rate is nil as in the case of thermal spraying. The deposited
materials may be refractory and their mechanical properties may be optimised by the remelting heat
treatment. Vacuum furnaces allow materials that present an oxidation risk to be heated to a high
temperature.
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7. OTHER COATING TECHNIQUES
7.1. ROLL BONDING

Strictly speaking, roll bonding is not a welding operation. The principle consists of bonding a thin foil of
metal chosen, for example, for its resistance to corrosion to a thicker rolled sheet by diffusion at a high
temperature.
Like all diffusion welding, the high temperature materials must be kept under pressure. The pressure of
the mill rolls and the high temperature required for the sheet rolling operations are used for this purpose.
7.2. EXPLOSION WELDING

Discovered by chance in 1967 in the course of
explosive forming operations, explosive welding uses
the energy released by an explosive charge to cause
a collision between the two surfaces to be joined. The
collision is directed to ensure regular displacement of
the impact point throughout the explosion.
The explosive charge, of uniform thickness, covers the
cladding arranged either parallel or at an angle to the
substrate.
The detonation accelerates the coating onto the
substrate and a thin jet of plasticised metal spurts out
ahead of the impact point. This jet strips away any Figure 20
contaminating oxides and produces the perfectly clean
surfaces required to obtain a quality joint.
A rubber or PVC damper is placed between the
explosive and the cladding to protect it from surface
deterioration during the detonation.
As it is more costly than roll bonding, explosive
cladding is only applied to difficult bonds:
• metallurgically dissimilar metals,

• metals that are alterable at high temperature,
• workpieces that do not support rolling, either
because of their shape or the brittleness of the
substrate.
Figure 21
The clad surfaces may be flat, cylindrical or warped
and vary in size from a few square centimetres to a
few square metres, the upper limits depending on safety problems posed by the use of large explosive
charges.
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Figure 2
poudre powder
gaz combustible fuel gas
oxygène oxygen
air comprimé compressed air
Figure 3
tubes contacts contact tubes
air comprimé compressed air
Figure 6
Example of dilution on two layers
Figure 7
Exemples de dilution Examples of dilution
Soudage E MMA welding
Soudage TIG TIG welding
Figure 9
Poudre Powder
Faisceau laser Laser beam
Métal de base Parent metal
Zone affecté thermiquement Heat affected zone
Figure 17
fermé closed
bord à bord butt
à recouvrement lapping
jointif joining
flux flux
Figure 18
Parent metal
Figure 20
tir en parallèle parallel detonation
tir en dièdre angled detonation
explosif explosive
amortisseur damper
placage cladding
jet de métal jet of metal
métal à plaquer metal substrate
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MODULE 1.16 : AUTOMATIC AND ROBOTIC WELDING

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. History ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Definitions................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1. Manipulators .................................................................................................................5
1.2.2. Industrial robots ............................................................................................................5
2. WHAT ARE THE STAKES OF AUTOMATION? ................................................................. 5

2.1. Productivity ................................................................................................................. 5
2.2. Quality ........................................................................................................................ 5
2.3. Working conditions ..................................................................................................... 6
2.4. Flexibility..................................................................................................................... 6
3. AUTOMATABLE WELDING PROCESSES......................................................................... 6
3.1. Arc plasma process .................................................................................................... 6
3.2. TIG process ................................................................................................................ 6
3.3. Submerged arc welding process ................................................................................ 7
3.4. MAG process.............................................................................................................. 7
3.5. Resistance welding process ....................................................................................... 7
3.6. Laser welding process ................................................................................................ 7
3.7. Automating other processes ....................................................................................... 7
3.8. Automating thermal cutting processes........................................................................ 8
4. TYPES OF AUTOMATIC OPERATION ............................................................................... 8
4.1. Simple mechanisation................................................................................................. 8
4.2. Special machines ..................................................................................................... 10
4.3. Robots ...................................................................................................................... 11
4.4. Robots used in welding............................................................................................. 11
4.4.1. Robot characteristics ..................................................................................................11
4.5. Development of automation in MAG welding............................................................ 12
4.5.1. Workpiece holding ......................................................................................................12
4.6. The advantages and limits of automation – robotisation........................................... 13
4.6.1. Simple mechanisation (automation) ...........................................................................13
4.6.2. Robotisation................................................................................................................13
4.7. Introducing an automated operation into production................................................. 13
4.7.1. The choice of welding .................................................................................................14
5. PROGRAMMING WELDING ROBOTS ............................................................................. 14

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5.1. Teach programming ................................................................................................. 14

5.2. Off-line programming (OLP) ..................................................................................... 15
5.3. Advantages of off-line programming (OLP) .............................................................. 15
5.4. Limits of off-line programming (OLP) ........................................................................ 15
6. SMART ROBOTS ............................................................................................................... 16
6.1. Preliminary resetting ................................................................................................. 17
6.2. Joint tracking ............................................................................................................ 17
7. HEALTH AND SAFETY - NEW RISKS PRESENTED BY ROBOTS................................ 19
7.1. Specific accident conditions in case of a malfunction ............................................... 19
7.2. Assessing the probability of an accident from the outset of the project .................... 19
7.3. During programming, repair and maintenance phases ............................................. 20
7.3.1. Special operating procedure.......................................................................................20
7.3.2. During the operating and manufacturing phase..........................................................20
7.3.3. Sensitive devices ........................................................................................................20
7.4. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 20
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. HISTORY
The use of machine welding to produce straight-line or circumferential seams in a plane dates back to
the 1930s. Since that time, technology has continued to evolve at a steady pace.
Automation, in other words the execution of any welds in a three-dimensional space, appeared after
1940.
Robotisation, which adds flexibility to the above operations, was created around 1968.
As in the automation of any production process, it can be said that:
ª the workpieces to be welded must be designed for the anticipated automation process;
ª workpiece preparation must be more precise than in manual welding;
ª the fixtures required to hold the workpieces must offer greater performance than in manual
welding in possible addition to workpiece layout devices.
Key dates in robotics development are:
From 1972 to 1980:
• stepping motor,
• open loop,
• pulse counting,
• relative encoders,
• no feedback control.
From 1976 to 1988:
• DC motor,
• closed loop,
• DC tacho-generator + relative encoders,
• axis reset at each outage.
Since 1988:
• AC motor,
• absolute encoders: real position reading,
• no resetting on outage,
• increasingly sophisticated software.
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1.2. DEFINITIONS
1.2.1. Manipulators
This is a mechanism consisting of series of components jointed or sliding in relation to one another, with
the aim of gripping and displacing objects according to several degrees of freedom. It is multifunctional
and can be controlled directly by a human operator or by any logical system (hard-wired or programmed
electrical or pneumatic logic).
1.2.2. Industrial robots

This is a versatile, automatic, multi-articulated, follow-
up-controlled manipulator capable of positioning and
orienting materials, workpieces, tools or specialist
devices in the course of a variable movement and
programmed to perform a variety of tasks.
Often it takes the form of one or more arms ending in
a wrist. Its control unit particularly uses a device to
memorise and possibly perceive the environment and
circumstances and to adapt this information into
results.
These multipurpose machines are generally designed
to carry out the same function in a cyclical manner
and can be adapted to other functions without any
great or permanent change to the hardware.
2. WHAT ARE THE STAKES OF Industrial robot

AUTOMATION?
2.1. PRODUCTIVITY
The speeds reached by a welding robot are clearly higher than those achieved by a manual welder. This
results in a considerable increase in the number of workpieces welded per unit of time.
Due to the fact that the robot does not require any rest time, the duty cycle is increased significantly.
Indeed, reducing the hold times between each weld to a strict minimum by good programming leads to
greater profitability.
Setup time, which will depend on the complexity of the workpiece and the quantity, will generally be
relatively short. This saves times on all large new production campaigns, particularly in the automotive
sector.
2.2. QUALITY
Precise programming of weld paths and rapid speed of execution lead to a significant reduction in scrap
rates. And the bigger the production run of welded parts, the lower the scrap rate will be.
The robot has another advantage in that the weld seams will be extremely regular, not random, with
almost perfect repeatability.
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2.3. WORKING CONDITIONS

The robot has both good and bad points in terms of health and safety. By keeping quite a distance from
the torch, the operator does not suffer directly from the effect of fumes, heat and radiation given off by
the arc. As a general rule, the robotic cell is equipped with visual protection screens and fume extractor
systems. The operator must undergo specialist training to manage and program the cell.
2.4. FLEXIBILITY
This is the faculty of partly or fully automated machines to adapt very quickly to welding new workpieces.
3. AUTOMATABLE WELDING PROCESSES

In arc welding, given the number of process variants available, there are numerous possibilities for
automation, depending on the work to be done and the actual welding process used: nature of the
materials to be joined and operational requirements relating to the position of the joint in space and to
the thickness of the workpieces (determining the number of passes).
The table below illustrates the possibilities of the four main processes used for butt and fillet welding.
Rotating arc welding is not covered in our analysis.
TIG PLASMA SAW MAG
BUTT WELDING:
In a single pass without backing X X X
In a single pass with backing X X X
In several passes: first filling pass X X X
FILLET WELDING:
In one or more passes X X X
3.1. ARC PLASMA PROCESS

This process is not suited to fillet joints. It is particularly used for butt welds where the keyhole welding
method produces regular, narrow penetration either in a single pass up to 6 mm thick or for root passes
in grooves for thicker workpieces.
This is a highly accurate process that demands immunity to high frequency currents for the entire
installation rotating around the welding robot. Its main applications are found in the nuclear and
aeronautics fields.
3.2. TIG PROCESS

It is not only applicable for all of the joint types mentioned in the table above but also for welding thin
flanged workpieces without filler metal.
On account of its characteristics, it can be used for butt welding with reverse side penetration even
without the use of backing.
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However, due to its thermal characteristics, this process is mainly limited to butt and fillet welding light-
duty noble metals or to root runs on heavy duty workpieces.
This is a highly accurate process that demands immunity to high frequency for the entire installation
rotating around the welding robot.
As with the plasma process, its main applications are in the nuclear and aeronautics fields.
3.3. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING PROCESS

It is particularly useful for extra-long straight or circumferential butt welding on workpieces ranging from
two to several hundred millimetres thick.
On the other hand, it has the drawback that it can practically only be used for flat welding.
The morphology of the weld pool permits a relatively high tolerance for centring the bead in relation to
the centre line of the joint. Contrary to the other processes, SAW produces a very high deposition rate.
Main applications are found in heavy sheet metal work.
3.4. MAG PROCESS

Initially, the MAG process was designed for the semi-automatic welding of most materials, most joint
types and in all positions. This universality makes it particularly suitable for robotic welding.
The use of solid or flux-cored wires with or without shielding gas is possible.
3.5. RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESS

This is the easiest process to use in robotics because it does not raise any major path problems on
account of its working principle. Main applications are found in the automotive industry.
3.6. LASER WELDING PROCESS

Laser welding requires heavy equipment and very highly skilled staff.
Laser types:
ª YAG:- guiding of the beam by fibre optics is possible. These lasers are used in light mechanical
engineering.
ª CO2:- the beam must be guided using mirrors, which is more delicate. The workpiece will
therefore generally be mounted on a moving bed to restrict tool movements. Main applications
are found in the field of precision fabrication.
3.7. AUTOMATING OTHER PROCESSES

A number of other processes are necessarily automated. For instance:
ª Vertical electroslag (or fused flux) welding as the weld pool is large and not visible.
ª Electron beam welding (in a total or partial vacuum).
ª Stud welding.
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3.8. AUTOMATING THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES

Automation can be adapted to the oxyacetylene, plasma and laser processes, conveying various
degrees of cutting accuracy to each one.
4. TYPES OF AUTOMATIC OPERATION
As illustrated in the diagram opposite,

automatic operations can be classified into
three types:
ª Simple mechanisation
ª Robots
ª Special machines
The degrees of automation of a welding or
cutting process will depend on the number of
workpieces to be produced and their volume.
Types of automatic operation
4.1. SIMPLE MECHANISATION

This is a simple mechanical system that translates
and/or rotates the torch in relation to the workpiece or
vice-versa.
This system requires a joint by joint approach with
mechanised workpiece placement enabling alignment
of the torch (or tool) in relation to the weld bead.
Simple mechanisation systems are widely used in
thermal cutting and welding processes.
The permanent presence of a welder operator is
required to ensure that the welding or cutting
operation runs smoothly and if necessary adjust the
path or the settings while the operation is in process.
Simple mechanisation
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The main types of machine are:
ª Welding bench
ª Welding gantry
ª Motor-driven carriage (circumferential and plain welds)
ª Turning gear (circumferential welds)
ª Gantry + turning gear (circumferential welds)
Welding bench Gantry + turning gear

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4.2. SPECIAL MACHINES
This is a mechanical system dedicated to a specific

application. It may or may not be programmable.
It is normally preset and does not require the
permanent supervision of a welder operator.
Workpiece alignment in relation to the torch is done
automatically with a special mechanical system.
The drawback is that this system is only designed for
a single set of precisely defined welds. It offers no
flexibility.
Special machines
MIG welding of beer barrels Tube butting by orbital TIG welding

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4.3. ROBOTS
A robot is a complex, articulated mechanical system
capable of repeating a pre-programmed task.
It can:
ª work in three dimensions,

ª make a series of joints on the same workpiece
with minimum idle time,
ª handle new workpieces after a programming
operation for which it has been designed.
The use of robots does however generate a number of
constraints:
ª the minimum size of the series of workpieces

to be handled with high production rates,
ª workpiece dimensions and morphology,
ª weld zone accessibility,
ª positioning tolerances,
ª joint filling kinematics.
4.4. ROBOTS USED IN WELDING

These are always industrial playback robots
comprising at least three axes (but very often five or
six) and designed to dialog with the welding
equipment and the fixture. It is possible to have
external axes that can be manipulated by the robot’s
control system.
4.4.1. Robot characteristics

ª Each axis has:
• a motor-driven joint
• revolute Æ rotation
• prismatic Æ translation
• a brake to block the joint,
• an AC or DC motor, a reduction gear and
a transmission system to generate
movement,
• an absolute coding wheel for position
information and a resolver,
• a tachometer for speed information. Six-axis robot
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ª The maximum load that can be handled within a

range of 6 to 100 daN (6 to 15 daN for arc welding,
30 to 100 daN for resistance welding).
ª Type of base coordinates: Cartesian, cylindrical or
spherical.
ª Speeds and accelerations which are generally higher
than process requirements. They are very important
to minimise idle time (clearance, bead change,
approach, etc.).
ª Type of actuators: hydraulic, electric (stepping motor,
DC motor, etc.).
ª Accuracy of positioning (static accuracy), ranging
from +/-0.1 to +/-0.3 mm, and accuracy of
repeatability (dynamic accuracy) from +/- 0.3 to
+/− 1 mm.
ª The control cabinet which, in addition to the robot
axes, should be able to control one or two axes
arranged on the fixture.
ª Use of robots for MIG - MAG - arc welding.
ª The application work space (which depends also on
the position of the welding tool) accessible by the torch in a given position.
4.5. DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATION IN MAG WELDING

The automation of MAG welding began later and much more slowly than automated resistance welding.
This is not directly linked to technical difficulties involved in carrying out the automatic operations
themselves, but is essentially caused by dispersions in the repairs of workpieces to be joined which are
not easily automatable.
Furthermore, control over deformations in the course of welding restricted the development of the
robotisation process.
As a result, robotisation did not really begin until 1977-1978.
4.5.1. Workpiece holding

The workpieces may be tacked beforehand (by manual resistance spot welding or arc tack welding) but
this should be avoided wherever possible.
Best practice consists of having the tacking done by a robot and then for the workpiece to be conveyed
to a welding robot via programmable logic controllers.
The workpiece positioning and clamping fixture must often have one or two rotations (combined with the
robot) so as to benefit from a horizontal welding position (for top performance in terms of welding speed,
etc.) wherever possible.
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4.6. THE ADVANTAGES AND LIMITS OF AUTOMATION – ROBOTISATION

4.6.1. Simple mechanisation (automation)
a ) Advantages
ª Simple geometry: as a general rule, welding or cutting is carried out according to a plan or a form
of revolution.
ª Simple to program.
ª Working costs are low and constant.
b ) Limits
ª Little flexibility.
ª Workpiece handling.
4.6.2. Robotisation
a ) Advantages
ª Productivity improved (robots can work two eight-hour shifts without tiring) by increased output
rates and reliability.
ª Operators released from laborious, monotonous duties.
ª Quality improved by the consistency of the positioning.
b ) Limits
ª High output rates.
ª Staff must be qualified in programming and welding.
ª Quality of edge preparation must not be neglected.
ª Health and safety problems (movement and eye protection).
4.7. INTRODUCING AN AUTOMATED OPERATION INTO PRODUCTION

The following parameters are to be considered:
• the choice of workpieces and welds to be

produced both in terms of quantity and the
volume occupied;
• the technology suited to the product to be
made;
• the technology suited to the company;
• production costs;
• writing of specifications;
• calling for tenders from suppliers.
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4.7.1. The choice of welding

Manual welding: complex welds can be undertaken thanks to human intelligence.
Automatic welding: limited by the technology used. For simple welds, simple mechanisation will suffice
whereas complex welds call for robotics and special machines.
5. PROGRAMMING WELDING ROBOTS
5.1. TEACH PROGRAMMING

This method is simple, intuitive and based on the welding
experience of the operator who needs to know the welding
process and the programming software used by the robot.
This programming method consists of moving the robot from
point to point along the weld path. The various displacement
and welding parameters (speed, welding settings, approach
and clearance points, etc.) are entered at the same time.
The points can be validated by a dummy run (without
welding).
Programming is generally done using a teach pendant (a
handheld control unit) which enables the operator to control
the robot movements, enter the various welding parameters
and validate them.
This type of programming is done on 99% of today’s
welding robots.
Teach pendant
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5.2. OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING (OLP)

With this system, the program is defined on a virtual robot
before it is transmitted to the robot.
This type of programming makes use of CAD data available
on computer (widely used in machining).
The designer can therefore create the workpiece to be
welded, then write the computer program and carry out a
virtual simulation to check the various paths recorded. Final
adjustment is often necessary on site.
Virtual cell
Off-line programming
5.3. ADVANTAGES OF OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING (OLP)

a) Use of CAD data
By processing computer data stored in the memory, an array of models of the workpieces to be joined
can be produced (widely used in machining).
b ) Background programming
With OLP, a new series can be programmed and/or prepared in the background while the robot is busy
welding a workpiece or series.
This is advantageous in terms of flexibility.
c) Use of computer power

The power and speed of computers generate considerable time savings on highly complex paths.
d ) Optimisation
By carrying out virtual tests, various welding robot positions in relation to the workpiece can be optimised
thereby avoiding possible collisions with the frame or the workpiece itself.
5.4. LIMITS OF OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING (OLP)

a) Accuracy
“Robotisable” welding processes require a positioning and joint preparation plan and levels of accuracy
ranging from +/-1 mm for resistance, MAG, TIG and plasma welding to +/- 0.1 mm for laser welding.
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These possible deviations must be taken into account when programming. This takes the form of on-site
reworking, the use of teach data, specific robot calibration, improvement in the CAD models or the
setting up of sensors.
b ) Interfaces
The CAD/OLP/ROBOT CELL interfaces require specific adaptation for each site.
c) System costs
Prices are on a downward trend; envisage a minimum of FRF 150,000.
d ) Link between the programmer and the welder

Robotic welding is at the crossroads of two trades: welding and computing.
The welder can carry out teach programming, but cannot work on OLP without solid training.
Hence the need to combine know-how.
6. SMART ROBOTS
Welding robots have the advantage of being productive, loyal and never tired, but their drawback is that
they are blind.
Contrary to humans who are capable of adapting immediately to any new complex situation, robots will
only carry out tasks that have been programmed insofar as welding operations are performed with:
ª appropriate fixtures,
ª appropriate parameters,
ª a reliable process and resources (machines, consumables, wire, gas, etc.).
But this is not enough! Technology is being applied to make robots smarter by teaching them to manage
tolerances. Several actions need to be controlled in this case:
ª preliminary resetting,
ª joint tracking,
ª laser or infrared vision,
ª eddy currents,
ª self-adaptive welding.
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6.1. PRELIMINARY RESETTING

This method is used to make a global correction in
translation to a previously saved path.
Depending on the workpiece, this method consists of
probing:
ª with the wire - the position of the workpiece is

detected with the welding circuit voltage,
ª visually - the position of the workpiece is
detected with an appropriate optical device.
The new path is then calculated by the computer.
Preliminary resetting
This is a simple, cheap method that is highly
industrialised. On the other hand, it extends
manufacturing cycle times. It does not handle the various workpiece deformations in the course of
welding or probable variations in squeeze dimensions.
It will be done either manually with the teach pendant or by OLP, and either point to point or for a full
path.
6.2. JOINT TRACKING

This method is used to make a real-time correction to
a previously saved path.
Depending on the workpiece, it consists of either:
ª mechanical probing,
ª or joint tracking through the arc,
ª or using a vision system.
With joint tracking, the position of the joint to be
welded can be located in real time. It facilitates
automation and constantly recentres the torch on the Joint tracking
joint. This means that not only workpiece positioning
problems can be dealt with, but also deformations in
the course of welding.
On the other hand, it does not handle squeeze faults on pre-tacked workpieces.
Several joint tracking methods have been developed.
a) Mechanical probing
This is mainly used for submerged arc welding and for large structures with welding benches and
gantries.
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b ) Tracking through the arc
Available on the majority of welding robots, this

method consists of measuring the electrical
parameters (U, I) during programmed torch oscillation.
There is no need for accessories to be added to the
torch.
On the other hand, this technique
ª is not applicable to all types of joint,

ª means welding minimum thicknesses to
support the weaving,
ª is very sensitive to variations in welding
parameters,
ª requires a torch oscillation device. Tracking through the arc
c) Vision
As in the case of tracking through the arc, the position
of the workpieces is detected but the system used is
laser optics. This optical system can be used on all
types of automatic operation.
The principle consists of projecting a laser beam or
infrared ray on the joint which is visualised by a CCD
camera (by triangulation). The information is
compared to a databank and a computer corrects the
path as required.
This guiding system offers great autonomy and adapts
in real time to workpiece deformations.
On the other hand, the torch must be fitted with
additional equipment.
Vision
d ) Eddy currents
This method consists of creating a magnetic field in the workpiece and measuring it to verify, by
comparison, the permanence of edge preparation; this process is only applied to butt joints.
e) Self-adaptive welding
A real-time measurement is carried out on the weld seam with a vision system to determine its geometry
and position in space.
Then a permanent adjustment is made to the path and the electrical settings based on information
contained in a databank or laws that have been previously determined by experience or by knowledge of
the welding process and weld pool behaviour.
This system has several advantages:
ª optimised quality,
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ª optimised flexibility,
ª increased productivity,
ª better working conditions.
On the other hand, it is difficult to implement when there is no specific tool built in.
7. HEALTH AND SAFETY - NEW RISKS PRESENTED BY ROBOTS
7.1. SPECIFIC ACCIDENT CONDITIONS IN CASE OF A MALFUNCTION

Requirements:
ª The presence of multi-articulated structure liable to generate a greater or lesser degree of

uncertainty in the anticipation of movements.
ª For large robots: large motion space and high energy and inertia combined with rapid speed of
movement and/or high payloads.
a) Positive aspect
The operator is kept away from the welding area and therefore away from:
ª fumes
ª UV radiation
ª the heat given off by preheated workpieces.
b ) Negative aspect
If the operator is in the robot’s motion space, he or she is exposed to risks such as:
ª collisions,
ª trapping,
ª spatter.
7.2. ASSESSING THE PROBABILITY OF AN ACCIDENT FROM THE OUTSET OF THE

PROJECT
The following points must be dealt with in a precise, detailed manner.
• Risks of human error,

• Technical risks due to a control malfunction and the aggressiveness of the environment,
• Frequency of access into hazardous areas,
• Organisation of the production site and compliance with ergonomic conditions.
Aim – to satisfy production and safety requirements.
Alongside the technical team designing a robotics project, the participation of the following is required:
- Representatives of the plant’s safety department
- Field workers
- Advisers from outside organisations such as the Department of Health and Social
Security and the National Research and Safety Institute.
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7.3. DURING PROGRAMMING, REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE PHASES

Qualified staff using the robotic cell must check its safety perimeter before each operation on the cell, by:
ª using the plant’s intrinsic safety warning signs,

ª operating at reduced speed and torque in manual mode,
ª using the emergency stop device without hesitation,
ª using a “deadman’s safety” device.
7.3.1. Special operating procedure

Staff training must be as comprehensive as possible for safe use of the equipment.
7.3.2. During the operating and manufacturing phase

It is advisable to protect the working envelope of the robot with anti-intrusion devices (locks, presence
detector, light screens, etc.) and protective devices such as curtains, guards, coloured lights or rotating
lights.
7.3.3. Sensitive devices

They detect any intrusion into a so-called “sensitive” area. They must use a positive safety principle,
have a short response time and withstand the aggressive nature of the environment.
They can be classified into two categories:
ª perimetric detection devices,

ª zone protection devices.
7.4. CONCLUSIONS
ª Better to be safe than sorry
ª Try to foresee malfunctions and any possible consequences
ª Train staff, warn them of the type of hazard faced and guide them in their actions
ª Reduce the number of failures
ª Envisage off-line programming.
There is no standard solution for a given application comprising robots and peripherals. A clever
combination of signalling, guards and sensitive devices, all linked to the robot controls, is called for.
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EVOLUTION DE L’AUTOMATISATION DEVELOPMENTS IN AUTOMATION
exemple de la France example: France
COMMANDES CONTROLS
MACHINES MACHINES
UTILISATIONS USES
SRP RSW
MAG MAG
multi processeurs multiprocessors
gestion production production management
gestion ligne line management
micro processeurs microprocessors
calculateurs computers
automates programmables industriels industrial PLC’s
logique câblée hard-wired logic
cycles soudage et machine welding and machine cycles
Performances croissantes Increasing performance
Flexibilité croissante Increasing flexibility
Robots industriels Industrial robots
Auto-adaptatifs Self-adapting
programmés hors lignes Programmed off-line
programmés en ligne Programmed on-line
Machines spéciales Special machines
constituants standards standard components
sous-ensembles modulaires modular subassemblies
possibilités modifications et récupération modification and recovery possibilities
1ère ligne transfert 1st transfer line
machines spécifiques specific machines
non modifiables non-modifiable
non récupérables non-recoverable
Mécanisation soudage sous flux Mechanised SAW
§§ 4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
Nbre de pièces N° of workpieces

Volume des pièces Volume of workpieces
Bancs et potences Benches and gantries
Chariots motorisés Motor-driven carriages
Robots classiques Traditional robots
Robots portiques Gantry robots
Robots portables Portable robots
Machines dédiées… Machines dedicated to a workpiece or weld type
Mécanisation simple Simple mechanisation
Robots Robots
Machines spéciales Special machines
§ 5.2
CAO classique Traditional CAD

PHL OLP
Cellule de production Production cell
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PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.17 : BRAZING AND SOLDERING

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CONTENTS
1. PRINCIPLES......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. General information .................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Wetting, alloying and capillarity .................................................................................. 2
1.3. Main soldering operations........................................................................................... 3
1.3.1. Setting up the joint ........................................................................................................3
1.3.2. Preliminary cleaning .....................................................................................................3
1.3.3. Flux application.............................................................................................................3
1.3.4. Heating .........................................................................................................................3
1.3.5. Positioning of the filler metal.........................................................................................3
1.3.6. Cooling the solder.........................................................................................................3
1.3.7. Flux elimination.............................................................................................................3
2. PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................ 3

2.1. Soldering processes and equipment .......................................................................... 3
2.1.1. Flame soldering ............................................................................................................3
2.1.2. Furnace soldering .........................................................................................................3
2.1.3. Induction soldering........................................................................................................3
2.1.4. Resistance soldering ....................................................................................................3
2.1.5. Dip soldering.................................................................................................................3
2.1.6. Ultrasonic soldering ......................................................................................................3
2.1.7. Infrared soldering..........................................................................................................3
2.1.8. Soldering irons..............................................................................................................3
2.1.9. Hot gas soldering..........................................................................................................3
2.2. Forced convection ...................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1. Wave soldering .............................................................................................................3
2.2.2. Vapour phase soldering................................................................................................3
3. METALS AND FILLER ALLOYS USED IN SOLDERING................................................... 3
4. HEALTH AND SAFETY ....................................................................................................... 3

4.1. Risks due to high temperatures and heat sources...................................................... 3
4.2. The risk of burns ......................................................................................................... 3
4.3. Fire or explosion hazards ........................................................................................... 3
4.4. Hazards due to toxic fumes ........................................................................................ 3
4.5. Cleaning and degreasing metals ................................................................................ 3
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1. PRINCIPLES
1.1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Brazing and soldering form a group of joining processes designed to produce the coalescence of
materials heated to a suitable temperature by use of a filler metal with a lower melting point than the
solidus of the parent metal. The filler metal spreads between the carefully set sidewalls of the joint by a
capillary effect.
When the melting point of the filler product is less than 450°C, we refer to soldering (or soft soldering);
when it is higher than 450°C, it is known as brazing (or hard soldering). In this guide, the term
“soldering” shall be used to cover both soldering and brazing unless specified.
1.2. WETTING, ALLOYING AND CAPILLARITY

When molten filler metal leaves a continuous, permanent film on the surface of the base metal, it is said
to be “wetting” this surface.
Wetting is essential to the soldering process. This phenomenon can only occur if there is a stronger
attraction between certain atoms of the filler metal and the base metal than there is between the atoms
of the filler metal itself. Intermetallic reactions are usually generated between the parent metal and the
filler metal. This wetting phenomenon is partly of a chemical nature.
Wetting is greatly benefited by the filler metal’s ability to form an alloy with the parent metal. This is why,
for instance, pure lead does not readily wet copper or steel, whereas a lead-tin filler alloy wets these two
metals perfectly. Lead does not form an alloy with copper or iron but does with tin. Some other metals,
such as zinc, improve the wetting power of lead.
Wetting is often associated with the ability to form intermetallic compounds. Although the addition of heat
is designed to make wetting easier, it is advisable to avoid prolonged heating when using various filler
metals with certain parent metals. Excessive intermetallic reactions, due to prolonged heating, can lead
to embrittlement or a reduction in solder strength.
The fluidity of the molten filler metal is an important characteristic that influences its spread on the
surface of the parent metal. Spread can be determined by a number of methods. The simplest consists
of melting a given volume of filler metal, by a uniform heat supply, on a standardised metal plate coated
with a specific flux. The surface area covered by the filler metal represents the spread of the filler metal
on the parent metal.
The flow of the filler metal by capillary action in a restricted space is an important factor and a large
number of tests have been developed to evaluate this characteristic, for example by measuring the rise
of the molten metal between two standard twisted wires or between two plates separated by a pre-
measured reduced gap. These tests are useful for qualification work.
The adoption of automatic soldering machines working at high speed has introduced a new dimension
into the testing of filler metals. In addition to wetting, flow and capillarity, it is now essential to measure
also the speed at which wetting takes place. Several fully automatic testing machines have been
developed with a view to obtaining this data.
These machines record quantitatively the reaction force generated between the parent metal and the
molten filler metal against time. The recorded data can be used to provide a quantitative evaluation of a
given parent metal/filler metal pairing, with an indication of static and dynamic characteristics. These
machines are used to develop filler products and processes as well as for quality control operations.
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1.3. MAIN SOLDERING OPERATIONS

1.3.1. Setting up the joint
The gap between the workpieces to be joined must be large enough for the filler metal to penetrate the
joint by capillary action, but not too large as the filler metal would not be able to fill the free space. A gap
of 0.15 mm is suitable for most jobs.
1.3.2. Preliminary cleaning

It is absolutely essential to remove all traces of impurities and oxides from the surfaces to be joined in
order to obtain a uniform, compact solder quality. Eliminating all traces of grease, oil, impurities and
oxides from the surface of the parent metal before the soldering operation increases the chances of
producing a flawless solder, given that it is the only way of ensuring uniform capillary attraction.
1.3.3. Flux application

Several characteristics are demanded of the flux applied to the surfaces to be soldered. In particular, it
must:
1. have good fluidity and eliminate effectively the oxides and non-metallic substances that could be
present at the soldering temperature;
2. protect the ready-cleaned surface of the metal from re-oxidation;
3. be easily displaced by the molten filler metal;
4. encourage wetting of the surface by the filler metal.
1.3.4. Heating
As a general rule, heating follows on immediately from flux application. A number of processes are used.
1.3.5. Positioning of the filler metal

Soldering takes place in two stages: firstly the surfaces to be joined are wet, then the gap is filled by the
filler metal. These two operations may be carried out separately or simultaneously, depending on the
conditions involved in each particular case. As a general rule, it is preferable to proceed separately due
to the fact that it is then easier to fulfil the required conditions. It is often desirable to cover a parent metal
that is difficult to solder with a filler metal or an easily soldered metal.
1.3.6. Cooling the solder

After wetting the surfaces to be joined and filling the gap with filler metal, the joint is left to cool to
ambient temperature.
A fixture, a positioner or controlled cooling may be used to prevent excessive deformation or the rupture
of the joint while the filler metal is solidifying. Cooling and solidification must take place as quickly as
possible on account of the specific requirements of the joint and the filler metal used, due to the fact that
excessively slow cooling can lead to the diffusion zone being too large resulting in embrittlement. Rapid
cooling from an excessively high temperature can cause warping and small cracks in the solder.
Normally, the joint is cooled either by conduction (the heat is absorbed by the mass of the joint) or by
accelerating the process by spraying with water or blowing with air. The cooling method must be adapted
to each particular case.
1.3.7. Flux elimination

Once the soldering operation has been completed, the flux residue may have to be eliminated depending
on whether it is corrosive or not. Non-corrosive flux, generally rosin-based, does not necessarily need to
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be eliminated unless appearance is an essential factor or unless the joint zone must not be painted or
coated by another process. On the other hand, corrosive fluxes, such as zinc chloride-based flux, leave
behind residue that is highly likely to cause corrosion if it is not removed. There is a whole range of self-
neutralising fluxes ranging from slightly corrosive to highly corrosive; as far as the elimination of their
residue is concerned, they must be treated according to this characteristic.
SOLDERING ON AN OXIDISED WORKPIECE
⇒ It can be seen that

wetting is more or less
non-existent.
SOLDERING ON A PRECLEANED, DEOXIDISED WORKPIECE
⇒ Good wetting resulting

from improved surface
conditions can be seen.
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CAPILLARITY
SURFACES are clean and wettable by the liquid

If FLUX pickles and protects the surfaces and the liquid
required volume of LIQUID
wetting TEMPERATURE
GAP
CAPILLARITY is a subsequent phenomenon to WETTING.
ª If the SURFACES are wettable by the liquid and clean,

ª if the FLUX pickles and protects the surfaces and the liquid from oxidation,
ª if there is a sufficient volume of filler alloy in a LIQUID state to feed the capillary volume,
ª if the TEMPERATURE is right for liquid wetting,
ª and if there is a sufficient GAP for the displacement of the liquid,
then only under these conditions will the liquid wet these surfaces, then “rise” between these surfaces
and resulting in CAPILLARITY.
The diagram opposite illustrates this phenomenon.
The SMALLER the gap
between the workpieces,
the HIGHER the capillary
rise will be – as long as
the gap is NOT ZERO.
This height varies
according to:
− the chemical
composition of the
liquid (wetting
characteristics,
density, etc.),
− the “fluidity” of the
liquid (depending on
the chemical composition and the capacity of the flux to protect the liquid from the oxygen in the air),
− the wettability or solderability of the surfaces (depending on the surface conditions and cleanliness
and the ability of the flux to “pickle” and “protect” these surfaces),
− and the space or gap between these surfaces.
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2. PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT
2.1. SOLDERING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT

As a general rule, soldering processes are designated by the heat source or the method of heating used.
The processes commonly applied in industry are as follows:
− flame soldering,
− furnace soldering,
− induction soldering,
− resistance soldering,
− dip and ultrasonic soldering,
− infrared soldering,
− soldering with soldering iron,
− hot gas and convection soldering,
− wave soldering,
− vapour phase soldering.
Irrespective of which process is used, the filler metal has a lower melting point than the parent metal and
it penetrates the joint by capillary action.
2.1.1. Flame soldering

Flame soldering is carried out by heating the parts with one or more blowpipes. Depending on the
required temperature and the quantity of heat to be released, the combustion of the fuel gas (acetylene,
propane, town gas, etc.) will be generated with air, compressed air or oxygen.
The filler metal can be placed in the joint before soldering in the form of a wire, ring, strip, powder, etc.,
or otherwise fed in manually during the soldering operation; in this case, it is in a wire or rod form. In any
case, it is essential that the workpieces are suitably cleaned and coated with sufficient flux.
With manual flame soldering, the blowpipe is fitted with a single or multiflame nozzle. This process is
particularly advisable when joining workpieces of unequal mass. Automatic soldering is recommended
when the production volume justifies the use of one or more blowpipes with a single or multiflame
nozzle. The machine may be designed to move the workpieces or the blowpipes or both at once. In the
case of premixed air-town gas flames, refractory-type burners are used.
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Manual flame
soldering
Refractory burner using a blend

of air and town gas
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2.1.2. Furnace soldering

Furnace soldering is very often used when the workpieces can be joined by placing the filler metal in or
quite close to the joint before actually soldering. This process is particularly suited to soldering large
production series. The filler metal placed before soldering comes in a variety of forms: wire, foil, filings,
cutout, powder, paste, strip, etc. A flux is generally used except when a shielding atmosphere is
introduced into the furnace to fulfil the functions of the flux. Most production soldering operations are
carried out in reducing gas atmospheres such as hydrogen or in exothermic or endothermic burnt gas
atmospheres. Pure, dry neutral gases such as argon or helium are used when atmospheres with
particular characteristics are required.
Furnace soldering is quite often carried out in a vacuum which prevents oxidation and eliminates the
need for flux. Vacuum soldering is very often used in the space and nuclear industries to join reactive
metals or when the presence of flux trapped in the workpieces is unacceptable. By maintaining the
vacuum by uninterrupted pumping, the volatile components released during soldering are eliminated.
There are a number of parent metals and filler metals that are liable to suffer deterioration during
vacuum soldering due to the low boiling point or high vapour pressure of their components, leading to a
loss of metal. Batch or continuous types of furnace are generally used. The furnaces are heated as a
general rule by electric heating elements, gas or oil and must be equipped with time and temperature
control devices. Cooling is sometimes provided by systems that are placed above the hot muffle or built
into the furnace. It can also be carried out by forced gas circulation. The charges can be arranged in the
furnace separately, in batches or on a conveyor belt.
A vacuum is a relatively economic soldering atmosphere that can be accurately controlled. It provides
the clean surfaces required for good wetting and a satisfactory flow of filler metals without the need for
flux. Parent metals containing chromium and silicon can easily be soldered in a vacuum whereas if
soldering in a controlled atmosphere, a very pure gas with a low dew point would be necessary.
Diagram of the furnace soldering operation

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2.1.3. Induction soldering

The heat required to solder using this process is obtained from an electric current induced in the
workpieces to be soldered, hence the name of induction soldering.
In induction soldering, the workpieces are arranged inside or near to an inductor through which
alternating current flows; the workpieces do not form part of the electric circuit.
As a general rule, the filler metal is placed before soldering. The design of the joint and the shape of the
inductor must be carefully determined for the surfaces of
all parts of the joint to reach the soldering temperature at
the same time.
I0 = Field current
Flux is necessary unless an atmosphere fulfilling the
I1 = Induced current (Lenz-Foucault)
same role is specifically used. The conventional sources
of high-frequency current used for induction soldering are I1 = f (I0, r, ρ, f, µr) (skin effect)
motor generators, dischargers and oscillating circuits. B0 = Primary magnetic flux density
B1 = Secondary magnetic flux density
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2.1.4. Resistance soldering

The heat required for resistance soldering is produced by the element when an electric current flows
through the electrodes and the joint being soldered. The secondary electric circuit is closed on the
workpieces and joint. The appropriate form of filler metal is put into place before or during the soldering
operation. Flux is spread according to its conductivity (most fluxes insulate when dry). Flux is generally
used except when an atmosphere is selected to fulfil the same role. The workpieces are held between
two electrodes to which suitable pressure and current are applied. Pressure must be maintained until the
joint has solidified. In some
cases, both electrodes can be
placed on the same side of the
joint by using an appropriate
support to maintain the required
pressure.
Soldering equipment consists of
tongs or presses with the
electrodes fastened to the tips
of each arm. The arms are
linked to a transformer by
cables. It is possible to use
direct current but the cost is
relatively high. A water cooling
system is recommended for the
arms to prevent overheating.
Resistance welding machines
are also used. The electrodes
may be made of carbon,
graphite, refractory metals or
copper alloys depending on the
conductivity required.
2.1.5. Dip soldering

There are two soldering methods involving immersion. Soldering in a bath of molten chemical salts and
soldering in molten filler metal. In the case of salt-bath soldering, the workpieces complete with
preformed filler metal are immersed into a bath of molten salts. This salt bath provides the necessary
heat for soldering and adequate protection against oxidation. If protection is insufficient, a suitable flux
must be used. The salt bath is contained in a metal pot which is either heated from the outside through
its walls, or by electric heating elements placed inside the bath, or by a Joule effect in the bath itself.
In metal bath soldering, the workpieces are immersed in a bath of molten filler metal contained in a
suitable pot. The workpieces should be cleaned and then coated with flux if necessary. The molten filler
metal must be covered with a layer of flux. This method is particularly reserved for soldering small
workpieces such as wires or small metallic strips. The ends of the wires or workpieces must be held
closely together on removal from the bath until the filler metal is completely solidified.
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Diagram of the dip soldering operation Salt bath

Used for aluminium and
low-alloy steels only
2.1.6. Ultrasonic soldering
Although this process is only of limited use, there is a range of vibration-producing equipment designed
for dip soldering tanks. A transducer generates high-frequency vibrations that destroy the stubborn oxide
film covering the parent metal (aluminium, for example) which is then exposed to the wetting action of
the liquid filler metal. Ultrasonic generators are useful for soldering U-bends onto the bushings of
aluminium coils in air conditioning systems. This process is also used to apply preliminary metal plating
to metals that are difficult to solder.
2.1.7. Infrared soldering

Infrared has long been used as a source of heat but
the development of high intensity quartz lamps has
broadened their range of use from a commercial
aspect. The heat given off is produced by the
radiation of rays beyond the red end of the
spectrum.
The radiation emanating from a source comprises
both a visible and an invisible spectrum but most of
the heat is produced by infrared radiation. Heat
sources (lamps) giving off more than 5000 W of
radiant energy are commercially available. The
lamps do not necessarily have to follow the contour
of the workpiece to be heated (although the energy
absorbed varies as an inverse function of the square
of the distance to the source) if reflectors are used
to concentrate the heat.
Soldering equipment with quartz lamps

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The assemblies to be soldered are held in a position such that energy is communicated directly to the
workpiece. For some applications, only the workpieces to be joined are placed in an enclosure. However
there are certain applications where the assembly and the lamps are arranged in a shroud or a muffle
where a vacuum can be created or an inert gas introduced. The joint is then heated to an indicated set
temperature by thermocouples.
Soldering with the aid of a heating mat is one of the other processes used for joining operations. The mat
is resistance heated and most of the heat is transmitted to the workpieces by conduction or mainly
radiation.
2.1.8. Soldering irons

The soldering iron must provide a constant heat supply to the workpieces so that the joint can be made
in the shortest possible contact time and the elements in close proximity are not affected by the
absorption of heat.
Flame-heated irons
This type of iron is adopted where there is
no electrical energy available (in sheet
metal work for example).
Electric soldering irons

Electrically-heated irons are more
practical than gas-heated models for rapid, repetitive manual soldering operations where the weight and
the handiness of the iron are of prime importance. Given the diversity of soldering irons available on the
market and the lack of definite specifications regarding their characteristics, care must be taken when
choosing an appliance. Existing inspection equipment can be used to measure the bit temperature under
dynamic conditions while soldering. Thanks to these measurements, it is possible to ensure that the heat
flow of the selected iron does in fact correspond to the required working temperature range.
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2.1.9. Hot gas soldering

The principle consists of using a relatively
fine jet of inert gas heated to a temperature
higher than the liquidus of the filler metal.
This gas transfers the heat while protecting
the joint zone from the surrounding air.
2.2. FORCED CONVECTION

The principle of forced convection consists of
heating a gas (air or nitrogen in this case) to a
certain temperature, then pulsing it at a certain speed towards a joint to raise its temperature.
Heat transfer by forced convection offers the advantage of being efficient in a temperature range of 60 to
280°C. To be reproducible, this method of heating requires perfect control of the gas flow rate and
temperature.
This heating system is now the most common in wiring lines in electronics.
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2.2.1. Wave soldering

The process consists of creating a wave of liquid metal in a specially designed soldering machine by
suitable pumping. The wave
is essentially used a heat
source and transfer medium,
while ensuring that the filler
metal is fed into the joint. In
an effective setup, the
geometry, flow
characteristics and
thermodynamic properties of
the liquid metal wave ensure
the wetting of the surface of
the workpieces, the
formation of reliable solders
and strong connections, and Wave soldering principle
good hole penetration.
A wave soldering production
line includes fluxing,
preheating and soldering
stations, as well as
equipment to transfer the
assemblies. The line can
also encompass cleaning
and drying operations.
Double wave principle

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2.2.2. Vapour phase soldering

The tray contains two fluids of differing density and condensing temperature:
− the so-called primary fluid has a high boiling point and density;
− the so-called secondary fluid presents contrasting properties to the primary fluid.
The mixture is heated by means of a heating element. When the boiling point of the secondary fluid is
reached (50°C), it begins to boil and turns into vapour which rises in the tank and is held for a short while
at the primary coils whose temperature is slightly higher than the vapour temperature: 60°C. This results
in the overheating of the secondary vapour which then rises to the secondary coils whose temperature is
held between 5 and 20°C. At this moment, the boiling point of the primary liquid is reached:
approximately 125°C. This liquid produces an inert saturated vapour atmosphere with a slightly higher
temperature than the melting point of the alloy used for soldering the components. The primary vapour
trapped by the primary coils returns to a liquid form and falls back into the tank. And the cycle
recommences: liquid ⇒ vapour ⇒ liquid…
A printed circuit board placed in a basket is lowered into the evaporation zone or saturated vapour. The
vapour condenses at all points of the board and components. The latent heat of the phase transition is
transferred to the entire board and the weld joints are thus formed. Heat transfer is proportional to
Tvapour – Tcomponent.
The fluids used have boiling points ranging from 50 to 265°C. They are organic compounds which are
completely fluorinated by the replacement of all hydrogen atoms linked to the carbon by fluorine atoms.
As a result, they no longer contain any hydrogen or chlorine. Chemically inert up to their boiling point,
they do not present any risk of corrosion, aggression or oxidation to the component materials.
The most commonly used primary fluids are known by the names of “Fluorinert” by the 3M company and
“Galden” by Montedison. Fluorinert FC70 is a perfluorotrianylamine whereas Galden is a perfluorinated
polyether. The advantage of FC70 is that it has a fixed boiling point of 215°C whereas the boiling point of
Galden ranges from 218 to 228°C.
The liquid producing the secondary vapour is generally trichlorotrifluoroethane which condenses at 48°C.
This secondary vapour forms a sort of “coat” preventing the primary vapour from escaping and also
avoids the development of problematic cyclone phenomena in the primary vapour zone. This coat also
protects the primary zone from the air and phenomena due to oxidation and humidity are no longer to be
feared. Furthermore, it minimises thermal shocks by allowing a thermal agent to form between the
secondary zone-interface-primary zone.
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In-line vapour phase
Double reflow
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3. METALS AND FILLER ALLOYS USED IN SOLDERING

Parent metals (alloys of…)
Copper-Tin =
Stainless steel
Molybdenum
Copper-Zinc
Nickel silver
Iron-Ni-Cr =
Magnesium
Cu-Zn-Ni =
Aluminium
Palladium
Zirconium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Beryllium
Cast iron
Platinum
Titanium
Iron-C =
Carbide
Copper
Bronze
Cobalt
Nickel
Silver
Steel
Gold
Filler alloys
Aluminium I I
Aluminium-Silicon I
Silver I I I I I I
Silver-Copper I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Silver-Cadmium-
I I I I I I I
Copper-Zinc
Copper I I I I I I I I I I
Copper-
I I O O O I O I
Phosphorus
Copper-Zinc I I I O I I
Tin-Lead I I I I I I I
Indium-Lead I I I
Magnesium-
I
Aluminium-Zinc
Molybdenum I
Nickel-Chromium I I I I I
Nickel-Chromium-
I I I I I
Cobalt
Gold-Copper I I I I
Gold-Copper-
I I I I I
Palladium
Gold-Palladium I I I
Palladium I I I
Palladium-Nickel I I I I
Palladium-Cobalt I I I I
Tantalum I
Titanium I
Titanium-Nickel-
I
Zirconium
Zirconium-
I I
Beryllium
I recommended I possible O not recommended

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4.1. RISKS DUE TO HIGH TEMPERATURES AND HEAT SOURCES

a) General information
Soldering is a process that requires a heat input. Consequently, to use the process, all usual precautions
must be taken with regard to hazards resulting from the presence of high temperatures to guarantee
operator health and safety, including:
− avoiding the possibility of burns,
− eliminating fire and/or explosion hazards,
− monitoring the state of contamination of the atmosphere.
4.2. THE RISK OF BURNS

During soldering operations, unprotected parts of the body are open to burns. These can be caused by:
− direct skin exposure to the flame,
− radiation from the flame and the incandescent metal in the molten pool,
− skin contact with a hot object.
b ) Individual protection equipment

To avoid the risk of burns, three types of protection can be used:
− protective clothing for the body,
− gloves for hand protection,
− eye and face protection.
c) Protective clothing for the body

The wearing of clothes made of flammable fabrics, such as rayon or untreated cotton, must be
prohibited; on the other hand, wool may be suitable.
Some work clothes have been specially designed for welding and allied techniques; such clothing is not
vital for solderers and brazers but strongly recommended.
However, the presence of grease and oil must be reasonably avoided and any traces of petrol or
flammable products on clothing must be banned.
d ) Gloves for hand protection

Gloves are essential accessories as they protect solderers, brazers and welders from burns, heat
radiation and bruises.
As a general rule, they must withstand the cutting action of sheet steel, not harden in heat, provide
electrical insulation and remain soft enough for the joining process to be carried out correctly.
Like special protective clothing, the wearing of gloves is not compulsory for soldering but is strongly
recommended.
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e) Eye and face protection

Due to the risks generated by the various forms of radiation emitted in the course of soldering
operations, it is vital that a special filter is inserted between the point of emission and the operator’s
eyes.
Therefore, wearing goggles or possibly a mask will help to reduce or even eliminate eye burning risks.
4.3. FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS

Blowpipe flames or the ignition of rubber pipes are the cause of very many industrial fires recorded each
year.
In shop work in the presence of workers, the risk is not considerable and is easy to prevent. The welding
area simply needs to be kept clear of flammable materials such as rags or heaps of clean or greasy tow,
open or closed receptacles containing explosive or flammable products, etc.
b ) Non-return valves and flame arresters

Non-return valves and flame arresters are devices which, when placed on a gas line, ensure
automatically that the gas flows in just one direction.
In welding, their purpose is to prevent oxygen flowing back towards the acetylene lines and also to
absorb flashbacks and explosion waves.
It is recommended to place these non-return valves and flame arresters on the fuel gas and oxidising
gas hoses, as close as possible to the blowpipe, to fend off any risk of back flow of gas or propagation of
any flashback towards the pressure regulator.
c) Supply hoses and couplings

Statistics show that around 15% of serious welding accidents are caused by hose failure (mismatching,
bursts, leaks, etc.).
To avoid such risks, hoses must be good quality, in good condition and firmly secured. The standard lays
down the characteristics of hoses to be used in the welding industries.
They must be checked periodically for leaks; the most practical means consists of dipping them in a tank
containing water.
The hoses must be firmly attached to the sockets of appliances, blowpipes, pressure regulators or valves
with the greatest care.
In order to be able to use gas feed hoses with different blowpipes, a quite common arrangement consists
of fitting lengths of piping to the blowpipes that can then be coupled up to the gas feed hoses by means
of quick couplings. To avoid the serious risks caused by inversion, a good arrangement involves using
different diameter couplings for the fuel gas hose and the oxidising gas hose, with the female
components upstream and male components downstream (blowpipe side).
Any couplings will be monitored particularly closely. Before connecting these hoses to the blowpipe,
some acetylene or oxygen will be let out to purge them of air and any dust that they may contain.
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4.4. HAZARDS DUE TO TOXIC FUMES

All alloys and fluxes used in soldering contain a number of volatile elements characterised by their low
boiling point. A part of these products is therefore volatilised at the soldering temperature.
The fumes of metallic particles and oxides are irritating and represent a health hazard. Some elements,
such as cadmium, are particularly toxic - even in very low quantities.
This is why basic rules of Health and Safety must be observed and, in particular, why concentrations of
toxic products in the soldering atmosphere must not under any circumstances exceed the TLV.
Faced with the toxicity of the various products composing the fluxes and filler materials, the only
acceptable alternative from a Health and Safety point of view consists of:
Installing ventilation systems adapted to each operation with periodical checks on the
concentration levels of toxic vapours and fumes in the atmosphere.
b ) Fumes from the fusion of filler products
Copper
Boiling point: 2595°C.
Copper particle fumes are difficult to filter because they are particularly fine. Nevertheless, experiments
put the rate of copper dust in soldering fumes at 0.01 to 0.1 mg/g of molten metal.
The TLV for Cu dust is equal to 1 mg/m3 of air and for fumes (finer particles), this value is reduced to
0.2 mg/m3 of air.
Zinc
Zinc is a metallic element with a high vapour pressure at soldering temperature. As a result, it has a
naturally strong aptitude to discharge vapours. Furthermore, it melts at low temperature, oxidises rapidly
and gives off large quantities of zinc oxide fumes.
The volume of fumes given off during soldering operations increases when:
- heating is continued when the filler metal has already melted,
- the filler alloy has melted by direct contact with the flame.
Due to a lack of comparative analysis, it has not been determined whether the volume of such fumes
increases in line with the percentage of zinc in the filler alloy.
Zinc oxide can cause metal-fume fever with flu-like symptoms: high temperature, shivering and muscular
aches and pains. As a general rule, this fever appears after a period of approximately ten hours and
dissipates completely after 24 hours’ rest without causing any permanent damage.
To sum up, the problems posed by zinc from a Health and Safety point of view are similar to those
caused by cadmium, although it should be remembered that cadmium fumes are one hundred times
more toxic than those generated by zinc and that the consequences of cadmium oxide intoxication are
much more serious for solderers. The TLV for zinc oxide fumes is set at 5 mg/m3 of air.
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Cadmium
Cadmium has similar physical properties to zinc. Like zinc, its melting point is very low, it oxidises quickly
and generates an abundance of cadmium oxide fumes when heated. Its boiling point (765°C) is only very
slightly higher than the theoretical brazing temperature.
Inhalation of cadmium fumes causes serious health problems, particularly:
- pulmonary disorders (difficult, painful breathing followed by the development of an oedema (wet lung)),
- renal disorders (irreversible after-effects).
These fumes form a gas with a violent lachrymatory (tear-inducing) effect. The chronic absorption of
cadmium in sufficient quantities leads after a certain amount of time to permanent lung disease in the
form of emphysema (permanent, excessive enlargement of the air sacs in the lungs with rupture of the
interalveolar walls).
The TLV for cadmium is 0.05 mg/m3 of air.
Additionally, it is a very delicate exercise to differentiate between cadmium intoxication and N02
intoxication. The symptoms revealed after exposure to the fumes or vapours of these two elements are
similar.
Furthermore, the AWS recommends that the following notice appears on labels, boxes or containers for
filler metals with a high cadmium content:
WARNING
CONTAINS CADMIUM
TOXIC FUMES MAY BE GIVEN OFF

WHEN HEATED
This informs users of the risks involved in using these products.

Finally, all scientists who have worked on the problems posed by the toxicity of this element are
unanimous: filler products containing cadmium in significant proportions must only be used with efficient
ventilation. Regular measurements must be taken to check that the concentration levels of hazardous
products in fumes or vapours remain below the TLVs.
c) Fumes from the fusion of soldering flux

All fluxes give off vapours or fumes under the action of the heat applied in soldering or brazing. These
fluxes are generally composed of:
- borates and fluoborates,
- fluosilicates,
- chlorous products.
When heated, these compounds can be found in the soldering atmosphere in two distinct forms: gases
or particles.
Overheating the whole joint must be avoided as the volume of fumes produced by the flux increases with
temperature. Consequently the use of a specially designed blowpipe-nozzle combination is
recommended. According to Heathcote, the volume of fumes caused by soldering flux also depends on
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the percentage of cadmium in the filler alloy. The fume volume rises as the cadmium content in the filler
metal increases.
The AWS recommends that the following warning is mentioned on any fluorine-based soldering flux
container:
WARNING
CONTAINS FLUORIDES
On heating, this flux gives off fumes that can irritate the eyes, nose and throat.
If inhaled, soluble fluorides and hydrofluoric acid can cause acute irritation of the mucous membranes
and particularly the respiratory tract. These substances are highly toxic. The chronic absorption of
fluorides in large quantities can cause generalised damage and bone disease.
As a general rule, all specialists agree that the use of soldering booths equipped with a fume extraction
system should be encouraged wherever possible or that a ventilation system must at least be installed.
4.5. CLEANING AND DEGREASING METALS

The metals used in a soldering operation must be thoroughly cleaned and degreased for a joint to be
made under the right conditions.
The cleaning of metals, in the widest sense, does not only include the removal of layers of oxides and
other coverings of metal compounds such as rust, scale, residues of grinding, paint and varnish, swarf,
particles of sand, emery and similar products, but also the elimination of grease, oil and similar soiling of
organic origin.
Therefore, after rough cleaning by a mechanical operation (with metal brushes, emery cloth, etc.), the
surfaces of the metals to be soldered must be cleaned by a chemical process (acid cleaning, alkaline
degreasing) or a physico-chemical process (solvent degreasing).
b ) Solvent degreasing
Organic chlorine derivatives

Organic chlorine derivatives have narcotic effects. The presence of a certain quantity of a narcotic
substance in the atmosphere leads to dizziness, loss of consciousness, sleep and muscle relaxation.
The absorption of quite high quantities of such substances can cause respiratory paralysis and death.
Trichloroethylene vapours can induce industrial poisoning with fatal consequences. It is therefore
essential that the concentration of trichloroethylene vapours in the atmosphere is reduced to a minimum
by efficient ventilation devices in proximity to degreasing equipment.
The solvents in question can also cause chronic injury as a result of the prolonged absorption of small
quantities of vapour in the air even at low concentration levels.
The most frequent symptoms of chronic trichloroethylene poisoning are loss of appetite, insomnia,
headaches, fatigability, suffocation and catarrh of the respiratory tract; cases of intestinal problems,
vomiting, stomach pains and jaundice have also been recorded. Nervous system disorders are
extraordinarily varied: in addition to “peripheral damage”, vision disorders have also been observed.
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The use of carbon tetrachloride is generally forbidden as its presence, even in small quantities and at
any temperature, can result in serious intoxication.
On the other hand, tetrachloroethylene appears less toxic than trichloroethylene in its long-term effects.
It boils at a much higher temperature such that it can be condensed more easily and more thoroughly in
cleaning apparatus. Furthermore, according to research by Lehmann and Flury, tetrachloroethylene is
one of the least hazardous organic chlorine derivatives in terms of health.
Safety measures in the use of organic chlorine derivatives
As we have said above, appropriate measures must be taken to lower the concentration level of
trichloroethylene or tetrachloroethylene vapours in the air in workshops in order to reduce or eliminate
their harmful effects. The most important measures are as follows:
1) Appropriate degreasing apparatus design,
2) Installation of vapour extraction devices in proximity to degreasing apparatus,
3) Efficient ventilation systems in the workshops.
c) Alkaline degreasing and cleaning

General information
The hazards involved in using alkaline solutions and molten alkalis are of a completely different nature to
the damage resulting from solvent vapours. It is especially the eyes that are at risk.
Hazardous substances can attack the eyes in the form of droplets, mist, dust or other solid or molten
particles; appropriate eye protection must therefore be used. All necessary precautionary measures
must be complied with by workers, and compliance must be checked by their overseers.
Eye protection
As stated above, alkalis are particularly dangerous to eyes. If any form of alkali comes into contact with
eyes, rinse thoroughly and as soon as possible with copious amounts of fresh water, or better still, with a
diluted acid solution. Particles of lime used in cleaning operations are also highly dangerous: as they are
barely soluble in water, they are difficult to remove. For rinsing, diluted acid solutions are much more
effective than pure water because they neutralise alkaline ions in situ and stop their physiological action
immediately. Saturated solutions of boric acid, containing approximately 4 g of solid boric acid per
100 cm3, are particularly suitable for eye washing. Such solutions are both antiseptic and healing.
Eyes must therefore be protected against splashing by alkaline solutions by wearing goggles specially
designed for this type of work or, better still, a full face mask.
d ) Handling chemicals and flux

The main preventive measures against the risks involved in handling flux and degreasing products
consist of taking all possible and conceivable precautions to prevent any hand or eye contact with these
products.
For hand protection, the wearing of gloves is strongly recommended; these may be made of rubber with
a cotton interior. Eyes will be protected by wearing goggles specially adapted to the job at hand.
Flux will preferably be used in paste form to be applied to the joint before soldering.
After soldering, to remove the residue of flux, it is recommended to run the workpieces under hot water
as soon as their temperature allows from a metallurgical viewpoint.
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§ 1.3.7
Métal d’apport liquide Liquid filler metal
Oxydes Oxides
Pièce Workpiece
Page 5
Hauteur de remontée Rise height

Jeu Gap
§ 2.1.2
Métal d’apport Filler metal

Flux Flux
Bande transporteuse Conveyor belt
Le métal d’apport fond et coule Filler metal melts and flows
Four Furnace
Joint brasé Soldered joint
§ 2.1.3
Inducteurs de forme Shaped inductors

Cylindrique Cylindrical
Plat en spirale Flat spiral
Cylindrique intérieur Interior cylindrical
Jonc d’alliage de brasage Soldering alloy wire
Inducteur intérieur Interior inductor
Inducteur Inductor
§ 2.1.5
Bains de sel Salt bath

Cuvelage briques réfractaires Refractory brick lining
Electrodes graphite Graphite electrodes
§ 2.1.7
Lampes de quartz Quartz lamps

Pièce Workpiece
Plaques de refroidissement Cooling plates
§ 2.1.8
Fer aérogaz Air-gas iron

Fers électriques Electric irons
§ 2.2
Ventilateur Fan
Élément chauffant Heating element
Gaz chaud Hot gas
PCB équipé PCB assembly
chauffage Heating
PP FPT 0388A
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FORMATION 25
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 25
§ 2.2.1
Convoyeur Conveyor
Extraction des fumées Fume extraction
Fluxeur Fluxer
Préchauffage Preheating
Pot d’alliage d’apport liquide Pot of liquid alloy filler metal
Déplacement du substrat Substrate travel

Vague turbulente Turbulent wave
Vague laminaire Laminar wave
§ 2.2.2
zone de préchauffage preheat zone

zone de soudage par refusion reflow soldering zone
zone de refroidissement cooling zone
vapeur de fluocarbone fluorocarbon vapour
entrée in
substrat reporté transferred substrate
ventilation ventilation
cuve en acier inox stainless steel tank
bobines de condensation condensation coils
surface de condensation surface of condensation
sortie substrat soudé welded substrate out
élément chauffant heating element
fluocarbone en ébullition bubbling fluorocarbon
batterie de condensation secondaire secondary condensation bank

batterie de condensation primaire primary condensation bank
zone de vapeur primaire primary vapour zone
substrat reporté transferred substrate
ascenseur elevator
batterie économiseur + sécurité economiser bank + backup
zone de vapeur secondaire secondary vapour zone
eau water
acides acids
sécheur dryer
épurateur purifier
liquide en ébullition bubbling liquid
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.18 : PLASTICS JOINING PROCESSES

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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 1
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
PLASTICS JOINING PROCESSES
CONTENTS

1.1. Reminder of basic plastics facts................................................................................... 3
1.2. Reminder of basic welding facts................................................................................... 3
1.3. Plastics welding ............................................................................................................ 3
2. THE VARIOUS PLASTICS AND THEIR WELDABILITY .................................................... 4
3. WELDING PROCESSES...................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Hot plate welding .......................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1. Principle ........................................................................................................................5
3.1.2. Welding conditions........................................................................................................6
3.2. Hot gas welding with an electrically-heated blowpipe.................................................. 6
3.2.1. Principle ........................................................................................................................6
3.2.2. Welding with a round nozzle blowpipe..........................................................................7
3.2.3. Welding with a high-speed nozzle blowpipe .................................................................7
3.3. Extruded bead welding ................................................................................................. 8
3.4. Resistance heating ....................................................................................................... 8
3.5. Resistive implant welding ............................................................................................. 9
3.6. Induction heating .......................................................................................................... 9
3.7. Ultrasonic welding ........................................................................................................ 9
3.8. Vibration welding .......................................................................................................... 9
4. JOINT PREPARATION ...................................................................................................... 10
5. WELD DEFECTS................................................................................................................ 11
5.1. Cracks......................................................................................................................... 11
5.2. Cavities ....................................................................................................................... 12
5.2.1. Porosity.......................................................................................................................12
5.2.2. Shrinkage cavities.......................................................................................................13
5.2.3. Bead end cavities .......................................................................................................13
5.3. Solid inclusions........................................................................................................... 14
5.4. Lack of fusion ............................................................................................................. 14
5.4.1. Cold shuts...................................................................................................................14
5.4.2. Lack of penetration and interpenetration ....................................................................15
5.5. Imperfect shape.......................................................................................................... 16
5.6. Sundry defects............................................................................................................ 18
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 2
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
6. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING......................................................................................... 18
6.1. Visual examination ..................................................................................................... 18
6.2. Dielectric test .............................................................................................................. 19
6.3. Radiographic examination.......................................................................................... 19
6.4. Ultrasonic examination ............................................................................................... 19
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 3
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
1.1. REMINDER OF BASIC PLASTICS FACTS

Plastic is organic matter formed by groups of atoms that can recur several dozen times to make very
long chains. Plastics are said to have a macromolecular structure.
These chains form a particular pattern of atoms mainly of Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) plus:
ª Oxygen O
ª Chlorine Cl
ª Nitrogen N
ª Fluorine F
ª Occasionally sulphur S and silicon Si.
In certain cases, there is just one group – this is referred to as a monomer. Sometimes this pattern
recurs several times. This is known as a polymer.
Occasionally an extraneous monomer can graft itself onto the chain. This is a copolymer.
The atoms are linked together by special bonds called covalent bonds. The nature of these bonds as
well as the atoms present produce different structures in space. The structure may be:
ª Linear,
ª Grafted,
ª Branched,
ª Network.
1.2. REMINDER OF BASIC WELDING FACTS

As a general rule, welding is a durable assembly process that produces a bond establishing continuity of
matter using a step-by-step method.
It can be seen that this definition that we tend to use for metallic materials can easily be applied to other
materials as long as the weld reproduces the matter in an identical (or very similar) way to the parent
material.
1.3. PLASTICS WELDING

Plastics welding always involves three key phases:
ª softening of the parent material and possibly the filler product by applying a welding temperature,
ª the actual joining, requiring the application of pressure to the softened material,
ª the resolidifying of the softened material(s) while maintaining the pressure.
The quality of the weld will depend on maximum molecule entanglement and minimum internal stress
created in the joint.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 4
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
2. THE VARIOUS PLASTICS AND THEIR WELDABILITY

The main plastics are as follows:
Main designation Additional designation

U-PVC – hard PVC
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) P-PVC – soft PVC
C-PVC – chlorinated PVC
HDPE – high-density polyethylene
Polyethylene (PE)
LDPE - low-density polyethylene
PP – H
Polypropylene (PP)
PP – B
PP - R
Polyvinyl fluoride PVF
Acrylonitrile- butadiene-styrene ABS
Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA
Reinforced fibreglass GFK
Composites
a) Hard PVC
Polyvinyl chlorides have been in use since the 1930s as thermoplastics that can be used in several
areas, particularly as tubes either for domestic purposes (drinking water) or for industrial plant in the
chemicals sector or for ventilation shafts. These plastics can easily be welded.
b ) Polyethylene and polypropylene

These now form the majority of plastics. Due to their molecular structure, they are difficult to glue but, on
the other hand, they are easily weldable.
c) PVF
PVF’s are thermoplastics with great resistance to heat and chemicals. They can easily be welded as
long as the right temperature (–60°C and 150°C) is used for best adhesion.
d ) ABS
The various types of ABS differ from one another by their good formability. This material is intrinsically
weldable, but it is better to glue it.
e) PMMA and AMMA

Applications are found for these plastics in the area of chemical engineering. They are practically
unweldable. On the other hand, they are highly adhesive.
f) GFK
GFK’s are unsaturated polyester resins or plastic-reinforced fibreglass. They are not weldable and are
joined by screwed sleeves.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 5
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
3. WELDING PROCESSES
3.1. HOT PLATE WELDING

3.1.1. Principle
The ends of the surfaces to be welded are plasticised by contact with a heating element (platen). The
platen is then removed and the workpieces are pressed together.
Welding follows the procedure described below:
a) Tube facing and positioning
The ends are planed straight.

The surfaces to be joined must be perfectly parallel
and the tubes suitably aligned.
b ) Equalising and heating

The ends are melted by contact with the platen.
Heating consists of two phases:
ª An equalising phase carried out under

pressure to ensure intimate contact with the
heating source and melt surface irregularities,
ª A heating phase carried out practically
without pressure. The heat penetrates by conduction, without displacement of the molten mass.
c) Retraction of the heating element
Retraction must be rapid to prevent the molten

surfaces from cooling down.
d ) Assembling and cooling
The workpieces are squeezed at almost zero speed

then the surfaces are joined with a regular increase
in pressure. The pressure value is held throughout
cooling.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 6
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
3.1.2. Welding conditions
To obtain a quality weld, it is essential to adapt the

welding parameters to the nature of the material and
the dimensions of the workpieces and to comply with
the various phases of welding represented in the
diagram of Pressure v. Time.
3.2. HOT GAS WELDING WITH AN ELECTRICALLY-HEATED BLOWPIPE

Hot gas welding with an electrically-heated blowpipe is a manual technique used to assemble semi-
finished products of quite diverse shape, ranging generally from 1 to 10 mm thick.
3.2.1. Principle
A flow of hot gas – generally air – blown by a special blowpipe converts the surfaces to be joined and the
end of the filler wire supplying the groove to the same plastic state.
Two gas welding techniques are possible depending on the type of nozzle used:
ª Gas welding with an electrically-heated, round nozzle blowpipe,

ª Gas welding with an electrically-heated, high-speed nozzle blowpipe.
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FORMATION 7
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3.2.2. Welding with a round nozzle blowpipe

The gas is heated with a round nozzle. The end of the
filler wire, applied at the start of the joint, is heated at
the same time as the parent material. The nozzle is
moved in the welding direction by making a pendular
motion in a vertical plane through the weld axis.
This slight swinging motion allows the hot air to
soften the parent and filler materials suitably.
Welding pressure is obtained by applying force
vertically on the stiff filler wire or with a wheel
device if soft filler is used.
The hot gas must be free from water, dust and oil.
Gas temperature must be set accurately on the
blowpipe. This is measured with a thermocouple
placed 5 mm inside the nozzle.
As a general rule, the temperature is set between 300 and 420°C depending on the nature of the
materials to be assembled.
The welding gas flowrate is set between 40 and 60 l/min; the flowrate is measured before the air
penetrates the welding apparatus.
The welder must use his/her practical experience to evaluate the optimum speed and pressure.
However, welding pressure may be determined by preliminary tests on a balance.
3.2.3. Welding with a high-speed nozzle blowpipe

The gas is heated with a high-speed nozzle that
channels the hot air into the groove. The filler wire is
heated directly inside this special nozzle, the tip of
which is designed to allow pressure to be applied to
the plasticised material.
As in the case of gas welding with a round nozzle
blowpipe, the temperature must be set accurately
according to the nature of the materials. It is
measured with a thermocouple placed 5 mm inside
the main orifice. The air flow is set between 40 and
60 l/min.
A high-speed nozzle makes plasticising easier and
produces a more regular welding pressure. The
pressure applied to the tip of the nozzle must be
adapted to the section of the filler wire; it is generally
30 to 40% higher than the pressure required for a
round nozzle.
Similarly, welding speed is three to four times higher at approximately 40 to 50 cm/min. High-speed
welding is always possible when joints are difficult to access.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 8
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
3.3. EXTRUDED BEAD WELDING

Extrusion welding is used for welding thick-walled
workpieces (tanks, boiler appliances, piping, etc.) or
for lap welding water shields.
A mini-extruder fed with pellets or wire plasticises the
filler material which is then deposited in the joint
preheated by a jet of hot air.
Welding pressure is exerted on a shoe whose profile
conditions the outer shape of the bead.
The edges of the parts to be joined are brought up to
welding temperature by the gas heated by the
blowpipe. The molten filler material (extrudate) oozing
continuously out of the extruder head is guided
between the edges to be welded by the shoe.
The expulsion of the filler material determines the
welding speed; the heating of the edges of the groove must therefore be adapted to this speed.
The hot gas must be free from water, dust and oil. The gas temperature must be able to be accurately
adjusted; it is generally between 250°C and 300°C. The gas flowrate is often higher than 300 l/min. It is
important for the filler material to be completely plasticised because an excessively high or low
temperature diminishes the intrinsic characteristics of the material.
If the temperature is too high, it can cause:
• abnormal fluidity leading to variations in the flowrate,

• burning or streaks of different colours particularly on starting,
• an orange peel effect, pitting or foaming.
If the temperature is too low, this can cause:
• insufficient stretch in the extrudate,

• a excessively matt extrudate.
The extrudate temperature must therefore be monitored; depending on the nature of the material, it is set
between 200 and 300°C.
Welding speed depends on the extruder flowrate and the volume of the groove to be filled. Welding
pressure is obtained by the expulsion of the softened material. The welder applies counter-pressure to
keep the shoe in contact with the edges of the groove. It must be long enough to maintain sufficient
pressure.
3.4. RESISTANCE HEATING

If the plastics conduct electricity, they can be spot or seam welded. This method is particularly well
suited to plastics welding because the structure of resistance welders enables them to manage
controlled loads very easily. Welding conditions can be optimised by carefully setting the welding current
intensity and time.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 9
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
3.5. RESISTIVE IMPLANT WELDING

An electric heating element is incorporated into the sleeve. The workpieces are joined cold and held in
position. Current then flows through the element for a preset time to melt the material.
The material in the vicinity of the
element starts to melt and the fused
zone spreads and dilates towards the
surface of the tube. Then the heat is
communicated to the wall of the tube
which begins to melt.
The molten material sets from the
cold zones surrounding the fused
zone. An additional injection of
energy results in an increase in the
welding pressure. This pressure –
due to the expansion of the molten
stock – reaches its peak at the end of
the energy intake cycle.
After welding, the joint should of course be kept immobile until it has completely cooled.
3.6. INDUCTION HEATING

This is a variant of the previous method. In this case, the plastic is not only heated by a Joule effect but
also by Eddy currents. An induction coil using high-frequency currents is integrated into an adapter.
3.7. ULTRASONIC WELDING

The principle of ultrasonic welding is similar to the one used for metals. Contrary to the ultrasonic
welding of metals, the sonotrodes move perpendicular to the weld. Frequencies of several tens of
megahertz are used. As these frequencies are commonly used in radio communications, only
frequencies authorised by the authorities must be used (27.12 MHz).
3.8. VIBRATION WELDING

The friction welding technique used for plastics consists of vibrating the two workpieces to be joined in
alternate directions. The welding temperature is reached at differential speeds of the order of 50 to
200 m/min.
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 10
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
4. JOINT PREPARATION
The joints are prepared in a similar way to the autogenous welding of metals. The following types of joint
are particularly encountered:
a) Single-V joints
b ) T joint
c) Double-V joints
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 11
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
5. WELD DEFECTS
French standard A 89 800 describes the defects encountered in welded thermoplastic joints, classifying
them per type of defect, although it does not specify the welding processes that could cause them.
Six groups are identified:
1. Cracks
2. Cavities
3. Solid inclusions
4. Lack of fusion
5. Imperfect shapes
6. Sundry defects
This standard only covers defects that result in material discontinuities or changes in shape.
The origins or causes of defects are not mentioned, but each defect is characterised by its type, shape
and position in the joint.
5.1. CRACKS
Cracks may occur:
• in the weld,
• in the heat affected zone,
• at the end of the bead,
• in the parent material.
Various forms of cracking are found:
• microcracks,
• longitudinal or transverse cracks,
• radiating cracks (i.e. a group of cracks originating from a single point),
• disconnected cracks or grouped cracks in any particular arrangement,
• branching cracks (a series of cracks joined together in a tree pattern).
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FORMATION 12
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Likely causes of cracking

Cracks can be caused directly by:
• excessive elongation of a weld bead deposited by an electrically-heated gas blowpipe or an

extruder,
• quick, uneven cooling,
• unequally distributed stresses during welding.
• a thermal shock.
Furthermore, in an aggressive environment, the appearance of cracks is linked to the presence of
internal tension caused by the welding or forming operation. This type of damage is known as stress
cracking.
5.2. CAVITIES
Cavities are voids or hollows in the plastic.
This family of defects includes:
• porosity,
• shrinkage cavities,
• bead end cavities.
5.2.1. Porosity
These defects appear in a variety of forms such as blowholes, elongated cavities or wormholes, and may
be distributed in a uniform, localised or linear manner.
Small surface-breaking pores are referred to as pitting.
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Likely causes of porosity

Porosity is a number of gas cavities formed during the welding operation. It can be caused by:
• the presence of humidity, water, solvent or oil,

• an excessively high welding temperature (material degradation),
• semi-finished products already containing cavities,
• stock contaminated by chemicals.
5.2.2. Shrinkage cavities
They can be found on the surface of the bead or inside

the softened part or parts.
Likely causes of shrinkage cavities

Shrinkage cavities are caused by the shrinkage of the plasticised material on solidifying.
Shrinkage cavities can be encountered where the welding process requires a high degree of plasticising,
as in the case of hot plate or extrusion welding. The main causes are:
• cooling rate too fast,

• joining pressure too low,
• cooling and pressure holding time too short.
5.2.3. Bead end cavities
As their name indicates, they are found

where the weld bead ends and/or restarts.
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Likely causes of bead end cavities

In the case of gas welding with an electric blowpipe and extrusion welding, they are due to incorrect
scraping of the bead end. Moreover, poor filler wire or rod preparation or incorrect application of the
material can also cause these defects.
5.3. SOLID INCLUSIONS

Solid inclusions are foreign matter entrapped in the weld such as burnt stock, chips, fabric, glass fibres,
sand, earth, etc.
Likely causes of solid inclusions

The presence of solid inclusions in the weld points to:
• a lack of basic precautions during the welding operation,

• insufficient weld zone protection against its immediate environment,
• failure to clean the surfaces to be joined or the welding equipment,
• an excessively high welding temperature (burning).
5.4. LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion can be encountered:
• between runs,
• at the root of the weld,
• on the side walls.
5.4.1. Cold shuts

In the various cases where there is no interstice, we shall refer to this lack of fusion by the term "cold
shut" which splits into two types:
ª cold shut with molecular diffusion,

ª cold shut without molecular diffusion.
A cold shut with diffusion is when molecular interdiffusion does occur after interface wetting but is
inadequate.
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On the other hand, in a cold shut without molecular diffusion, there is only intimate contact between the
materials.
Likely causes of cold shuts

Cold shuts are due to:
• surfaces unsuited to welding such as a lack of scraping of the filler wire and/or the surfaces
to be joined,
• incorrect welding parameters such as:
- stock temperature too high or too low,
- welding pressure too high or too low,
- welding speed too high.
For the welding process involving resistive implants and electrofusion fittings, cold shuts can also be
caused by:
• out-of-tolerance workpiece dimensions and geometry,

• incorrect tube and/or sleeve setup.
5.4.2. Lack of penetration and interpenetration
If this lack of bonding of the welded

edges leaves an interstice (gap or
space) between the edges, this is
referred to as a lack of penetration or a
lack of interpenetration.
Moreover, a localised inter-run
interstice is called a lack of fusion.
Likely causes of a lack of penetration or interpenetration

These defects are interstices that reveal the origin of the preparation.
a) Lack of penetration
A lack of penetration is essentially due to poor fitting of the welded workpieces or inadequate
preparation. With welding processes using a filler material, such a lack of penetration can be caused by:
• insufficient groove edge spacing,

• poor groove edge preparation,
• a filler wire with too large a diameter being used for the root pass,
• the welding forces being too low,
• the welding temperature being too low.
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b ) Lack of interpenetration
A lack of interpenetration is an inter-run interstice. It has the same causes as a lack of penetration but
can also be due to:
• a failure to scrape the side seams between runs,

• inter-run scraping causing a deep, narrow furrow.
5.5. IMPERFECT SHAPE

This describes a situation where the geometry of the outer surface fails to conform to the correct profile.
It includes:
ª undercuts,
ª excess weld material, convexities and excessive penetrations,
ª overlaps,
ª incompletely filled grooves,
ª weld toe defects,
ª irregular widths and surfaces,
ª linear and angular misalignment,
ª defective symmetry,
ª lap defects.
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FORMATION 17
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The shape of the bead is important; it must create a regular flow of the loads to be transmitted. Any
imperfect shape will create local concentrations of harmful stress.
Likely causes of imperfect shape

a) Undercuts
Undercuts are furrows extending along the edges of a weld bead due to a lack of material. The undercut
is said to be “intermittent” where the defect is localised.
They are mainly caused,
ª in welding processes using a filler material, by:

• imprints by the edge of the high-speed nozzle or the edges of the extruder shoe,
• insufficient welding on the edges leading also to a lack of material,
• inadequate overlapping of the various passes;
ª in the resistive implant welding process, by failing to insert the tube sufficiently into the fitting or
by heating an excessive length of tube.
b ) Excess weld material, excessive convexities and defective symmetry

These defects are caused:
ª in gas welding with an electrically-heated blowpipe, by an excessive number of passes or poor

distribution of the layers of deposited material;
ª in extrusion welding by:
• poor extruder shoe configuration,
• insufficient or poorly distributed welding load;
ª in hot-plate welding by:
• incorrect welding parameters,
• too great a difference in the melt flow of the materials being joined,
• poor fitting of the workpieces;
ª in resistive implant welding by:
• incorrect welding parameters,
• out-of-tolerance workpiece dimensions and geometry,
• a lack of edge preparation.
c) Incompletely filled grooves

When gas welding with an electrically-heated blowpipe, these defects are encountered when filling is
inadequate.
In extrusion welding, incompletely filled grooves can be caused by:
• significant shrinkage of the filler material,

• excessive welding speed,
• poor extruder shoe configuration.
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d ) Linear and angular misalignment

Irrespective of the welding process, linear or angular misalignment results from the incorrect fitting of the
workpieces being joined due either to poor preparation or to a machine fault.
5.6. SUNDRY DEFECTS

These are defects that do not fall into groups 1 to 5.
They include:
ª heat damage,
ª mechanical damage,
ª dimensional errors.
This damage can affect three zones:
ª the parent material,

ª the heat affected zone,
ª the weld.
Likely causes of sundry faults

a) Heat damage
Surface deterioration resulting from the accidental action of a heat source. It can be caused by the hot
parts of the equipment used (hot gas, nozzle, shoe, heating elements, electric cable, etc.).
b ) Mechanical damage
Local blemishes to the parent material due to an impact, scraping or incorrect grinding or milling.
6. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
These tests are used to check the quality of the manufacture without destroying the products. There are
numerous, complementary tests.
6.1. VISUAL EXAMINATION

Informs the welder or operator about the appearance of the weld and its presumed quality.
This inspection can reveal:
ª imperfect shape,
ª lack of fusion and/or penetration,
ª porosity or surface-breaking cavities,
ª cracks visible on the surface,
ª sundry defects visible from the examined surfaces.
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6.2. DIELECTRIC TEST

The principle of the test consists of subjecting the thermoplastic welded joint to high AC or DC voltage. If
there is the slightest leakage, and therefore an interstice, a spark is ignited to reveal the defect. This test
is used to detect leakages.
Certain precautions must however be taken, particularly the use of a detailed equipment calibration
procedure.
6.3. RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

This is done using X-ray equipment with accelerating voltages of 20 to 40 kV.
The X-ray technique is particularly suitable for detecting volume defects.
6.4. ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION

This is done with 2 MHz longitudinal wave probes.
The ultrasonic technique is particularly suitable for detecting plane and volume defects.
On the other hand, the workpiece must have a minimum thickness to avoid having to use special probes.
It should also be remembered that plastics cause rapid damping of the ultrasonic signal.
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§ 3.1.1.
raccord fitting
douille mâle male socket
douille femelle female socket
tube tube
§ 3.1.2
pression pressure
Phase d’égalisation Equalising phase
Phase de chauffage Heating phase
Escamotage Retraction
Phase de soudage Welding phase
Phase de refroidissement Cooling phase
temps time
T0 equalising time (flash height)
T1 heating time
T2 retraction time
T3 Time to rise to P1
T4 cooling time
P1 welding and equalising pressure
P2 heating pressure
§ 3.2.1
gaz chaud hot gas

élément électrique chauffant electric heating element
gaz de soudage welding gas
§ 3.2.2
Produit d’apport Filler material

Pression Pressure
Air chaud Hot air
Buse ronde Round nozzle
Appareil de soudage Welding apparatus
Balancement Swinging
Sens de soudage Welding direction
Vague de proue Bow wave
Repli Lap
Soudure Weld
§ 3.2.3
Fil d’apport Filler wire

Air chaud Hot air
Appareil de soudage Welding apparatus
Buse Nozzle
Pression Pressure
Sens de soudage Welding direction
Repli Lap
Soudure Weld
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 21
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§ 3.3
Goulotte… Pellet hopper or wire coil

Alimentation en air Air supply
Dévidoir Wire feeder
Appareil à gaz chaud Hot gas apparatus
Mini-extrudeuse Mini-extruder
Patin de soudage Welding shoe
§ 3.5
Cosse électrique Terminal lug

Corps en polyéthylène Polyethylene body
Butée (pour petits diamètres) Stop (for small diameters)
Enroulement électrique Electric winding
Limite de la zone de matière en fusion Limit of the fusion area
§4
surfaces grattées scraped surfaces

recouvrement 3 mm lap 3 mm
joint en T T joint
g… g = overrun used to guide the welding shoe
§ 5.1
Fissure longitudinale Longitudinal crack

Fissure rayonnante Radiating crack
Fissure ramifiée Branching crack
Fissure marbrée Disconnected crack
§ 5.2.1
Soufflure sphéroidale Blowhole

Soufflures alignées ou en chapelet Linear porosity
Nid de soufflures Localised porosity
Soufflures uniformément réparties Uniformly distributed porosity
§ 5.4.1
Manque de fusion entre passes Lack of inter-run fusion

Manque de fusion à la racine Lack of root fusion
Manque de fusion latéral… Lack of sidewall fusion affecting the edges to be
welded
§ 5.4.2
Manque de fusion Lack of fusion

Manque de pénétration Lack of penetration
Manque d’interpénétration Lack of interpenetration
§ 5.5
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JOINING PLASTICS
FORMATION 22
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Caniveaux Undercuts
Surépaisseur Excess weld material
Manque d’épaisseur Incompletely filled groove
Défaut de raccordement Weld toe defect
Défaut d’alignement Linear misalignment
Défaut de symétrie Defective symmetry
Défaut de reprise Lap defect
Pénétration excessive Excessive penetration
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 1.19 : JOINING PROCESSES FOR ADVANCED MATERIALS

PP FPT 0396 A rev 0
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FORMATION JOINING PROCESSES FOR ADVANCE MATERIALS

1
PROFESSIONNELLE
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JOINING PROCESSES FOR ADVANCE MATERIALS
CONTENTS
1. WELDINGADHESIVE BONDING......................................................................................... 2
2. DEFINTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 2
3. ADHESIVES AND ADHESIVES COMPONENTS ............................................................... 4
4. ADHESIVE BONDING OF METALS.................................................................................... 6

4.1. Construction suitable for joining by adhesive bonding................................................. 8
4.2. Technology of adhesive bonding................................................................................ 10
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1. WELDINGADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive bonding and adhesive bonding of metals in particular has become more important for industrial
applications in the last years. Adhesive bonding of metals cannot replace welding and soldering but it
can be used as an additional joining process or where due to material or manufacturing specific reasons
other joining processes (e.g. frictional or form-fit connections) cannot be used. The use of adhesive
bonding is recommended if the manufacturing and cost specific conditions are met.
Advantages and disadvantages of adhesive bonding
Advantages
1. uniform distribution of stresses perpendicular to the load direction

2. no thermal influences on the material structure
3. joining of different material combinations is possible
4. very thin parts (e.g. foils) can be joined
5. weight reduction, lightweight construction
6. high oscillation decay
Disadvantages
1. influence of the duration of adhesive bonding on the manufacturing process

2. thorough surface penetration of the parts being joined
3. limited thermal stability of shape
4. ageing characteristics of the adhesive layers
5. low peel and creep strength
6. limited repair possibilities
7. extensive calculation of strength
8. compensation of the low strength of the adhesive layer only by increase of the area of the joining
surfaces
2. DEFINTIONS
The definition necessary for the description of adhesive bonding can be found in DIN 16 920
- Adhesive bonding
- Adhesive
- Bonding surface
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- Bonding grove
- Adhesive layer
- Curing
1 = strength of the material of the part being joined

2 = ond strength of the metal surface layer (e.g.
corrosion layer on the base material)
3 = strength of the surface metal layer
4 = bonding strength between the metal surface and
the adhesive layer
Build-up of an adhesive bond
Fracture mode of adhesive bonds

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3. ADHESIVES AND ADHESIVES COMPONENTS
Classification of adhesives
Adhesive components:
- dissolvent
- dispersion medium
- binder medium
- curing medium
- accelerator
- softener
- filling material
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Dependence of the adhesive strength on the curing medium part of adhesives
Use of adhesives (A-B method (NO-Mix))

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6
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Dependence of the bonding strength on the component parts of epoxy resin

Adhesives (polyaddition reactions)
Schematic view of current conduction in conducting adhesive layers
4. ADHESIVE BONDING OF METALS

The selection of the adhesives and their bonding strength depends on the characteristics of the materials
and the surface layers of the part to be joined. Several parameters influence the characteristics od
adhesive layera:
• Surface layers
- Impurities
- Adsorption layer
- Interface layer
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• Geometric structure
- Geometric surface
- True surface (micro-surface 10-15 times larger)
- Active surface
- Surface structure
- Surface roughness
Dependence of the bonding strength on the surface roughness
Deformation of the adhesive layer of parts

to be Joined with different strength (shifting
plus deformation of a part to be joined)
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Dependence of the bonding strength of overlapped adhesive bonds of

different aluminium alloys
Influence on the strength of adhesive bonds on metals
4.1. CONSTRUCTION SUITABLE FOR JOINING BY ADHESIVE BONDING
Three important conditions have be met for the design of metal-to metal bonded joints
- sufficient area of bonding surfaces

- avoidance of stress peaks
- no gap load (rigid parts to be joined)
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Avoidance of peel loads

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Stress modes of adhesive bonds
Comparison of favourable and unfavourable adhesive – corner joints
4.2. TECHNOLOGY OF ADHESIVE BONDING
The quality of adhesive bonds is influenced by:

- adhesion
- cohesion
The manufacturing process can be divided into two parts:

- surface treatment of the parts to be joined and application of adhesive
- curing (parameters: temperature, time and pressure )
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11
PROFESSIONNELLE
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Surface treatment of adhesive bonds

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 1.20 : PRACTICAL WORK
• Effect of different essential variables in welding

• Identification of inspection and diagnostic tools used according
to different welding and cutting processes
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IWT Course
FORMATION Part 2
PROFESSIONNELLE date :
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0
INTERNATIONAL WELDING TECHNOLOGIST
MODULE 2: MATERIALS AND THEIR BEHAVIOUR

DURING WELDING
(Modules 2.1 to 2.26)

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IWT Course
FORMATION Part 2
PROFESSIONNELLE date :
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0
CONTENTS
2.1.to 2.6.– BASES OF GENERAL METALLURGY
2.7.– BASES OF WELDING METALLURGY
2.8.to 2.15.– WELDABILITY OF STEELS
2.16.– INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION
2.17.– INTRODUCTION TO WEAR PROTECTIVE LAYERS
2.18. – PROTECTIVE COATINGS
2.19.– CREEP RESISTANT AND HEAT RESISTANT STEELS
2.20.– WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS AND CAST STEELS
2.21.– COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
2.22.– NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS
2.23.– ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
2.24.– WELDING OF NON-FERROUS METALS AND NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
2.25. – DISSIMILAR METAL JOINING
2.26.– METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 2.1-2.6 : BASES OF GENERAL METALLURGY

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FORMATION BASES OF GENERAL 1

METALLURGY
PROFESSIONNELLE PP FPT 0350A rév .0 date : 03/2001
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BASES OF GENERAL METALLURGY
CONTENTS
1- ELABORATION OF STEELS
1.1 – Conversion of iron ore into cast iron

1.2 – Conversion of cast iron into basic steel
1.3 – Conversion of scrap iron into special steels
1.4 – Casting of steels
1.5 – Rolling of steels
1.6 – Defects
2– CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGNATION OF STEELS
3– STRUCTURE OF METALS
3.1 – Introduction
3.2 – Crystalline structure
3.3 – Micrographic structure
3.4 – Macrographic structure
4– MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
4.1 – Notion of ductile behaviour

4.2 – Notion of brittle behaviour
4.3 – Mechanical testing
5– STUDY OF CARBON-IRON ALLOYS
5.1 – Introduction to steels and cast irons

5.2 – Transformations of iron
5.3 – Constitution of iron-carbon alloys in the state of equilibrium
6- HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
6.1 – Introduction
6.2 – Consequences of heating and maintaining at temperature
6.3 – Transformations of austenite on cooling
6.4 – Principal heat treatments
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1. – ELABORATION OF STEELS
1.1 – Conversion of iron ore into cast iron
Iron ore consists of a mixture of iron oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4) and a sort of earth called gangue
(containing for example SiO2, MnO, P2O5, CaO).
In the first instance, the iron must be separated from the oxygen and the gangue. This operation
takes place in a type of oven known as a "blast furnace", which contains the following products :
– iron ore,
– coke which contains carbon (C), and a small amount of sulphur (S) impurity,
– blown air, i.e. a mixture consisting of about 80 % nitrogen (N2) and almost 20% oxygen (O2),
– possibly some flux, consisting for example of Ca0 and SiO2.
Heating of the blast furnace is achieved by combustion of the coke in blown air.
At high temperature, the iron oxide is reduced (or de-oxidised) by chemical reactions of the
type: C + 1/2 O2 → CO
BLAST FURNACE
Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2
SEPARATION BY:
FeO + C0 → Fe + C02
- Thermo-chemical reactions
- Decantation of the liquids formed
This results in fusion of the iron and gangue

(facilitated by the flux) whilst the gases (CO,
CO2, N2) escape from the top of the blast ore
furnace. +
coke
The molten iron (mixed with carbon and other +
elements) is known as cast iron. The molten (flux)
gangue is known as slag. The slag is
separated from the cast iron by decantation FORCED AIR
and each is collected from a different level at
the base of the blast furnace. SLAG
LIQUID IRON
(95% iron + residue)
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Cast iron contains approximately 94 % iron. The other elements contained (about 6%) come
from the conversion products, most frequently:
– between 3 and 4% carbon (C),

– between 0.5 and 2.5% silicon (Si),
– between 1 and 2% manganese (Mn),
– between 0.1 and 2% phosphorus (P),
– around 0.05% sulphur (S),
– traces of oxygen (O),
– traces of nitrogen (N).
1.2 – Conversion of cast iron into basic steel
Secondly, the carbon content and other undesirable elements must be reduced (particularly P,
S, O, N) from the cast iron to convert it into steel. This operation is performed in a refractory
vessel called a converter (which converts the cast iron into steel) in which the following principal
products react together:
– the molten cast iron,
– oxygen,
– quicklime (CaO),
– a little aluminium.
The molten iron and aluminium are loaded into the converter whilst the oxygen and powdered
quicklime are blown into the molten metal via a nozzle. This results in a loss of carbon and other
undesirable elements from the molten iron through the following chemical reactions:
C + O2 → CO2
O2 + Si → SiO2
Ca + S → CaS
Al + N → AlN
The CO2 gas (rich in carbon) escapes from the top of the converter. The other elements form
clinkers (consisting of MnO, SiO2, P2O3, CaS, MnS, Al2O3, AlN, etc...) which float on top of the
molten metal, and are removed.
The remaining molten metal is referred to as "basic steel".

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Basic steels are ferrous alloys which contain approximately:
– between 0.05 and 1.5% carbon,

– between 0.3 and 1.5% manganese,
– between 0 and 0.5% silicon,
– less than 0.05% phosphorus,
– less than 0.05% sulphur,
– traces of oxygen,
–traces of nitrogen.
CONVERTER
CAST IRON
CLINKERS CONVENTIONAL
STEELS
( + heat)
1.3 – Conversion of scrap iron into special steels
Another type of elaboration is used for converting recyclable steels, known as scrap iron, into
steels which are better elaborated than basic steels: special steels.
The scrap is mixed with the conversion products in electric ovens, then heated to temperatures
which may sometimes be greater than 1800°C. Certain ovens operate under vacuum in order to
reduce the impurity content.
For this type of elaboration, the conversion products are as follows :
– oxygen from the scrap (in the form of oxide),

– CaO,
– a small amount of aluminium,
– alloying elements.
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Under the chemical reactions already described, the reduction of the scrap, together with other
reactions between the elements present, lead to the manufacture of a special steel in the molten
state (and clinkers which are removed).
The special steels thus elaborated have carbon, manganese, and silicon contents close to those
of basic steels, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus contents lower than in basic steels,
and are often alloyed to other elements such as chrome, molybdenum, nickel.
OVEN
SCRAP
+ ADDITIVES
POSSIBLY + VACUUM
ELECTRIC
HEATING
CLINKERS
SPECIAL STEELS
(Better elaboration)
1.4 – Casting of steels
Casting in ingot moulds

The steel can then be cast into ingot moulds, stripped, reheated, then rolled into slabs
(rectangular section slabs which can then be rolled into sheet), or blooms (square section
blocks which can be extruded into sections).
Continuous casting
Continuous casting, which is more up to date, consists in combining the casting and rolling of
the product into a single operation. A continuous cast is made, directly followed by high-
temperature rolling of the steel immediately after solidification.
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1.5 – Rolling of steels
Flat products (plate, sheet, foil,...) are produced by rolling of slabs which pass through a
continuous rolling train.
Long products (rails, girders, bar, round bar and various sections) are produced by forming
blooms.
FABRICATION DES DEMI-PRODUITS

SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS
CASTING
COULEEINTO
INGOT-MOULDS
EN LINGOTIERE
STRIPPING
DEMOUL AGE REHEATING
RECHAUFFAGE
LAMINAGE
ROLLING BRAME
SLAB
OUBLOOM
OR BLOOM
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MANUFACTURE
FABRICATION OF SEMI-PRODUCTS
DES DEMI-PRODUITS
COULEE CONTINUE
CONTINUOUS CASTING
REFROIDISSEMENT
COOLING
TRONCONNAGE
SECTIONING
BRAME OUBLOOM
SLAB OR BLOOM
EXTRACTION
EXTRACTION
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ROLLINGDES
LAMINAGE OFTOLES
SHEETETAND FOIL
FEUILLARD
SLAB
BRAME
REHEATING
RECHAUFFAGE
ROLLER
TRAIN TRAIN
DE LAMINAGE
SHEET
TOLES FOIL
FEUILLARDS LAMINAGE
ROLLING OFDES PROFILES
SECTIONS
BLOOM REHEATING
RECHAUFFAGE
TRAIN A PROFILES
SECTION
PROFILES
SECTIONS
RAILS
POUTRELLES
GIRDERS
BARRES...etc
BAR etc...
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1.6 – Defects
1.6.1 – Defects in ingots
Shrink hole : Defect which corresponds to a "hollow" which forms in the final solidification zone
of an ingot (top centre of the ingot). This "hollow" results from a lack of material at the end of the
solidification process, since the metal shrinks and loses volume as it solidifies.
Continuous casting avoids this problem, as the solidification process is uninterrupted and there
is therefore no end of solidification zone.
Major segregation : Major accumulation of carbon, impurities (O, N, S, P) and sometimes of

the alloying elements in the final solidification zone.
Continuous casting also avoids this type of defect.
Cracks or fissures : Linear cleavage in the metal which appears in the form of two separate
planes.
Blow-hole : Gas bubble (CO, CO2, H2, N2) trapped within the ingot during solidification.
Non-metallic inclusions : Sulphides (MnS, FeS), oxides (FeO, MnO, SiO2, Al2O3), silicates
(silicon-based chemicals), aluminates
(aluminium-based chemicals) trapped INGOTDES
DEFAUTS DEFECTS
LINGOTS
within the metal.
SHRINK
POCHE HOLEDE RETASSURE
1.6.2 – Rolled product defects = lack of metal de
= manque at the end of
métal
solidification
en fin de solidification.
Laps : Inclusions, (or blow-holes,
shrink-holes, cracks or fissures)
crushed and spread during rolling,
CRACKS
TAPURES OR
OU FISSURES
FISSURES
generating a discontinuity in the
thickness of the sheet, as if locally the
sheet consisted of a stack of several
laminates of metal.
MAJOR SEGREGATION
SEGREGATION MAJEURE
== accumulation
rassemblements of carbon, alloying
du carborne,
elements and impurities
des éléments (S, P) at the
et des impurtés
Remarks: end of solidification
(S,P) en fin de solidification.
If the metal exhibits severe segregation BLOW-HOLES

SOUFFLURES==GAS BUBBLES
BULLES DE GAZ
or many inclusions, rolling causes: trapped during solidification
emprisonnées avant solidification.
(CO2, H2, N2)
– spreading of the major segregation INCLUSIONS (sulphides, oxides, silicates, aluminates)

(sulfures,oxydes,silicales,aluminates)
zone, which then extends to the
centre of the sheet, in the form of a
continuous layer, often rich in undesirable elements,
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– elongation of the deformable inclusions (e.g. DEFECTSDES

DEFAUTS IN ROLLED PRODUCTS
PRODUITS LAMINES
MnS) which results in lengthways
"lamination" of the steel, this reduces its
resistance to loads applied to the thickness
(short-transverse direction).
2. – CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGNATION OF

STEELS
From 1st January 1997, steels have been Crushed

Soufflure, ou retassure,
blow-hole or
classified and designated in accordance with shrink-hole,
ou fissure, ou tapure or
or fissure,
European standards: crack,
ecraséebutmais
not rewelded
non
during rolling.
resoudée au
– NF EN 10020 (June 1989) for the Laminage.
classification of steels,
– NF EN 10027-1 (November 1992) and IC10 Major segregation
Segrégation majeure
(February 1993) for the alpha-numerical accumulated in the
rassemblée en milieu
designation of steels. middle of the material.
d'epaisseur.
Steels are classified either according to their
chemical composition, or according to their
properties. INCLUSIONS
For the designation of steels, we shall consider three families in relation to their composition :
– non-alloyed steels,
– alloyed steels whose content of each alloying element is less than 5 %,
– alloyed steels whose content of one or more alloying element is at least equal to 5 %.
For each of these families, we shall define the type of steel which it contains, and compare the
European designations applicable from 01/97 (NF EN) in relation to the previous French
designations (NF) with a few examples.
2.1 – Non-alloyed steels
Steels (non-alloyed and alloyed) have a carbon content which may attain 2 % (beyond that limit,
are the cast irons).
Steels are considered as non-alloyed if their content of other additive elements is reduced, as
indicated by the table below which is an extract from standard NF EN 10020.
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Table 1 – Limit content between alloyed and non-alloyed steels
Specified element Content limit as

% by weight
Al Aluminium ----------------------------------------------- 0.10
B Boron ---------------------------------------------------- 0.0008

Bi Bismuth -------------------------------------------------- 0.10
Co Cobalt 0.10
Cr Chrome (1)---------------------------------------------- 0.30
Cu Copper (1) ---------------------------------------------- 0.40
La Lanthanides (taken individually) ------------------- 0.05
Mn Manganese --------------------------------------------- 1.65 (3)
Mo Molybdenum (1) --------------------------------------- 0.08
Nb Niobium (2) --------------------------------------------- 0.06
Ni Nickel (1) ------------------------------------------------ 0.30
Pb Lead ---------------------------------------------------- 0.40
Se Selenium ------------------------------------------------ 0.10
Si Silicon 0.50
Te Tellurium ------------------------------------------------ 0.10
Ti Titanium (2) --------------------------------------------- 0.05
V Vanadium (2) ------------------------------------------- 0.10
W Tungsten ------------------------------------------------ 0.10
Zr Zirconium (2) ------------------------------------------- 0.05
Others (except carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen)

taken individually ----------------------------------------------- 0.05
(1) If these elements are specified in groups of two, three or four in the steel
concerned, with contents to be considered (see paragraph 4.1) less than those
indicated in the table, the content limit to be taken for classification is equal to 70%
of the sum of the content limits indicated for each of the two, three or four elements
present.
(2) Rule (1) also applies to these elements.
(3) If the Mn content is specified as a maximum only, the limit value is 1.80.
These steels are designated either with respect to their operating properties, or with respect to
their carbon content.
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Construction steels are designated as follows :
Current NF EN Previous NF
G1
J.R 2
G2
S 235 J.O E 24 3
G3
J.2 4
G4
S = construction steel
235 = yield stress in N/mm²
(Impact test breaking energy)
JR 27 Joules minimum at 20 °C 2
JO 27 Joules minimum at 0 °C 3
J2 27 Joules minimum at - 20 °C 4
G1 = effervescent (*)
G2 = non effervescent (*)
G3 = normalised (*)
G4 = delivery condition as specified by the
manufacturer (*)
(*) The significance of the numbers is

applicable only to steels covered by a
given standard. In this case NF EN 10025.
Remark : G before the first letter of the

designation = moulded product
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A few more examples of equivalence :
Previous NF Current NF EN
E. 36-2 S 355.JR
S 355.JO
E. 36-3 G3
S 355.J2
G4
G3
E. 36-4 S 355.J2
G4
3 JO or J2
4 K2 = breaking energy =
40 joules min. at –20°C
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Steels intended for pressure vessels are designated as follows :
CP
P 265 GH A 42 AP
FP
P = steel for pressure vessels* A 42 = steel whose breaking stress =

42 kgf/mm²
265 = yield stress in N/mm² C = steel for high temperature work

(KCV impact strength guaranteed at
20°C)
G = guaranteed impact strength
A = steel for ambient temperature work
H = high-temperature resistance – 20°C)
F = steel for low temperature work

– 40°C)
P = steel for pressure vessels
Remark : Certain lightly alloyed steels are also designated according to their use and
their properties.
Heat-treated (quenched and tempered) steels are designated as follows:
C 25 XC 25
C = steel for quenching and tempering XC = steel for quenching and tempering
25 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.25 %C) 25 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.25 %C)
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2.2 – Alloyed steels whose content of each element is less than 5 %
These steels are designated as lightly-alloyed steels in accordance with the previous French
standards. Their content of at least one alloying element is greater than the conventional limit
established for non-alloyed steels.
These steels are designated in relation to their chemical composition.
10 Cr Mo 9-10 10 CD 9-10
10 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.10 %) 10 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.10 %)
Cr = chemical symbol for chrome C = chemical symbol for chrome
Mo = chemical symbol for molybdenum D = chemical symbol for molybdenum
9 = % chrome x 4 (i.e. 2.25 %Cr) 9 = % chrome x 4 (i.e. 2.25 %Cr)
10 = % molybdenum x 10 (i.e. 1 % Mo) 10 = % molybdenum x 10 (i.e. 1 % Mo)

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The chemical and metallurgical symbols of the principal alloying elements for steels are
summarised below:
ELEMENT CHEMICAL METALLURGICAL

SYMBOL SYMBOL
Aluminium Al A
Nitrogen N Az
Beryllium Be inexistent
Boron B B
Cerium Ce inexistent
Chrome Cr C
Cobalt Co K
Copper Cu U
Manganese Mn M
Molybdenum Mo D
Nickel Ni N
Niobium Nb Nb
Phosphorus P inexistent
Lead Pb Pb
Silicon Si S
Sulphur S F
Tantalum Ta inexistent
Titanium Ti T
Tungsten W W
Vanadium V V
Zirconium Zr inexistent
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The multiplying factors for the alloying elements in the « lightly » alloyed steels are as follows
according to European standard NF EN 10027-1 :
Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Si, W x4
Al, Be, Cu, Mo, Nb, Pb, Ta, Ti, V, Zr x 10
Ce, N, P, S x 100
B x 1000
2.3 – Alloyed steels whose content of one or more alloying elements is at least
equal to 5 %
Under the previous French standards, these alloys are referred to as strongly alloyed. They are
designated in relation to their chemical composition.
X6 Cr Ni Ti 18 - 10 Z6 C N T 18 - 10
X = Steel where at least one alloying Z = strongly alloyed steel (at least
element attains a content of 5 % one element attains a content of 5 %)
6 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.06 %) 6 = % carbon x 100 (i.e. 0.06 %)
Cr = chemical symbol for chrome C = chemical symbol for chrome
Ni = chemical symbol for nickel N = chemical symbol for nickel
Ti = chemical symbol for titanium T = chemical symbol for titanium
18 = % chrome 18 = % chrome
10 = % nickel 10 = % nickel
Remarks :
– These steels are designated according to their actual content of alloying elements (without
any multiplying factor apart from carbon).
– In the chosen example, the titanium content is not indicated, as it is very low (≤ 0.70).
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3. – STRUCTURE OF METALS
3.1 - Introduction
The in-service properties of metals (pure or alloyed) are directly related to the internal layout of
the material.
This internal layout results from the organisation of the elements present (iron, carbon,
manganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, chrome, etc...), it is called the STRUCTURE.
The structure of metals is habitually characterised via three examination scales:
– the CRYSTALLINE structure or arrangement of the atoms, which are the smallest particles
representative of a chemical element. The scale of this structure is of the order of
0.0000001 mm, it constitutes a single-point view of the material.
– the MICROGRAPHIC or granular structure which is visible using a microscope, whose scale
is normally of the order of 0.001 mm,
this corresponds to a local view of the STRUCTURE
material,
– the MACROGRAPHIC structure or

overall layout which is observable
with the naked eye or a magnifying
glass (scale of the order of 1 mm),
which corresponds to an overall view structure
overall or
of the material. d'ensemble
macrographic
structure
ou macrographique
These three structural scales are
intimately linked, because the
macrographic structure is the result of
the micrographic structure, which is in
turn the consequence of the crystalline structure
granular or
structure. micrographic
granulaire
structure
ou micrographique
3.2 – Crystalline structure
3.2.1 – Lattice and link
In solid metals, the atoms are distributed

regularly in stable well-ordered crystalline
positions. This results in a kind of virtual structure
scaffolding, whose nodes correspond to structure
the locations of the atoms. This regular cristalline
stacking of the atoms is called the
crystalline LATTICE.
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The geometric figure formed by adjacent atoms and which repeats throughout the entire
crystalline lattice is called the UNIT CELL.
CRYSTALLINE
RÉSEAU CRISTALLINLATTICE
Links, and therefore lattices, may adopt various

configurations: Seven different crystalline systems
have been identified. The type of crystalline system
depends on the nature of the metal and sometimes
on the temperature, this is the first reason why the
structure of all metals is not the same (which also
explains their differences in properties). Among the
seven link types which exist, we shall restrict our
discussion to the cubic system, which is applicable
to the most commonly encountered metals.
MAILLE
LINK
cubique
cubic centré
centred
cubic with faces centred

cubique à faces centrées
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CRYSTALLINE TYPES
VARIETES CRISTALLINES In the cubic system, where the atoms in the
link are located in the corners of a virtual
Temperature
Température (°C)
(°C) cube, one must distinguish between:
C.C
– the cubic body centred system (CBC) in
1538 θf which the link in addition to the corner atoms,
δ
FER has a central atom. This is the system in
IRON
δ chrome, molybdenum and tungsten,
1394 A4
– the cubic face centred (CFC) system in
C.F.C which the link does not have a central atom,
γ
FER
IRON
but an atom is located in the centre of each
γ
face. This is the system in aluminium, nickel,
copper, lead, silver, gold and platinum.
912 A3
Certain metals exhibit a different crystalline
α
IRON system according to temperature.
FER
C.C
α This phenomenon applies to iron. Up to
Ambient temp. 912°C iron is cubic body centred, between
Ambiante 912 and 1394°C it is cubic face centred,
then, up to melting temperature, it reverts to
cubic body centred.
It is said that iron exhibits two conversions in the solid state when it is heated (or when it is
cooled).
3.2.2 – Thermal agitation and consequences
In a crystalline lattice, the position occupied by each atom is not entirely fixed, because it
vibrates.
This vibration begins as soon as the temperature rises above absolute zero (-273°C).
As the temperature rises, the amplitude of the motion of the atoms increases. This results in:
– an increase in volume of the material, called thermal expansion,
– also a reduction in the crystalline strength, this is the reason why hot metals are easier to
form than cold metals.
Thermal agitation of the atoms also leads to certain of them leaving their position in the lattice,
to jump into another position where an atom was missing (the locations where an atom is
missing are very frequent in metals, and are called "vacancies"). This displacement of atoms is
given the name DIFFUSION. It is said that iron exhibits two transformations in the solid state
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when it is heated (or when it is cooled). The result of this is that the atoms move around within
the solid metal. Diffusion occurs all the more readily as temperature rises, and the displacement
of the atoms is all the greater if the metal is held at that temperature for an extended period.
Finally, if the temperature rises sufficiently, the agitation becomes so severe that the atoms can
no longer remain regularly positioned, the crystalline lattice then breaks up and the metal
changes to the liquid state.
AGITATION THERMIQUE
THERMAL AGITATION
VACANCY
LACUNE
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DIFFUSION
3.3 – Micrographic structure
3.3.1 - Notion of grains
Consider the example of solidification. This begins with the closing together of a few atoms,
which form a link. Then more atoms join up around this link to form a crystalline lattice.
This phenomenon occurs at the same instant in many different places within the liquid.
Each of these different places is a site where an identical crystalline lattice develops, but where
the spatial orientation is entirely random.
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At the end of solidification, the solid metal is therefore built-up of an accumulation of identical
crystalline lattices but which have different orientations.
These differently orientated lattices constitute small blocks of material which are called
GRAINS, or sometimes crystals. In other words, each grain consists of a regular arrangement of
atoms having the same orientation, but whose orientation is different from the adjacent grains.
The grains are touching, but are separated from each other by the grain boundaries. The grain
boundaries correspond to a very irregular stacking of atoms which provide the link between the
crystalline lattices of the adjacent grains which have different orientations.
Apart from solidification, the other metallurgical phenomena which generate grains are as
follows :
– conversion of the crystalline system due to heating or cooling (refer to the case of iron and
steel),
– recrystallisation by heat treatment after work hardening (to be covered later).
3.3.2 – Shape and orientation of the grains
The growth of solidification grains occurs along the cooling directions (directions of heat flow).
If the heat flows identically in all directions at the same time, then the grains develop in equal
proportions in all directions at the same time (the grains are said to be "equiaxial").
If however, the heat flows preferentially in one particular direction, then the grain growth also
occurs along that direction, which results in long grains (known as "basaltic" grains).
Compared with equiaxial grains, basaltic grains provide the material with different properties
according to the direction of loading, in other words according to whether the grains are loaded
longitudinally or transversally.
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GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

GRAINS ET JOINT DE GRAINS
CONSTRUCTION OF GRAINS
CONSTRUCTION DES GRAINS
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EQUIAXIAL
GRAINS GRAINS
EQUIAXES
G R A IN SBASALTIC
BASA GRAINS
L T IQ U E S
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3.3.3 – Relationship between grain size and mechanical properties
The smaller the grain size, the better the mechanical properties of metals (tensile strength,
impact resistance,...).
Exceptions to this rule are rare, only creep resistance (high-temperature tensile strength)
improves as grain size increases.
3.4 - Macrographic structure
The macrographic structure provides information, in particular regarding any chemical

composition and/or structural heterogeneity which may be present in the part.
3.4.1 – In the base metal
Originally, any product, whether flat, sectional, round, is cast. The solidified metal is hot formed
and possibly cold formed in order to achieve the final product.
This forming process results in a greater or lesser alignment of the material constituents in the
direction of distortion of the metal.
DENDRITE DE SOLIDIFICATION
SOLIDIFICATION DENDRITE
These alignments correspond to the FIBRE STRUCTURE of
the material. The result of this is that the mechanical properties
vary according to the "direction" in the product (lengthways,
transverse, short transverse direction).
3.4.2 – In a welded joint
We shall see that a welded part can be split into three

structural zones of possibly different composition, called:
– parent metal,
– heat affected zone zone,
– weld metal.
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MACROGRAPHIC
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
MACROGRAPHIQUE
Moulded
Moulé
forgé
Forged
Fibre structure
fibrage
usiné dansfrom
Machined unethick
tôlesheet
épaisse
material
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MACROGRAPHIC STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE MACROGRAPHIQUE
ZONEHEAT AFFECTED
AFFECTEES ZONE
THERMIQUEMENT
FUSION
ZONES LINE
DE LIAISON
ZONE
WELDFONDUE
METAL
UNAFFECTED
METAL
PARENT
DE BASE
NON AFFECTE
METAL
4. – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
4.1 - Notion of ductile behaviour
4.1.1 – Elastic deformation
If a moderate tensile force is applied to a metal, its atoms move apart and therefore the metal
deforms, in the direction of the force. As soon as the force is released, the atoms revert to their
initial position.
This behaviour is termed ELASTIC, the reversible deformation which takes place is proportional
to the magnitude of the force applied.
Similar behaviour is observable with other types of loading (bending, torsion, compression...).
4.1.2 – Plastic deformation
The capacity for elastic deformation of a metal is limited. The term "elastic limit" is used to
specify the stress which generates the maximum elastic strain which the metal can withstand.
If the metal is subjected to a stress higher than its elastic limit, the atoms begin to slide in whole
layers in the direction of the applied load.
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The result of this is an irreversible deformation, called PLASTIC DEFORMATION, which is

superimposed on the elastic deformation already obtained.
When the load is released, the elastic reversion occurs, but the plastic deformation remains. It is
this plastic behaviour which enables metals to be formed by bending, stamping, forging, rolling
etc...
Remark : ELASTIC DEFORMATION

DEFORMATION ELASTIQUE
This sliding of atoms is only possible in the

planes of high atomic density in the crystalline
lattice (sliding planes). The planes where the
atoms are tightly packed together slide over one
another in the same way as flat plates slide one
over another. This sliding is therefore all the
easier if the crystalline structure includes many
high atomic density planes, which is the case of
the cubic face centred system. This is the reason
why metals which crystallise in the cubic face
centred system are more deformable than those
which crystallise in the cubic body centred
system.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
DEFORMATION PLASTIQUE
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DIRECTIONS
ATOMIC ATOMIQUES
PLANES
direction
Direction of de density
low atomic
faible densité atomique
Direction
direction of
de
high
forteatomic
densité
density
atomique
4.1.3 – Ductile fracture
As for elastic deformation, the capacity of metals for plastic deformation is limited. If the stress
exerted reaches an ultimate limit, the plastic deformation results in a continuous thinning of the
part until its local fracture occurs.
This reduction in section resulting in fracture, starts at the surface of the part, but also occurs
within the material from internal defects such as inclusions.
The fracture is said to be DUCTILE if it is the consequence of plastic deformation only.
Ductile fracture is identified by visual examination mainly by observation of the deformation of

the metal in the fracture zone and a dull appearance of the fracture surface.
4.1.4 – Work hardening
Following plastic deformation, the metal is in the WORK HARDENED condition.
Its structure is modified because the grains and the crystalline lattice are deformed. Its
properties are also changed: the tensile strength and hardness increase whereas the impact
strength reduces.
Work hardening is determined by the rate of plastic deformation of the metal (rate of
deformation measured after elastic release).
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4.1.5 - Recrystallisation
The heating of a work hardened material causes a change in its structure and properties.
The temperature rise results in an increase in the thermal agitation. The resulting diffusion
enables the atoms to re-establish a normal crystalline lattice, free from the stacking defects
caused by work hardening. A new granular structure is obtained, which eradicates the initial
work hardening.
The term RECRYSTALLISATION is used to describe the formation of these new grains (or new
crystals) by heat treatment of a material initially in the work hardened condition.
Two main conditions must be satisfied in order to achieve recrystallisation:
– the initial material must be sufficiently work hardened (beyond what is termed the "critical"
rate of work hardening, which is generally of the order of a few percent of plastic
deformation),
– the temperature applied is high enough (of the order of at least half of the melting
temperature).
Recrystallisation naturally has the reverse effect of work hardening on the properties: the tensile
strength and hardness decrease, whilst the impact strength increases.
WORK HARDENING - RECRYSTALLISATION
ECROUISSAGE - RECRISTALLISATION
déformation mécanique
COLD MECHANICAL à froid
DEFORMATION
glissement
sliding Re
écrouissage
work hardening A%
réchauffage
REHEATING
recristallisation
recrystallisation Re
A%
chauffage à HIGH
HEATING TO température élevée
TEMPERATURE
surchauffe
overheating
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4.2 - Notion of brittle behaviour
4.2.1 – Reminder of elastic deformation (identical to 4.1.1)
If a moderate tensile force is applied to a metal, its atoms move apart and therefore the metal
deforms, in the direction of the force. As soon as the force is released, the atoms revert to their
initial position.
This behaviour is termed ELASTIC, the reversible deformation which takes place is proportional
to the magnitude of the force applied.
Similar behaviour is observable with other types of loading (bending, torsion, compression...).
4.2.2 – Brittle fracture
When the load reaches the elastic limit of the metal, i.e. when the elastic deformation reaches a
maximum, fracture may occur suddenly without any plastic deformation.
This behaviour is termed BRITTLE (for example the behaviour of glass at ambient temperature).
It is considered DANGEROUS due to the risk of sudden unpredictable failure which it
represents.
In this case, the fracture results from decohesion of the crystalline lattice in the planes of low
atomic density, where the cohesion between the atoms is weaker due to their distance apart.
This decohesion is only possible in the planes of low atomic density. These atomic planes are
found, for example, in the cubic body centred system, however they are absent in the cubic face
centred system. In other words, metals which exhibit a cubic face centred system are not
subject to brittle fracture, whereas metals which exhibit a cubic body centred system are.
Brittle fractures pass through the crystalline lattice. They cut through the metal grains without
deforming them : this is described by the term CLEAVAGE. The resulting fractures exhibit shiny
facets which are the cleaved grains, together with an absence of deformation of the metal.
In certain very special cases, the fracture may also follow the grain boundaries, still without
metal deformation.
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BRITTLE
RUPTUREFRACTURE
FRAGILE
4.2.3 – Brittle factors
Metals exhibiting cubic face centred systems have high atomic density planes but no low atomic
density planes. Consequently their mechanical behaviour is always ductile.
Cubic body centred system metals exhibit both high atomic density and low atomic density
planes. Consequently, their mechanical behaviour may be either ductile, or brittle, or a
combination of both. Several factors may encourage brittle behaviour:
– large grain size,

– low temperature,
– impact loading (sudden load application),
– notch effects (sharp edge, pointed groove,...).
On the other hand, ductile behaviour of cubic body centred metals is enhanced by small grain
size, high temperature, static loading, and by a geometry free from sudden changes in section.
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type of
type delattice
maille (cc)
metallurgical
facteurs liaisons chimiques
chemical entre atomes
bonds between atoms
factors
métallurgiques taille des grains
large grain size élevée
effet solution
solid de solution solide
effect
BRITTLE
COMPORTEMENT thermal
facteur
BEHAVIOUR low temperature
basse température
FRAGILE factors
thermique
mechanical impact
effet deeffect
choc
facteurs
factors notch effect
effet d'entaille
mécaniques
great thickness
forte épaisseur
4.3 – Mechanical testing
4.3.1 - Introduction
Mechanical tests are the method for evaluating the properties of a material which are likely to be
involved in the in-service behaviour of a part or a structure. Mechanical tests are most often
destructive.
We have seen that the behaviour of a part with respect to breaking strength (ductile, brittle)
depends on the following three factors:
– the material (crystalline structure, grain size),

– the shape of the part (with or without notch effects),
– in-service conditions (type of loading, temperature).
In order to take these different factors into account, there are several categories of test,
intended to simulate the behaviour of a part by the implementation of well-defined testing
conditions.
Quite obviously, there are not as many types of test as there are possible situations. This
means that the results from one type of test may not necessarily be directly applicable to
determine the in-service behaviour of a structure. In such case, the test results are essentially
used in order to detect any material defects.
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4.3.2 – Tensile test
Purpose
The tensile test is intended to determine the resistance to elastic and plastic deformation of a
material when subjected to a tensile load. This test is conducted under conditions which favour
ductile behaviour (conditions under which the minimum deformation strength is measured).
Test conditions
Materials: this test is applicable to all materials.
Test-specimen : the tensile test-specimen is cylindrical or prismatic in shape and has a

smooth surface finish, free from any notches. It has a calibrated section whose length is
conventionally set at 5.65 section (in order to always measure the % elongation, which we
shall examine later). A head is formed at each end for attachment to the tensile testing machine.
The test-specimen must be prepared in accordance with the specified direction and position
within the material (this information is provided in the standard for the product to be tested).
Test method : a suitable equipment is used to :
– induce slow deformation of the test-specimen until its final fracture,

– with possible application of a specified temperature to the test-specimen during the test,
– measurement of the load applied in relation to the deformation of the metal,
– plot a graph showing the tensile force applied and the resulting elongation of the test-
specimen. This graph is known as the tensile test diagram.
TENSILE TEST-SPECIMEN
EPROUVETTE DE TRACTION
r
do
Ra
lo=5.65 S0
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TENSILE TEST
ESSAI DE TRACTION
F ESSAI DE TRACTION
TENSILE TEST
L
Déformation élastique
Elastic deformation
Lo
Effort <<limite
Force d'élasticité
elastic limit
déformation
elastic élastique
deformation
réversible
reversible
Plastic deformation
Déformation plastique
Lo
Force
Effort >> limite
elastic limit
d'élasticité
elastic deformation
déformation élastique permanent plastic
déformation deformation
plastique permanente
SLIDING
GLISSEMENTS
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Results
Interpretation of the tensile test graph provides :
– the elastic limit in N/mm², (Re or Rp0.2)

– the tensile strength in N/mm², (Rm)
Dimensional measurement of the broken test-specimen provides :
– the percentage elongation after failure : A % = [(Lu-Lo)/Lo] x 100
where Lu = ultimate length measured after failure, in mm,

Lo = initial length before the test, in mm.
COURBE TEST
TENSILE DE TRACTION
GRAPH
F/S0
Rm
Re
A%
avec limitethe
showing apparente d'elasticité
elastic limit (yield point)
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COURBETEST
TENSILE DE TRACTION
GRAPH
F/S0
Rm
Rp 0,2°
A%
sans
with nolimite apparente
apparent d'elasticité
elastic limit
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– possibly the percentage necking at the fracture position, which is called striction :
Z % = [(So-Su)/So] x 100
where : So = initial cross-sectional area of the calibrated section, in mm²,

Su = minimum cross-sectional area after fracture, in mm².
Application of results
The results of the tensile test can be used to check that the material properties are at least
equal to those specified by the product standard, in particular:
– a minimum elastic limit and tensile strength (at least equal to the values considered for the
design of the apparatus, in order to avoid its plastic deformation or failure in-service under
the effect of tensile loads),
– a minimum elongation (for checking the deformability of the material, and therefore its
ductility).
Caution, tensile strength reduces with temperature. The tensile test must therefore always be
performed at the maximum in-service temperature of the part. This ensures that the elastic limit
and the tensile strength measured, are the lowest for the material, in relation to the operating
conditions.
4.3.3 –
Notch impact toughness test
(or « impact » test) IMPACT TEST
EPROUVETTES D'ESSAI DE
FLEXION PAR CHOC
TEST-PIECE
Purpose
The Notch impact toughness

test bending shock-test 45°
(previously known as the impact
test) is intended to determine the
brittle fracture strength. To do
10 x 10
KV (joules)
this, it applies conditions which KCV (joules/cm²)
favour brittle behaviour.
55
Test conditions
Materials : this test is

applicable only to materials
which are subject to brittle
10 x 10
behaviour (cubic body centred

5
KU (joules)
materials in particular) KCU (joules/cm²)
55
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Test-specimen : the impact test-specimen is a 10 x

10 mm section parallelepiped of length 55 mm. It has a
V- (or sometimes U-shaped) notch at mid-length. ESSAI DEIMPACT TEST
FLECTION PAR CHOC
The test-specimen must be prepared in accordance with

the specified direction and position within the material
(this information is provided in the standard for the
product to be tested).
Under certain circumstances, it is also possible to use

test-specimens less than 10 mm thick.
Test method : a suitable test apparatus is used to :
– apply a specified temperature to the test-specimen at

the moment of the test,
– to violently impact the test-specimen level with the
notch
– to measure the energy absorbed by the fracture.
Results
The fracture energy is determined at a temperature specified by the standard applicable to the
product, on the basis of the average of three identical tests. Three test specimens are always
required, as the energy measured may vary considerably with temperature.
Most often, the fracture energy is expressed in Joules (or kilojoules) and is referred to the test
temperature and to the shape of the notch used (example: 50 J at 0°C measured using V-
notched test-specimens). Sometimes, the fracture energy is divided by the cross-section of the
test-specimen at the notch, which provides impact strength in J/cm² (or kJ/cm²).
The energy required to fracture the test-specimen is all the higher if the material exhibits ductile
behaviour, and is lower if it exhibits brittle behaviour.
The result of the impact test is used to check whether the material satisfies the minimum
fracture energy at a given temperature, as specified in the standard for the product.
Remark : Contrary to the tensile test, the result of the impact test cannot be used directly in
order to determine the resistance to brittle failure of a part manufactured from the material
tested. In particular, the geometry of the part may increase the risk of brittle failure in relation to
the test conditions. The brittle fracture strength of a part is evaluated through standards or
codes which define the level of impact strength to be specified for the material, according to the
situation, on an individual basis.
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IMPACT STRENGTH – TEMPERATURE GRAPH

COURBE RESILIENCE - TEMPERATURE
résilience
impact strength
température
temperature
température
transition
temperature
de transition
4.3.4 – Bend test
Purpose
The bend test is intended to determine the capacity of a material for plastic deformation, and
therefore to check its ductility.
The advantage of this test is also its ease of use.

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Test conditions
Materials : this test is applicable to all materials.
Test-specimen : the bend test-specimen is parallelepiped-shaped and has a smooth surface

finish, free from notches.
The test-specimen must be prepared in accordance with the specified direction and position
within the material.
Test method : a suitable machine is used to slowly bend the material in accordance with a
previously-specified bend radius and angle. This test is habitually conducted at ambient
temperature.
BENDDE
ESSAI TEST
PLIAGE
D+2e Mini.
α
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Results
The test-specimen must not fracture due to bending.
After bending, the stretched face of the test-specimen must not be cracked.
The bend test simply checks that the material satisfies the minimum requirement for plastic
deformation.
4.3.5 – Hardness testing
Purpose
Hardness tests are used to determine the resistance to deformation of the material. They
consist in several conventional test methods, the result of which provides a reference value
which is dependent on the method.
The hardness tests most commonly used are:
– Vickers,
– Brinell,
– Rockwell.
Contrary to the mechanical tests already described, hardness tests may be non-destructive.
Test conditions
Materials : this test is applicable to all materials.
Test-specimen : the hardness test-specimen is the part itself, whose surface may be
polished to a greater or lesser degree.
Test method : an appropriate test machine is used to:
– locate a hard body (penetrator) in contact with the material,

– apply a given force to the penetrator,
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– measure the indentation in the part generated by the penetrator, in order to determine the
hardness value.
The differences between the test methods are the result of:
– the shape of the penetrator (pointed or spherical),

– the magnitude of the force and the cycle performed,
– the measurement of the indentation caused by the penetrator (measurement of the size of
the imprint made on the surface, or measurement of the depth of penetration in the material).
DURETE VICKERS
VICKERS HARDNESS
F
136°
Ground
Surfaceorrectifiée
polished
ou polie surface
1
d
d
2
Hvf = 0.189 F/d²

proportionnelle à F/S
proportional to
d1 + d2
d=
2
Results
The values obtained according to the test method are used to classify the materials: a low
hardness value (e.g. 50 Vickers) indicates a deformable material (soft and ductile) whereas a
high hardness value (e.g. 500 Vickers) indicates low deformability (hard and often brittle).
The use of a spherical penetrator in conjunction with a high load (Brinell method) is used for
measuring the average hardness of the material (on a macrographic scale).
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Use of a pointed penetrator with a moderate force (Vickers method) is used for measuring the
local hardness of the material (on a micrographic scale).
The conventional nature of the tests does not allow the results of a hardness test to be used in
order to determine the mechanical strength of a part.
The hardness test is simply used to classify a material with respect to deformation resistance.
It can also be used to detect any tendency to brittleness for materials subject to brittle
behaviour, if they exhibit a high degree of hardness.
4.3.6 – Particularities of mechanical tests conducted on welded joints
As has already been mentioned, and we shall see in more detail later, a welded part can be split
into several zones having different structures and possibly different chemical compositions,
these are called:
– the parent metal(PM),

– the heat affected zone(HAZ),
– the weld metal (WM).
In other words, a welded part is particularly heterogeneous, both with respect to its structure
and in relation to its mechanical properties. Under such conditions, the mechanical tests are
useful to highlight:
– whether the properties in the HAZ and WM zones are at least equal to those in the base
metal,
– the particular properties in the HAZ or WM zones.
Moreover, the tensile and bending tests in particular are used to detect any compacting defects
in the weld tested, since:
– failure of the tensile test-specimen is more likely in the vicinity of such defects,
– bending favours crack initiation from such defects.
We shall now look at the specific implementation of conventional mechanical testing to welded
joints.
Tensile test on welded joints
This test may be conducted in two ways :

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– on a test-specimen taken transversely to the weld in which one finds all the zones specific to
a welded joint (PM, HAZ, WM), this is case No. 1,
– on a test-specimen taken longitudinally in WM only (case No. 2),
In case No. 1 (the most common), the test is intended to check that the welded joint does not
fracture in the parent metal(outside HAZ and WM), this indicates whether the tensile strength in
zones HAZ and WM is at least equal to that in the base metal.
In case No. 2, the test is intended to determine the tensile characteristics of the weld metal
(elastic limit, tensile strength, percent elongation).
ESSAI DE TRACTION
TENSILE TEST
Rupture métalfracture
Base metal de base
F F
Rm weld
Rm > Rm> base
soudure metal de base
Rm métal
Rupture
Weld soudure
fracture
F F
Rm weld
soudure
< Rm< base
Rm métal
metal de base
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Shock bend test (or impact test) on a welded joint
The impact test is naturally located according to the position of the notch in the test-specimen.
This results in two test methods for welded joints :
– for test-specimens notched in the HAZ, in order to measure the fracture energy in the HAZ,
– for test-specimens notched in the WM, in order to measure the fracture energy in the WM.
LOCATION OF IMPACT
PRELEVEMENT DES
TEST-SPECIMENS
EPROUVETTES DE RESILIENCE
centre-line
axe
Z.F
ZAT
in the
dans weld metal
le métal
fondu
Z.F
ZL
ZAT
dans in
la the HAZ
Z.A.T.
Bend test on welded joints
Bend tests on welded joints are conducted using test-specimens taken transversely or
longitudinally to the welds, containing zones PM, HAZ and WM.
Three methods of the transverse bend test are employed:
– root bending (the uppermost face of the weld is loaded),

– reverse bending (the root side of the weld is loaded),
– side bending (the weld is loaded throughout its section).
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Two longitudinal bend test methods are used :
–bending (the uppermost face of the weld is loaded),

– reverse side bending (the reverse side of the weld is loaded).
BEND
ESSAI DE TEST
PLIAGE
D
D
a
L3
L
a
L Test-piece for transverse bend

Eprouvette pour essai de pliagetest (face or
transversal root)ou envers)
(endroit
about250
environ 250
a<30
35
Test-piecepour
for essai
longitudinal bend test (face or root) Test-piece for side bending test
Eprouvette de pliage longitudinal (endroit ou envers) Eprouvette pour essai de pliage de coté
about 250
environ 250
about
environ 250
250
10
10
10
thickness of the
Epaisseur de
a < 10
welded joint
l'assemblage
Hardness testing on welded joints
Hardness testing on welded joints is performed using the Vickers method, on a transverse
section through the weld.
The measurements are taken locally (using a moderate force) which enables the hardness
heterogeneity to be finely characterised in the different zones of the welded joint.
The hardness test thus performed is appended to and supplements the micrographic
examination of the weld, in order to check for any abnormally hard or abnormally soft
constituents in the welded zone.
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HARDNESS
ESSAI TEST
DE DURETE
Exemple d'emplacement
Typical location des
of hardness
empreintes de dureté.
test imprints
MF
ZAT
MB
Recherche de la
Search fordureté:
:
- maximum hardness
-maximale
- minimum hardness
-minimale
5. – STUDY OF CARBON-IRON ALLOYS
5.1 - Introduction to steels and cast irons
The term steel is used to describe iron-carbon alloys whose carbon content is less than
approximately 2 % by weight (always with a few additive elements present).
Beyond this carbon content, ferrous alloys are called cast irons, because they have a lower
melting point which favours casting operations.
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A study of the metallurgical behaviour of steels (and cast irons) involves examining the
behaviour of iron and of iron-carbon alloys.
5.2 - Transformations of iron
Iron exhibits several types of structure according to its temperature.
At normal pressure, the crystalline structure of iron is as follows :
– cubic body centred up to 912°C (iron

CRYSTALLINE TYPES
VARIETES CRISTALLINES
structure known as "alpha"),
– cubic face centred from 912°C to 1394°C
(iron structure known as "gamma"), Temperature
Température (°C)
(°C)
– cubic body centred from 1394°C to 1538°C
(iron structure known as "delta"). C.C
From 1538°C, iron changes to the liquid 1538 θf

δ
FER
state and no longer has any established IRON
δ
crystalline structure. 1394 A4
5.3 - Constitution of iron-carbon alloys in γ

FER C.F.C
the state of equilibrium IRON
γ
5.3.1 – Definition of the state of

equilibrium 912 A3
The constitution of an alloy, i.e. the type of

crystalline structure in an alloy depends FER
α C.C
essentially on its chemical composition and α
IRON
its temperature.
Ambient temp.
Ambiante
For a given composition and temperature,
the state of equilibrium is achieved when the
constitution is stable and does not change
with respect to time.
If the temperature changes, the constitution may vary. In such case, the state of equilibrium is
achieved for very slow temperature changes in order to allow diffusion to achieve "free
arrangement" of the atoms within the material.
The equilibrium diagram describes this constitution.

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5.3.2 - Reactions between iron and carbon
When carbon is mixed with iron, the carbon, whose atoms are relatively small, take up position
between the iron atoms which are larger. It is said that carbon is soluble in iron. The resulting
material is termed a « solid solution », i.e. it is a mixture of different atoms, cohabiting in the
same crystalline lattice (the iron lattice in this case). The solid solution may accept more or less
carbon according to the space available in the lattice.
Consider the different iron-carbon solid solution possibilities according to the variety of iron.
ALPHA FERRITE: Alpha ferrite is the solid solution of carbon in alpha iron. The carbon is very
slightly soluble (it contains a maximum of 0.02% C) because there is little space available for
the carbon within the cubic body centred lattice.
AUSTENITE : Austenite is the solid solution of carbon in gamma iron (it can dissolve up to
about 2 % carbon) as there is more space available for the carbon in the cubic face centred
lattice of gamma iron than in the cubic body centred lattice of alpha iron.
DELTA FERRITE: Delta ferrite is the solid solution of carbon in delta iron (cubic body centred
iron at high temperature). Carbon is very slightly more soluble in it than in alpha ferrite due to
the temperature (the maximum solubility limit of carbon in delta ferrite is approximately 0.08%).
If the carbon content exceeds the solubility limit in ferrite or austenite, then the excess carbon
forms iron carbide in accordance with the following reaction :
3 Fe + C → Fe3C
Iron carbide, Fe3C, is called CEMENTITE. Like all carbides, it is a particularly hard and brittle
constituent. Cementite is not a solid solution, it is a "chemically defined compound" (its chemical
composition is determined and invariable).
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FERRITE
fer
iron(CC)
(CBC)++carbone = Ferrite
carbon = ferrite
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AUSTENITE
fer (CFC)
iron + carbone
(CFC) + carbon= =austénite
austenite
CEMENTITE
3 Fe + C = Fe3C
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5.3.3 - Notion of phase
In metallurgical terms, a solid solution or a chemically defined compound (also called a defined
compound) corresponds to what is called a PHASE.
For example, alpha ferrite may also be called "alpha phase".
5.3.4 – Iron-carbon phase-diagram
Significance of the phase-diagram
We have seen that iron-carbon alloys may consist of different phases: alpha ferrite, austenite,
delta ferrite, cementite.
The iron-carbon phase diagram is a "graph" which shows which phases are present in the state
of equilibrium, according to:
– the chemical composition (carbon content expressed by weight),
– the temperature (on which the iron variety depends).
Observation of this diagram shows that according to the composition and the temperature, iron-
carbon alloys consist of one or two phases.
°C Fe-CDIAGRAMME Fe-C
PHASE DIAGRAM
1538
Liquid
Liquide(L)
(L)
γ +L
L Fe3C
γ
γ + Fe3C Fe3C
α+γ
727
α + Fe3C
α
%C
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Reading the diagram
Consider a 0.2% C alloy. Tracing a vertical line at 0.2% C, it is possible to read off the
constitution of the alloy according to temperature, for example :
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– at 20°C, the alloy consists of ferrite and cementite,

– at 750°C, it consists of ferrite and austenite,
– at 1000 °C, it consists only of austenite,
– at 1520°C, it is totally liquid.
This reading of the diagram is known as vertical reading.
The diagram may also be read horizontally. For example, consider the constitution of iron-
carbon alloys at 800°C. If a horizontal line is drawn at 800°C, one can see that :
– a 0.05% C alloy consists of ferrite,

– a 0.2% C alloy consists of ferrite and austenite,
– a 0.6% C alloy consists of austenite,
– a 1.2% C alloy consists of austenite and cementite,
– a 6.7% C alloy consists entirely of cementite.
6. – HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
6.1 - Introduction
Heat treatment is most often split into three stages :
– heating,
– maintaining at temperature (possibly),
– cooling.
Each of these stages generates particular metallurgical effects which we shall now examine in
detail.
6.2 – Consequences of heating and maintaining at temperature
6.2.1 - Austenitising
When a steel (which we shall consider as an iron-carbon alloy with a carbon content of less than
2 %) is heated, its initial structure transforms into austenite at a given temperature (see the iron-
carbon phase-diagram). Most often the following sequence applies :
ferrite + cementite ferrite + austenite austenite

(temperature)
(A1) (A3)
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The transformation from steel into austenite is called AUSTENITISING. Partial austenitising
occurs at a temperature known as "A1", total austenitising occurs at a temperature known as
"A3".
During the transformation into austenite, the grain size decreases. In other words, the size of
the austenite grains formed is smaller than the initial grains in the structure of the steel. This
effect is generally sought during the initial heat treatment of parent metals in order to be able to
benefit from the properties provided by fine grain size.
6.2.2 – Overheating
If a steel is heated to a very high temperature for long enough (e.g. more than 5 seconds above
1100°C) the grains grow. This is termed OVERHEATING.
This phenomenon is the result of the activity of atoms under the effect of temperature and time.
In fact the atoms diffuse towards their best equilibrium position: their displacements are
determined by the need to improve the organisation of the crystalline lattice by reducing the
number of grain boundaries which are the seat of atom stacking defects.
The grain growth due to overheating is proportional to the temperature level achieved and the
time of exposure to that temperature.
The larger the grain size, the greater the deterioration in mechanical properties of the material.
θ
REGENERATION DES
REGENERATION OF STEELS
ACIERS(transformable)
(transformables)
θs
( 1100°C)
Austénite
Austenite
A3
( 850°C)
ARBITRARY
ETAT INITIAL
INITIAL STATE
QUELCONQUE
régénération surchauffe
regeneration overheating
R,H temps
time
K
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6.3 - Transformations of austenite on cooling
6.3.1 – Case of slow cooling (annealing)
Consider for example a 0.2% C steel. The iron-carbon phase diagram indicates that this steel
consists of ferrite and cementite at ambient temperature, under equilibrium conditions. In other
words, the austenite in this steel transforms on cooling to ferrite (poor in carbon) and to
cementite (rich in carbon)
This transformation requires a very moderate rate of cooling for the carbon in the austenite to
have time to diffuse and form zones very poor in carbon which transform into ferrite and other
zones richer in carbon which transform into cementite. The equilibrium state is therefore
achieved.
6.3.2 – Rapid cooling (quenching)
Again consider a 0.2% C.
If cooling is very rapid, the carbon has no time to diffuse. In other words, the iron and the carbon
still remain uniformly distributed throughout the austenite.
Under these conditions :
– ferrite cannot form, since the carbon content in the austenite is everywhere greater than can
be contained in ferrite,
– cementite cannot form because the carbon content in the austenite is everywhere insufficient
in order to achieve the composition of cementite (cementite contains 6.7% C by weight).
TRAITEMENTS
HEAT TREATMENTTHERMIQUES
OF STEELS DES ACIERS
θ Austenite
Austénite
annealing or normalisation
recuit ou normalisation
AC3
( 850°C)
trempe
quenching Ar' 1A F
2A F+C
Ar" A F+C
ms A M
ferrite
martensite bainite (F+C) perlite (F+C)

martensite bainite (F+C) pearlite (F+C) t
sec Sec min
min hoursheure
H,R K
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The austenite must nevertheless transform on cooling, since there is no equilibrium state at
ambient temperature for a non-alloyed steel (see the iron-carbon phase-diagram). This results
in a "disordered" solid solution called MARTENSITE, where iron and carbon have no choice but
to cohabit in an abnormal proportion mixture.
Martensite is an unstable constituent out of equilibrium (see heating effects). The forced
cohabitation of iron and carbon results in severe stresses. Martensite is hard and particularly
BRITTLE, all the more so as its carbon content is high.
6.3.3 – Martensite transformation factors
Martensite forms all the more easily if :
– the rate of cooling after austenitising is rapid,
– the carbon content is high (as this prevents the formation of ferrite during cooling),
– the content of alloying elements is high (as the foreign atoms also hinder the diffusion of
carbon required to form ferrite).
The term QUENCHABILITY, is used to describe the capacity or aptitude of a steel to form
martensite. Quenchability is dependent on the chemical composition.
6.3.4 – Case of heating after quenching (tempering)
After martensitic quenching, a steel heated to below its austenitising temperature undergoes a
phenomenon called TEMPERING. Under the effect of temperature, the diffusion increases and
the atoms can then return to their stable equilibrium position. The "segregation" of the iron and
carbon, which could not take place during quenching occurs during tempering. The result is a
gradual transformation of the martensite into ferrite and cementite.
TEMPERING
REVENU DESOF STEELS
ACIERS
θ
Austenite
Austénite
AC3
AC1
( 750°C)
quenching
trempe
sur-revenu
over-tempering
tempering
revenu
tempering 600°C)
revenu( M F+C
martensite
martensite tempered martensite
martensite revenu
t
H,R K
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6.4 – Principal heat treatments
6.4.1 - Annealing
The purpose of annealing is to obtain a structural state of the material as close as possible to
the stable equilibrium state described by the equilibrium diagram.
In steels, annealing results in a soft state which avoids the formation of hard martensite. It is
achieved by performing austenitising followed by slow cooling.
The essential parameters for oven annealing are as follows :
– the austenitising temperature (generally Ac3 + 50°C for steels),
– the austenitising time (this must be sufficient for the part to reach the desired temperature
throughout its thickness),
– the oven cooling rate (or the part cooling rate), possibly the temperature for removal from the
oven.
6.4.2 - Quenching
The purpose of quenching is to achieve a structural state of the material which is different from
the equilibrium state (constitution out of equilibrium for steels = martensite).
Quenching of steels is intended to harden the steel by forming martensite. Compared with the
annealed condition, the tensile strength and the hardness of the steel increase in the quenched
condition, however the impact strength collapses.
Quenching is achieved by performing austenitising followed by sufficiently rapid cooling to

obtain martensitic transformation. The rate of cooling to be achieved depends on the
quenchability of the steel.
The essential parameters for quenching are as follows :
– the austenitising temperature (generally Ac3 + 50°C for steels),
– the austenitising time (this must be sufficient for the part to reach the desired temperature
throughout its thickness),
– the cooling medium after austenitising (water, oil, air or gas) depending on the thickness of
the part to be cooled and the quenchability of the steel.
Remark
The martensitic transformation embrittles the steel, which generally makes it unsuitable for use
directly in the quenched condition (risk of brittle fracture). To make the steel less brittle, it is
normally tempered after quenching.
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6.4.3 - Tempering
Tempering is systematically performed on a quenched part (material outside the equilibrium

state). Tempering activates diffusion in order to revert the metal to the equilibrium state, more or
less gradually, according to the temperature and the heat treatment time. In order to ensure this
gradual reversion, and to be able to control the degree of tempering, THE TEMPERING
TEMPERATURE MUST IN ALL CASES BE LOWER THAN THE FIRST TRANSFORMATION
TEMPERATURE FOR THE MATERIAL (otherwise the treatment performed corresponds to
either annealing or to quenching, depending on the subsequent cooling rate).
Tempering of steels is intended to partly (or totally) transform the martensite into ferrite and
carbides in order to make the metal less brittle, whilst at the same time retaining a minimum
amount of hardness. Compared with the quenched state, the tensile strength and hardness of
the steel reduce in the quench-tempered state, whereas the impact strength improves.
The essential parameters for tempering of steels are as follows :
– the tempering temperature (often between 550 and 700°C),
– the tempering time (one to several hours).
Remark : tempering of steels is not normally performed at temperatures between approximately

350 and 500°C, as this may result in tempering embrittlement due to the formation of brittle
compounds in this temperature range. To avoid such embrittlement, heating and cooling must
also be relatively fast in the 350 to 500°C temperature range.
6.4.4 - Normalising
The in-service properties of steels, and particularly non-alloyed steels, are very frequently
obtained by heat treatment known as normalising. This specific treatment for steels is very
similar to annealing. It particularity consists in a higher rate of cooling than for annealing (but
lower than for quenching).
Two main objectives are intended through this treatment :
– refining of the grain size by austenitising without overheating (to improve the overall
mechanical properties),
– limiting the quantity of cementite, by reducing the diffusion of carbon through relatively rapid
cooling (which improves the impact strength by limiting the quantity of carbides formed, which
are naturally brittle).
In practice, normalising treatment generally requires air cooling whereas annealing demands
oven cooling.
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6.4.5 – Recrystallisation treatment
Recrystallisation treatment is performed exclusively on work hardened parts.
It is intended to cancel the effects of work hardening following low temperature mechanical
deformation. Its principle is similar to tempering: it consists in stimulating diffusion for the metal
to recover an equilibrium structure.
Recrystallisation is possible for any material whose rate of plastic deformation exceeds a few
percent. However, it has been found that it results in large grain size if the degree of cold work
is low (recrystallisation treatment may be undesirable in such case) whereas it generates fine
grains if the degree of work hardening is high.
The essential parameter for recrystallisation treatment is temperature, evaluated at about half of
the melting temperature of the metal or alloy to be treated. If the temperature exceeds the first
transformation temperature for the material, the treatment will also generate an annealing or
quenching effect for example, depending on the heat treatment cycle adopted.
Compared with the work hardened state, recrystallisation reduces the tensile strength and
hardness, but increases the impact strength.
TRAITEMENT THERMOMECANIQUE
THERMOMECHANICAL TREATMENT
θ METALS
METAUX AND
ETALLOYS
ALLIAGES
θs θs steel
acier1100°C
1100°C
θr steel
acier700°C
700°C
θr
ecrouissage
work hardening
recristallisation
recrystallisation overheating
surchauffe
R,H
K
6.4.6 – Stress relieving treatment (or relaxation)
Stress relieving treatment is intended to reduce the internal stresses (e.g. residual stresses
generated by welding or machining) without modifying the constitution of the material.
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The internal stresses in a part are indicated by a permanent elastic deformation of the metal. In
welding, the stresses are generated by motion within the metal as it expands during heating and
contracts during cooling. In particular, a weld which shrinks during cooling exerts a tensile load
on the surrounding metal if the latter is not free to move in conjunction with the shrinking weld
(this phenomenon is known as restraint).
In practice, stress relief is achieved unless the elastic deformation resulting from the internal
stresses is replaced by a permanent elastic deformation. The stress relief heat treatment uses
the lowering of mechanical properties of the metal at high temperature in order to force it to
plastically deform under the action of its internal stresses.
The essential parameters for stress relief heat treatment are as follows :
– the temperature to be maintained (this should be as high as possible compatible with not
modifying the constitution of the material, i.e. of the order of 550°C for a non-alloyed steel),
– the time at temperature (this should be as long as possible compatible with not modifying the
structure of the material, i.e. a few hours for a non-alloyed steel).
In order to perform this treatment effectively, it is also advisable to avoid temperature gradients
within the part in order to avoid generating new stresses.
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This involves ensuring :
– a low oven loading temperature (e.g. 300°C max.),

– a slow temperature rise (e.g. 200°C/h max.),
– a homogeneous soak temperature,
– a slow cooling rate (e.g. 200°C/h max.),
– a low oven unloading temperature (e.g. 300°C max.).
6.4.7 – Additional information concerning heat treatment
The heat treatments described above may be performed :
– either generally, in order to perform the heat treatment over the entire part,
– or locally, in order to apply a treatment cycle to a specific zone of the part, without treating
the part as a whole.
Generally, overall heat treatment of a part is performed in a single operation, most often in an
oven. If the part is longer than the capacity of the oven, the treatment may be applied in
sections, in several stages. In such case, it is important to provide sufficient overlap of the
heated sections to ensure the entire part is treated. It is also possible to perform the treatment
gradually, by moving the heating means in relation to the part (or conversely) such that the
treatment begins at one end and ends at the opposite end.
After welding, heat treatment of one or more welds may be necessary. In such case, overall
treatment of the part may not be justified. It may be beneficial to simply perform local heat
treatment of the welded zone. The operating procedure for such a treatment must be specified
taking into account the effects of thermal expansion with respect to the risk of deformation of the
welded apparatus or the introduction of stresses into the part.
Heat treatment after welding may be applied in workshops or on construction-sites. Heat

treatment equipment may take many forms : various types of oven (those for use on
construction sites are modular), electric heating coils to be positioned on the part...
Correct achievement of the treatment must be checked by the use of temperature sensors
called thermocouples. Several thermocouples are generally arranged in contact with the metal,
in representative positions.
Practical example
Consider a very long apparatus, consisting of several modules constructed in a workshop then
assembled on-site, for which overall heat treatment after welding is required.
In order to facilitate the operation, each section may already be treated in the workshop. Then
local heat treatment is performed on-site of the construction-site welds, using heating coils, so
that the apparatus as a whole is correctly treated.
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Equipement de traitement
HEAT TREATMENT thermique
EQUIPMENT
1
TRAITEMENT LOCAL TRAITEMENT GLOBAL
NE
TA
UL
M
SI
2
E
H
O C
E
O
H
PR R
C
P
EN DE
A/
1
E
T AN
UL
M
SI
2
H E
C H
O C
E
O
PR R
P
EN DE
B/
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.7 : BASES OF WELDING METALLURGY

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FORMATION BASES OF WELDING 1

METALLURGY
PROFESSIONNELLE PP FPT 0351 A rév.0 date : 03/2001
RDT-ISS-AQ -1202 - 2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 30
BASES OF WELDING METALLURGY
CONTENTS
1- INTRODUCTION
2- THERMAL EFFECTS OF WELDING
2.1 - Notion of thermal cycle

2.2 - Notion of thermal distribution
2.3 - Principal factors in thermal cycles and distribution
3- THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE
3.1 - Consequences of heating

3.2 - Transformations during cooling
3.3 - Practical conclusion
3.4 - Use of the CCTW curves
4- THE WELD METAL
4.1 - Elaboration of the weld metal

4.2 - Solidification structure
4.3 - Multiple pass welds in steel
4.4 - Formation of blow-holes
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base metal
properties structures heat source
=f (c.ch , t.th)
heat affected
zone.
t.th = mb
filler metal
weld metal
c.ch and t.th = mb
1. – INTRODUCTION
Welding produces a THERMO-MECHANICAL treatment of the metal, i.e. a double thermal +

mechanical treatment.
The thermal treatment results from the temperature rise in the part to be welded. The thermal
treatment is generally localised. This results in the formation of :
– a WELD METAL if the weld is produced by fusion, as is the case in MAG welding for
example,
– HEAT AFFECTED ZONES irrespective of the welding technique employed, even without
fusion, as for example in friction welding.
The mechanical action is the result of expansion and shrinkage phenomena when these occur
in clamped configurations, as described in the presentation of stress relief heat treatment. When
the residual welding stresses exceed the yield point of the metal, plastic strain occurs.
This thermo-mechanical welding action generates structures in the fusion and heat affected
zones which are always different from the parent metals to be joined.
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Moreover, the chemical composition of the weld metal is very rarely identical to the parent
metals, which again generates particular characteristics.
HEAT BRIEF
For all these reasons, the prime contractor for a welded CHAUFFE BREVE
Quick operation
Opération rapide
construction must consider and understand how to control
the metallurgical consequences of welding. If this is not the
case, the structures as well as the composition of the welds LOCAL
LOCALE
Concentrated source
Source concentrée
become unpredictable and the resulting properties in the
welded constructions no longer guarantee satisfactory Source
Heat de chaleur
source
in-service strength.
HEAT
CHALEUR
2. – THERMAL EFFECTS OF WELDING
2.1 - Notion of thermal cycle EVACUEE

RELEASED
Part
Pièce
The joining of two parts by welding involves heating the
metals to be welded to high temperature and most often
displacement of the heated zone in order to progressively Generally
SOURCEMOBILE SOURCE
en général MOBILE
produce a welded joint.
The heat source used for heating the metals must therefore
be sufficiently concentrated (high heat density) in order to be able to rapidly generate a high
temperature rise, which remains sufficiently localised on a small area (without melting the entire
part). The more concentrated the heat source, the faster the heating of the metal, and the
narrower and deeper the heated zone.
When the heat source has passed, the welded joint cools under the effect of generally rapid
heat dissipation into the colder metal surrounding the weld. The rate of cooling is proportional to
the volume of metal surrounding the weld. In particular, thick section parts or assemblies of
multiple parts cool faster.
The heating and cooling cycle which the metal in the welded zone is subjected to, is called the
welding THERMAL CYCLE. In other words, the welding thermal cycle corresponds to a specific
heat treatment, resulting from the welding process.
The thermal cycle provides essential information concerning the metallurgical behaviour, in
particular:
– the maximum temperature reached (θ max), which causes the structural transformations or
fusion of the material,
– the time spent at temperature (ts), which is responsible for the grain growth phenomenon due
to overheating,
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– the cooling time, which is measured between two temperatures (tr θ2-θ1), which directly
affects the risk of quenching the welded steel.
It should be noted that the welding thermal cycle is not the same in all locations of the welded
part: it varies according to the distance from the heat source displacement axis (i.e. the distance
from the centre-line of the weld bead). The shorter the distance from the weld centre-line, the
higher the maximum temperature reached, the longer the time spent at high temperature, the
higher the rate of cooling.
If the same welding conditions apply along the length of the weld, the same thermal cycles are
also applied at the same distances from the centre-line of the weld bead. Only the weld ends
zones are subjected to specific thermal cycles due to the transient nature of the heating
process.
IMPRIMANTE THERMO-COUPLES
PRINTER
θ = f (t)
CYCLES
THERMALTHERMIQUES
CYCLES
θ
θ mA
θ mB
θ mC
TRACEURS
TRACERS
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THERMAL
CYCLE CYCLE
THERMIQUE
θθ= =
f(t)f (t)
θ
θ max
θH
θ1
θ0
θ2 Vr
ts tr temps
time
aumeasurement
at point de mesure
point A A
θm = maximum temperature reached
θ m: température maximale atteinte
ts = time of exposure to high temperature
ts
Vr =:rate
temps de séjour
of cooling at θ0 à haute température
Vr : vitesse
tr = cooling defrom
time refroidissement
θ to θ2 à θ0
tr : temps de refroidissement entre θ , et θ 2
remarques:
note :
Vr ts et
& tr
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2.2 - Notion of thermal distribution
The THERMAL DISTRIBUTION corresponds to the maximum temperatures attained according

to the distance from the weld seam centre-line.
The thermal distribution reflects the origin of the different characteristic regions of the weld :
– the weld metal is the region heated beyond the melting temperature,
– the fusion line is the surface heated just to the melting temperature,
– the heat affected zone is the region where the maximum temperature reached is between the
lowest temperature for structural transformation and the melting temperature,
– the parent metal corresponds to the initial material which has not been heated to above the
lowest temperature for structural modification.
θ
θm
THERMAL
REPARTITION
thermal
cycles cycles
thermique
θ mA THERMIQUE
DISTRIBUTION
θ m = f (x)
θ mB
θ mC
x
t
θ = f(t)
xA
xB
xC
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THERMAL
REPARTITION THERMIQUE
DISTRIBUTION
θm
θm = f (x)
θ f
θt
x' x
2.3 – Main factors in thermal cycles and thermal distribution
The nature of the cycles and of the thermal distribution are dependent on the equilibrium
established between the heat supplied to the part and the quantity of heat absorbed by the
same part.
For example, if the amount of heat supplied exceeds the heat absorbed, the metal heats up. On
the other hand, if the amount of heat absorbed is greater than the quantity of heat provided, the
part cools down. The maximum temperature is reached when the quantity of heat supplied is
equal to the quantity of heat absorbed.
In practice, the quantity of heat supplied during welding is all the greater if:
– THE LINEAR WELDING ENERGY (*) is high,
– the INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF THE PART is high.
Conversely, the quantity of heat absorbed by the part is all the greater if:
– the material THICKNESS is high,
– the SHAPE of the part leads to a large number of heat dispersion paths (as in T-welds as
opposed to butt-welds),
– the THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY of the metal is high.

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CYCLETHERMAL
ET REPARTITION THERMIQUE
CYCLE AND DISTRIBUTION
PART
PIECE PROCEDE
PROCESS
CONDUCTIBILITE
CONDUCTIVITY
EPAISSEUR
THICKNESS MODE OPERATOIRE
WELDING
TEMPERATURE INITIALE
INITIAL TEMPERATURE
GEOMETRIE
GEOMETRY OFDU
THEJOINT
WELD ENERGIE
ENERGY
The effect of these five factors on the main parameters of the welding thermal cycles is as
follows:
High linear welding

energy
high θ max, ts, tr
High initial temperature
of the part
Thick section
Large number of heat

dissipation paths low θ max, ts, tr
High thermal
conductivity
(*) The linear welding energy is the quantity of energy supplied to the part per unit length of weld
bead produced. It is expressed in joules per centimetre of weld bead, and is obtained using the
following formula applicable to electric arc welding:
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U (V) x I (A) U (V) x I (A)

E (J/cm) = or E (J/cm) = x 60
Vs (cm/s) Vs (cm/min)
U = arc voltage in volts (V),

I = welding current in amps (A),
Vs = welding speed in centimetres per second (cm/s) or in
centimetres per minute (cm/min).
3. – THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)
The metallurgical behaviour in the HAZ results from the cumulative heating and cooling effects
of the welding thermal cycles. In particular, the structure in the HAZ is the result of the
modification of the initial parent metal structure due to heating, followed by the modification
during cooling of the structure previously obtained during the heating phase.
On the basis of non- or low-alloy steels, we shall now examine the consequences of heating
and then those of cooling due to welding, referring to the data covered in the section concerning
heat treatment of steels.
3.1 - Consequences of heating
Remember the effect of temperature on the structure of a steel in the annealed condition (i.e.
consisting of ferrite and cementite):
ferrite and ferrite and large-grain

cementite austenite austenite austenite
(temperature)
(A1) (A3) (around 1100°C)
Up to temperature A1, the structure does not change. At temperature A1 partial austenitising
occurs. From temperature A1 to temperature A3, the proportion of austenite increases. At
temperature A3 the material is entirely austenite. Beyond about 1100°C the austenite overheats
(the size of the austenite grains then depends on the high temperature exposure time, ts).
This behaviour shows that the structure obtained during heating is dependent on the maximum
temperature attained. The structure of a steel in the annealed condition is modified by heat if the
temperature attained is equal to or greater than A1. In other words, the HAZ corresponds to the
region where the maximum temperature attained (as indicated by the thermal distribution) is
between A1 and the melting temperature.
Consequently, the HAZ during formation at high temperature exhibits all the structures
previously described, from the mixture of ferrite and austenite beyond A1 (adjacent to the parent
metal) up to large-grain austenite between about 1100°C and the melting temperature (at the
boundary of the weld metal).
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F+A
F+C
%C
F+C F+A A A
structure
STRUCTUREau chauffage
DURING HEATING
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3.2 - Transformations during cooling
On cooling to ambient temperature, all the austenite produced during the heating phase is
transformed. The iron-carbon phase diagram shows that the austenite in a non- (or low-) alloyed
steel disappears below temperature A1.
Two situations should be considered according to the welding conditions:
a) the cooling time is long enough for the austenite to change into ferrite and cementite,
b) the cooling time is short enough for the austenite to generate quenching products such as
martensite.
The cooling time required for quenching (or the quenchability) depends mainly on the chemical
composition of the steel. Graphs, known as the "CCTW diagrams" show the behaviour of each
steel in the HAZ according to the cooling time.
It should be remembered that the effective cooling in the HAZ is dependent on the parameters
acting during the welding thermal cycle. In particular, the cooling time is all the shorter if:
– the linear weld energy is low,

– the parts have a thick section,
– the shape of the assembly favours heat dissipation,
– the initial temperature of the parts is low.
Starting with the structures obtained during heating in the HAZ of the steel, the transformations
during cooling may be summarised by the following table:
Structure obtained Final structure with Final structure with

during heating slow cooling rapid cooling
ferrite + austenite ferrite + cementite ferrite + martensite
austenite ferrite + cementite martensite
overheated austenite ferrite martensite

+ large-grain cementite
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SOUDURE D'ACIER
WELDING OF STEEL
NONNOT QUENCHED
TREMPEE BY WELDING
PAR SOUDAGE
hardness θ
AC3
AC1
F+P F+P F+P
métal de base
annealed recuit
parent metal
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SOUDURE
WELDING D'ACIER
OF STEEL
TREMPEE PARBY
QUENCHED SOUDAGE
WELDING
dureté
hardness θ
AC3
AC1
F+P F+M M
métal de base
annealed recuit
parent metal
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SOUDURE DE METAUX
WELDING OF STEELECROUIS
QUENCHED BY WELDING
dureté
hardness θ
θ surchauffe
overheated
θ recristal
recrystallisation
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3.3 – Practical conclusion
If the cooling time is very short, martensite is formed in the HAZ (except in the case of certain
non-quenchable steels) which leads to high brittleness.
If the cooling time is long, ferrite and cementite are formed in the HAZ. However, a long cooling
time necessarily implies a long soak at high temperature, which causes overheating. This
results in a large grain size, which even if it consists of ferrite and cementite, exhibits a certain
degree of brittleness.
Consequently, according to the quenchability of the steel, the best impact strength in the HAZ is
obtained with intermediate cooling times, which are neither too short, to avoid the formation of
martensite, nor if possible too long to avoid severe overheating.
3.4 – Use of the CCTW graphs (for information)
The abbreviation CCTW stands for "Continuous Cooling Transformations in Welds".
The CCTW graphs define the transformations in the HAZ for a given steel chemical
composition, according to the cooling time, generally measured between 800 and 500°C
(tr800-500) or between 700 and 300°C (tr700-300).
The use of a CCTW graph also involves being in possession of a thermal graph indicating the
tr800-500 according to the welding conditions.
The CCTW graphs are read along a vertical straight line passing through tr800-500. Cooling is
simulated by descending along the vertical straight line, this indicates the type of constituent
which is formed as well as the temperatures at the start and end of the transformation.
Remark: The CCTW graphs for steels (as well as the thermal graphs) apply only to the HAZ
adjacent to the weld bead, as this is the most critical from the point of view of quenching. Indeed
the thermal cycles in welding show that the tr 800-500 (or tr 700-300) cooling times diminish as
one approaches the weld, which increases the likelihood of quenching in this region.
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DIAGRAMME T.R.C
C.C.T.W. GRAPH Soudage
ACIER E.36
E.36 STEEL
C:C 0,17%
: 0.17%
θ Mn:
Mn :1,4%
1.4% HV5
Si : 0.45%
Si: 0,45%
Al :0,063%
Al: 0.063%
800 450
500 350
A + F +C
F+C
400 250
A A+ F+
+ C+ M
M H=f(tr)
300 M F+ C +M 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
enss (800-500°C)
tr in
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θi = 25°C tr (800-500°C)
0 10 20 30 40 50
5000
10000
e = 7 mm
15000
20000
25000
e = 10 mn
mm
30000
35000 e = 15 mn
mm
40000 e = 20 mn
mm
E e = 30 mn
mm
J/ cm
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4. – THE WELD METAL (WM)
The metallurgical behaviour in the WM differs from that in the HAZ in several ways :
– first of all, the WM is a "crucible" where the welder elaborates his own alloy, consequently
resulting in a different chemical composition from the parent metal.
– additionally, the solidification of this alloy generates a different structure from that resulting
from mere transformations in the solid state.
Of course, the constitution of the WM at ambient temperature (ferrite + cementite or martensite

for example) is the result of the same phenomena as those described for the HAZ. This
constitution is dependent on the chemical composition and the cooling time, as in the HAZ. It
should be noted here that the cooling times for welds (tr800-500) are shorter in the WM than in
the HAZ, which means that the composition of the WM must be controlled in order to attempt to
limit its quenchability.
4.1 - Elaboration of the WM
The chemical composition of the WM is dependent on at least three factors :
a) the physical behaviour of the alloy at high temperature,

b) the chemical reactions with welding gases or slag,
c) the relative proportions of parent metal and filler metal.
4.1.1 – Physical behaviour of an alloy at SOUDAGE

FUSIONPAR FUSION
WELDING
high temperature
Metals when subjected to very high

temperatures in the liquid state, undergo a
phenomenon known as VOLATILISATION. source
heatde chaleur
source
Volatilisation corresponds to a loss of metal by
evaporation: a fraction of the liquid metal
changes to the gaseous state and escapes in
the form of vapours. In the case of alloys, the ou
Gaseous ux liquid
eor Lmedium
z iqu
result is that the more volatile elements Ga ide
escape first, which causes a change in the or cavity
u
V
ilie
chemical composition. ou ide

M
The following classification is in reducing M liquidLIQUIDE

metal
ET METAL
DE
volatility order: zinc, manganese, aluminium, AL

LI
chrome, iron, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten.

SO
RESTE solid
metal remains
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For example, welding of galvanised steels results in the release of large amounts of whitish
fumes due to vaporisation of the zinc coating (the highly volatile zinc is lost). On the other hand,
the tungsten (low volatility) is used as a TIG welding electrode, as it does not vaporise at very
high temperature in contact with the electric arc.
4.1.2 – Chemical reactions with gases or slag
From the chemical point of view, metals in the liquid state are highly reactive with their
surrounding medium. We shall consider two cases, according to whether the welding medium is
a gas or slag.
a) Influence of gases
For a given process and material, the choice of welding gases is generally made in accordance
with practical considerations (behaviour of the molten pool, etc...). From the metallurgical point
of view, welding gases may be neutral (chemically inert) or active (affecting the chemical
composition).
The neutral gases employed in welding (particularly for MIG and TIG) are ARGON (Ar) and
HELIUM (He).
The active gases (principally used in MAG) may be :
– OXYGEN (O2) in a proportion of between 1 and 8 %,

– CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) as a mixture or pure,
– sometimes HYDROGEN (H2) in a proportion of between 1 and 5 %,
– sometimes NITROGEN (N2) as a mixture of a few percent (or pure for root side protection)
employed only with certain stainless steels.
Oxygen has an oxidising effect: A fraction of the oxygen is first solutionised in the metal, then
the remainder combines with certain elements to form oxides (silica, manganese oxide, etc...).
In other words it increases the oxygen content of the metal and reduces the content of other
elements with which it forms oxides.
Carbon dioxide has an oxidising effect (much less active than with oxygen). It also has a
carburising effect: it increases the carbon content in the WM for steels whose carbon content is
less than about 0.13%.
Hydrogen has a reducing (or deoxidising) effect: it reacts with oxygen and prevents oxidation of
the metal. The hydrogen molecules, due to their small size, are readily solutionised in the metal.
Nitrogen is solutionised in the WM. Its use is restricted to welding of certain stainless steels.
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It has been found that the use of an active gas may have a predominant effect on the oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen content of the metal. The higher the content in these elements,
the greater the impact strength of non- or low-alloy steels deteriorates (embrittling effect).
OXIDISING DANGER OF
GAS POWER CARBURISATION
MIG ARGON 100% 0 NO
ARGON + 1%O2 1 NO
ARGON + 2%O2 2 NO
ARGON + 5%O2 5 NO
ARGON +5%O2+15%CO2 6.5 YES
ARGON + 20%C02 2 YES
MAG CO2 100% 10 YES

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% Mn
% Si influence of
influence duCO
Co2 2
% C/10
1,0
Mn
0,8
0,6
Si
0,4
10 20 30 Co2
n fil d
z ectio Co 2 'a
a
G rot filler rodpport
p ON+ C=
de RG
A Si = 0,078%
Mn= 0,73%
1,25
%
Protection gas
ARGON + CO2
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This also shows why it is essential to ensure proper protection of the molten pool with respect to
the ambient air, in order to avoid strong combinations with nitrogen, oxygen and even hydrogen.
b) Influence of slag
The slag consists of flux or the electrode coating melted during the welding operation.
The flux or electrode coatings are usually characterised by their chemical nature, for example:
– cellulosic (based on organic materials),

– rutile (containing titanium oxide or its derivatives),
– basic (containing essentially carbonates).
As with gases, the choice of the nature of the flux or coating is based on practical
considerations. However it is essential to consider the metallurgical aspects whenever particular
mechanical properties are required, in particular impact strength. Cellulosic or rutile fluxes lead
to oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen contents considered to be high. The result of this is that the
use of these fluxes prevents the achievement of very high impact strength in the WM. On the
other hand, the use of a basic flux limits the oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen content in the WM,
which therefore results in better impact strength.
A particularity of the fluxes or coatings is that they

contain filler materials in the solid state which BASE METALDU
PARTICIPATION PARTICIPATION
METAL DE BASE
participate in the chemical composition of the DILUTION
fusion bath. For example, "synthetic" electrodes
may deposit high alloy steels where the alloying
elements are essentially provided by the coating.
4.1.3 - Dilution
In the case of welding with filler metal, it frequently

occurs that the chemical composition of the filler
metal is different from the parent metals, in
particular in order to reduce the quenchability of
the metals deposited on steels. In practice, the
chemical composition in the WM is linked to that of
the filler metal, but also depends partly on the
composition of the molten parent metals.
S1
S2
S1
DILUTION = %
S2
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To take this into account, the term DILUTION is used to define the degree of participation of the
parent metals in the composition of the WM. In other words, the dilution corresponds to the
volume of the molten parent metals in relation to the total volume of the weld metal.
The dilution is principally related to :
– the welding process,

– the edge preparation,
– the welding parameters,
– the welding position,
– the regularity of the filler metal.
For example, some common dilution values are provided below:
– 15 to 40 % in MIG and MAG welding,

– 20 to 50 % in TIG welding and arc welding with coated electrodes,
– 25 to 80 % in submerged arc welding,
– 100 % in electron beam and laser welding, since these techniques usually do not make use
of filler metal.
If the weld is produced in several passes, the dilution is highest in the penetration pass and
lowest in the filler passes (for example 50% in the first pass and 25% for the subsequent filler
passes in TIG).
4.2 – Solidification structure
The liquid metal has no established structure. During solidification, the links are formed and the
crystalline lattices grow to form the grain structure.
In advancing fusion welding, the heat source as it moves away, leaves the liquid metal in
contact with the solid metal; the weld cools by heat dissipation into the solid metal.
Solidification begins at the liquid-solid interface. The "linkage" occurs on the solid structure
where the liquid atoms join together and extend the construction of the lattice. In other words,
the grains in the HAZ naturally extend into the WM during solidification: the term EPITAXY is
used to describe the formation of a structure which retains the characteristics of the original
crystalline lattice. In practical terms, the result of this is that the size of the grains which solidify
is associated with the size of the grains in the HAZ in the interface zone: severe overheating in
the HAZ leads to the solidification of large grains in the WM.
After forming in the interface zone, the grains solidifying follow the displacement of the heat
source: this results in the formation of basaltic grains (grains which extend along the direction of
solidification). Once solidification is complete, it is found that the basaltic grains flow
perpendicularly to the weld solidification fronts.
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METALLURGY
RDT-ISS-AQ -1202 - 2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 30
The particular orientation of the solidification grains in the SOLIDIFICATION

WM means that the welds exhibit different properties
longitudinally compared with transversally. For this reason,
the mechanical characterisation of a weld may require
both:
CHAUFFAGE
HEAT
θ fusion
HEAT
CHAUFFAGE
EPITAXY
θ solidification
REFROIDISSEMENT
COOLING
Interface zone
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SOLIDIFICATION STRUCTURE ACCORDING TO Vs
Increasing welding speed
– A tensile test in the transverse direction (to check that the fracture occurs outside the HAZ
and the WM)
– and a longitudinal tensile test along the WM (to determine the longitudinal strength in the WM
Additional information:
The solidification of a WM is a gradual phenomenon which requires a minimum amount of time

to complete, this means that the welding speed may exceed the maximum speed at which
solidification may occur. If this is the case, the grains being formed lag behind the displacement
of the heat source. For the solidification to catch up this delay, equiaxial grains are formed
directly in the centre of the WM, without epitaxy.
The solidification structure of non- and low-alloy steels is austenitic. On cooling, the austenite is
transformed, as seen in the section concerning the HAZ. The final structure in the WM of these
steels does not therefore consist of the initial solidification structure, but the structure
transformed into ferrite and cementite, or martensite for example.
4.3 – Welding of steels in several passes
In multiple-pass welds, each filling pass generates thermal cycles which affect the previous
passes. In other words, each filling pass thermally affects the one or several passes produced
beforehand.
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The fused metal which is affected thermally beyond temperature A1 undergoes austenitisation
during heating. We have seen that the austenitic transformation first of all results in finer grain
size. Consequently, the initial solidification structure (coarse-grained) disappears during
austenitisation and is replaced by a fine grain structure.
This effect is beneficial for its mechanical properties, in particular impact strength.
It is known as REGENERATION.
Therefore a weld in a non- or low-alloy steel produced in several passes, systematically exhibits
in the WM areas of initial coarse-grain structure and areas of regenerated fine-grain structure,
the extent of which is dependent on the welding process.
Regeneration occurs only in steels.
θ
θm1
θm2
θm3
θ
B
V2 V3
V1
θ2
θ1
θ0
t
3 B
2
1 A
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METALLURGY
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WELDING IN SEVERAL PASSES
alloy with no
transformation
point
alliage
alloy with
avec point de
transformation
transformation
point
alliage
alloy with
avec point de
transformation
transformation
point
4.4 - Formation of blow holes
The WM often exhibits compacting defects such as blow holes which result from gases trapped
at the moment of solidification.
The gases are from two possible sources, they may either:
– be introduced into the molten pool during the welding process, which is a pollution,
– be released by the molten metal, which in such case indicates poor material weldability.
Gas accidentally introduced into the fusion bath generally consists of hydrogen. It is caused by
the breakdown of humidity (which is rich in hydrogen) in contact with the heat source. This
humidity may be caused by several factors:
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METALLURGY
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– damp (or badly dried) flux or coatings,
– penetration of air, which may be more or less damp, into the welding arc (particularly in the
case of a long arc or a protection fault).
The gas released by molten steel is caused by a reaction known as "effervescence".

Effervescent steels contain iron oxide (FeO) which at high temperature combines with carbon
(C) to form carbon monoxide gas (CO) :
FeO + C → Fe + CO
The bubbles of CO which form, rise to the surface of the fusion bath, generating a bubbling, or
effervescence, which impedes or prevents the welding process.
Effervescent steels are becoming rare. They are sometimes found in low quality non-alloy
steels, which provide no guaranteed low temperature impact strength or other high mechanical
properties.
In order to avoid effervescence, first of all always use steels specified as "NON
EFFERVESCENT" or "CALM", which contain reducing elements such as silicon, aluminium,
titanium, ...
If the steel is effervescent, it may however be welded using:
– filler metal containing an excess of

reducing elements,
H
– oxy-acetylene blow-pipe welding adjusted liquide
liquid
with a reducing flame (rich in acetylene).
δ
γ
α solid
solide
to outside
vers l'extérieur
diffusion
to HAZ
vers ZTA
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Finally, one can see the

SL SL SL
influence of welding speed on
the formation of blow holes.
In the molten pool, the gas

Slow
Lent bubbles rise naturally to the
surface, since their density is
much lower than that of the
liquid.
If the welding speed is low

a b c enough, these gas bubbles
have time to rise to the
surface of the liquid metal
and to burst in contact with
air, before solidification has
Moyen
Medium
time to trap them. The molten
pool is said to be degassing,
which avoids or limits the
formation of blow holes.
a b c On the other hand, if the
welding speed is high, the
bubbles remain trapped in the
WM, since they do not have
Fast
Rapide time to reach the surface and
escape before solidification
traps them.
In the most unfavourable

case, if the rising speed of
the bubbles is equal to the solidification speed, then the metal solidifies continuously in contact
with the bubbles, which leave their mark in the form of galleries called "worm holes".
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.8-2.15 : WELDABILITY OF STEELS

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FORMATION WELDABILITY OF STEELS

1
PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 04/2001
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 42
WELDABILITY OF STEELS
CONTENTS
1. DEFINITION OF WELDABILITY .......................................................................................... 3
2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS).......................................... 3

2.1. Summary of the steels most commonly used in welded assemblies........................... 3
2.1.1. Non alloyed steels ........................................................................................................3
2.1.2. Alloyed steels (apart from stainless steels) ..................................................................4
2.2. Introduction to the weldability of steels ........................................................................ 5
2.3. Cold cracking................................................................................................................ 6
2.3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................6
2.3.2. Main steels concerned..................................................................................................6
2.3.3. Description of the cracks ..............................................................................................6
2.3.4. Factors affecting cold cracking .....................................................................................7
2.3.5. Means of preventing cold cracking .............................................................................11
2.3.6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................14
2.4. Ageing......................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................14
2.4.2. Principal steels concerned..........................................................................................14
2.4.3. Description of the phenomenon..................................................................................14
2.4.4. Factors affecting ageing .............................................................................................15
2.4.5. Ageing prevention.......................................................................................................15
2.5. Lamellar tearing.......................................................................................................... 16
2.5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................16
2.5.2. Principal steels concerned..........................................................................................16
2.5.3. Description of the cracks ............................................................................................17
2.5.4. Factors affecting lamellar tearing................................................................................17
2.5.5. Prevention of lamellar tearing .....................................................................................17
2.6. Reheat cracks............................................................................................................. 18
2.6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................18
2.6.2. Principal steels affected..............................................................................................18
2.6.3. Description of the cracks ............................................................................................18
2.6.4. Factors affecting reheat cracking................................................................................19
2.6.5. Prevention of reheat cracking .....................................................................................19
2.7. Additional information concerning weldability of steels.............................................. 19
2.7.1. Weldability of fine grain non-alloyed steels.................................................................19
2.7.2. Weldability of nickel steels for low temperature applications......................................20
3. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS ......................................................................... 20

3.1. Presentation of stainless steels.................................................................................. 20
3.2. Metallurgical roles of alloying elements ..................................................................... 21
3.2.1. Quenching action........................................................................................................21
3.2.2. Alphagenous action ....................................................................................................22
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3.2.3. Gammagenous action.................................................................................................22

3.2.4. Carburigenous action..................................................................................................22
3.2.5. Application to welds ....................................................................................................23
3.3. Stainless steel parent metals ..................................................................................... 24
3.3.1. Martensitic steels ........................................................................................................24
3.3.2. Ferritic steels ..............................................................................................................25
3.3.3. Austenitic steels..........................................................................................................25
3.3.4. Austeno-ferritic steels (also called "DUPLEX")...........................................................28
3.3.5. Additional information on the embrittlement of stainless steels ..................................28
3.4. Weldability of stainless steels..................................................................................... 29
3.4.1. Weldability of martensitic (and semi-ferritic) steels.....................................................29
3.4.2. Weldability of ferritic steels .........................................................................................30
3.4.3. Weldability of austenitic steels....................................................................................31
3.4.4. Weldability of austeno-ferritic steels ...........................................................................34
4. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR STEELS (HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS) ............................. 35

4.1. Presentation of heterogeneous joints......................................................................... 35
4.2. Particularities regarding weldability ............................................................................ 36
4.3. Post welding heat treatment....................................................................................... 37
4.4. Case study.................................................................................................................. 37
4.4.1. Welding of two dissimilar steels..................................................................................37
4.4.2. Welding of two different low alloy steels .....................................................................37
4.4.3. Welding of a non-alloyed steel to a low alloy steel .....................................................38
4.4.4. Welding of two steels of which at least one is stainless .............................................38
4.5. Case of welding of steels to non ferrous metals ........................................................ 40
4.5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................40
4.5.2. Case of a steel + nickel (or nickel alloy) weld .............................................................40
4.5.3. Case of a steel + copper (or copper alloy) weld .........................................................41
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1. DEFINITION OF WELDABILITY
In order to successfully complete welding operations and in order to ensure correct operation of the
assemblies produced, the welding process used must satisfy several criteria grouped under the term
weldability, which specify the requirements relative to welding.
Among these criteria, we shall refer to:

– operational weldability,
– metallurgical weldability,
– overall weldability.
Operational weldability refers to the practical possibility of producing a weld in actual manufacturing
conditions (the part and its environment, the process, the welding position, possibly also the qualification
of welding personnel, etc.).
Metallurgical weldability refers to the possibility of producing a weld without generating compaction or
structural imperfections resulting from the behaviour of the materials during welding (cracks, brittle
structures, etc.).
The overall weldability refers to the ability of the welded assembly to satisfy the in-service conditions to
which it will be subjected (mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, etc.).
These three weldability criteria constitute a non-exhaustive list to which one might add other criteria
concerning:
– the design and calculation of welded assemblies,
– inspection of the welded assemblies both during manufacture and in-service,
– compliance with regulations or standards, etc.
For the purposes of this course, we shall limit ourselves to studying the metallurgical weldability of
steels, resulting from the behaviour of these materials during welding.
2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS)
2.1. SUMMARY OF THE STEELS MOST COMMONLY USED IN WELDED ASSEMBLIES
2.1.1. Non alloyed steels
The non alloyed steels most commonly used in welded assembly are known as construction steels as
well as steels for boilers and pressure vessels.
The main industrial applications for these steels are in the – 50 °C to + 350 °C temperature range.
The operating characteristics generally sought for these steels are:

– Absence from brittle behaviour at the lowest temperature to be experienced in service. This
characteristic is assured by a minimum fracture energy value at a given temperature, measured by a
notched impact toughness test on a notched test specimen.
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– a minimum yield stress and/or tensile strength at the highest operating temperature. These
mechanical properties are measured through a tensile test.
As an example, the minimum yield stress for non alloyed steels frequently used for metallic
constructional purposes or in boiler-making, is generally between 185 and 420 N/mm² at ambient
temperature. This yield stress is obtained by different methods, from which the different categories of
steels listed below are classified, in order of increasing mechanical strength.
a) Steels whose yield strength depends essentially on their carbon content (the greater the carbon
content, the higher the strength). These steels, referred to as "conventional", are supplied in the
normalised condition.
b) Steels whose yield strength is obtained through small grain size (the finer the grain structure, the
higher the strength), with additionally:
– either residual work hardening,
– or a quench and tempering heat treatment.
The steels whose yield strength depends essentially on their carbon content contain approximately
between 0.08 and 0.20% C and achieve a minimum yield strength of between 235 and 355 N/mm²
(examples: S235 to S355 JR).
On the other hand, fine grained steels contain less than 0.10% C (sometimes less than 0.05% C) to
achieve a yield strength equal to at least 275 N/mm² (examples: S275 to S355 ML).
Other non alloyed steels are sometimes found in welded constructions. These are heat treatable steels,
designated by letter C in the European Standards (XC in the old French Standards). These steels are
characterised by their carbon content, which ranges between 0.10 % and 1%. They are used essentially
in the manufacture of mechanical parts (examples: C25, C45).
2.1.2. Alloyed steels (apart from stainless steels)
A ) ALLOYED STEELS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
Alloyed steels for boilers and pressure vessels operating at high temperature, are frequently used in
welded constructions (high temperature in this case refers to temperatures in the range of approximately
200 to 600°C).
The essential characteristics of these steels are their guaranteed minimum yield strength, tensile
strength and creep resistance at high temperatures. These properties are obtained by the addition of
chrome and/or molybdenum (or in some cases vanadium or other carburigenous elements), whose role
is to form carbides which harden the steel at high temperature.
Examples: 16Mo3, 10CrMo9-10.
b ) ALLOYED STEELS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
In this case, the notion of low temperature refers to temperatures below about - 50°C.
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Nickel alloyed steels have been developed for pressure vessels which operate at these temperatures.
Their essential characteristic is the lowest temperature at which a minimum fracture energy is
guaranteed through an "impact test".
These steels contain up to a maximum of about 11% nickel, with a reduced carbon content. They
provide a guaranteed minimum fracture energy at a temperature which decreases inversely with the
nickel content.
Examples: 12Ni14, X7Ni9.
C ) HIGH YIELD STRENGTH ALLOYED STEELS
Steels alloyed with chrome, molybdenum, nickel, etc. are highly quenchable and therefore are highly
suited to heat treatment. In particular, and depending on their carbon content, these steels may acquire
a high yield strength (sometimes greater than 1000 N/mm²) after quenching and tempering. For this
reason, they are occasionally used in welded constructions, essentially in the manufacture of mechanical
parts.
Examples: 25CrMo4, 36NiCrMo16.
2.2. INTRODUCTION TO THE WELDABILITY OF STEELS
Welding of steels may generate some danger of cracking or embrittlement.
The "welder" must be capable of predicting these possible defects, and be able to avoid them through
the use of an appropriate welding procedure.
The nature of the metallurgical problems to be considered, and therefore the remedies to be envisaged,
are primarily dependent on the type of steel. The main risks for the various families of steels are listed
below.
With non alloyed steels:

– cold cracking,
– lamellar tearing.
With allied steels for high temperature applications:

– cold cracking,
– cracking during reheating.
With allied steels for low temperature applications:

– loss of ductility through grain growth.
With high yield strength alloyed steels:

– cold cracking,
– possibly cracking during reheating.
We shall now examine the mechanisms operating in these different types of cracking or embrittlement
phenomena and see the preventive measures to be taken.
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2.3. COLD CRACKING
2.3.1. Introduction
When cold cracking conditions exist, this type of defect occurs in the welded zone, at the end of the
cooling of the weld (whence the term cold cracking) for instance below 150 °C.
This cracking is not related to the "quality" of the steel. In other words, it is not possible to avoid it by
selecting a "higher" quality steel grade. Each steel is more or less subject to this type of cracking,
according to its chemical composition. Certain steels are practically exempt, whereas others are
extremely prone to it.
In order to avoid cold cracking, we shall see that it is essential to adapt the welding procedure according
to the steel, the type of assembly and the process employed.
2.3.2. Main steels concerned
Cold cracking affects most steels which are subject to quenching during welding, in particular:
– non alloyed construction steels as well as "conventional" steels for boilers and pressure vessels,
– most of the heat treatable non alloyed steels,
– alloyed steels for high temperature applications,
– limited yield strength alloyed steels.
Fine grain non alloyed steels and alloyed steels for low temperature applications are either insensitive or
have low sensitivity to cold cracking due to their low carbon content.
2.3.3. Description of the cracks
Cold cracks may be located in the heat

affected zone (HAZ) or in the weld ASPECT DES FISSURES A FROID
APPEARANCE OF COLD CRACKS
metal (WM) which are the regions of
the weld most subject to quenching. 5
6
6
The cracks may be aligned
longitudinally or transversely in relation
3
to the weld bead.
4
Finally, they may be internal or may

1
break the surface. 2 1 3 2
1- fissure au raccordement
2-1.fissure
crack
à laalong interface
racine
3-2.fissure
crack
sousin the weld root
cordon
4-3.fissure
underbead crackdu métal fondu
longitudinale
5-4.transversale
longitudinal crack in the weld metal
6-5.transversale
transverse ZTA
crack
6. transverse crack in the HAZ
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2.3.4. Factors affecting cold cracking
Cold cracking is the result of the combined effect of three factors which occur during welding:
– a brittle microstructure (particularly martensitic),
– the presence of hydrogen,
– the build-up of stresses.
Cold cracking does not require each of these factors individually to be at a maximum or minimum. It
does however require a minimum combination of the three together and occurs all the more readily if the
stress level, the hydrogen content or the brittle nature of the microstructure are high.
WELDING STRESSES
CONTRAINTE DE SOUDAGE
a) STRESS CAUSES ∆L ∆L
The stresses which lead to cold cracking are those which

we call residual welding stresses. They are built-up
during welding and are not in any way related to the ∆L ∆L
subsequent operating stresses.
Residual welding stresses are caused by the local

heating effect which is inherent in the very nature of
welding, combined with the degree of restraint applicable
to the welded assembly.
A part which is heated throughout its thickness

undergoes an increase in volume due to thermal ∆L ∆L
expansion. On cooling, the reverse process results in the
same amount of material contraction.
In a welded part, the expansion and contraction are

generally resisted by the surrounding metal which
remains cooler. This phenomenon is all the more
pronounced if the part is rigid (thick material, presence of
L
stiffeners, etc.). As a result of this, the metal expansion
and contraction cannot occur freely in the weld zone.
E hw ep
The resistance to natural expansion and contraction of
the metal are referred to as restraint.
σ ∆L x E x ep
hw L
In a restrained configuration, a weld which contracts on
cooling exerts a tensile force on the surrounding metal,
since the latter resists any material displacement.
The resulting forces generate residual welding stresses. Their magnitude is all the greater if the degree
of restraint, which is linked to the "restraint" of the part, is high. The welding stresses are at the worst
equal to the yield strength of the material, since beyond that, plastic deformation occurs at the same time
as the metal contracts.
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b ) SOURCE OF THE HYDROGEN
Welding, apart from a few special cases, has the effect of introducing hydrogen into the metal. This
hydrogen comes from the breakdown of humidity (which is rich in hydrogen) in contact with the heat
source. This humidity is caused by:
– the humidity in the electrode coating or the flux (natural humidity and humidity absorbed from the air),
– penetration of air, containing more or less humidity, in the weld arc (particularly with a long arc or
defective protection),
– any humidity which may be present on the parts to be welded (water condensation or contamination
of the surfaces with products containing hydrogen).
If one compares the different welding processes, it becomes clear that those process which use flux (in
the form of a coating or in powder form) are the ones which contain most hydrogen. One must also
consider the nature of the flux (cellulose, rutile, basic) or certain particularities of filler metals (tubular
cored wire or sheet, etc.).
The case of basic coated electrodes also demonstrates how certain products absorb moisture during
storage. These coated electrodes must imperatively be dried (e.g. for two hours at 350 °C) then they
must be stored in a heated enclosure (around 150 °C) until they are used, to ensure they do not
reabsorb any moisture. In order to avoid such difficulties, coated electrodes with very low hydrogen
content and low water absorption are increasingly being developed and marketed in airtight packaging.
The humidity in the ambient air surrounding the weld arcs is without doubt the second most important
factor with respect to the introduction of hydrogen. Of course the quality of the protection is of direct
consequence. It should be noted that the amount of hydrogen introduced into the metal is:
– low in MAG welding,
– very low in TIG welding,
– zero in electron beam welding (which therefore avoids cold cracking).
Humidity on the surface of the parts to be SOURCES D'HYDROGENE

HYDROGEN EN SOUDAGE
SOURCES IN WELDING WITH
welded is more an anomaly, as is the use of AVEC ELECTRODES ENROBEES
COATED ELECTRODES
inert gas protection welding in the presence of
a draught, or the introduction of humidity due coated
électrode
to leakage in the water cooling system for a electrode
enrobée
welding torch.
métal déposé
filler metal
H H
H H
Laitier
slag
métal de
parent base
metal H
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ENROBAGE BASIQUE
BASIC COATING ENROBAGE BASIQUE
BASIC COATING
3
cm3 d'hydrogéne
cm of hydrogen diffusible per Humidity absorption
Absortion as % en
d'humidité of the
%
diffusible
100 gpar
of 100g
metaldedeposited
métal déposé coating
du poids de weight
l'enrobage
24 10
20 9
100%
16 8
12
7
90%
8
6
4
5
0
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 4 80%
humidity
teneur content
et humidité de of the
l'enrobage
coating
en % in % 3 70%
2 60%
50%
1
ENROBAGE BASIQUE
BASIC COATING
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
humidity
Teneurcontent of the
d'humidité TIME OF EXPOSURE TO AIR INEN
DAYS
coating in % TEMPS D'EXPOSITION A L'AIR JOURS
de l'enrobage en %
3 drying temperature
température de séchagein en
°C °C
2 120°
1 200°
40 250°
0° 300°
350°
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
DRYINGDE
TEMPS TIME IN HOURS
SECHAGE EN h
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H2
m l / 1 0 0 g M .F . > 2 2
T E N E U R S E N H Y D R O G E N E D IF F U S IB L E P R O D U IT E S
P A R D IF F E R E N T S P R O C E D E S D E S O U D A G E
15 1 5 ,5 e t +
b a s h yd ro g è n e si H diff < 5 m l / 1 0 0 g r.M F
13
Cellulosiques
2 n o rm e s: N F A 8 1 .3 0 5 -H 2 / M .F .
10 H 2 / M .D .
9
IS O 3 6 9 0 et
Rutiles
7
6 ,5 H 2 / M .F .
Feuillards
5 ,5
5 N o rm e B H
4
2 ,5
2 2
2 2
Feuillards
Basiques
1 .5 1 ,5 1 ,5
Tub.
0 ,5
Tub.
E LE C T R O D ES E N R O B E ES R u tile s B a s iq u e s T IG
S / FLUX F ll fo u rré F ll n u / C O 2
MAG
c) ORIGIN OF THE BRITTLE MICROSTRUCTURE
The brittle microstructure which is subject to cold cracking is due essentially to the presence of
martensite.
As already seen in the study of the HAZ, the structure obtained in the region of the weld is dependent
essentially on the welding thermal cycle at the point concerned and on the chemical composition of the
steel.
The formation of martensite is increased if the cooling time (e.g. tr 800-500) is short, and if the steel is
highly subject to quenching.
Remember that the quenchability of a steel is higher if:

– the carbon content is high (which also increases the brittleness of the quenched structures),
– the content of additive elements is also high.
From a practical point of view for the welder, the quenchability of a steel (and therefore indirectly its
susceptibility to cold cracking) may be evaluated by calculating its CARBON EQUIVALENT (Ceq) using
the following equation:
– for non-alloyed steels: Ceq = C + Mn/6
– for low-alloyed steels: Ceq = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15
Where: C = actual % carbon in the steel (see the raw material certificate),
Mn = actual % manganese in the steel,
Cr = actual % chrome in the steel,
Mo = actual % molybdenum in the steel,
V = actual % vanadium in the steel,
Ni = actual % nickel in the steel,
Cu = actual % copper in the steel.
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The higher the carbon equivalent, the more quenchable the steel, and therefore the more susceptible it
is to cold cracking. As soon as the equivalent carbon for the steel reaches a value of about 0.40, there is
a severe risk of forming martensite during electric arc welding (SAEE, TIG, MIG, MAG).
D IA G R A M M E D E TR A N S FO R M A T IO N T R C so ud age D IA G R A M M E D E TR A N S FO R M A T IO N T R C soudage
E 335 S 335
TRC welding CONVERSION CHART TRC welding CONVERSION CHART
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Re Rm C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Re Rm
0,1 7 1,4 0 0,4 5 - - - 32 8 53 3
0,22 0,80 0,20 0,13 0,18 0,58 355 524
θ θ
800 800
A
A
600 600
A+ F+C
A+F+C
F +C
400 A A+ M + 400 A
+
A +F
+ C+
+ F +C M M
M M+F
F +C
300 M M+ F+C M +C
300
0 10 20 30 40 tr (8 00-500°C ) 0 10 20 30 40 tr (800-500°C )
enin Ssec
ec. en S ec.
in sec
2.3.5. Means of preventing cold cracking

X 10 C r M o 5
The means of preventing cold cracking are those which:
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu
– reduce the level of residual welding stresses
– avoid the presence of a brittle structure,
0,1 0 0,5 1 0,2 8 5,0 5 0,1 1 0,6 0,1 2
– limit the amount of hydrogen introduced into the weld
– prevent the simultaneous occurrence of the first three
R e = 210 N /m m ² R m = 4 86 N /m m ²
factors.
θ H v5
800 500 a) Prevention by design of the installation
From the very design stage of a welded installation,

Hv
several precautions should be taken to avoid or limit the
600 400
danger of cold cracking. Two main recommendations are
A provided below
400 A + M
300 Irrespective of the assemblies to be produced, it is
M always beneficial to reduce the residual welding stresses.
300 250 To achieve this, it is essential to try to avoid highly
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
restrained welds.
tr (8 00-500°C ) en S ec.
in sec
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When selecting the steel grade, it is important, wherever possible, to choose a steel having a low carbon
equivalent value.
b ) Preventive measures during welding
First and foremost, it is essential to calculate the carbon equivalent of the steel to be welded, in order to
evaluate its susceptibility to cold cracking.
If the steel to be welded has a high carbon equivalent (> 0.40) the quantity of hydrogen introduced into
the welds must be kept to a minimum, remembering that this can be achieved by:
– appropriate selection of the welding process, giving preference to low-hydrogen processes,
– strict compliance with the welding instructions (use of dried covered electrodes, welding with a short
arc, etc.).
Once the steel to be welded, the type of assembly to be produced and the welding process have been
defined, the welding conditions to avoid cold cracking may be evaluated:
– either by performing weldability tests,
– or by interpreting the cracking graphs in conjunction with a welding heat dissipation graph.
The welding parameters which avoid cold cracking cannot be validated by qualification of the welding
process (QMOS). The reason for this is that the QMOS is performed on test specimens which are either
not or only slightly restrained, this is not therefore representative of the real stress level in an actual
production weld. Additionally, each QMOS covers a range of steel grades and not a specific equivalent
carbon value.
In practice, the choice of manufacturing process to avoid cold cracking is defined such as to facilitate
welding, in accordance with the following rules:
a) Determine the minimum linear welding energy to achieve a cooling time which avoids cracking, i.e. a
cooling time which avoids or limits the degree of quenching sufficiently to prevent cracking.
b) If the welding energy required is too high to achieve in practice, the energy should than be limited to a
reasonable value and a pre-heating temperature should be sought to achieve a cooling time which
avoids cold cracking with that energy.
c) If the pre-heating requires an excessive temperature (as is the case for highly quenchable steels),
then pre- and post-heating should be used. Post-heating corresponds to maintaining the weld at high
temperature. This is a true heat treatment where the temperature and the time at temperature are to
be defined. The effect of post-heating is to enable hydrogen degassing before the weld cools (i.e.
before forming all the martensite). This is characterised by a temperature-time combination and a
minimum temperature below which the steel must not cool until the hydrogen has sufficiently
degassed in order to avoid cracking.
d) Finally, if post-heating is not desirable for practical reasons, the ultimate solution consists in using an
austenitic stainless steel or nickel alloy filler metal (which "traps" the hydrogen in the weld pool where
the structure is not brittle). This solution may however limit the operating properties of the assembly in
relation to the initial properties of the parent metals.
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COURBES
COLDDE FISSURATION
CRACKING A FROID
GRAPHS DEPOT
WELD SUR TOLE
ON SHEET MATERIAL
θi = 25°C tr (800-500°C)
0 10 20 30 40 50
E 335
5000
σ N / mm²
500
non-cracking limitfissuration
limite de non 10000
400 R
F e = 7 mm
Re 15000
NF
300
20000
200
25000
100 e = 10 mn
30000
5 10 15 s e = 15 mn
35000
tr ( 800-500 )
40000 e = 20 mn
soudage
welding avec
with électrodes
basic electrodes
E e = 30 mn
basiques J/ cm
PRE- AND POST-HEATING

CONDITION CONDITIONS
DE PRE ET POST CHAUFFAGE
X 10 Cr Mo 5
Contrainte en N / mm² X 10 Cr Mo 5
500
Soudage à froid
Soudage homogène Avec électrode "basique" Cr = 5% traitées
2h à 350°C puis conservées en étuve à 150°C
jusqu'au moment de l'emploi. 500 Welding
Soudagewith basic
avec electrodes
electrode basique
Soudage Hétérogéne
Avec électrodes "austénitiques rutilo-basiques"
Cr : 24% - Ni : 12% non traitées.
heat-treated for 2 het
traitée 2h à 350°C atétuvée
350 °C and
400 ( ZF = CFC ) Avec électrodes "basiques" Cr = 15% - Ni = 74%
traitées. stored
à150°C at jusqu'à
150 °C emloi
until use.
450
CRACKING TEST
ESSAI DE FISSURATION
300
NF Dureté sous cordon with
AvecE/cm = 20
E/cm kJ/cm forsur
= 20kJ/cm thick
Ep==20 mm
20mm
F
NF
400 σ = 220 N/mm²
NF
200
NF F
350
100
125° F NF
Limite de non fissuration 300
NF tr en s ( 800-500°C )
2 5 10 15 20
100° F F F NF
15mn 30mn 45mn

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2.3.6. Conclusion
Cold cracking is a serious problem, for which the conditions of occurrence are frequently encountered in
welding: quenching steel + process which releases hydrogen + restrained assembly = likelihood of cold
cracking.
Whenever a situation conducive to cracking is encountered, it is imperative to take preventive measures

with respect to the welding process.
For non alloyed steels, compliance with the minimum linear welding energy level and the possible use of
pre-heating are the main methods for avoiding cold cracking. The pre-heating temperatures which can
be achieved in practice fall within the range 100 to 300 °C.
For alloyed steels, which are more quenchable, it is frequent to have to resort to pre-heating at least, and
in some cases to pre- and post-heating. The post-heating temperatures which can be achieved in
practice fall within the range 75 to 300 °C. The post-heating times are most often spread between 15 and
90 minutes. It should be noted that post-heating does not prevent quenching, which often results in the
need for performing tempering heat treatment after welding in order to avoid the susceptibility to
in-service brittle fracture of the welds.
Steels susceptible to cold cracking may also be welded without pre- or post-heating, by using either
austenitic (stainless steel) or nickel alloy filler metal. This method is not often used as the service
properties of the weld are diminished in relation to a homogeneous assembly.
2.4. AGEING
2.4.1. Introduction
Ageing corresponds to a loss in ductility (embrittlement) which affects the material gradually with time.
Usually, embrittlement appears after a certain period of use whereas the initial properties of the steel
were quite satisfactory.
The time required for embrittlement to occur depends on the operating temperature of the steel. In
general, it is considered that ageing begins to occur after:
− a few months (or years), at ambient temperature,
− a few minutes (or tens of minutes), at around 250°C.
2.4.2. Principal steels concerned
Ageing occurs mainly with non alloyed « conventional » steels (such as S235) whose structure consists
essentially of ferrite.
2.4.3. Description of the phenomenon
The ductile-brittle transition temperature as measured by a notch impact toughness test increases as the
steel ages.
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For example, a rise in the transition temperature of + 200°C has been measured after severe ageing at
0 °C (i.e. K > 27D at 0°C initially and K > 27D at + 200°C after ageing).
Ageing takes place in the parent metal as well as in the welds.
2.4.4. Factors affecting ageing
Ageing is essentially caused by the gradual precipitation of iron nitrides (Fe4N) within the ferrite of the
steel.
The solubility of nitrogen in ferrite is very low at ambient temperature, and relatively fast cooling may trap
excessive nitrogen in the ferrite. As this nitrogen is gradually rejected by the ferrite, it forms nitrides. This
process is slower if the temperature is low.
In practice, the factors affecting the precipitation of nitrides are:
− a nitrogen content in excess of 0.01% to exceed the nitrogen solubility limit in ferrite,
− that the steel has been subjected to normalising heat treatment, as the cooling is fast enough to trap
an excess of nitrogen in the ferrite.
In practice, the precipitation of iron nitrides is not sufficient on its own to generate severe ageing. The
steel must also have been work hardened (e.g. during a forming operation) for the ageing intensity to be
at a maximum (remember that work hardening itself results in a loss of ductility). In this respect, work
hardening also constitutes a factor affecting ageing.
2.4.5. Ageing prevention
a) For the parent metal
Non-alloyed « conventional » steels are not subject to ageing if:
• their nitrogen content is low (less than 0.01% nitrogen),
• they contain elements such as aluminium which form non-embrittling nitrides in preference to iron
nitrides (this requires more than 0.02% aluminium).
The sensitivity of the parent metal can therefore be evaluated quite simply by chemical analysis of the
steel.
b ) For the weld
As the likelihood of ageing is proportional to the nitrogen content, it is essential to limit the introduction of
this element into the weld pool. This involves:
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• prohibiting the use of protection gases containing nitrogen, for the welding non-alloyed steels.
• the need to provide effective protection of the weld pool from the ambient air, which contains
approximately 80% nitrogen (weld with a short arc to reduce the introduction of air into the
welding arc, perfectly protecting the welding process from draughts when using TIG / MIG / MAG
processes etc.).
2.5. LAMELLAR TEARING
2.5.1. Introduction
Lamellar tearing is a cracking mode which affects "low" quality steels. As a result, lamellar tearing is rare
since the quality level of modern steels is normally sufficient to prevent its occurrence. This type of
defect is encountered essentially when welding old steels, or low quality new steels.
As with cold cracking, the lamellar tearing develop during cooling of the welds.
2.5.2. Principal steels concerned
Lamellar tearing generally affects non-alloyed steels in the form of thick plate.
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The cracks propagate under fillet welds, in the heat affected zone or in the parent metal.
They advance in "footsteps" along the grain flow pattern.
The tears which break the surface exhibit a ligneous (or lamellar) appearance, similar to "rotten wood",
which gives rise to the term lamellar tearing.
2.5.4. Factors affecting lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing of fillet welds is the combined effect of two factors:
– low tensile strength of the steel in the short transverse direction,
– the accumulation of residual welding stresses (which exceed the tensile strength of the steel in the
short transverse direction).
We have already seen that residual welding stresses are affected by the degree of restraint combined
with the thickness, built-in joints, etc. For this reason, lamellar tearing is most prevalent in heavy gauge
materials.
The lack of tensile strength of the steel in the short transverse direction is due to excessive inclusions
resulting from inadequate purity of the steel. The inclusions concerned are generally manganese
sulphides, which are flattened in the longitudinal direction in flat materials. In extreme cases, these
inclusions may cause "delamination" of the steel. In such cases, the steel is like a book: strong
longitudinally and transversally, but which opens easily in the thickness direction. This is the reason why
lamellar cracking principally affects fillet welds, since these load the metal in the thickness (short
transverse) direction.
2.5.5. Prevention of lamellar tearing
In new manufacture, the best protection from lamellar tearing consists in checking the quality level of the
steel. When fillet welds are to be performed, which exhibit a high degree of restraint, two solutions
should be considered to avoid lamellar tearing:
– choose a steel grade whose properties are guaranteed in the short transverse direction. Construction
steels described as "having improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the
product" satisfy this requirement. They are standardised and are designated by quality classes Z15,
Z25, Z35 (the higher the index, the greater the resistance of the steel to lamellar tearing),
– on receipt of the steels , check their inclusion content by ultrasonic non-destructive testing. This type
of test is quite simple to perform. It is conducted using thickness measuring apparatus, taking
readings at regular intervals over the surface of the product concerned..
When performing repairs or modifying old constructions, it may be necessary to fillet weld on thick
material sensitive to lamellar tearing (this situation sometimes occurs also with new constructions).
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In such cases, a special welding procedure must be used: "buttering" must be performed in the zone
where the fillet weld is to be performed, on the product which is subject to lamellar tearing. Buttering
consists in surfacing the steel by welding, in several layers, to a thickness of at least 5 mm.
The buttering is intended to establish a "base layer. This acts like the foundations of a building
constructed on unstable ground.
– either directly on the surface, as a metal build-up,
– or in a groove providing a flush surface, without any build-up.
2.6. REHEATING CRACKS
2.6.1. Introduction
As with lamellar tears, reheat cracking occurs essentially in low quality steels. For this reason, it is quite
rare, because the quality level of modern steels is sufficient to avoid it.
Contrary to cold cracking or lamellar tearing, reheat cracking of a weld bead does not occur when the
weld is being produced. It occurs when the bead is reheated (hence its name), essentially during heat
treatment after welding.
Reheating welding may also be experienced during multiple pass welding, as the beads already
produced are reheated by the application of subsequent passes.
2.6.2. Principal steels affected
Reheat cracking mainly affects low alloyed steels containing chrome + molybdenum or chrome +
molybdenum + vanadium.
These steels generally require tempering after welding, as they are highly quenchable.
The reheat cracks initiate in the heat affected zone, and possibly also in the weld zone.
Their special feature being that they propagate along the grain boundaries of the steel.
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2.6.4. Factors affecting reheat cracking
Reheat cracking occurs as a result of two main factors:
– embrittlement of the steel at the grain boundaries which occurs during reheating, between 350 and
700°C approximately,
– residual welding stresses which exceed the breaking strength at the embrittled grain boundaries.
We have already seen that the welding stresses are all the higher if the degree of restraint of the weld is
severe. The intensity of the residual welding stresses is therefore determined by the configuration of the
welded joint (beware of heavy sections, built-in ends, etc.).
Embrittlement of the steel is principally caused by the accumulation of certain impurities at the grain
boundaries: mainly phosphorus (P), but also sulphur (S) and possibly a few other impurities. In other
words, the higher the impurity content of chrome + molybdenum (+ vanadium) alloyed steels, the more
likely they are to be affected by reheat cracking.
2.6.5. Prevention of reheat cracking
The welding of a highly restrained steel, requiring heat treatment after welding, may be undertaken
without any worry of reheat cracking providing that the impurity content of the steel is moderate.
Well before welding, it is therefore recommended to check the chemical composition of the material, in
particular regarding the phosphorus content, in order to avoid or to limit the welding of chrome +
molybdenum (+ vanadium) alloy steels whose impurity content approaches or exceeds the maximum
values specified in the reference standard for the product (e.g. 0.030% phosphorus).
Remark: In view of the potential risk of reheat cracking of such steels, it is advisable to perform non
destructive testing of the welds once the heat treatment is complete.
2.7. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONCERNING WELDABILITY OF STEELS
2.7.1. Weldability of fine grain non-alloyed steels
Fine grain non-alloyed steels have carbon contents which are low enough to avoid any danger of cold
cracking in the heat affected zone.
Beware however if the weld zone is required to exhibit the same mechanical strength as the parent
metal. The weld zone in fact requires a higher carbon content than the parent metal in order to achieve
equivalent strength (as it does not benefit from the same special elaboration conditions as the base
metal in order to obtain a fine grain structure). As a result of this, the danger of cold cracking migrates to
the weld zone, making it necessary to take all the necessary precautions (checking of the hydrogen
content and controlling the cooling times).
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It should be noted that it is not always required that the strength of the weld metal be equal to that in the
parent metal. In particular, fillet welds may be performed using filler metal which provides less strength.
To counter this, the depth of the fillet weld groove should be increased accordingly so that the size of the
weld can offset its lower mechanical properties.
In view of their elaboration quality, these steels are theoretically immune to lamellar tearing.
2.7.2. Weldability of nickel steels for low temperature applications
Nickel steels for use in low temperatures have relatively low carbon content in order to limit the formation
of brittle martensite in the heat affected zone. For this reason, they are virtually immune to cold cracking.
The main metallurgical difficulty presented by welding of these steels is to achieve adequate impact
strength in the weld, if possible equal to that of the parent metal. To achieve this, it is essential to reduce
the time spent at high temperature in order to limit the grain growth due to overheating. This involves
welding with a low linear energy level, without preheating, or just using "tepefaction" (warming to less
than 100 °C) on heavy gauge materials.
Steels containing up to 3.5% nickel (e.g.: 12Ni14) may be welded using filler metal of the same grade as
the parent metal (homogeneous welding). On the other hand, welds in steels with a higher nickel content
(e.g.: X7Ni9) cannot achieve the necessary impact strength using homogeneous welding (due to the
coarse structure in the weld zone). These grades require the use of an austenitic stainless steel filler
metal (or nickel alloy), whose natural impact strength is greater (due to their cubic face centred
structure).
3. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS
3.1. PRESENTATION OF STAINLESS STEELS
The term "stainless steel" applies to high-alloy steels, whose corrosion resistance is enhanced due to the
presence of at least 10.5% chrome.
The corrosion resistance of these steels results from the formation of a film of chrome oxide which
naturally covers the metal and protects it when it is in an oxidising medium. This protective oxide layer
constitutes a barrier against attack of the metal by a large number of chemicals.
In practice, the oxide layer forms naturally at ambient temperature when the steel is exposed to air,
which is how it came to be called stainless, as it very quickly stops oxidising in this ambient medium and
preserves its metallic appearance.
However, stainless steel loses its corrosion resistance as soon as the protecting oxide is unable to form
properly. This may happen for example:
– following surface contamination. Projection of non-alloy steel by grinding is a typical case,
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– following the formation of certain non-protective oxides (coloured oxides), by welding or heat
treatment.
In other words, the implementation of stainless steels requires special precautions regarding clean
surfaces. In the event of doubt, degreasing and stripping (or decontamination) are performed
systematically prior to commissioning. Stripping consists in superficial dissolving of the metal to strip it
bare, most often performed by dipping it in a bath of highly corrosive acids. This operation may be
followed by "passivation" which intended to build up a reinforced coating of oxide by placing the metal in
a relatively oxidising medium. If the surface of the stainless steel has merely been contaminated by the
projection of ordinary steel, decontamination may be used in place of stripping. Decontamination is
performed under the same conditions as passivation, the ordinary steel is dissolved by the oxidising
medium. These operations are followed by a thorough rinse in demineralised water.
In order to remove the coloured oxides formed during welding, the surface may be cleaned
mechanically, in particular by brushing with a stainless steel brush used exclusively for that purpose.
In addition to chrome, these steels are often alloyed to a multitude of other elements. The presence of
certain items increases corrosion resistance (this is the case for molybdenum with respect to corrosion
by chlorides) whereas other elements enhance the mechanical properties. In all cases, the chemical
composition of a stainless steel provides it with metallurgical properties. In particular we shall see how
the structure of these steels is the direct consequence of their chemical composition, thus enabling
stainless steels to be classified into four main categories:
– martensitic steels,
– ferritic steels,
– austenitic steels,
– austeno-ferritic steels.
3.2. METALLURGICAL ROLES OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
In addition to iron, chrome and carbon, stainless steels often contain other elements such as nickel,
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, silicon, nitrogen, vanadium, aluminium, copper, boron, etc.
These elements are intended to enhance certain operating properties of stainless steels. First and
foremost, they affect the structure of the steels through four main actions:
– quenching action,
– alphagenous action,
– gammagenous action,
– carburigenous action.
3.2.1. Quenching action
The quenching action promotes the formation of martensite. It is the result of increased quenchability
which is proportional to the content of carbon + alloying elements (in the case of non- and low-alloyed
steels, the quenching action is evaluated by calculating its carbon equivalent).
Virtually all alloying elements have a quenching action.

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3.2.2. Alphagenous action
The alphagenous action manifests itself by a rise in the ferrite to austenite transformation temperature.
This results in an increase in the temperature range in which the structure of the steel is ferritic. This
effect is proportional to the content of alphagenous elements, to such an extent that if the steel contains
sufficient alphagenous elements then its structure remains ferritic from ambient temperature right up to
melting of the metal, without any austenitic transformation taking place.
If the alphagenous element content is insufficient to prevent austenitic transformation, the alloying
elements present increase the quenchability of the steel (which results in martensitic structures). If on
the other hand the alphagenous element content is sufficient to prevent austenitic transformation, the
same alloying elements make the steel ferritic, without any chance of forming any other type of structure,
since no transformation can be produced (the ferrite appears as soon as solidification occurs and
remains at all temperatures of the solid metal).
The following is a list of elements which have an alphagenous action in steels: CHROME (Cr),
MOLYBDENUM (Mo), SILICON (Si), TITANIUM (Ti), NIOBIUM (Nb), ALUMINIUM (Al), TUNGSTEN (W),
ZIRCONIUM (Zr).
3.2.3. Gammagenous action
Gammagenous action is contrary to alphagenous action, as it manifests itself by a reduction in the

transformation temperature from ferrite to austenite. This results in an increase in the temperature range
within which the structure of the steel is austenitic. This effect is proportional to the gammagenous
element content, such that a steel which contains sufficient gammagenous elements may exhibit a totally
austenitic structure at ambient temperature.
If the gammagenous element content is inadequate to prevent transformation of the austenite, the
alloying elements present reinforce the quenchability of the steel (this leads to martensitic structures).
However, if the gammagenous element content is sufficient to prevent transformation of the austenite,
the same alloying elements make the steel austenitic, without any chance of forming any other type of
structure, since no transformation can be produced.
The following is a list of the elements which have a gammagenous action in steels: NICKEL (Ni),
CARBON (C), NITROGEN (N), COPPER (Cu), COBALT (Co), MANGANESE (Mn).
3.2.4. Carburigenous action
Carburigenous action manifests itself by the formation of carbides. The carburigenous elements exhibit a
great affinity for the carbon in steel, with which they combine to form carbides.
The following is a list of carburigenous elements in decreasing order of affinity for carbon: NIOBIUM
(Nb), TITANIUM (Ti), CHROME (Cr), IRON (Fe).
From this classification, it can be seen that iron is the least carburigenous. The result of this is that:
– in an iron + chrome + carbon alloy, the chrome takes precedence in forming carbides
– in an iron + chrome + carbon + titanium alloy, the titanium takes precedence in forming carbides.
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3.2.5. Application to welds
We have seen that the structure of a high alloy steel varies according to its chemical composition,
according to the degree of quenchability, alphagenous and gammagenous effects. In other words, a
stainless steel may exhibit either:
– a martensitic structure,
– a ferritic structure,
– an austenitic structure,
– an intermediate structure formed of a mixture of the above different constituents.
In the weld zone of stainless steels, the composition charts enable the structure to be determined in
accordance with the composition of the alloy to be elaborated by the welder. The best known of these is
the Schaeffler diagram: this shows the constitution of the weld zone at ambient temperature in relation to
its actual composition. It applies to stainless steel welds performed in a single pass by the electric arc
process.
The effect of alphagenous elements is provided on the horizontal axis by the chrome equivalent
equation: Creq = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5(%Si) + 0.5(%Nb).
The higher the chrome equivalent, the stronger the alphagenous action (which encourages a ferritic
structure).
The effect of gammagenous elements is provided on the vertical axis by the nickel equivalent equation:
eqNi = %Ni + 30(%C) + 0.5(%Mn).
The higher the nickel equivalent, the stronger the gammagenous action (which encourages an austenitic
structure).
Equivalent Ni
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE
+ 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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The Schaeffler diagram cannot be applied directly to parent metals as it does not take into account the
heat treatment performed on certain alloys (for example, tempering heat treatment of martensite
transforms the martensite into ferrite and carbides).
Remarks:
In order to take into account the presence of certain elements, the Schaeffler diagram may be used with
more accurate chrome and nickel equivalent equations, such as the Espy formulae which include the
gammagenous effect of nitrogen.
Other diagrams predict more accurately the austenitic and ferritic structures (Delong and WRC
diagrams).
3.3. STAINLESS STEEL PARENT METALS
3.3.1. Martensitic steels
These steels correspond mainly to iron + chrome + carbon alloys whose chrome content are generally
between 10.5 % and 17 %, with a maximum carbon content of around 1 %, often limited to about 0.20 %
C for the grades intended for welded constructions (they may also contain other alloying elements such
as molybdenum, vanadium, nickel, etc.).
Examples of grades: X12Cr13, X20Cr13, X105CrMo17.
These steels are austenitic at high temperature and become martensitic as they cool. In view of their
chrome and carbon contents, they are highly quenchable: the martensitic transformation takes place
even with slow cooling.
The higher their carbon content, the harder and more brittle they are.
Martensitic stainless steels are supplied in the quenched and tempered, or annealed condition.
Their main properties are as follows:

– high yield strength and hardness value (the yield strength may exceed 1,500 N/mm²),
– good creep resistance (for operating temperatures below the austenitic transformation temperature),
– average corrosion resistance,
– very low ductility.
They are used for manufacturing parts which demand high mechanical strength and/or average
corrosion resistance. One of their common applications is for the manufacture of knife blades. They are
also used in the manufacture of hydroelectric turbines for use in fresh water. These steels cannot be
used for applications where high ductility or good corrosion resistance are required.
Note concerning operating temperatures: Martensitic stainless steels must not be used within the
following temperature ranges:
– at low temperatures (e.g. below 0°C) as they become brittle,
– between 350 and 500 °C as they form brittle compounds,
– beyond the temperature at which austenitic transformation begins (around 800 to 900 °C depending
on the chemical composition).
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3.3.2. Ferritic steels
These steels correspond to alloys which are naturally rich in alphagenous elements (chrome + possibly
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, zirconium, aluminium) and poor in gammagenous elements (carbon,
nickel, nitrogen). Depending on the relative content of alphagenous and gammagenous elements, two
categories of ferritic steels can be distinguished:
– "semi-ferritic" steels – these are medium rich in alphagenous elements (10.5 to 18% chrome) and
contain a small amount of gammagenous elements (up to 0.08% carbon and 1.5% nickel). As a
result of this, they are subject to a partial austenitic transformation on heating and consequently a
partial martensitic transformation on cooling. These grades are known as semi-ferritic, since their
structure after cooling consists of ferrite and martensite. They require tempering heat treatment.
– pure ferritic steels – these are richer in alphagenous elements (16 to 30% chrome and molybdenum
or titanium, niobium, aluminium, zirconium) and poor in gammagenous elements (0.03% carbon
maximum). These steels are entirely ferritic in the solid state, irrespective of temperature. They are
supplied in the annealed condition.
Examples of grades:
- (semi-ferritic) X2CrNi12, X6Cr13,
- (ferritic) X2CrMoTi18-2, X2CrNbZr17.

- good corrosion resistance (generally proportional to their chrome content),
- relatively high yield strength (from 200 to more than 500 N/mm²),
- good creep resistance for certain grades (grade X2CrMoTi29-4 may be subject to creep)
- moderate ductility (which deteriorates rapidly if the grain size is large).
Remark: Steel-makers elaborate fine-grain ferritic stainless steels by using work hardening and
recrystallisation processes. This involves considerable "cold" work, which is only possible with thin
gauge material. For this reason, ferritic stainless steels are only available as thin sheet, whose thickness
is less than 5 mm.
They are used for manufacturing parts which demand corrosion resistance and possibly high
temperature resistance (household electrical goods, immersion heaters, railway carriage trim, motor
vehicle exhaust systems, smoke stacks, etc.).
Note on operating temperatures: Ferritic stainless steels should not be used within the following
temperature ranges:
– low temperatures (e.g. below 0 °C) as they become brittle,
– between 350 and 500 °C as they form brittle compounds,
– beyond 800 to 900 °C to avoid embrittlement due to grain growth by overheating (apart from certain
grades which are suitable for high temperature applications).
3.3.3. Austenitic steels
These steels correspond to alloys of iron + chrome + nickel + carbon. They may also contain other
elements such as molybdenum, titanium, niobium, nitrogen, etc. Their austenitic structure is obtained by
the gammagenous effect of nickel, whose content is generally equal to at least 8 %. The contents of the
alloying elements are approximately as follows:
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CHROME NICKEL CARBON MOLYBDENUM
16 to 25% 8 to 35% 0.01 to 0.20% 1 to 6%
Examples of grades: X2CrNi18-9, X2CrNiMo17-12-2, X10CrNi18-8.
These steels are not subject to transformation, i.e. they are austenitic at high temperature (similar to non
alloyed steels) and remain so down to very low temperatures (below – 200 °C) providing the steel
contains sufficient gammagenous elements.
According to their content of gammagenous and alphagenous elements, austenitic steels may exhibit a
mixed structure consisting of austenite and ferrite. The ferrite content ranges from 0 to 25%.

– good corrosion resistance,
– excellent ductility (the cubic face centred crystalline structure is not subject to brittle fracture),
– good creep resistance,
– moderate yield strength (from 200 to more than 350 N/mm² in the hyper-quenched condition).
In view of their properties, austenitic steels are in widespread industrial use:

– either for their corrosion resistance (industrial applications involving the use of corrosive products),
– or for their creep resistance, i.e. their high temperature tensile strength (e.g. applications in ovens),
– or for their absence of brittle behaviour at very low operating temperatures (cryogenic applications
involving liquid gases).
Austenitic stainless steels used for their corrosion resistance are supplied in the hyper
quenched condition.
Hyper-quenching corresponds to heating to between 1,000 and 1,100°C, followed by a water quench.
The reason for the importance of this treatment is as follows:
At around 1,000 to 1,100°C, the steel is entirely austenitic. Below 900 to 800°C, the solubility limit of
carbon in austenite becomes very low, which results in the formation of carbides.
austenite austenite + carbides

(temperature)
(1,100 °C) (800 °C)
During welding, the carbides appear within the 800-500 °C temperature range, at the austenite grain
boundaries.
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Our steel contains iron, chrome, nickel

and carbon. The carbon combines with θ
the most carburigenous element, i.e. the γ
chrome, to form chrome carbides Cr23C6
(the chrome initially in solution in the
austenite is found in the form of carbides γ ++ carbure
at the grain boundaries). The austenite is carbide
then "dechromed": it has lost chrome in
the region of the grain boundaries. Since
the corrosion resistance is provided by the
chrome, this results in the steel being
subject to INTERGRANULAR %C
CORROSION.
Several solutions are available to Austenitic
Acier steel bypar
austénitique hyper-quenching
hypertrempe
overcome intergranular corrosion in
service:
précipitation
precipitation ofdecarbide
carbure
1) hyper-quenching avoids the formation au
on réchauffage
re-heating
of carbides. The steel is heated to nécéssité d'une
need for stabilisation
between 1,000 and 1,100 °C to (Ti.Nb)
stabilisation ( Ti . Nb )
solutionise the carbon in the austenite,
then it is quenched so that the carbides Acier
steel isstable
stablesans addition
without stabilisante
stabilising additives
no longer have time to form. Thus the
carbon remains trapped in the
austenite. SOLUBILITY OF CARBON IN Ni-Cr
SOLUBILITE DU CARBONE DANS LES
AUSTENITESAUSTENITIC STEELS
AU Ni . Cr ( aciers type 18-8 )
2) many grades of austenitic stainless
steel have a low carbon content
(C < 0.03%) so that the austenite can contain all the carbon without the need to form carbides,
3) among the grades which contain more than 0.03% carbon, some contain titanium or niobium which
are more carburigenous than chrome and form TiC or NbC carbides instead of Cr23C6 (therefore
avoiding dechroming). These grades are termed "stabilised".
Note on operating temperatures:

We have seen that austenitic stainless steels are used in a wide range of temperatures, from very low
temperatures, up to high temperatures (there are grades suited to the various temperatures).
However, austenitic stainless steels chosen for their corrosion resistance (irrespective of their operating
temperatures) without exception must not be heated to between 500 and 800 °C (by welding, heat
treatment or operational environments) without first checking their behaviour with respect to intergranular
corrosion.
Remark: Contrary to other steels, austenitic steels are non-magnetic. This particular property is specific
to grades which are free from ferrite and which are in the hyper-quenched condition.
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3.3.4. Austeno-ferritic steels (also called "DUPLEX" steels)
These steels correspond to alloys of iron + chrome + nickel + molybdenum + nitrogen (+ carbon). They
may also contain elements such as copper, tungsten, etc. The proportion of gammagenous elements to
alphagenous elements provides a mixed structure consisting of approximately 50% austenite and 50%
ferrite. The contents of the main alloying elements are as follows:
CHROME NICKEL MOLYBDENUM NITROGEN CARBON
21 to 28% 3.5 to 8% 0.10 to 4% 0.05 to 0.35% < 0.03%
Examples of grades: X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4.
These steels exhibit a ferritic solidification structure. On cooling, the solidification ferrite gradually
transforms to austenite, reaching a proportion of about 50% austenite at around 1,000 to 1,100 °C. At
lower temperatures, the proportion of austenite tends to increase further.
These steels are supplied in the hyper-quenched condition, as is the case with austenitic steels. Hyper-
quenching enables the required proportions of ferrite and austenite to be achieved: around 50% of each
constituent at around 1,100 to 1,000 °C, which is sustained down to ambient temperature by a water
quench, which does not leave sufficient time for the ferrite to continue its transformation to austenite as it
cools.
The structures of these steels are not in equilibrium, which means that re-heating will modify them.

– very good corrosion resistance,
– relatively high yield strength (from 400 to over 550 N/mm²),
– average ductility due to the partly ferritic structure.
They are used in the manufacture of items requiring good corrosion resistance, combined with relatively
high mechanical strength.
Note on operating temperatures: Austeno-ferritic stainless steels should not normally be used within the
following temperature ranges:
– at low temperatures (e.g. below - 40°C) as the ferrite is subject to brittle behaviour,
– above 350 °C as this forms brittle compounds.
3.3.5. Additional information on the embrittlement of stainless steels
In presenting the various parent metals, we have mentioned several situations which cause
embrittlement of stainless steels by the formation of brittle compounds or by grain growth. A general view
is provided below of the main possible cases.
a) Martensitic steels: embrittlement by tempering heat treatment at between 350 and 500 °C
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b) Ferritic steels:
– embrittlement due to extended exposure to temperatures between 350 and 500 °C,
– embrittlement by heat treatment at temperatures beyond about 900 to 1,000 °C.
c) Austeno-ferritic steels: embrittlement due to extended exposure to temperatures of between 350 and
500 °C.
d) For certain ferritic, austenitic and austeno-ferritic steels: embrittlement by heat treatment at
temperatures between 500 and 900 °C if the chrome equivalent of the steel (calculated using the
Schaeffler equations) provides a result greater than about 20.
3.4. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS
3.4.1. Weldability of martensitic (and semi-ferritic) steels
Martensitic stainless steels (and to a lesser extent semi-ferritic steels INEVITABLY PRODUCE A
MARTENSITIC STRUCTURE in the HAZ (as well as in the WM if the weld is homogeneous, i.e.
produced without the use of filler metal, or using similar filler metal to the parent metal).
The higher the carbon content of the martensite, the more brittle it is.
As a result, these steels have a natural tendency to COLD CRACKING. This phenomenon, which has
been described with respect to non-alloyed and low alloyed steels, is all the more worrying if the carbon
content is high. For this reason, welding of martensitic steels is normally limited to grades whose carbon
content is no more than 0.20%.
Equivalent Ni LIKELIHOOD OF COLD CRACKING ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM

30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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Welding of these steels usually should include the following operations in the welding process:
– pre- and post-heating of martensitic stainless steels whose carbon content is in the vicinity of 0.10%,
– pre- and post-heating immediately followed by tempering heat treatment (without letting the weld cool
to ambient temperature before heat treatment) for steels whose carbon content is in the region of
0.20%.
Another solution consists in employing austenitic stainless steel or a nickel alloy as the filler metal, to
prevent cold cracking, without pre- or post-heating. The weld is then said to be heterogeneous.
After welding, it is generally necessary to perform tempering heat treatment (at around 750 °C) to
transform the martensite into ferrite, with a view to limiting the brittleness of the welded joint. This
arrangement is not necessary, however, in the event of heterogeneous joints.
3.4.2. Weldability of ferritic steels
Ferritic stainless steels are principally sensitive to embrittlement by grain growth following overheating
phenomena.
These steels are not subject to any metallurgical transformation, either by heating or by cooling, and
consequently no conventional heat treatment may be used to regenerate the structure. On the
contrary, any heating beyond 900 to 1,000 °C results in grain growth, especially if the time spent at
temperature is long or the number of heating cycles is large.
The only way to avoid embrittlement by grain growth is to limit as far as possible the time of exposure to
high temperatures, which in practice means welding using REDUCED LINEAR ENERGY WELDING.
LIKELIHOOD OF EMBRITTLEMENT BY GRAIN GROWTH

Equivalent Ni (OVERHEATING) ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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Contrary to martensitic steels, or even semi-ferritic steels, welding of ferritic steels must be performed
without pre-heating in order to avoid extending the exposure to high temperatures.
Heat treatment after welding is not suitable for these steels.
3.4.3. Weldability of austenitic steels
From the metallurgical point of view, welding of austenitic stainless steels presents two risks:
− increased sensitivity to intergranular corrosion,
− hot cracking.
a) Sensitivity to intergranular corrosion
We have seen that certain austenitic stainless steels may be made more sensitive to intergranular
corrosion by precipitation of chrome carbides, during welding.
If the welded joint is subjected to corrosion, it is essential to prevent the precipitation of chrome carbides
by the use of grades of parent metal and of filler metal which are either:
– low carbon (C% < 0.03),
− or stabilised (containing titanium or niobium).
A grade which forms chrome carbides may be used, providing the carbides can be solutionised by
hyper-quenching heat treatment after welding. However, such treatment is often impossible to achieve
for practical reasons (operational feasibility), economic reasons (cost of implementation), or mechanical
reasons (distortion of the parts).
b ) Hot cracking
b.1) Introduction
"Hot cracking" corresponds to cracks which form during solidification, and therefore at high temperature,
whence their name.
b.2) Description of the phenomenon
Hot cracks initiate in the weld zone, and sometimes in its immediate vicinity, where the entirely or partly
liquefied metal solidifies during welding.
Since these cracks form during solidification, they follow the orientation of the solidification grains.
As with cold cracks, they may or may not break the surface.
b.3) Factors affecting hot cracking
The essential factors which affect hot cracking are as follows:

– welding stresses during solidification,
– segregation.
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b.3.1) Welding stresses
We have seen that welding stresses are the result of the local heating effects inherent in welding,
together with the degree of restraint of the welded joint: the restraint acts against the shrinkage of the
metal in the welded region.
In the case of austenitic stainless steels, an aggravating factor is their expansion coefficient which is
much higher than in other steels (approximately 1.5 times that of a non alloyed steel). In other words, for
the same degree of restraint, an austenitic steel expands and contracts at a high amplitude, which
favours the accumulation of stresses.
b.3.2) Segregation
In an alloy which solidifies, the chemical elements do not all solidify at the same time: one could say, for
illustration purposes, that the "high solidification temperature elements" solidify first and that the " low
solidification temperature elements" solidify last. If the rate of solidification is extremely slow, diffusion
within the alloy allows the metal to "rehomogenise" so that when solidification is complete, the solid
metal is everywhere of the same composition.
On the other hand, if solidification is relatively fast, as is always the case in welding, the high
solidification temperature elements and the low solidification temperature elements do not have time to
diffuse homogeneously throughout the metal: the high temperature solidification elements remain
confined to the zones where solidification began (in the core of the grains) and the low solidification
temperature elements remain confined to those zones where solidification completed (particularly at the
grain boundaries). This separation of the chemical elements is known as segregation.
Austenitic stainless steels are particularly subject to segregation. The result of this is that during
solidification, low solidification temperature elements (sulphur, phosphorus, boron, copper, etc.) are
concentrated in the liquid, to such an extent that they form an alloy whose solidification temperature is
very low: in other words, the weld will finish solidification at a much lower temperature than that
expected, with a very slow rate of solidification.
In practice, segregation lowers the end of solidification temperature, this increases the temperature
range during which the alloy is partly solid and partly liquid.
b.4) Hot cracking mechanism
In the first instance, the welding stresses develop gradually as the weld cools. At the same time,
segregation lowers the end of solidification temperature in the weld, whilst maintaining at a lower
temperature the mixture of liquid and solid whose mechanical strength is very low.
If the solidification is entirely completed before the welding stresses equal the decohesion strength of the
liquid, then hot cracking cannot occur.
If solidification is not entirely completed at the moment when the welding stresses equal the decohesion
strength of the liquid, then hot cracking occurs by tearing of the metal which is still liquid.
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Equivalent
WELDINGNiOF AUSTENITIC
SOUDAGE DES INOX
STAINLESS STEELS
AUSTENITIQUES
Sensible
Subject to àhot
la cracking
fissuration
à chaud
MARTENSITE
Ségrégation
Segregation of d'Impuretés
impurities (S,(S.P.B)
P, B)
Film
Film still
Filmstill liquidliquide
liquid
encore at lower
at lower + basse θ°
temperature
à temperature
+ Welding
Contraintes
100% de soudage
stresses
= Fissuration
Hot crackingà chaud
Equivalent Ni LIKELIHOOD OF HOT CRACKING ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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b.5) Means of prevention of hot cracking
In order to combat the danger of hot cracking, it is essential to counter either the accumulation of welding
stresses, or the segregation, or both together.
In practice, it is found more effective to counter segregation. Although the austenite in stainless steels is
very subject to segregation, ferrite on the other hand is much less so. In fact, many austenitic steel
grades initially solidify as ferrite which subsequently transforms to austenite.
In arc welding, about 5 to 10% residual ferrite found in the weld zone after welding is indicative of ferritic
solidification (for the most commonly used austenitic steels).
Consequently, the sensitivity to hot cracking of a given parent metal or filler metal is predicted by plotting
it on a Schaeffler type diagram in order to check its ferrite content after welding.
Measurement of the ferrite content after welding also constitutes a means of checking the quality of the
weld: a minimum ferrite content guarantees freedom from sensitivity to hot cracking, on the other hand,
too much ferrite content is undesirable if it is required to preserve the characteristics inherent in
austenitic steels.
In certain circumstances, the absence of ferrite is essential in order to achieve optimum properties for
the weld (e.g. corrosion resistance). If such is the case, the stainless steel may be solidified in the
austenitic phase without danger of hot cracking providing that the content of "low solidification
temperature" elements is very low (in particular the content of sulphur + phosphorus must be less than
0.01%).
3.4.4. Weldability of austeno-ferritic steels
These stainless steels are characterised by a mixed structure, consisting of 50% austenite and 50%
ferrite. This structure contributes towards their mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
They are subject to metallurgical transformation and their structure varies according to the heat
treatment which they undergo. In particular, the correct proportion of austenite and ferrite in the parent
metal is achieved by a hyper-quenching process.
A U S TAUSTENO-FERRITIC
E N O - F E R R IT IQ U E
50% A ZAT : % A Zf : % A
mb :
50% F
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LIKELIHOOD OF SIGMA PHASE EMBRITTLEMENT AFTER HEAT

Equivalent Ni TREATMENT AT 500 TO 900 °C ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
Welding, through its heating effects, modifies the initial structure of the parent metal. The essential
difficulty with welding of austeno-ferritic steels therefore consists in controlling the welding heat cycles
(especially the cooling rates) in order to limit the structural variations in the HAZ and the WM in relation
to the parent metal.
In practice, this entails defining and complying with a given welding energy level, for example around
10 kJ/cm, and not exceeding a certain maximum temperature between passes (about 150°C maximum).
If the welded structures are not satisfactory, the optimum structure may be obtained by hyper-quenching
heat treatment after welding. In practice, however, it is rarely feasible to perform such treatment.
4. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR STEELS (HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS)
4.1. PRESENTATION OF HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS

A welded joint is said to be heterogeneous if it is performed with parent metals or filler metals of different
chemical composition.
There are many possible cases of heterogeneous joints:

– welding of two identical parent metal parts (A) with a different filler metal (B),
– welding of two different parent metal parts (A and B) with a filler metal corresponding to A or B,
– welding of two different parent metal parts (A and B) with a different filler metal C,
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– surfacing of a steel A with a filler metal B,

– welding of a clad steel (e.g. a non-alloyed steel clad with a layer of stainless steel).
4.2. PARTICULARITIES REGARDING WELDABILITY
Consider the welding of two different parent metals A and B using a filler metal.
From a metallurgical point of view, the welding process must cover three considerations:
1) Consideration of the weldability of metal A, with respect to the phenomena which may occur in the
HAZ of the material (cold cracking, lamellar tearing, re-heating cracking, embrittlement),
2) Consideration of the weldability of metal B, with respect to the phenomena which may occur in the
HAZ of the material,
3) Choice of the filler metal.
As the parent metals A and B are fully defined, their weldability is known and the welding conditions
specified must be suitable for both materials.
In the weld metal, the choice of filler metal must result in an

alloy which: EXEMPLES DE DILUTION
EXAMPLES OF DILUTION
– has mechanical properties at least equal to the lowest
performance parent metal,
– has the best possible weldability (or is at least as good
as the most difficult to weld parent metal).
After establishing the nature of this alloy, one must

determine how to achieve it in the weld zone. The alloy SAEE , TIG ,... d% = 10 à 30
which constitutes the weld zone results from the filler metal,
together with the dilution of the two parent metals. In other
words, the choice of filler metal cannot be dissociated from
the dilution in the weld.
It has been found that in heterogeneous welds, the dilution

is a predominant factor. To limit its consequences, it is
essential to REDUCE THE DILUTION. The result of this is
that welding processes which provide low dilution rates are
best suited to heterogeneous joints. This is the case, for
example, for arc welding with covered electrodes, TIG SAFP d% = 30 à 80
welding, MIG/MAG.
Remember that the dilution depends also on:

– preparation of the edges,
– the welding parameters,
– the welding position,
– the regularity of the filler metal supply.
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4.3. POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatments after heterogeneous welding are quite difficult and should be avoided. First of all
because the treatment must be compatible with all the materials present. Then because each material
may have a different expansion coefficient, leading to the accumulation of stresses and distortion during
heat treatment.
4.4. CASE STUDY
4.4.1. Welding of two dissimilar steels
Consider, for example, the welding of a grade S235 steel with a grade S355 steel.
Welding precautions:
The welding process must primarily satisfy the welding of steel S355 with respect to cold cracking
(minimum linear welding energy and possible preheating). Steel S235 does not present any major
metallurgical problem, in view of its low equivalent carbon content.
Choice of filler metal:
The filler metal normally used for steel S235 is adequate since it is steel S235 which limits the
mechanical strength of the joint. However, although steel S235 is usually welded using a welding
process involving a rutile flux, in this case it will be necessary to use a basic flux in order to reduce the
amount of hydrogen introduced into the weld with respect to the danger of cold cracking with steel S355.
The filler metal normally employed for steel S355 can also be used.
Post weld heat treatment:
A stress relief heat treatment may also be applied after welding.
4.4.2. Welding of two different low alloy steels
Consider, for example, the welding of two steels for operation at high temperature, one being grade
13CrMo4-5, the other being grade 10CrMo9-10.
The two steels are both prone to cold cracking. The welding process must primarily satisfy the weldability
of the steel with the highest carbon equivalent, in this case steel 10CrMo9-10 (pre- and post-heating may
be necessary).
The filler metal for grade 13CrMo4-5 is adequate, since it is grade 13CrMo4-5 which limits the
mechanical strength of the joint at high temperature and which provides the best weldability.
However, use of the filler metal normally employed with grade 10CrMo9-10 may also be suitable.
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Heat treatment after welding:
Tempering heat treatment is recommended after welding, as both steels are particularly quenchable.
4.4.3. Welding of a non-alloyed steel to a low alloy steel
Consider, for example, the welding of a non-alloyed steel of grade S355 to a low alloy steel of grade
25CrMo4.
Here again, the welding process must primarily consider the weldability of the steel which is most subject
to cold cracking, i.e. steel 25CrMo4 (a minimum linear welding energy with pre-heating or pre- and
post-heating may be necessary).
The filler metal for grade S355 is adequate, since it is grade S355 which limits the mechanical strength
of the joint and which provides the best weldability.
Use of the filler metal normally employed for grade 25CrMo4 may also be suitable. It however does have
a disadvantage in that it is prone to cold cracking.
Post-weld heat treatment:
A tempering heat treatment is recommended for steel 25CrMo4. This may also contribute towards
relieving the stresses in the joint.
4.4.4. Welding of two steels of which at least one is stainless
EXAMPLE No. 1:
Consider, for example the welding of a non-alloyed steel of grade S235 to an austenitic stainless steel of
grade X2CrNiMo17-12-2.
From the metallurgical point of view, neither of the two parent metals presents any particular weldability
problem in the HAZ (no danger of cold cracking for steel S235, no danger of sensitivity to intergranular
corrosion for steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2).
However, the welding of these two materials without the use of filler metal, would result in the elaboration
of a weld zone whose chrome equivalent (eqCr) and nickel equivalent (eqNi) when plotted on the
Schaeffler diagram, correspond to the martensite region. In other words, the mixture of the two parent
metals in the weld zone (without the use of filler metal) leads to a martensitic structure which is subject to
cold cracking. In such cases, the weldability is dependent on the correct choice of filler metal.
In order to guarantee the weldability in the weld metal, it is essential to avoid structures subject to "risk"
– risk of cold cracking if the structure is martensitic,
– risk of hot cracking if the structure is austenitic,
– risk of embrittlement by grain growth if the structure is ferritic.
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Practically speaking, the structure which is exempt from metallurgical problems in relation to the
Schaeffler diagram, is located around Creq=20 and Nieq=10. It consists of around 10% ferrite and
corresponds to the ideal weldability weld zone which must be aimed at.
Equivalent Ni GOOD WELDABILITY ZONE ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
Given the position on the Schaeffler diagram of the weld zone to be achieved, the next stage is to define
the position of the appropriate filler metal, based upon:
– the position of both parent metals on the diagram,
– the estimated dilution rate in the weld.
Once the position of the filler metal has been found on the Schaeffler diagram, simply check the supplier
catalogues to determine which is the most suitable filler metal. In our case, for a dilution rate of around
25%, a filler metal containing 24% chrome and 12% nickel is recommended.
Post weld heat treatment:
No post-weld heat treatment is suitable for this type of joint, due to the resulting distortion and stresses,
as well as the danger of embrittlement of stainless steels when they are held at between 500 and
900 °C.
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EXAMPLE No. 2:
This time consider welding of a martensitic stainless steel of grade X20Cr13 with a ferritic stainless steel
of grade X2CrTi17.
Martensitic steel is subject to cold cracking (it requires pre- and post-heating, possibly immediately
followed by tempering heat treatment).
Ferritic steel is subject to embrittlement by grain growth (it requires low linear welding energy and no
preheating). At first sight, the welding conditions for these two steels are contradictory.
For the weld zone to exhibit good weldability, we have seen that its structure must consist of austenite
with some ferrite (Creq of around 20 and Nieq of around 11). This type of weld zone also provides the
advantage of enabling martensitic steel to be welded without pre- or post-heating.
Thus the welding conditions for these two steels are compatible.
To find a suitable filler metal for this welding situation, it is necessary to follow the same reasoning as
that described in example No. 1.
This time, again for a dilution rate of around 25%, a filler metal containing around 18% chrome, 8%
nickel and 3% molybdenum is suitable.
Heat treatment after welding:
Heat treatment is not recommended after welding for this type of joint.
4.5. CASE OF WELDING OF STEELS TO NON FERROUS METALS
4.5.1. Introduction
Heterogeneous welds can be made between steels, whether they be non alloyed or alloyed, and non
ferrous metals. For example, it is possible to weld steel + nickel, as well as steel + copper. Other
heterogeneous joints cannot be achieved by fusion, this is true in the case of joints of steel + aluminium
or steel + titanium which form very brittle compounds when they mix together in the weld metal.
4.5.2. Case of a steel + nickel (or nickel alloy) weld
A weld between steel and nickel is achieved using a filler metal normally used for nickel. It is
recommended to limit the dilution (low energy welding in small passes) so that the weld zone retains
properties close to those of the nickel or alloy filler metal.
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4.5.3. Case of a steel + copper (or copper alloy) weld
This type of joint is more difficult to achieve by fusion welding, as the iron and the copper exhibit a
metallurgical incompatibility (the iron and copper must not be mixed together directly in the weld metal as
they form an alloy which has poor characteristics).
First of all, the face to be welded on the copper part must be coated with nickel (or nickel alloy) which is
compatible with copper. This operation, known as buttering, is achieved by welding with limited dilution.
Two layers of nickel are deposited such that the copper content is very low at the buttered surface.
Secondly, the weld is made between the steel and the nickel buttering under the conditions already
described for a steel + nickel weld.
Nickel buttering Nickel weld
Copper Steel
parent
filler
slag
coated metal
metal
electrode
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LEGENDES DES FIGURES
Page 10
TENEURS EN HYDROGENE DIFFUSIBLE PRODUITES PAR DIFFERENTS PROCEDES DE

SOUDAGE = DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN CONTENT PRODUCED BY VARIOUS WELDING
PROCESSES
15,5 et + = 15.5 and more
bas hydrogène si H diff < .... = low hydrogen if H diff < ...
2 normes = 2 standards
Cellulosiques = Cellulose
Rutiles = Rutile
Basiques = Basic
Norme BH = BH standard
ELECTRODES ENROBEES = COATED ELECTRODES
S / FLUX = SUBMERGED ARC
Fil fourré = cored wire
Fil nu = solid wire
Page 11 les tableaux dans les 3 figures :

remplacer les virgules (,) par des points (.) dans les teneurs.
Page 13 Figure en haut à droite

il faut remplacer les "e = X mn" par "thick = X mm"
Page 13 Figure en bas à gauche
Containte en N/mm² = Stress in N/mm²

Soudage homogène = Homogeneous welding
Soudage hétérogène = Heterogeneous welding
Dureté sous cordon = Hardness under weld bead
Limite de non fissuration = Non-cracking limit
tr en s = tr in s
soudage à froid = cold welding
LE RESTE EST ILLISIBLE
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.16 : INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION

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FORMATION INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION

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INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON CORROSION .................................................................... 3

2.1. Case of generalised corrosion of iron in an acid medium. ........................................... 3
2.1.1. Experiment/observation. ...............................................................................................3
2.1.2. Electrochemical definitions of iron and acid, notion of pH and of oxidising power .......3
2.1.3. Explanations. ................................................................................................................7
2.2. Practical consequences ............................................................................................... 8
3. IMMUNITY ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.1. Case of immunity of gold in an acid medium. .............................................................. 8
3.1.2. Explanations. ................................................................................................................8
3.2. Practical consequences ............................................................................................... 8
4. CATHODIC PROTECTION. ................................................................................................. 9
4.1. Case of cathodic protection of iron by zinc in an ACID medium.................................. 9
4.1.2. Explanations .................................................................................................................9
4.2. Practical application...................................................................................................... 9
4.3. Remark concerning electric current cathodic protection of iron in an acid medium .. 10
5. PASSIVATION/DEPASSIVATION ..................................................................................... 10
5.1. Case of passivation of stainless steel in an acid (example of nitric acid). ................ 10
5.1.1. Experiment/observation. .............................................................................................10
5.1.2. Explanations. ..............................................................................................................10
5.2. Case of generalised corrosion by depassivation of stainless steel in an
acid medium (example of sulphuric acid)................................................................... 11
5.2.1. Experiment/observation ..............................................................................................11
5.2.2. Explanation .................................................................................................................11
5.3. Case of local corrosion by depassivation of stainless steel in a
chlorinated medium. ................................................................................................... 12
5.3.1. Experiment/observation. .............................................................................................12
5.3.2. Explanation .................................................................................................................12
5.4. Other corrosion factors by depassivation of stainless steel ....................................... 12
5.4.1. Oxidising power effect (O2 in solution)........................................................................12
5.4.2. Temperature effect. ....................................................................................................13
5.5. Practical application, use of the corrosion tables....................................................... 13
5.5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................13
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5.5.2. Examples of media (assumed to be pure) for which there is no corrosion risk for
stainless steels ...........................................................................................................13
5.5.3. Examples of preferred stainless steels where the main corrosion risk is local
corrosion. ....................................................................................................................14
5.5.4. Examples of preferred stainless steels for media where the main risk is generalised
corrosion .....................................................................................................................14
5.5.5. Examples of media where the use of stainless steel is not recommended ................15
6. SUPPLEMENT ON THE VARIOUS TYPES OF CORROSION......................................... 16

6.1. Generalised corrosion. ............................................................................................... 16
6.1.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................16
6.1.2. Design precautions to be taken. .................................................................................16
6.2. Corrosion by pitting..................................................................................................... 16
6.2.1. Principle ......................................................................................................................16
6.3. Crevice corrosion........................................................................................................ 17
6.3.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................17
6.4. Stress (or tensile) corrosion ....................................................................................... 18
6.4.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................18
6.5. Intergranular corrosion ............................................................................................... 19
6.5.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................19
6.5.2. Explanation. ................................................................................................................19
6.5.3. Manufacturing precautions to be taken.......................................................................19
6.6. Galvanic corrosion...................................................................................................... 20
6.6.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................20
6.7. Abrasion corrosion...................................................................................................... 20
6.7.1. Principle. .....................................................................................................................20
6.7.2. Design/manufacturing precautions to be taken ..........................................................20
6.8. Dry corrosion .............................................................................................................. 21
6.8.1. Principle ......................................................................................................................21
7. STRIPPING AND PASSIVATION. ..................................................................................... 21

7.1. Principle. ..................................................................................................................... 21
7.2. Manufacturing precautions to be taken. ..................................................................... 22
8. CORROSION TESTING ..................................................................................................... 22
9. PRACTICAL CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 23

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1. INTRODUCTION
When a metallic part comes into contact with a chemically corrosive medium, if the metal is unable to
resist, there follows a deterioration of the surface which may spread throughout the metal, which is
known as corrosion.
This type of deterioration may be irretrievable.
These corrosive products are encountered in many industries and manufacturing processes, for instance
in the chemical industry or in the home, for liquid products, or in ovens, burners and smoke stacks for
gaseous products.
This manual is intended to describe and explain the essential mechanisms at work in corrosion, then to
specify the main precautions to be taken before, during and after manufacture, in order to avoid
corrosion.
2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON CORROSION
2.1. CASE OF GENERALISED CORROSION OF IRON IN AN ACID MEDIUM

2.1.1. Experiment/observation
GENERALISED CORROSION OF
An iron plate immersed in a bath of acid diluted with IRON BY AN ACID
water reacts as soon as it comes into contact with
the corrosive medium.
The iron plate gradually decomposes whilst giving
off a gas which can be seen rising to the surface of
the acid.
The iron is corroded by the acid.
Before explaining this phenomenon, it is worthwhile
to describe and explain a few notions in
« electrochemistry ».
2.1.2. Electrochemical definitions of iron and acid, notion of pH and of oxidising power
Electrochemical definitions of iron and acid
Iron consists of an aggregate of metallic atoms which are linked together and represented by Fe.
These atoms each consist of a nucleus, around which the electrons spin in various orbits, these are
represented by e- because they are electrically negatively charged.
The special characteristic of iron is that, as with all metallic atoms, it has few atoms in its most distant
orbit (< 3).
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Consequently, they can very easily become detached from the iron to produce what are known as
metallic ions represented by Fe2+ (as they are electrically positively charged).
The electrons which can be detached are called free
electrons, it is also said that iron oxidises. IONISATION
(OXIDATION)
With respect to acids, these products have the ability to
release « hydrogen ions » into water (H2O) when diluted
Fe Fen+
in it.
nucleus
Hydrogen is the smallest atom which can be found
naturally. It consists only of a nucleus and an electron. If it
loses its electron, it ionises in the form of hydrogen ions
represented by « H+ ».
We shall now see what makes acids corrosive (refer
to the notion of pH below).
Examples of acids :
Nitric acid HNO3 dissolves in water to form H+ and REDUCTION
-
NO3- H+ H
- Sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol H2SO4 dissolves in water

to form H+ and SO4-
- Hydrochloric acid HCl dissolves in water to form H+
and Cl-
You can see that acids also introduce a negative ion, such as Cl- in the case of hydrochloric acid.
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Notion of pH
The pH of a product corresponds to the quantity of H+
ions which it contains.
pH
The pH of an acid varies between 0 and 7, the Dissociation of water (H2O)
corrosive effect of a product increases as its pH
decreases (refer to oxidising power). H2O
An acid product also contains OH- ions in solution in

smaller quantities than the H+ ions.
When the pH is equal to 7, the medium is neutral (e.g. :
pure water, brandy). In this case, the number of H+ ions is
equal to the number of OH- ions.
Above pH 7 the medium is said to be basic, it is rich in
H+ > OH- = acid OH- > H+ = base
OH- ions and weak in H+ ions.
pH < 7 pH > 7
For example, ammonium hydroxide dissolves in water to
give a basic medium (NH4OH -> NH4+ + OH-).
Electron missing
Extra electron
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Notion of oxidising power

The positively charged H+ ions are able to capture the free electrons from many metals, such as
for example zinc or iron.
In such case, the electrons migrate from the element which constitutes the negative electric pole, for
example iron, to the element which constitutes the positive pole, in this case hydrogen.
In electrochemistry, we say that the hydrogen has a stronger oxidising power than iron.
It is important to note the following points :
¾ As the pH of an acid falls to less than 7 its oxidising power increases (since the amount of H+
increases).
¾ Other elements such as obviously oxygen have a high oxidising power.
¾ Oxidising power increases with temperature.
¾ The oxidising power of a product is measured in volts relative to another product, which is often
hydrogen. In such case we refer to the oxidation potential E/ENH.
¾ When electrons migrate, they generate an electric current which is measured in Amps.
OXIDISING POWER
Fe H+
Fen+ H
INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE
We can now explain the corrosion of iron by an acid, as well as other phenomena in the corrosion field,
which we shall see later.
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2.1.3. Explanation
When iron comes into contact with an acid, its free electrons are quickly attracted by the H+ ions, such
that it becomes ionised in the form: Fe -> Fe2+ + 2 e- (anodic reaction). We also say that the metal
oxidises.
Once ionised, the ions dissolve in water, for this reason one can observe the deterioration of the iron
called corrosion.
The hydrogen ions revert to their atomic form by absorbing electrons from the iron, we say that they
reduce.
More precisely, the hydrogen atoms revert to their atomic form by combining in pairs represented by H2.
which corresponds to the stable molecular gaseous form of hydrogen.
This is written : 2H+ + 2 e- -> H2 (cathodic reaction).
This is the reason one can observe a release of gas when a metal corrodes under the effect of an
acid.
The acid, which has a higher oxidising power, corrodes the iron by attracting its electrons in the
form of a current of electrons flowing from the iron to the acid.
This electric current corresponds to the number of electrons which the iron loses in a given period. It is
therefore representative of the rate of corrosion..
CORROSION PRINCIPLE (EXAMPLE OF AN ACID)
H+
Fe+
Water = H2O
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2.2. PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES
The practical consequences are obvious. When a metallic part comes into contact with a given medium,
it is essential to check :
¾ Either that the metal concerned is capable of resisting the medium if the latter is corrosive, (see
corrosion table at § 5.5,
¾ Or that suitable protection is provided with respect to corrosion (cathodic protection (refer to § 4.2),
corrosion overlay, (see corrosion table at § 5.5), paint…).
Additionally, in all cases it is also advisable to check that the design has taken into account the corrosion
risk (see the precautions to be taken for design and manufacture at § 6 and § 7).
3. IMMUNITY
3.1. CASE OF IMMUNITY OF GOLD IN AN ACID MEDIUM

A plate of gold immersed in water-diluted acid does not react in contact with the corrosive medium.
The gold is not corroded by the acid.
IMMUNITY OF GOLD OR COPPER IN ACID.

3.1.2. Explanation
Although gold is metallic, its free electrons are

sufficiently stable to resist being attracted by the H+
ions in the acid. Contrary to the situation with iron,
the gold ions are reduced in contact with the
hydrogen, and the latter oxidises Gold has a higher
oxidising power than hydrogen.
3.2. PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES
Certain metals are insensitive to corrosion by acids. They are called the noble metals.
For information, these are :
¾ gold, platinum and silver which are very rarely used, for obvious reasons.
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¾ copper, it should however be noted that copper is sensitive to certain basic products such as
ammonium hydroxide (refer to the notion of pH at § 2.1.2).
4. CATHODIC PROTECTION
4.1. CASE OF CATHODIC PROTECTION OF IRON BY ZINC IN AN ACID MEDIUM

A plate of iron and a plate of zinc, are connected together by an electric wire then immersed in a
bath of acid diluted in water, which react as follows :
¾ the iron plate does not corrode,
¾ the zinc plate gradually disintegrates and gives off a gas which can be seen rising to the
surface of the acid.
In fact as the zinc corrodes, it protects the iron from corrosion.
This phenomenon is called cathodic protection.
4.1.2. Explanation
The layer of free electrons in the iron is more stable than that in the zinc, so the latter, which becomes
negatively charged, oxidises thus providing electrons to the hydrogen ions from the acid.
Consequently, the zinc corrodes whilst at the same time protecting the iron.
Iron has a higher oxidising power than zinc.
4.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION

It is possible during manufacture to protect sensitive metals by connecting them electrically to other more
sensitive metals.
One can for example protect buried steel pipes (non-stainless iron-carbon alloy) from corrosion, by
connecting them electrically to zinc electrodes called sacrificial anodes.
In such case, it is important to install the electrical connection cables inside the zinc electrodes, to
ensure that the connections do not deteriorate in time due to corrosion of the zinc.
CATHODIC PROTECTION OF IRON BY ZINC

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4.3. REMARK CONCERNING ELECTRIC CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION OF IRON IN

AN ACID MEDIUM
It is also possible to protect a sensitive metal from

corrosion by passing an electric current between the
metal and the medium.
If the supply of electrons to the sensitive metal,

provided by the electric current, is sufficient to reduce +
the oxidising ions present in the corrosive medium, the
metal does not corrode. -
This arrangement is sometimes used for protecting the
inside of metallic tanks.
5. PASSIVATION/DEPASSIVATION
CATHODIC PROTECTION OF IRON

BY AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
5.1. CASE OF PASSIVATION OF STAINLESS

STEEL IN AN ACID
(EXAMPLE OF NITRIC ACID)
A stripped stainless steel plate, is immersed in a
bath of nitric acid 50% diluted with water, reacts PASSIVATION OF STAINLESS STEEL IN
initially by corroding slightly on the surface in contact NITRIC ACID.
with the corrosive medium, then ceases to react.
Stripped stainless steel, only corrodes very lightly
on the surface in the presence of nitric acid
diluted with water, then quickly becomes passive,
i.e. practically insensitive to corrosion.
5.1.2. Explanation
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron + carbon (generally
low carbon), whose chrome content is at least equal
to 10.5 %.
When such a steel comes into contact with an acid, the chrome which it contains tends to combine with
the OH- ions in solution in the water (see notion of pH at § 2.1.2), to form chrome hydroxide : Cr(OH)3.
This protective layer is called the passivation layer.
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If the oxidising power of the corrosive medium concerned is not high enough to overcome the
passivation, as is the case with dilute nitric acid, the chrome hydroxide layer formed acts as an
insulating layer, such that there is virtually no more corrosion reaction between the metal and the
oxidising medium.
The stainless steel core becomes virtually insensitive to corrosion (loss << 1 mm/year).
One refers to the passivation layer.
Remarks :
¾ It should be noted that the passivation layer may be reinforced by the presence of certain
elements such as for example molybdenum.
¾ Other materials resist corrosion under the same principle, such as for example titanium, zirconium,
nickel and aluminium.
5.2. CASE OF GENERALISED CORROSION BY DEPASSIVATION OF STAINLESS STEEL

IN AN ACID MEDIUM (EXAMPLE OF SULPHURIC ACID)
A plate of stainless steel, even if passivated, when GENERALISED CORROSION OF

immersed in highly concentrated sulphuric acid in STAINLESS STEEL IN
water, reacts by corroding rapidly. SULPHURIC ACID
There is no passivation protection. DEPASSIVATION
5.2.2. Explanation
If the oxidising power of the corrosive medium

present is high enough to overcome the
passivation, as is the case with concentrated
sulphuric acid, there is virtually no passivation
reaction, and rapid corrosion occurs due to the
oxidising medium (>> 1 mm/year).
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5.3. CASE OF LOCAL CORROSION BY DEPASSIVATION OF STAINLESS STEEL IN A

CHLORINATED MEDIUM
LOCAL CORROSION OF A STAINLESS
STEEL IN A CHLORINATED MEDIUM
A plate of stainless steel, even if passivated, when LOCAL DEPASSIVATION

immersed in a bath of chlorinated water reacts by
corroding locally in the form of corrosion pits, in
contact with the corrosive medium.
5.3.2. Explanation
The chlorine corresponds to Cl- ions. It comes from

dissolving chlorine or salt (sodium chloride) in water.
As with all halogens (fluorides, bromides, iodides…), it
very readily combines with metals.
In solution with water, together with the chrome in the
passivation layer and with water, it locally forms a
complex ion (of the type CrCl63-) on the surface of the stainless steel. This dissolves in water, locally
increasing the acidity of the medium (CrCl63- + 6(H2O) -> Cr(OH)63- + 6Cl- + 6H+).
In the positions where the passivation layer is dissolved and where the acidity increases, there is
strong local corrosion.
Remarks :
¾ The chlorine is not therefore a corrosive element as such, but is one of the elements which causes
corrosion by depassivating the stainless steel and causing local acidification.
¾ Stainless steels have very low corrosion resistance to halogen-based acids, such as
concentrated hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acids.
5.4. OTHER CORROSION FACTORS BY DEPASSIVATION OF STAINLESS STEEL
5.4.1. Oxidising power effect (O2 in solution)
As explained in § 2.1.2, the oxidising power of an element is its capacity for reduction by attracting
the electrons from another element (whilst corroding it).
Apart from hydrogen, which has already been mentioned, one should also recall the strong oxidising
power of oxygen when dissolved in water.
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The more oxygen is held in solution by the medium, (or the more strong oxidising agents it
contains), the more corrosive it is.
For example, a stainless steel with an insufficient content of chrome (<18%) and molybdenum
(< 2%) cannot resist oxygenated water.
5.4.2. Temperature effect
As mentioned in § 2.1.2, the oxidising power of a corrosive product increases with temperature.
For example :
¾ A stainless steel may corrode in air (neutral at ambient temperature) at high temperature. This is
known as dry corrosion or root porosity.
5.5. PRACTICAL APPLICATION, USE OF THE CORROSION TABLES

5.5.1. Introduction
Although electrochemistry makes it possible to understand the corrosion phenomena without needing to
be an expert, it is difficult to predict, solely through electrochemical reasoning, whether or not an alloy
will be able to withstand a certain medium.
The corrosion tables are technical documents, based on laboratory testing, and generally provided by
the stainless steel producers, intended to help users to select materials required to operate in
potentially corrosive media.
For example, Ugine provides a corrosion table which helps, as a first approximation, designers to
choose their stainless steels.
The table is split into 4 sub-tables, of which we shall now consider a few extracts.
5.5.2. Examples of media (assumed to be pure) for which there is no corrosion risk for
stainless steels
Acetone, Benzene, Coffee, Rubber solution, Seltzer water, Petrol, Diesel fuel, Camphor oil, Paraffin,
Methanol, Naphthalene, Octane, White spirit…
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5.5.3. Examples of preferred stainless steels where the main corrosion risk is local
corrosion
PRODUCT LIMITING CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED GRADE
Beer 18 % chrome austenitic
Town water containing chlorine T< 50°C 17 % chrome ferritic and

< 1000 ppm stabilised.
Town water containing chlorine T < 90°C 18 % chrome, 2% Molybdenum

< 250 ppm and stabilised..
Town water containing chlorine T < 90°C Austenoferritic

< 1000 ppm
Dilute bleach Very corrosive when hot, e.g. :

18% chrome and 10% nickel corrodes at 40°C in 1 hour.
Hydrogen peroxide Concentration < 60% 18 % chrome and low carbon or

stabilised austenitic
Cheese Up to cooking temperature 18 % chrome and 2%

molybdenum austenitic
Chlorine Dry -20°C < T < 100°C Any stainless steel
Fluorine Dry at 100°C 18 % chrome austenitic
5.5.4. Examples of preferred stainless steels for media where the main risk is
generalised corrosion
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
RATE OF CORROSION
CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE < 0.1 mm/year < 1 mm/year
1 % to 3% < 100 °C Austenoferritic

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CHROMIC ACID
RATE OF CORROSION
10 % < 40 °C Any grade with

chrome > 10.5 %
20 % < 20 °C Any grade with

chrome > 10.5 %
40 % < 20 °C 18 % chrome austenitic
NITRIC ACID
RATE OF CORROSION
10 to 65% < 20 °C Any grade with

chrome > 10.5 %
10 to 65% < 110 °C 17 % chrome, 1%

molybdenum stabilised
ferritic
18 % chrome and low
carbon or stabilised
austenitic
65% Boiling Super Austenitic 18 % chrome and low

carbon austenitic
5.5.5. Examples of media where the use of stainless steel is not recommended
¾ Concentrated sulphuric acid.

¾ Concentrated hydrochloric acid.
¾ Concentrated hydrofluoric acid.
¾ Hydrofluoric acid with ammonium bifluoride in solution.
¾ Perchloric acid with ferric chloride in solution.
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6. SUPPLEMENT ON THE VARIOUS TYPES OF CORROSION
6.1. GENERALISED CORROSION

6.1.1. Principle
Generalised corrosion occurs rapidly and virtually uniformly over the entire surface of the part.
In the case of stainless steels it acts by depassivation followed by corrosion into the core of the part, as
explained in § 5.1.
For non-stainless steels the corrosion may act directly,
as explained in § 2.1.
GENERALISED CORROSION
6.1.2. Design precautions to be taken
In design, it is essential to use the corrosion tables (see

§ 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen for the construction
can withstand the operating medium.
In the event of using non-stainless steels, it is possible to
use cathodic protection (see § 4) by connecting the
alloy to be protected to a sacrificial anode. It is also
possible to provide a corrosion thickness allowance.
6.2. CORROSION BY PITTING

6.2.1. Principle
CORROSION PITS IN STAINLESS STEEL

Pitting corrosion initiates locally as already explained IN A CHLORINATED MEDIUM
in § 5.1 then shows as a multitude of corrosion pits
which extend through the core of the part until it is
pierced.
In design, it is essential to use the corrosion tables

(see § 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen for the
construction can withstand the operating medium.
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6.3. CREVICE CORROSION

6.3.1. Principle
CREVICE CORROSION
This corrosion initiates with a pit then propagates
into the part as a crevice if the latter is in contact
with air (oxidising power) and provides places for
water retention (local acidification) such as :
¾ weld defects such as weld cracks or blow
holes or inclusions of slag which break the
surface
¾ weld support plates subsisting after
manufacture (permanent backing)
¾ design configurations which facilitate rainwater
retention in the case of metallic structures
In design, it is essential to use the corrosion tables (see § 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen for the
Avoid features which may retain water especially if the operating medium encourages local corrosion
(see § 5.3).
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6.4. STRESS (OR TENSILE) CORROSION

6.4.1. Principle
STRESS CORROSION OF STAINLESS
This corrosion initiates with a pit then propagates STEEL IN A CHLORINATED MEDIUM
into the part in the form of cracks which may spread
right through the part and cause it to fracture.
These cracks are caused by :
¾ embrittlement of the metal by hydrogen
generated by the corrosion reaction (the hydrogen
diffuses through the part),
¾ tensile stresses, either residual or operating
stresses, at the surface of the part, gradually crack
through the part, especially as the latter is
embrittled at the tip of the crack due to work
hardening.

Limit the tensile stresses especially if the operating
medium encourages local corrosion (see § 5.1).
Beware of corrosion of steels by H2S in the presence
of petroleum products.
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6.5. INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

6.5.1. Principle
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION IN STAINLESS STEEL

This corrosion phenomenon applies in
particular to certain austenitic
stainless steels.
If the latter are reheated prior to
operational use to between 800 and
500°C (welding, heat treatment, weld
reheating), they no longer resist the
corrosive medium which they were
initially able to withstand.
6.5.2. Explanation
If the carbon content of an austenitic CR23C6

stainless steel is too high, or if the
carbon is not stabilised with titanium or
niobium, between 800 and 500°C, USE LOW CARBON OR STABILISED STEELS
chrome carbides form at the grain
boundaries in the steel.
Chrome carbide locally concentrates
94% chrome.
Consequently the chrome depleted zone surrounding the carbide no longer contains the 10.5 %
chrome required to provide corrosion resistance.
On contact with a corrosive medium, corrosion occurs at the grain boundaries, called intergranular
corrosion.
6.5.3. Manufacturing precautions to be taken

In design, it is essential to use the corrosion tables (see § 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen for the
Use only low carbon or stabilised stainless steels if there is any danger of reheating during
manufacture.
In general, with respect to corrosion resistance, it is always hazardous to reheat a stainless steel during
manufacture. (High welding energy, high interpass temperature, stress relief heat treatment, weld
reheating...).
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6.6. GALVANIC CORROSION

6.6.1. Principle GALVANIC CORROSION
If during manufacture two alloys are connected

together and they are immersed in a conducting
medium, the alloy with the lowest oxidising
power may corrode, whereas alone it would have STAINLESS
been able to resist. STEEL

In design, it is essential to use the corrosion
tables (see § 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen
for the construction can withstand the operating
medium.
Beware in corrosive environments of
assembling parts which have a large difference
in oxidising power, for example…
¾ Corrosion in damp atmospheres of stainless
steel bolts used to assemble aluminium NON
structures (mechanical depassivation on contact ALLOYED
with bolts). STEEL
¾ Corrosion of a non-alloyed steel welded to a
non stainless steel (close to pure iron) if the two
are in contact with a marine environment.
6.7. ABRASION CORROSION MARINE ENVIRONMENT
6.7.1. Principle
This corrosion occurs when the passivation layer is ABRASION CORROSION
destroyed by abrasion. Such abrasion generally occurs
at the surface of weld seams in a construction
(particularly at weld recesses or protrusions) due to the
flow of corrosive fluids in contact with their containing
vessels
6.7.2. Design/manufacturing precautions to

be taken

CORROSIVE FLUID
Avoid weld seams or sudden changes in geometry IN MOTION
in alloy pipes or vessels intended to contain
corrosive products.
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6.8. DRY CORROSION

6.8.1. Principle
DRY CORROSION OF STAINLESS
If the corrosion is caused by a corrosive gas one refers STEEL IN AIR AT VERY HIGH
to dry corrosion. TEMPERATURE
The principles are, as for corrosion in liquid media,

caused by electrochemical corrosion reactions.
In design, it is essential to use the corrosion tables (see

§ 5.5) to check that the alloy chosen for the construction
can withstand the operating medium.
7. STRIPPING AND PASSIVATION
7.1. PRINCIPLE
Stainless steel sheet is always supplied stripped and passivated.

In other words, after forming, the surface has been :
¾ stripped of any contamination which it might have contained, using a strong acid, such as a mixture
of nitric and hydrofluoric acids (which corrodes faster than it passivates),
¾ rinsed in neutral chlorine-free water to remove any fluorides,
¾ then passivated with 50% dilute nitric acid, (as this can take several days in air).
STRIP (HF-HNO3), RINSE (H2O), PASSIVATION (HNO3).
SENSITIVE LAYER
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7.2. MANUFACTURING PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
The passivation layer which is less than a micron thick is fragile and consequently it is recommended
to :
¾ handle stainless steels with care (apply a plastic protection film for transportation),
¾ do not mix machining tools for conventional steels with those for stainless steels, otherwise there is
a danger of galvanic corrosion by mechanical depassivation and ferrous incrustation,
¾ if the tools have been mixed, the stainless steel must be decontaminated with 75 % dilute nitric
acid (to remove any ferrous incrustation) then repassivate using 50 % dilute nitric acid.
At very high temperatures stainless steels corrode easily in contact with air, this is called root
porosity, consequently :
¾ during welding of stainless steels it is imperative to protect the heated zones with an inert gas
(argon or helium on the top surface, nitrogen is tolerated on the underside) or with a flux.
¾ after welding it is recommended to re-strip and re-passivate (and rinse) especially if the stainless
steel is intended for use in a corrosive environment.
8. CORROSION TESTING
There are a multiplicity of corrosion tests of a diverse nature, it is therefore difficult to summarise them
in a few lines. They can be simplified by classifying them into three categories :
¾ qualitative tests,
¾ quantitative tests,
¾ comparative tests.
Example of a qualitative test
A given stainless steel is immersed for several days in a solution of ferric chlorides, then the test-piece is
inspected for corrosion pits or cracks. If no corrosion is found, the steel is judged to be resistant to pit
or crack corrosion.
Example of a quantitative test

A given stainless steel is immersed in a given medium for several hours, and the surface corrosion is
deduced in mm/year.
Examples of comparative tests
The pitting potential of given stainless steels is measured in a given medium, then the steels are
classified in relation to each other from the most resistant to the least resistant, in other words from
the highest pitting potential to the lowest pitting potential.
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The pitting temperature of given stainless steels is measured in a given medium, then the steels are
the highest pitting temperature to the lowest pitting temperature.
Remark : the pitting temperature increases with the following factor called the PREN.
PREN = Cr + 3.3 Mo + 16.7 N
The depassivation pH is measured for given stainless steels, in a given medium, then the steels are
the lowest depassivation pH to the highest depassivation pH.
Remark :
When testing welds with respect to corrosion, the corrosion resistance of the weld is not tested, instead,
the corrosion resistance of the weld is compared to the corrosion resistance of the base metal, to ensure
that it is equal or greater than that of the base metal.
9. PRACTICAL CONCLUSION
Corrosion is a complex but controllable phenomenon if it is approached in the following way :
1. Use the corrosion tables to check that the alloy used is capable of withstanding the surrounding
medium refer to § 5.5, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4 and 6.8.
2. If applicable, use cathodic protection, refer to § 4. (or paint or protective coatings such as plated or
sprayed coatings).
3. Respect the metallurgical and chemical nature of the alloy and check in particular that this will not
be impaired during manufacture, refer to § 6.5.
4. In the event of any risk of certain types of corrosion, ensure that appropriate design and
manufacturing measures are taken, refer to § 6.3 to 6.7 and 7.
5. Complete this approach with an electrochemical study and testing in the event of more complex
phenomena, refer to § 2, 3, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 8.
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MODULE 2.17 : INTRODUCTION TO WEAR PROTECTIVE LAYERS

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FORMATION INTRODUCTION TO WEAR PROTECTIVE LAYERS

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Figure 1: Actions of material-surface-attacks, material-data and material classification

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Figure 2: Types of mechanical action on materials
Figure 3: Description of tribological system acc. to DIN 50320

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Figure 4: Workpiece surface and basic wear mechanisms
Figure 5: Typical surface appearance for each of the four basic wear mechanisms
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Tribochemical wear Adhesive wear Abrasive wear Fatigue wear
metal / reaction metal / solid

friction system metal / metal fatigue wear
layer / solid metal / liquid
sliding impacted thermal mechanical

surface oxide layer, metal transfer, grooves, holes, non crazing ⊥ to
characteristic: oxide abrasion metallic abrasion, forrowes, hollows, directional movement,
up to 2 µm cold welding, waves valleys crazing detachment
shear up to 10 µm pitting
influencing oxide layer reaction metal combination, abrasive grain hardness, thermal shock fatigue strength
factors layer hinders cold weldability, material hardness, resistance, purity,
adhesion, lubricant, cold hardening, temperature, toughness, expansion homogeneity,
interfacial medium, shear strength, work hardening index, coefficient, microstructure
temperature, material hardness, coeffi- microstructure, flow rate, creep strength,
transformation cient of friction, corrosion attack scaling
flash temperature, resistance,
interfacial medium microstructure
Examples: Paper rolls, Wheel / rail plough share, planishing hot rolls, roller bearings,
bearings, unlubricated slide excavator machines, flying hot forgings, gear wheels
piston rings, and guide ways, bucket knifes, shears, jaw and hot shears
cylinder liner, seals of pistons pick-axe, conical
lubricated silde ways and valves kneading crushers
screws, drill tips
Figure: Interdependence of wear mechanism, surface characteristics, influencing factors and examples
Classification Description
Deposition (welding) of hard surfacing layers Surfacing welding mainly involving a deposited
(hard facing) material with greater wear resistance than the
parent material
Deposition (welding) of cladding (cladding ) Surfacing welding mainly involving a deposited
material which is chemically more resistant than
the parent material
Deposition (welding) of buffer layers (buffering) Deposition welding with a deposited material
having properties enabling a bond appropriate to
the type of duty involved to be established
between two other materials of unlike kind, not
normally weldable to another
Figure 8: Definition of surfacing welding acc. to DIN 1910 part 1

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Figure 14: Deposition rate and polarity (submerged-arc welding)
Figure 15: Deposition Efficiency of Flux-Cored Wire Electrodes (Type X 550 CrMoVWNb 20 7 1 3 7)
Diameter 2,8 mm with different Metallurgical Design
Figure 16: Comparison of manufacturing cost of the filler metals (schematic)

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Plasma – hot wire – surfacing
Figure 17:
Plasma – surfacing
Figure 18:
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Letter code relating to further weld metal properties
Only those properties of the weld metal apart from the hardness are to be specified, which are
particularly typical.
The following code letters shall be used (if more than one letter is used, arrange them alphabetically):
C = corrosion resistant;
G = resistant to abrasive wear;
K = capable of work hardening . The wear properties of the weld metal are dependent on
subsequent work hardening treatment. This can be effected by hammering or pressing or
even without such treatment, if in service, the weld metal itself is subject to compressive,
rolling or impact loads (for example Mn hard steels).
N = non-magnetizable;
P = impact resistant;
R = rust resistant;
S = cutting ability (high speed steels, etc.);
T = high temperature strength as for high-temperature tool steels;
Z = heat resistant (non-scaling), i.e. for temperatures over about 600 °C
The properties of built-up weld metal may be dependent on particular procedures for treatment specified
by the manufacturer.
Designation of weld metal

Gas welding rods:
An alloy group 1 filler rod for gas welding (G), producing a weld metal with a Brinell hardness over 225
up to 275 HB (250), the hardness and wear properties which are obtained in the gas-welded condition
shall be designated as follows:
Filler rod DIN 8555 – G 1-250
Electrodes:
An alloy group 9 covered (UM) electrode for manual-arc welding (E), producing a weld metal with a
Brinell hardness of over 175 up to 225 HB (200) and which is corrosion resistant  and heat resistant (Z)
Electrode DIN 8555 – E9-UM-200-CZ
An alloy group 7 cored wire electrode for metal-arc welding (MF),producing a weld metal with Brinell
hardness of over 225 up to 275 HB (250),capable of being work hardened (K) and impact resistant (P)
Cored wire electrode DIN 8555 – MF 7-250-KP
Wire/gas combinations and wire/flux combinations:

The weld metal produced by an alloy group 2 wire/shielding gas combination for gas shielded metal-arc
welding (MSG), made of solid drawn wire (GZ) which, when fused under M 23 shielding gas specified in
DIN 32 526, produces in the all-weld metal a Brinell hardness of over 375 up to 450 HB (400) shall be
designated as follows:
Weld metal DIN 8555 – MSG 2-GZ-M 23-400
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The weld metal produced by a wire/flux combination for submerged-arc welding (UP), produced with an
alloy group 1 wire electrode made of solid drawn wire (GZ) and FCS 167 flux as specified in DIN 32522,
producing a brinell gardness of over 225 up to 275 HB (250) shall be designated as follows:
Weld metal DIN 8555 – UP 1-GZ-FCS 167-250
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MODULE 2.18 : PROTECTIVE COATINGS

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PROTECTIVE COATINGS
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PROTECTIVE COATINGS
CONTENTS
1. CLAD STEELS ..................................................................................................................... 2

1.1. Presentation of clad steels ........................................................................................... 2
1.2. Welding of clad steels................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................2
1.2.2. A few practical examples ..............................................................................................3
1.2.3. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................5
2. LININGS................................................................................................................................ 6
2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Welding......................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1. Metallurgical weldability ................................................................................................6
2.2.2. Practical considerations................................................................................................6
2.2.3. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................7
3. SURFACING......................................................................................................................... 8
3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 8
3.2. Notion of wear resistance............................................................................................. 8
3.3. Surfacing products........................................................................................................ 8
3.3.1. High alloy steels............................................................................................................9
3.3.2. Cast alloys ....................................................................................................................9
3.3.3. Cobalt alloys ...............................................................................................................10
3.3.4. Nickel alloys................................................................................................................10
4. COATED STEELS .............................................................................................................. 11

4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................. 11
4.2. Presentation of coated steels ..................................................................................... 11
4.3. Welding of coated steels ............................................................................................ 11
4.3.1. Effect of welding on the coating..................................................................................11
4.3.2. Consequences on welding..........................................................................................12
4.3.3. Improvement methods after welding...........................................................................12
4.4. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 12
Preliminary remark : Welding of clad steels, lining and surfacing result in heterogeneous joints
(or weld deposits). Refer to the chapter on « HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS » for the basic
information concerning metallurgical problems associated with these types of joints.
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1. CLAD STEELS
1.1. PRESENTATION OF CLAD STEELS

Clad steels provide a means of combining the mechanical strength of a relatively low cost material (non-
or low-alloyed steel) with the corrosion resistance of a better material (various stainless steels, nickel,
titanium, zirconium, tantalum alloys, etc.). Clad steels are mainly encountered in sheet form. Their use is
particularly beneficial with respect to heavy gauge materials where the difficulty of manufacture, the level
of mechanical properties and the cost of the cladding material prevent the use of sheet manufactured
entirely from the better material. The maximum thickness of corrosion-resistant cladding is generally
limited to a few millimetres.
Stainless steel, nickel, titanium, etc. Non-alloyed steel
Clad steels are also used as interface parts to provide the joint between materials which cannot be
welded together by conventional means. For example, welds between a steel part and an aluminium part
can be produced by welding an interface part made from aluminium-clad steel. The cladding may be up
to 30 mm thick in this type of application.
Two main cladding techniques are in widespread use :
- Hot clad rolling (around 1200°C) which is the equivalent of pressure welding at high temperature, by
rolling together the sheets of each material. This technique is used to manufacture stainless steel
claddings.
- Explosion cladding (with or without subsequent rolling) which is used to manufacture titanium,
aluminium, copper, zirconium, tantalum claddings.
1.2. WELDING OF CLAD STEELS

1.2.1. Introduction
The process sheet for butt welding of clad steels must particularly consider the « metallurgical
compatibility » of the materials present. In this case, metallurgical compatibility refers to the possibility of
fusing together two different materials, thus forming an alloy whose properties are acceptable (subject
to taking the usual precautions, such as checking the degree of dilution and the cleanliness of
the parts). For example, certain stainless steels are fully compatible with non-alloyed steels. On the
other hand, any metallurgical incompatibility will make it impossible to achieve a satisfactory alloy by
fusing together two given materials (e.g. steel + titanium).
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1.2.2. A few practical examples
a) With metallurgical compatibility

The weld preparation incorporates an offset slightly deeper than the cladding in order to show the welder
where to interrupt welding the S 355 steel before beginning to reconstruct the X2CrNi 18-09 steel.
X 2 Cr Ni 18-09
S 355
Stage 1 : homogeneous welding of steel S 355
Stage 2 : heterogeneous welding to reconstruct an alloy close to X2CrNi18-09 (the filler metal contains
around 24%Cr and 12%Ni to allow for the dilution by the non-alloyed steel.
Stage 3 : homogeneous welding of steel X2CrNi18-09 (it can be seen that at least two layers are
required in order to re-establish the stainless steel cladding).
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b ) With metallurgical incompatibility
This case occurs for steel clad with titanium, zirconium, tantalum.
Titanium
S 355
Stage 2 : homogeneous welding of the titanium using a liner
Without prior machining
With prior machining

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c) With « partial » metallurgical incompatibility
This case applies to steel clad with copper.

Copper
S 355
Stage 2 : laying an intermediate coat of nickel, which is compatible with both steel and copper
Stage 3 : Finishing with either nickel or copper, as required. The final coat may also be produced with a
copper alloy by braze welding
1.2.3. Conclusion
Several welding methods are available for clad steels. The choice of method is dictated by the
« metallurgical compatibility » considerations of the materials present. Materials which are compatible
from the metallurgical point of view are welded together, with careful choice of the filler metal. In the
event of metallurgical incompatibility, a liner must be added, without allowing the incompatible materials
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from fusing together. Finally, in some cases, incompatible materials may be welded together using a
different filler metal.
2. LININGS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Protection by lining consists in adding a layer of welded plates. The lining consists in adding (or re-
establishing) a layer using welded tubes. For example, non- or low-alloyed steels may be lined with
stainless steel to provide corrosion protection. As is the case with clad steels, a multitude of
combinations is available.
Currently, lining is most often used in situations where the use of clad steels, or surfacing by welding,
cannot be considered. It may also be used as a protection against mechanical wear.
The welding of linings is essentially intended to provide the mechanical link with the steel backing, and to
provide a perfect seal for corrosion prevention.
2.2. WELDING
2.2.1. Metallurgical weldability
Linings constitute heterogeneous joints. As a result of this, they require the elaboration of welding
processes which take into account the metallurgical compatibility of the materials, as has already been
described for clad steels.
The liner welded links may be produced in various configurations :

– Lap-joints,
– Butt-joints,
– Plug welds.
2.2.2. Practical considerations
a) Lap welds
Lining
Homogeneous weld
Heterogeneous weld
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b ) Butt joints
Lining
Heterogeneous weld
c) Plug welds
Heterogeneous plug weld

(the lining is viewed from above)
2.2.3. Conclusion
From a metallurgical point of view, the lining can be assimilated to producing heterogeneous welds.
From a practical point of view, there are at least three methods for producing linings :
– using lap welds,
– using butt welds,
– using plug welds.
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3. SURFACING
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The term surfacing, applies essentially to deposits produced by welding. Surfacing is often performed on
non- or low-alloyed steels. It may be performed on new parts, by depositing a filler metal which is
different from the parent metal, in order to provide better wear resistance with respect to the operating
conditions. Surfacing may also be used for repairs, by depositing a filler metal either the same as or
different from the parent metal, as required.
3.2. NOTION OF WEAR RESISTANCE

Surfacing is intended to extend the service life of a part by limiting the wear caused by mechanical
and/or chemical effects.
a) Wear by mechanical effects

Wear by mechanical effects causes loss of metal due to various reasons. Among the mechanical wear
mechanisms, the following are the most commonly encountered :
– Abrasion (due to contact with hard moving surfaces),
– Adhesion (transfer of material by « local friction welding » of two rubbing surfaces,
– Contact fatigue (similar to adhesion, but with cyclic friction variation).
abrasion adhesion
b ) Wear by chemical effects

Wear by chemical (or electrochemical) effects corresponds to a loss of material by corrosion of the metal
in its environmental medium.
3.3. SURFACING PRODUCTS

Quite a broad range of products are available to increase wear resistance. The families of most
commonly used materials are as follows :
– High-alloy steels,
– Cast alloy steels,
– Cobalt alloys,
– Nickel alloys.
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3.3.1. High alloy steels
Properties required (resistance to…)

Approximate
Common name of the alloy contact
composition abrasion adhesion corrosion
fatigue
C = 0.15 to 0.4%
Martensitic stainless steels Cr = 11 to 14% (++) ++ ++ ++
Ni + Mo + V < 7%
C < 0.03%
Cr = 18 to 25%
Austenitic stainless steels
Ni = 9 to 25%
- - - ++
%Mo < 3%
C = 1 to 1.2%
Austenitic manganese
stainless steels
Mn = 12 to 14% ++ + + -
Ni < 4%
C = 1 to 2%
Cr = 18 to 22%
Mo = 4 to 6%
Tool steels
W = 6 to 8%
(++) - ++ -
Co < 5%
V < 5%
++ = very suitable + = suitable - = unsuitable ( ) = little used
3.3.2. Cast alloys

Approximate
fatigue
C = 3 to 4%
Martensitic cast iron + Cr < 15%
chrome carbides Mo < 3%
++ + - -
Ti < 1.5%
C = 3.5 to 5.5%
Austenitic cast iron + Cr = 32 to 37%
chrome carbides Si < 2%
++ - - +
Mn < 3.5%
C = 3.5 to 5.5%
Cr = 18 to 28%
Austenitic cast iron + Mo = 4 to 8%
various carbides Si < 2%
++ - - -
Mn < 3.5%
+ V, W
++ = very suitable + = suitable - = unsuitable
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3.3.3. Cobalt alloys

Approximate
fatigue
Cr = 25 to 32%
W = 3 to 14%
C = 0.8 to 3%
Fe < 3%
Stellite 6, 12, 1
Ni < 3%
+ + + +
Si < 2.5%
Mn < 1%
Co = remainder
Cr = 25 to 30%
Mo = 4 to 8%
Ni < 3%
Si < 2.5%
Stellite 8 or 21
Mn < 1%
- - ++ ++
Fe < 2%
C < 0.5%
Co = remainder
++ = very suitable + = suitable - = unsuitable
3.3.4. Nickel alloys

Approximate
fatigue
Cu = 25 to 35%
Ti = 1 to 3%
Fe < 2.5%
Monel Si = 1.3% - - - ++
Al < 1.3%
C < 0.6%
Ni = remainder
Cr = 14 to 17%
Fe = 6 to 10%
Nb < 2.5%
Inconel
Ta < 2.5%
- - - ++
C < 0.15%
Ni = remainder
Mo = 25 to 30%
Fe < 6%
Hastelloy B V < 0.6% - - - ++
C < 0.10%
Ni = remainder
Cr = 14 to 17%
Fe < 7%
Hastelloy C W < 6% - - + ++
C < 0.15%
Ni = remainder
++ = very suitable + = suitable - = unsuitable ( ) = little used
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4. COATED STEELS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Non-alloyed steels are frequently protected from atmospheric corrosion by a surface coating, such as
paint for example.
This coating may be applied on completion of manufacture of a welded assembly, in such case it must
be suited to the part.
Welded assemblies are also built up directly using steels which are already coated by the steel makers,
in which case the welding process must consider the specific behaviour of this type of product. Here we
shall only examine the second case (welding of coated steels) which raises the following points :
– How does welding affect the coating ?
– What are the consequences of the presence of the coating with respect to the welding operation and
the weld itself ?
– Is an improvement technique required after welding ?
4.2. PRESENTATION OF COATED STEELS

Coated steels employed in welded manufacture, are most often in the form of relatively thin sheet as
used in the motor industry, metallic furniture, household electrical goods, decoration, etc. Coated steels
are also welded in the form of tubes and sections, with, for example, a galvanized coating (galvanizing
consists of a zinc coating applied by dipping the steel into a bath of molten zinc).
The steel coatings which are frequently encountered in welded manufacture are essentially of three
types :
1. Metallic coatings obtained by electo-plating (e.g. continuously produced zinc plating for the motor
industry),
2. Metallic coatings obtained by hot dipping in a liquid bath (galvanized sheet and continuously
aluminised sheet for the motor industry, tinned sheet for tinned foods, etc.),
3. Non metallic coatings such as paint (e.g. continuously painted sheet used in the manufacture of
metallic furniture).
4.3. WELDING OF COATED STEELS

4.3.1. Effect of welding on the coating
All coatings, whether they be produced electrolytically, by hot dip or by painting, volatilize at the welding
temperatures of steel: the coating is destroyed in the weld zone and in its immediate vicinity. The width
of the zone where the coating is modified is all the greater if the welding is produced under the « hot »
method, e.g. using high welding energy. Consequently the welding of coated steels demands the use of
low energy levels (E = voltage x current ÷ welding speed)
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This volatilisation results in the release of fumes which may be toxic, depending on the composition of
the coating. It is essential to provide an extraction system for the fumes, or breathing apparatus,
especially if there is a large amount of welding to be performed.
4.3.2. Consequences on welding
a) Practical difficulties
In the case of paint coatings, the coating may be sufficiently insulating to prevent the welding current
from flowing. In such case, it is essential to strip the coating at the location of the weld.
Resistance spot welding of steels coated with zinc (zinc plated or galvanized products) presents a
particular problem: the number of spots which can be achieved with a welding electrode is limited
because the zinc contaminates the copper electrodes (it forms a copper-zinc alloy, called brass, at the
surface of the electrode, which modifies its properties).
b ) Formation of blow-holes
Volatilization of the coatings generates gases which naturally encourage the formation of blow-holes in
the weld zone. The risk of forming a large number of blow-holes is proportional to the thickness of the
coating (the thicker the coating, the larger the amount of gases generated). In the case of paint type
coatings, this problem is resolved by stripping the paint from the weld location.
4.3.3. Improvement methods after welding

Welding of a coated steel has the effect of locally destroying the coating. In order to ensure good
corrosion resistance of the weld, it is essential to perform an improvement operation after welding, which
consists in local application of a suitable paint.
It should be noted that resistance spot welding may preserve the coating on the external surfaces of the
assembly, thus avoiding the need to perform any improvement operation subsequent to welding.
4.4. CONCLUSION
Welding of coated steels demands taking a few precautions :
– Stripping of paint type coatings from the location of the weld.
– Limitation of the welding energy in order to reduce the area of the zone over which the coating is
destroyed by the heating effect of welding.
– Application of an improvement technique subsequent to welding (e.g. painting).
Coated steels are prone to welding faults, volatilization of the coatings in particular can cause blow holes
in the weld zone.
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MODULE 2.19 : CREEP RESISTANT AND HEAT RESISTANT STEELS

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FORMATION CREEP RESISTANT

1
PROFESSIONNELLE AND HEAT RESISTANT STEELS
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Heat resistant rolling and forging steels according to SEW 470, Feb. 76 (prDIN EN 10095)
Concept
Steel distinguishing themselves by a special resistance against the influence of hot gases and
combustion products as well as salt and metal at melts at temperatures slightly above 550oC with good
mechanical properties under short and long term exposure to stresses. The extent of their resistance,
however, is very much dependent on the conditions they are affected by and therefore, cannot be
characterized by the values obtained in a single testing procedure (see also paragraph 8 of the SEW
470).
Heat resistance
Due to their elevated alloying content on aluminium, chromium, nickel, and silicon the heat resistant
steels have an elevated resistance in hot gases and combustion products as well as salt and metal
melts. The highest application temperatures in air, reaching to up to 1,150oC can be considerably
reduced by additions to the gas, such as sulphur containing components, water vapour or ash
constituents. It is recommended to get advice by the supplier of the material, if own experience is not
sufficient enough. Auxiliary data for the resistance of heat resistance are contained in the regulation for
scale limiting temperatures for the utilization in air.
The influence of silicon and chromium the scale resistance of steel during annealing at air (annealing
period 120 h)
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Grain growth of austenitic Cr-Ni and ferritic chromium steels

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The temperature range of the σ-phase in Fe Cr and Fe Cr Si alloys
Isothermal time-temperature-transition diagram of the σ-phase for an iron-chromium alloy with 48 % Cr

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Effect of endurance annealing at different annealing temperatures on the hardness of chromium steels
with 18 to 50 % Cr
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Mechanical properties at room temperature

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Indication on the long-term behaviour at high temperatures (average values of the scattered area
determined up to now)
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Indications on the temperatures for hot forming and heat treatment as well as for the scale
resistance in air
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Table B.2: Highest application temperature Ta in air taken 1) from pr DIN EN 10095
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MODULE 2.20 : WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS AND CAST STEELS

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FORMATION WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS 1

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WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS

AND CAST STEELS
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL............................................................................................................................. 2
2. PRESENTATION OF CAST IRONS .................................................................................... 2

2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 2
2.2. Grey cast irons ............................................................................................................. 2
2.3. White cast irons ............................................................................................................ 4
2.4. Whiteheart malleable cast irons ................................................................................... 5
2.5. Blackheart malleable cast irons.................................................................................... 6
3. CAST IRON WELDING TECHNIQUES ............................................................................... 7
3.1. General ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.2. High ambient temperature welding principle ................................................................ 7
3.3. Low ambient temperature welding principle................................................................. 7
3.4. Welding and brazing processes applicable to cast irons ............................................. 8
4. CAST STEELS ..................................................................................................................... 9
4.1. Presentation of cast steels ........................................................................................... 9
4.2. Welding of cast steels................................................................................................... 9
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1. GENERAL
Cast iron and cast steel are used for manufacturing generally complex shaped cast components. Casting
avoids the need for using forming or forging operations, or machining from the solid, which are both
complicated and costly.
When a casting cannot be produced in one piece, several castings may be assembled together or to
other types of component (extruded sections or sheet material for example).
The applicable assembly methods include welding, braze welding or brazing.
Frequently, castings are welded during manufacture, in order to repair any casting imperfections which
may occur during solidification (shrinkage cavities, blow holes, ...).
2. PRESENTATION OF CAST IRONS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Cast irons are iron-carbon alloys, whose carbon content is greater than 2 %, which makes them alloys
which exhibit a eutectic reaction. The result of this is that their melting temperature is some 300°C lower
than for steels.
Cast irons have applications in various industrial fields :

- domestic equipment (radiators, gates,...)
- town equipment (manhole covers, pipes and unions,...)
- mechanical manufacturing (engine crank-cases, machine frames, turbocharger bodies,...)
- equipment operating at high temperatures (boilers,...)
Cast irons can be classified into several families :

- Grey cast irons (these are the most common),
- White cast iron (very seldom used),
- Blackheart malleable cast iron,
- Whiteheart malleable cast iron.
2.2. GREY CAST IRONS

a ) Special characteristics
Grey cast irons contain between 3 and 4% carbon. Their special characteristic is that the carbon which
they contain is essentially in the form of graphite (free carbon). To give an idea, grey cast iron looks like
« a steel containing carbon inclusions ».
The precipitation of graphite is obtained by adding silicon (graphitising element) in conjunction with a
slow rate of cooling during elaboration of the cast iron.
In the absence of any other element added to the cast iron, the graphite is in the form of sheets : the cast
iron is known as LAMELLAR GRAPHITE cast iron.
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If magnesium or cerium are added during elaboration of the cast iron, the graphite is shaped into
spheres : the cast iron is then known as SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE cast iron (or SG cast iron).
lamellar graphite cast iron X100 spheroidal graphite cast iron X100
The presence of lamellar graphite results in a certain amount of brittleness. The graphite lamellae
generate a notch effect similar to a crack. As a result, lamellar graphite cast irons cannot plastically
deform. Spheroidal graphite generates little notch effect thanks to its rounded shape, which leads to
better ductility.
The table below summarises the general characteristics of various grey cast irons.
Indicative
Mechanical properties
Types of chemical composition
Standard Designation
cast iron C Mn Si S P Rm Rp0.2
A%
% % % % % N/mm2 N/mm2
EN-GJL-100 100
EN-GJL-150 150
2.8 0.3 1
Lamellar NFEN1561 EN-GJL-200 200
to to to < 0.2 <2
graphite (10/97) EN-GJL-250 250
4 1 3
EN-GJL-300 300
EN-GJL-350 350
EN-GJS-350-22 350 220 22

EN-GJS-400-18 3.5 2.2 400 250 18
EN-GJS-500-7 to <4 to <0.01 < 0.1 500 320 7
Spheroidal NFEN1563
EN-GJS-600-3 3.7 2.4 600 370 3
graphite (10/97)
EN-GJS-700-2 700 420 2
EN-GJS-800-2 800 480 2
EN-GJS-900-2 Mg % = 0.3 to 0.7 900 600 2
As with steels, there exist grey cast irons which are « non- or low-alloyed » whose structure is either
ferritic, ferrito-pearlitic or pearlitic. There also exist « alloyed » grey cast irons, whose structure may be
austenitic by adding sufficient quantity of a gammagenous element, or martensitic by adding more or
less alloying elements which favour quenching, ...
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b ) Metallurgical weldability
Welding of grey cast irons generates undesirable effects on the structure. In particular :
• It is very difficult to obtain spheroidal graphite in the weld metal zone as the magnesium or cerium
required to obtain the spheroidal form of graphite are volatile (they evaporate from the weld pool).
• Grey cast iron may change to white cast iron (see the next paragraph) if it undergoes sufficiently
rapid cooling (this cooling rate is all the lower if the graphitising element content is low.
• Of the alloyed cast irons, only austenitic cast irons are weldable. The other alloyed cast irons have
quench structures which make them too brittle to withstand the welding thermal cycles.
2.3. WHITE CAST IRONS

White cast irons contain between 2 and 3% carbon. These cast irons do not contain any graphitising
elements (no added silicon) which means that the carbon contained is in the form of cementite (Fe3C)
and not graphite.
White cast iron is not usually employed for manufacturing castings due to its extreme brittleness which
results from the presence of large quantities of cementite (iron carbide is highly brittle). However, these
cast irons are used for hard facing, due in particular to their good abrasion resistance.
Eutectic white cast iron X500
Welds produced in white cast iron are brittle and generally exhibit cracks after weld surfacing. This type
of filler metal should only be used if the presence of cracks is not a problem for the service strength of
the part (for static loading in the absence of dynamic loads)
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2.4. WHITEHEART MALLEABLE CAST IRONS

This type of cast iron is sometimes known as « European malleable cast iron ». Whiteheart malleable
cast iron is produced by decarburising heat treatment of white cast iron.
The malleabilisation treatment consists in partial or total decarburisation by maintaining it at high

temperature (950 to 1050°C) for an extended period, in an oxidising atmosphere. It is limited to thin parts
(e <12 mm), the decarburising leads to a ferritic structure (thin regions of the parts) or ferrito-pearlitic
(thicker regions of the parts) which are free from graphite.
After treatment, whiteheart malleable cast iron parts behave as a low carbon content non-alloyed steel,
Ferrito-pearlitic whiteheart malleable cast iron X500
with however a high content of impurities (sulphur, phosphorus).
The table below summarises the general characteristics of whiteheart malleable cast irons.
Indicative chemical composition Mechanical properties
Standard Designation C Mn Si S P Rm Rp0.2
A%
% % % % % N/mm2 N/mm2
EN-GJMW- 350-4 350 - 4
EN-GJMW- 360-12 0.3 0.1 360 190 12
NFEN1562
EN-GJMW- 400-5 < 0.1 to < 0.1 to < 0.2 400 220 5
(10/97)
EN-GJMW- 450-7 0.6 0.2 450 260 7
EN-GJMW- 550-4 550 340 4
The impurity content generally encountered with this type of cast iron, usually makes them unweldable
using conventional welding techniques, in particular due to cracking problems.
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2.5. BLACKHEART MALLEABLE CAST IRONS

a) Special characteristics
This type of cast iron is sometimes referred to as « American malleable cast iron ». Blackheart malleable
cast iron is obtained by heat treatment of white graphitised cast iron.
The malleabilisation treatment in this case consists in breaking down the cementite by maintaining it at
high temperature (900 to 950°C) followed by slow cooling to 700°C. The structure obtained after
Blackheart malleable cast iron X100
treatment consists of nodules of graphite (not as regular as spheroidal graphite) surrounded by ferrite or
a mixture of ferrite and pearlite.
The table below summarises the general characteristics of blackheart malleable cast iron.
Indicative chemical composition Mechanical properties
Standard Designation C Mn Si S P Rm Rp0.2
A%
% % % % % N/mm2 N/mm2
EN-GJMB-300-6 300 - 6
EN-GJMB-350-10 350 200 10
EN-GJMB-450-6 2 0.25 0.9 450 270 6
EN-GJMB-500-5 500 300 5
NFEN1562
EN-GJMB-550-4 to to to < 0.25 < 0.25 550 340 4
(10/97)
EN-GJMB-600-3 600 390 3
EN-GJMB-650-2 2.8 0.65 1.7 650 430 2
EN-GJMB-700-2 700 530 2
EN-GJMB-800-1 800 600 1
Blackheart malleable cast irons are generally considered as unweldable, as they revert to the white cast
iron state under the effect of the welding heat cycle.
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3. CAST IRON WELDING TECHNIQUES
3.1. GENERAL
a) Operating weldability
Welding of cast irons requires the application of less heat than for steels due to their lower melting
temperature. Moreover, the high fluidity of cast iron in the liquid state makes it highly suitable for casting
operations, but limits the potential for in-situ welding due to the danger of collapse of the weld pool.
b ) Metallurgical weldability :
In general, cast irons are subject to embrittlement together with a danger of cracking or fracture during
the welding operation. These phenomena are the consequence of :
1. A very high sensitivity to the formation of brittle structures under the effect of the welding heat cycles.
2. The low ductility of cast irons, such that there is a danger of cracking or sudden fracture as soon as
the residual welding stresses exceed the yield point.
With respect to these phenomena, it has already been seen that grey cast irons are the most readily
weldable.
Two main welding techniques are recommended for grey cast irons :
– Homogeneous welding « at high ambient temperature »,
– Heterogeneous welding « at low ambient temperature ».
3.2. HIGH AMBIENT TEMPERATURE WELDING PRINCIPLE

This technique consists in preheating the part to a high temperature (around 500°C) which has the effect
of :
— providing the material with sufficient plasticity, thus avoiding the danger of cracking or fracture due to
the welding stresses.
— significantly reducing the rate of cooling, in order to achieve a structure free from material embrittling
constituents (quench structures or structures rich in cementite).
The extent of the preheating of the part depends on its geometry (the preheating must not induce
thermal stresses). It may be general (as is the case for complex shapes) or local (girder-section parts).
Apart from brazing and braze welding, the filler metal used in this technique is cast iron, in order to
achieve a homogeneous weld.
3.3. LOW AMBIENT TEMPERATURE WELDING PRINCIPLE

Contrary to the above, this technique consists in welding through multiple low-energy passes, with a
view to reducing to the strictest minimum the zone affected by the welding heat cycle. This zone, which
contains brittle constituents, or even micro-cracks, is unavoidable. By definition, this technique is
applicable to massive parts where the amount of heating is inherently limited by the thermal conductivity.
For smaller parts, artificial cooling may be envisaged. This condition also involves the use of arc welding
and excludes the use of flame welding.
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As a general rule, the temperature between passes should not exceed 70 to 80°C in the immediate
vicinity of the beads. This generally leads to a need to limit the length of each bead to between 30 and
60mm (depending on the thickness concerned) then waiting for it to cool.
The dilution of the cast iron with the filler metal must be kept to the strictest minimum by using a low
welding current. Finally the welding pass speed must be such as to achieve a concave weld bead, this
avoids the stress concentrations due to shrinkage in the hard and brittle zones of the joints.
The recommended filler metals are either pure nickel, or nickel alloys (nickel/iron alloys in particular)
which are available in the form of special covered electrodes for cast iron welding, or wire for the MIG
process.
The hardened joint zone which subsists after welding may be attenuated by heat treatment, to achieve a
perfectly machinable assembly.
3.4. WELDING AND BRAZING PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO CAST IRONS
Low ambient
High ambient temperature welding temperature
welding
Cast iron Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

Homogeneous heating
grades heating heating
MAG
Manual
Oxy- Manual tubular Vertical Braze MIG Ni
acetylene
Brazing arc EE Ni
arc E.E. cored in flux welding or Ni-Fe
or Ni-Fe
wire
Lamellar
graphite grey ++ + + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
cast iron
Spheroidal
graphite cast + + + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
iron
Whiteheart – – – + ++ ++ ++ ++
Malleable forms
Blackheart
+ – + + + ++ ++ +
(ferritic)
Blackheart
– – + + + ++ + +
(pearlitic)
Nickel/austenitic
alloyed cast – – – – + ++ ++
irons
++ : recommended.
+ : possible (little or no experience).
– : inadvisable or impossible.
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4. CAST STEELS
4.1. PRESENTATION OF CAST STEELS

As with rolled steels, cast steels are available in a wide range of grades, some of which are controlled by
specific standards :
• General purpose non alloyed cast steels (NF A 32 054 dated 09/94),
• Non alloyed cast steels for pressure vessels (NF EN 10213 dated 02/96),
• General purpose low alloyed cast steels (NF A 32 054 dated 09/94),
• High alloyed cast steels (NF A 32 056 dated 03/84 and NF A 32 059 dated 03/84).
In the old French Standards, the designation for cast steels was the same as for wrought material, but
followed by letter M (e.g. : 12MDV6-M).
In the European Standards, the designation is also based on that for wrought steel, but preceded by
letter G. Thus, 12MDV6-M is now designated as G12MnMoV6.
4.2. WELDING OF CAST STEELS

The weldability of cast steels is comparable to that of wrought steels, however there are some specific
points which will be examined later. Indeed the embrittlement and cracking phenomena described for
wrought steels are directly applicable to cast steels, with the exception of lamellar tearing which applies
only to rolled material.
Let us now examine the properties of cast steels compared with wrought steels.
The search for fluidity in cast steels sometimes leads steelmakers to elaborate chemical compositions
which are detrimental to weldability. The content in elements which provide the fluidity of steel, in
particular carbon, silicon and cerium, must be limited to the values which provide good weldability. These
limit values are easy to achieve for casting low mass parts, where the casting period is relatively short.
However, for large parts, the carbon and silicon content required by the foundry are often beyond the
limits which provide perfect weldability.
Additionally, in view of the segregation of elements during casting, care must be taken to avoid local
variations in the chemical composition, in the welds, in relation to the chemical composition obtained on
the cast pig. This may for example lead to possible errors in estimating the carbon content equivalent for
a steel subject to low temperature cracking, and a greater degree of uncertainty regarding the position of
a stainless steel on the Schaeffler diagram.
Other than these main remarks, it is also essential to achieve good compactness of the edges to be
welded. In the event of porosity in the cast steel, it is essential to remove this beforehand by gouging,
grinding, or surfacing, before producing the weld as such. Indeed, cast steels contain a variable number
of solidification faults (micro-shrink holes, blow holes, ...) which are detrimental to welding if they are not
removed from the edges to be welded together.
Remark : The qualification procedure for welding processes for steel castings is covered by French
Standard NF A 32 040 dated 12/91.
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PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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MODULE 2.21 : WELDABILITY OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

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WELDABILITY OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date : 03/01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 6
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 2
2. PRESENTATION OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS ............................................................ 2

2.1. Non-alloyed copper .................................................................................................... 2
2.2. « Low alloy » copper................................................................................................... 2
2.3. Copper alloys.............................................................................................................. 3
3. WELDABILITY OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS................................................................ 4
3.1. Operating weldability .................................................................................................. 4
3.2. Metallurgical weldability .............................................................................................. 5
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1. INTRODUCTION
Copper and its alloys are used in the manufacture of various parts which require in particular one or
several of the following properties :
- Very high electrical conductivity (parts for electrical equipment),
- High thermal conductivity (heat exchangers),
- Good corrosion resistance (various pipes, condensers and other chemical industry boilerwork, sea
water desalination plant, etc.),
- Wear resistance and impact strength (MIG/MAG contact tubes, resistance welding electrode, etc.),
- Non-magnetic properties (X-ray tubes).
Copper and its alloys are supplied in the form of tubes, bar, extruded sections, plate, and are also used
in the form of castings. The material thickness range from a few hundredths of a millimetre to several
tens of millimetres.
2. PRESENTATION OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Copper and its alloys may be classified into three categories :
- Non-alloyed copper (at least 90.90% pure),
- Low alloy copper (containing up to a maximum of 2% of additive elements to improve its mechanical
properties without unduly modifying the other properties of copper),
- Copper alloys (with larger amounts of additive elements in order to obtain specific properties).
2.1. NON-ALLOYED COPPER

Non-alloyed copper is available in various degrees of purity according to the elaboration conditions of the
metal.
Standard NF A 51050 specifies three classes of copper:
1. Copper containing oxygen, designated Cu-a, with a minimum copper content of 90.90% and which
may contain up to 0.10% oxygen,
2. Phosphorus-deoxygenated copper (without oxygen), designated Cu-b, with a minimum copper
content of 90.90% and which may contain phosphorus,
3. Oxygen-free copper containing no additive elements, designated Cu-c, corresponding to the highest
purity copper (the minimum copper content is 99.95% for grade Cu-c1 and 99.99% for grade Cu-c2).
Non-alloyed copper may be used in the annealed condition or the work hardened condition. The yield
strength of annealed copper is of the order of 70 N/mm2, and may exceed 300 N/mm2 in the highly work-
hardened condition.
2.2. « LOW ALLOY » COPPER

The presence of a small amount of additive element, in conjunction with work hardening or heat
treatment, may increase the hardness and the tensile strength of the copper without excessively
impairing its electrical conductivity, its thermal conductivity or its corrosion resistance.
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Low-alloy coppers may be classified into two categories :

1. Those which are hardened by the presence of additive elements in conjunction with work hardening,
2. Those which are hardened by heat treatment (quench + tempering) with possible additional work
hardening.
The main low alloy copper grades hardened with additive elements in conjunction with work hardening
are as follows:
– Silver copper, whose yield strength is similar to pure copper, but which retains its properties to a
higher temperature,
– Cadmium copper, whose yield strength is significantly higher than that of pure copper,
– Tellurium copper (or sulphur or lead copper) which is characterised by its high machinability.
Low alloy copper grades which can be hardened by heat treatment (quench + tempering) with possible
additional work hardening, achieve much higher yield strengths. This category includes essentially :
– Chrome copper, which provides a yield strength approaching 500 N/mm2.
– Cobalt copper which achieves a maximum yield strength of around 850 N/mm2,
– Beryllium copper whose yield strength reaches a maximum of 1400 N/mm2.
2.3. COPPER ALLOYS

Copper alloys are generally supplied in the annealed or work hardened condition, as contrary to low alloy
copper, they are rarely modified by quench and tempering treatments.
There are 6 main families of copper alloys:

1. Brass,
2. Bronze,
3. Cupro-aluminium,
4. Cupro-nickel,
5. Nickel silver,
6. Cupro-silicon.
a) Brass
Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc. They contain between 5 and 45% zinc as well as small quantities
of other elements. Brasses are very readily formable, and can therefore be used to manufacture
stamped parts for example.
Examples of grades : Cu Zn 10, Cu Zn 22 Al 2.
b ) Bronze
Bronzes are alloys of copper and tin. They generally contain between 3 and 25% tin. Bronze is
essentially used in casting to manufacture ship's propellers, bells, etc.
Examples of grades : Cu Sn 5 Zn 4, Cu Sn 12.

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c) Cupro-aluminium
Cupro-aluminiums contain between 4 and 14% aluminium possibly with other elements. They exhibit
good corrosion resistance, as well as mechanical properties approaching those of construction steels for
certain chemical composition alloys.
Examples of grades : Cu Al 6, Cu Al 8.
d ) Cupro-nickel
Cupro-nickels contain between 5 and 45% nickel together with small amounts of additive elements. They
exhibit very good corrosion resistance (particularly with respect to sea water) as well as relatively high
mechanical properties.
Examples of grades : Cu Ni 10, Cu Ni 30.
e) Nickel-silver
Nickel-silvers are alloys of copper, zinc and nickel. They contain between 15 and 45% zinc and between
7 and 30% nickel. Nickel-silvers exhibit intermediate properties, between those of brass and those of
cupro-nickel.
Examples of grades : Cu Zn 28 Ni 9, Cu Ni 26 Zn 17.
f) Cupro-silicon
Cupro-silicons contain between 2 and 4% silicon together with small amounts of additive elements. They
exhibit good mechanical properties and provide excellent wear resistance.
Examples of grades : Cu Si 3 Mn, Cu Si 2 Al 2.5.
3. WELDABILITY OF COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Welding of copper and its alloys is reputed to be difficult, this is essentially due to the difficult operating
procedures resulting from the physical properties of copper. Welding operations are performed using
many different processes: TIG, MIG, electron beam, laser, plasma, submerged arc welding, covered
electrode arc welding, resistance welding, friction welding, oxy-acetylene blow-pipe, aluminothermic
welding, explosion welding. TIG and MIG processes are the most frequently used, as they involve less
operating constraints in relation to the type of joint to be produced. Copper and its alloys may also be
assembled using brazing and braze welding techniques.
3.1. OPERATING WELDABILITY

Non- and low-alloy coppers are subject to operating welding difficulties as a result of the following
properties of copper:
1. Very high thermal conductivity. When welding, this property demands the use of very high welding
energy levels together with pre-heating of the parts, to counter the very fast heat dissipation and to
enable the metal to reach its melting temperature. The pre-heating temperature increases according
to the thickness to be welded (since the heat dissipation increases with thickness) and may be as
high as 600°C. Welding faults consequent of inadequate welding energy and/or insufficient
pre-heating, are lack of fusion and incomplete penetration.
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2. High fluidity in the liquid state. Danger of sagging of the weld pool which restricts the possible
welding positions and often involves the use of weld pool backing.
3. High thermal expansion coefficient. With an extended heated zone, due to the high thermal
dissipation, the high thermal expansion coefficient leads to severe distortion during welding of
copper, if the parts are not restrained, or if the welding sequence is not carefully chosen.
4. Very high electrical conductivity. The electrical properties of copper limit the potential for heating
by the joule effect in resistance welding. Welding processes for resistance welding must therefore be
specially adapted.
Copper alloys have significantly different physical properties from those of non- or low-alloyed copper.
This results in less welding operating difficulties. In particular, pre-heating of copper alloys is only
required for heavy-gauge bronze and cupro-aluminium material. Brass, cupro-nickel, nickel-silver and
cupro-silicon do not require pre-heating.
3.2. METALLURGICAL WELDABILITY
a) Effect of the metallurgical state of the parent metal

Copper and its alloys may be supplied in various metallurgical conditions:
– Annealed,
– Work-hardened,
– Quenched and tempered (in the presence of certain alloying elements only).
Welding of any work-hardened material causes recrystallisation and the resulting drop in yield strength
and hardness in the heat affected zone and the weld metal. The loss in mechanical strength due to
recrystallisation is all the greater if the initial material is highly work-hardened. This phenomenon is
irreversible.
Welding of any material supplied in the quenched and tempered condition, modifies the structure
obtained by quenching and tempering heat treatment. There is also a loss in mechanical strength in the
heat affected zone and the weld metal. This phenomenon is reversible, subject to being able to re-apply
the heat treatment(s) after welding, and subject to the composition in the weld metal being the same as
that of the parent metal (so that it behaves in the same way as the parent metal when subjected to heat
treatment).
Consequently:
1. Only copper and its alloys in the annealed condition can be welded without significantly modifying
their mechanical properties after welding,
2. Welding of copper and its alloys in the work-hardened condition causes an irreversible loss in
mechanical properties,
3. Welding of quenched and tempered copper alloy causes a loss of mechanical properties, which is
only reversible if it is possible to re-apply the heat treatment(s) after welding, and if the joint is
perfectly homogeneous.
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b ) Oxygen embrittlement
Oxygen embrittles copper and its alloys. Consequently, the achievement of a good quality joint requires
compliance with the following rules as a minimum:
1. Non-alloyed copper designated Cu-a is unsuitable for welding, since it contains oxygen (only non-
alloyed copper designated Cu-b or Cu-c is suitable for welding),
2. Copper and its alloys must be stripped prior to welding in order to remove the oxide which covers the
surface of the metal (at high temperature, the oxide diffuses into the metal and contaminates the
weld),
3. The welding protection must be adapted to avoid contact between the oxygen in the air and the
copper at temperatures above 800°C (for TIG and MIG welding: apply gas backing, extend the
protected zone by using a large diameter nozzle, or a saddle if the zone heated to more than 800°C
is very extensive).
c) Susceptibility to blow-holes
In the liquid state, copper has the ability to dissolve gases (nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen) which are likely
to form blow-holes in the weld zone at the moment of solidification. This problem can be avoided by
welding clean stripped metal and by the use of effective welding protection.
Brass and nickel-silver involve an additional difficulty, as they contain zinc, which is a highly volatile
element, resulting in the release of fumes (loss of zinc) and trapping of many porosities in the melt zone.
Brazing or braze-welding are means of avoiding this problem.
d ) Susceptibility to high temperature cracking

Certain copper alloys are subject to a lack of ductility at high temperatures, within the range 300°C to
700°C. The metal has a reduced capacity for plastic deformation within that temperature range. This
phenomenon affects the following alloys (to a greater or lesser degree according to their composition:
– Brass,
– Cupro-aluminium,
– Cupro-nickel.
This leads to a risk of cracking during welding, within that temperature range, under the effect of the
distortions and stresses generated by the expansion and contraction.
If this problem is encountered, several corrective measures should be considered:

1. Before welding
Select a non-susceptible parent metal whose high temperature elongation A% is at least 15%.
2. During welding (try to reduce the expansion and contraction)
Keep the welding energy as low as possible,
Modify the welding sequence.
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PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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MODULE 2.22 : NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

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FORMATION NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

1
PROFESSIONNELLE date : 03/01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 13
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 2
2. GENERAL METALLURGY .................................................................................................. 2

2.1. Chemical composition of the principal alloys .............................................................. 2
2.2. Structures and properties ........................................................................................... 3
2.3. Heat treatment............................................................................................................ 4
3. WELDABILITY...................................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................. 5
3.2. Formation of blow holes.............................................................................................. 5
3.2.1. General .........................................................................................................................5
3.2.2. Precautions to be taken ................................................................................................6
3.3. Lack of fusion and inadequate penetration. ................................................................ 6
3.3.1. General .........................................................................................................................6
3.4. Hot cracking................................................................................................................ 7
3.4.1. General .........................................................................................................................7
3.5. Filler metal and welding processes to be used for welding nickel alloys.................. 10
3.5.1. Examples of filler metals for use in arc welding..........................................................10
3.5.2. Welding processes to be used....................................................................................11
3.6. Quality control of the welds....................................................................................... 12
4. PRACTICAL CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 13
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1. INTRODUCTION
Non-alloyed and alloyed nickel is in relatively widespread use in industry.
It is often encountered in the aircraft industry, due to its good high temperature resistance.
It is also used in the chemical industry for low temperature storage due to its good corrosion resistance.
This manual is intended first of all to present its metallurgical and mechanical properties and then to
specify the precautions to be taken when welding nickel, with respect to metallurgical weldability.
2. GENERAL METALLURGY
2.1. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL ALLOYS
There are two types of composition: non-alloyed nickel and nickel alloys.
The principal non-alloyed nickels are:
Nickel 201 which is virtually pure (Ni > 99%).

Nickel 202 which is virtually pure (Ni > 99%) with a small amount of added carbon (≤ 0.02).
The principal nickel alloys are:
¾ Nickel-chrome-iron alloys, e.g.:
• Inconel 600 (14% Cr%, 6% Fe)

• Incoloy 800 (Z 10 NC 32-21)
• Incoloy 825 (Z 05 NCD 40-21-3 with 2% Cu and 1% Ti)
¾ Nickel-chrome alloys, e.g.:
• Ni-Cr 20
¾ Nickel-copper alloys, e.g.:
• Monel (Ni-Cu 35)
¾ Nickel-molybdenum alloys, e.g.:
• Hastelloy B (Ni-Mo 28 with 12.5% Mo, 2% Co and 5% Fe)

• Hastelloy C (Ni-Mo 16 Cr 15 with 12.5% Mo, 2% Co, 5% Fe and 4% W)
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2.2. STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES
The crystalline structure of nickel, like austenitic steels, is face centred cubic so nickel alloys have
analogous structures to those of austenitic stainless steels, and this applies both to parent metals and to
the weld zones.
This provides non-alloyed nickel and nickel alloys with the following mechanical properties:
¾ Excellent malleability, e.g. : annealed non-alloyed nickel : elongation = 50%.

¾ Excellent impact strength, even at low temperature.
However, apart from the work-hardened condition, the yield strength of non-alloyed nickel is
moderate.
¾ For non-alloyed nickel, without work-hardening: Rm = 380 MPa, Rp0.2 = 100 MPa.
¾ For work-hardened non-alloyed nickel: Rm = up to 540 MPa but elongation = 5%.
This is the reason why nickel alloys are also encountered, because the alloying elements increase the
mechanical properties of nickel by what is known as the solutionising effect.
The many alloying and additive elements which may be contained in nickel alloys systematically lead to
a hardening by the solutionising effect.
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Additionally, the alloying elements may generate complex carbides or intermetallic compounds which
also contribute towards the hardening of nickel.
For example :
¾ A nickel alloy containing 31.5% copper (monel 400) in the non work-hardened condition exhibits an
Rp0.2 of 400 MPa.
Finally, it should be noted that the precipitation of intermetallic compounds containing nickel and other
elements such as titanium and aluminium is sometimes exploited for hardening nickel-based alloys, this
is referred to as a structural hardening alloy.
Structural hardening alloys exhibit the property of softening by quenching, and hardening by tempering.
For example
¾ a nickel-based alloy containing 29.5% copper + 2.7 % aluminium and 0.6 % titanium (monel K-500)
exhibits :
• an Rp0.2 of 500 MPa in the hyper-quenched condition,

• an Rp0.2 in excess of 660 MPa in the hyper-quenched and tempered condition.
Remark on high temperature mechanical properties:
Except for nickel-copper alloys, nickel alloys exhibit good mechanical strength properties at high
temperature. For example, at 540°C, inconel 600 at a stress of 400 MPa, after 1,000 hours, exhibits less
than 0.1% plastic deformation.
Remark on corrosion resistance:
Apart from nickel-copper alloys, which have poor temperature resistance, all nickel alloys exhibit good
corrosion resistance at high temperature.
Nickel-copper, nickel-molybdenum and nickel-chrome-molybdenum alloys are often employed at

ambient temperature under special conditions where the corrosion resistance of stainless steels is
inadequate, in particular in the chemical industry.
2.3. HEAT TREATMENT
Non-alloyed nickel is used either in the work-hardened or in the annealed condition.
Nickel alloys hardened by the solutionising effect are used in the hyper-quenched condition.
Hyper-quenching provides the simpler alloys with a purely austenitic structure, and provides more
complex alloys with an austenitic structure supplemented with precipitates.
Structural hardening nickel alloys are hyper-quenched and tempered.

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Remark : the main nickel alloys and the heat treatments used are presented in tabular form in
paragraph 3.4.3.
3. WELDABILITY
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Nickel-based alloys are subject to three main risks from the point of view of welding:
¾ The formation of blow holes.

¾ Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration.
¾ Hot cracking.
3.2. FORMATION OF BLOW HOLES
3.2.1. General
After welding, a virtually irretrievable compacting flaw is sometimes experienced: the presence of
bubbles trapped in the weld zone, called blow holes.
These blow holes are the result of a very simple physical phenomenon:
¾ gas is absorbed by the weld pool, (frequently hydrogen, sometimes nitrogen),

¾ this gas subsequently has insufficient time to escape from the weld pool during solidification.
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3.2.2. Precautions to be taken
In order to avoid blow holes, it is essential, as far as possible, to remove the gas sources and to
encourage degassing of the bath, i.e.:
• choose dry basic flux coatings rather than rutile coatings which generate hydrogen,
• protect the weld pool from the ambient humidity using an inert gas for example by using a short
welding arc,
• limit the welding speed and choose level upright welding to encourage degassing,
• avoid using nitrogen which is particularly prone to forming blow holes in nickel alloys,
• choose short arc welding, to better protect the weld pool from the ambient air which is charged with
nitrogen and oxygen, facilitate access to the root radius by the use of wide angle chamfering,
• in all cases, take particular care regarding protection of the weld pool from the ambient
atmosphere,
• clean and degrease before welding in order to eliminate from the edges to be joined and the filler
metal any products prone to giving off gaseous breakdown fumes when subjected to the heat of the
welding arc,
• use filler metals containing a small amount of aluminium and titanium, as these have the ability to
absorb nitrogen and oxygen.
3.3. LACK OF FUSION AND INADEQUATE PENETRATION
3.3.1. General
Nickel alloys exhibit a very high viscosity in the molten state, so the weld pools have poor wetting
power.
This tends to generate a risk of inadequate penetration or lack of fusion at the bottom of the chamfer
or in the root of the joints.
It is recommended :
• to use open chamfer angles in order to facilitate access from the point of view of penetration,
• as a general rule facilitate access to the root for example by using special protection nozzles or
using small diameter electrodes.
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Lack of Inadequate penetration

fusion at the root
3.4. HOT CRACKING
3.4.1. General
Nickel alloys are susceptible to hot cracking. The phenomenon in general, is similar to that encountered
in welding of purely austenitic steels.
If there is severe segregation of impurities in the weld, to the extent that a low solidification temperature
liquid is formed, the centre-line of the weld tends to tear as soon as the shrinkage stresses build-up in
the joint.
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Segregation of impurities (S, Pb)
Film still liquid at lower temperature θ°
+ Welding stresses
= Hot cracking
Regarding nickel parent metal, it should be added that lead is a cracking factor, and that sulphur is
detrimental to nickel in that it forms a very low melting point compound (635°C).
1455°
Liquid
Ni
+
E
Liquid
635°
Nickel Sulphur
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Unfortunately, in the case of nickel alloys, it is obviously impossible to avoid hot cracking by introducing
5 to 10% ferrite in the weld zone, as in the case of austenitic stainless steels, therefore the following
precautions should be taken:
• define joints which are not or are only lightly restrained in order to limit the welding stresses
generated during shrinkage,
• weld under low energy conditions, in narrow passes, limit the temperature between passes, in
order to limit the degree of shrinkage,
• in the case of structural hardening alloys, one could weld in the metallurgical condition which
provides the lowest yield strength, i.e. the quenched condition, in order to limit the welding stresses,
then perform a tempering operation after welding, but this is difficult to implement; it is therefore
preferable to weld the parent metal in the quenched and tempered condition, and to limit the width of
the weld beads,
• Use only very clean parent metals and especially filler metals, i.e. low in sulphur (for example Smb <
0.02 and Sma < 0.015), phosphorus and oxygen content and whenever possible in silicon content,
and then limit the degree of dilution,
• take precautions to ensure that the filler metals and the edges to be welded are not contaminated
with traces of grease, paint, or pencil marks which could introduce sulphur or lead; it is
recommended to thoroughly degrease and clean the parts and filler metal prior to welding.
• finally, experience has shown that the presence of manganese in the filler metal, slightly increases the
resistance to hot cracking.
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3.5. FILLER METAL AND WELDING PROCESSES TO BE USED FOR WELDING

NICKEL ALLOYS
3.5.1. Examples of filler metals for use in arc welding
Nickel and its alloys may be welded using homogeneous filler metals. Many text books, documents or
catalogues provide tables to help operators to select the processes and filler metals suitable for welding.
A few examples of filler metals are provided in the table below.
BASE FILLER METAL STANDARD CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

METALS Ni C Cu Mn Fe Cr Misc.
Nickel Si < 1.25

Nickel + low
> 92 < 0.75 < 0.25 < 0.75 < 0.75 Ti 0.5 - 4
carbon
Nickel-AI-Ti AI < 1
Ni-Cu 70/30 62-70 0.4 remainder <4 < 2.5 Ti < 1 AI < 1.5
Ni-Cu-AI 60-68 < 0.45 remainder <4 < 2.5 Ti < 1 AI 1 to 4
Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo 40 0.05 1.75 0.6 31 21 Mo 3 Si 0.4
Ni-Mo Mo 27-30
remainder < 0.05 < 0.25 <1 5-9
Ni-Mo (V) Si < 0.65
Ni-Cr-Fe
Ni-Cr Nb 1.5 to 4
< 68 < 0.15 < 0.5 < 1.5 < 11 13-17
Ni-Cr (Ti-Al) Si < 0.75
Ni-Cr-Co (Ti-Al)
Fe-Ni-Cr
remainder < 0.15 < 0.5 1-3.5 6-12 13-17 Nb 1-3
Fe-Ni-Cr-Si
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3.5.2. Welding processes to be used.
Most of the conventional welding processes may be used, however, for the hardening alloys the TIG
process is to be preferred.
As already stated, when using gas protection, the use of an inert gas (argon) is strongly recommended.
The Welding Hand Book provides the following table:
PROCESS
PARENT METALS
COATED PLASMA
MIG SUBMERGED
ELECTRODE TIG
Pure nickel
Nickel 200 X X X X
Nickel 201 X X X X
Solutionising effect
hardening nickel
Monel 400 X X X X
Monel 401 X X X X
Monel R-105 X X X
Hastelloy X X X X
Nichrome V X X
Nichrome X X
Hastelloy G X X X
RA 333 X
Inconel 600 X X X X
Inconel 601 X X X X
Inconel 625 X X X X
Carpenter 20Cb3 X X X
Incoloy 800 X X X X
Incoloy 825 X X X
Hasteloy B X X X
Hastelloy C X X X
Hastelloy N X X
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PROCESS
PARENT METALS
COATED PLASMA
MIG SUBMERGED
ELECTRODE TIG
Structural hardening
nickel
Monel K-500 X X
Waspaloy X
Renée 41 X
Nimonic 30A X
Nimonic 50 X
M 252 X
Udimet 500 X X
Inconel 713 X X
Inconel X-750 X
Inconel 706 X
Alloy 901 X
3.6. QUALITY CONTROL OF THE WELDS
The quality of nickel and nickel alloys can be checked using appropriate destructive and non-destructive
testing methods, however, ultrasonic inspection is virtually inapplicable.
Essentially, one checks the absence of the following defects:
¾ Hot cracking.
¾ Blow holes.
¾ Lack of fusion and inadequate penetration.
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4. PRACTICAL CONCLUSION
The principal nickel materials are as follows :
¾ Pure nickel (e.g.: Nickel 201).
¾ Nickel alloys subject to solutionising effect hardening (e.g.: Monel 400).
¾ Nickel alloys subject to structural hardening during tempering (e.g. : Monel K-500).
They exhibit a CFC structure, exhibit good corrosion resistance and impact strength. The alloys
exhibit good yield strength, (pure nickel on the other hand, exhibits low yield strength).
They can be welded using a homogeneous filler metal and using conventional welding processes
apart from the structural hardening alloys for which the TIG process is to be preferred.
It is recommended :
• To always use an inert gas (argon), without nitrogen, and to weld using a short arc (open
chamfer) as they are susceptible to blow holes,
• To facilitate access to the root (open chamfer, narrow gap) as the weld pool is viscous making
them subject to lack of fusion and inadequate penetration.
• to clean and degrease the parts and filler metal prior to welding and to use narrow weld beads in
preference to wide passes, together with clean filler metals (free from sulphur in particular) as they
are susceptible to hot cracking.
After welding the quality of the weld beads may be checked (absence of blow holes, of hot cracking, of
lack of fusion, of inadequate penetration) by the use of appropriate inspection methods, excluding
ultrasonic inspection, which is difficult to apply.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.23 : ALUMINUIM AND ITS ALLOYS

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FORMATION ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

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ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
CONTENTS
1. THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINIUM .............................................................................. 2
2. ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS .......................................................................................... 4

2.1. Properties ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Delivery condition ......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1. Mechanical forming.......................................................................................................5
2.2.2. Casting..........................................................................................................................5
2.3. Designation of alloys .................................................................................................... 5
2.3.1. Alphanumeric designation ............................................................................................5
2.3.2. Numerical Designation..................................................................................................6
2.3.3. Casting alloys ...............................................................................................................6
2.3.4. Designation of the metallurgical delivery conditions .....................................................6
2.4. The aluminium families................................................................................................. 7
2.5. Heat treatments ............................................................................................................ 8
2.5.1. Alloys sensitive to heat treatment .................................................................................8
2.5.2. Annealing......................................................................................................................8
2.5.3. Structural quenching (or solutionising) .........................................................................8
2.5.4. Ageing...........................................................................................................................9
2.5.5. Tempering.....................................................................................................................9
3. WELDING OF ALUMINIUM ................................................................................................. 9

3.1. Influence of physical properties.................................................................................... 9
3.2. Influence of chemical properties................................................................................... 9
3.2.1. Solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminium.....................................................................9
3.2.2. Alumina AI2O3 .............................................................................................................10
3.3. Metallurgical weldability of aluminium alloys.............................................................. 10
3.4. Filler metal for welding of work hardened alloys to one another................................ 11
3.5. Chemical composition of the principal filler metals .................................................... 12
3.6. Operational weldability of certain aluminium alloys in MIG welding .......................... 13
3.6.1. Surface finish of the parts to be joined .......................................................................13
3.6.2. Protection of the filler wire ..........................................................................................13
3.6.3. Wire feed ....................................................................................................................13
3.6.4. Welding position .........................................................................................................13
3.6.5. Weld seam ends .........................................................................................................14
3.6.6. Preheating prior to welding .........................................................................................14
3.6.7. Gas protection of the weld pool ..................................................................................14
3.7. Edge preparation ........................................................................................................ 15
4. WELD IMPERFECTIONS................................................................................................... 18
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1. THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINIUM

After silicon, aluminium is the most plentiful metal in silica
the earth's crust. Unfortunately it does not exist
naturally in its metallic form.
iron oxide titanium oxide
The raw material used to produce aluminium is
bauxite. This mineral is found essentially in Australia
(Guinea) and in South America.
The conversion of bauxite into aluminium is relatively water
complicated and requires large amounts of electricity.
For a very long time, aluminium was considered as a alumina
precious metal. Its production remains essentially Figure 1
located in energy-rich nations.
The BAYER process (cf. Figure 2) is used for converting bauxite into alumina.
Figure 2
The different stages in this conversion are :
ª Crushing + grinding : to obtain a homogeneous powder.

ª Mixing of the bauxite powder + caustic soda + water, in an autoclave at 250 °C 35/40 bar to
obtain sodium aluminate and a small amount of insoluble residue.
ª Dilution + settling + scrubbing : this operation separates out the insoluble residue (iron oxide,
titanium oxide, …).
ª Precipitation + filtration + drying + roasting to 1000°C : to obtain the white alumina powder.
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The HEROULT – HALL electrolytic process is then used to convert the alumina into aluminium. As the
melting point of alumina is 2040 °C, a small amount of cryolite is added, which lowers the melting point
to 950 °C. The aluminium is formed by d.c. electrolysis of this mixture. The tanks (anode) and electrodes
(cathode) are made of graphite.
ª Alumina : AI2O3 Î 2AI3++302-

ª At the anode : 302-+3/2 C Î 3/2 CO2 + 6e-
ª At the cathode : 2 AI3+ + 6e- Î 2AI = aluminium
This process consumes vast amounts of energy. A current of one amp, flowing for one hour produces
only 0.33 grammes of aluminium.
Figure 3
In order to obtain one tonne of aluminium, using a modern installation, requires :
• 1900 kg of alumina
• 380 kg of coke
• 100 kg of pitch combustion of the electrodes
• 15 kg of cryolite
• 13 MWh of electricity.
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2. ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
2.1. PROPERTIES
The widespread use of aluminium in the marine trades is the result of the special properties of the
material, in particular :
ª The remarkable corrosion resistance of the « marine quality » alloys in the aluminium -
magnesium and aluminium – magnesium – silicon families. Parts made of aluminium require little
maintenance, its service life is measured in decades and it retains its good appearance.
ª Its lightness is a major asset. For a given size of vehicle, the use of aluminium provides a weight
saving of 20 to 50% depending on the material (polyester, steel...). This weight saving can
translate into greater speed or greater range. It is for this reason that it is increasingly being used
for road or rail vehicles and for ships.
The table below shows a few properties compared with other commonly used metals.
Pure Al AI – Mg STEEL STAINLESS

alloy STEEL TITANIUM
A 99.9 % S235 COPPER
5086 18/8
Density g.cm-3 2.7 2.7 7.8 7.9 8.9 4.5
Melting temperature (liquidus) °C 660 640 1450 1450 1083 1670
Linear expansion coefficient 10-6 24 24 11 17 16.5 8.5

-1
°K
Thermal conductivity m-1 °K-1 217 126 50 16 385 12
Electrical resistivity µ Ω . cm 2.6 5.6 11 70 1.7 42
Yield point Rp0.2 MPa 0 100 240 280 70 250
Breaking stress Rm MPa 75 240 410 630 235 380
Elongation A% 55 18 40 55 45 20
Brinell hardness HB 60 120 85 50
Young's modulus MPa 70.000 70.000 210.000 200.000 120.000 110.000
REMINDER
The yield point is that stress beyond which the metal becomes permanently deformed.
Young's modulus is that stress which must be applied to a metal in order to achieve a theoretical 100%
elongation. Thus for a given load, an aluminium beam ( E = 70 000 MPa) deforms 3 times as much as a
steel beam (E = 210 000 MPa).
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2.2. DELIVERY CONDITION

There are two main conversion or forming modes for light alloys :
ª Mechanical forming,
ª Casting.
2.2.1. Mechanical forming

Rolling is performed on plates (rectangular cross-
section) and produces sheet or strip material of any
thickness.
Extrusion is performed on billets (circular cross-
section) and produces tubes and sections of diverse
shapes.
Forging is performed essentially on billets but can also
be performed on sectioned plates and produces
forged parts of all kinds.
Figure 4
2.2.2. Casting
The conversion processes based on liquid aluminium
are designated under the name of « casting ».
Continuous casting between rollers is used essentially
for converting recycled metal into castings which are
subsequently cold rolled to produce the strips and thin
foil used for packaging.
The most common casting conversion is, however,
die-casting in which the liquid metal is poured into a
mould or die, to give it the desired shape, then
allowing it to cool.
Figure 5
2.3. DESIGNATION OF ALLOYS
Aluminium alloys are designated in 2 ways under the French AFNOR standards.
2.3.1. Alphanumeric designation

Letter A for aluminium then letters corresponding to the other alloying elements in decreasing order of
content.
e.g. : A-S7G = Aluminium alloy containing 7% of silicon and a small amount of magnesium
A-G4MC = 4% magnesium + a small amount of manganese and chrome.
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2.3.2. Numerical Designation

The alloy is designated by 4 figures. This American Aluminium Association designation superseded the
alphanumeric designation in 1973.
2.3.3. Casting alloys

For this type of alloy, the alphanumeric notation has been retained.
e.g. : A-S13 No heat treatment, medium mechanical properties, good corrosion resistance.
ª A-S7G03 or G06 with heat treatment, replaces A-S13.

ª A-75G with heat treatment, good mechanical properties, weldable.
ª A-U5GT with heat treatment, very good mechanical properties, not weldable, not used in
maritime environments due to the presence of copper (U).
2.3.4. Designation of the metallurgical delivery conditions

In addition to the numerical denomination, the standards define the conventional designation rules of the
most common metallurgical delivery conditions for mechanically formed products according to their
strength or the heat treatment or mechanical hardening to which they are subjected during manufacture.
The metallurgical conditions are indicated, either by the strength index, or by reference to the
metallurgical condition. The table below provides a summary.
Letter Meaning 1st figure 2nd figure
F As produced hot None None

0 Annealed or recrystallised None None
1 Cold worked 1 Softest
Hardness index
only 2 ¼ hardened
H Work hardened by cold 2 + Recovery 3 ½ hardened
forming annealed 6 ¾ hardened
4
3 + Stress relief 8 /4 hardened
9 Extra hardened
Quench + Cold
T Quench or temper heat 3 worked + Aged
treatment
Quenched +
Aged
Tempered None
Quenched +
Tempered
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2.4. THE ALUMINIUM FAMILIES

1xxx : pure non-alloyed aluminium
1050 = A5 Commercial Aluminium 99.5% aluminium + 0.5% impurity (iron and silicon) these
impurities affect its weldability. This is the most common grade. It is used in building, chemistry,
cryogenics, consumer goods (packing, kitchenware), for electrical conductors.
1100 = A4 99.0% aluminium.
1080 = A8 99.8% aluminium. This grade of aluminium is extremely resistant to aggressive
environments. It exhibits good decorative properties. It is used in the chemical and food industries.
1099 = A 99 99.9% aluminium.
This family is characterised by great chemical purity but very poor mechanical properties, good
resistance to marine environments but poor strength.
2 xxx : aluminium – copper

2017 = A-U4G Heat treated, also called duralumin or dural, has very good machinability
properties, not weldable, not suitable for use in marine environments.
2030 = A-4Pb Lead embrittles the swarf.
2618A*=A-U2GN Alloy used for Concorde.
3 xxx aluminium – manganese

3003 = AM1 slightly alloyed but better properties than pure aluminium.
3004 = AM1G
Used for heat exchangers of all kinds, for heat transfer from one face to the other (e.g. saucepans,
heating or cooling radiators) as well as for thermal insulation. These alloys exhibit good resistance to
salt-laden atmospheres.
4 xxx aluminium – silicon

This category is used for castings and certain wires for welding.
Ex. 4043 = A-S5 welding filler wire.
5 xxx aluminium – magnesium

These alloys provide good corrosion resistance and good forming properties, good weldability and
medium mechanical properties. They are in widespread use.
The best forming / welding / corrosion / mechanical properties compromise is provided by
5086=A-G4MC. The problem with aluminium – magnesium alloys is that they extrude badly.
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6 xxx aluminium / magnesium / silicon : + heat treatment (hardening)

The properties of this family are: good resistance to marine atmospheres, good weldability, good
mechanical properties and very high suitability for extrusion but they are unsuitable for forming.
e.g. 6060 = A-GS
7 xxx : aluminium / zinc / magnesium + heat treatment (hardening)

7020 = A-Z5G Suitable for extruding and rolling, good mechanical properties, weldable, but the
welds are subject to corrosion.
7075 = A-Z5GU Provide the best mechanical properties but are not weldable.
7049 = A-Z8GU
2.5. HEAT TREATMENTS

2.5.1. Alloys sensitive to heat treatment
Two major categories should be considered :
a) Pure aluminium and its alloys without structural hardening

These are referred to as « non quenching ». These
are the 1000, 3000, 5000 series.
Their mechanical properties can only be improved by
work hardening.
Figure 6 shows an example of the change in
mechanical properties achievable for aluminium 1050.
It should be remembered that when a metal is heated,
the material recrystallises, resulting in a change in its Figure 6
mechanical properties.
b ) Structurally hardened alloys

These are referred to as « quenching ». Their mechanical properties are obtained by quenching followed
by ageing or tempering and/or stretching to induce work hardening.
2.5.2. Annealing
This is applicable to both categories.
On « non-quenching » alloys, it counters the work hardening generated by cold forming and re-
establishes the malleability of the metal for the subsequent forming operations. On « quenching » alloys,
it counters the effect of the quenching and tempering which the metal may have been subjected to
beforehand and thus facilitates any subsequent forming.
2.5.3. Structural quenching (or solutionising)

This provides the « quenching » alloys their minimum mechanical properties. Contrary to steels, these
are not immediately affected. Immediately after quenching, these alloys exhibit even greater malleability
than that achievable through annealing. This is referred to as the as-quenched condition; this is when
they should be worked, in particular for forming or to eliminate distortion generated by heat treatment.
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2.5.4. Ageing
The as-quenched condition is temporary, since at ambient temperature, there is a natural reversion to a
more stable condition. This is referred to as ageing (hence the term aged). This ageing can take from a
few hours to several months. It may be retarded by storage at low temperature in order to increase the
available period for operations to be performed in the as-quenched condition.
2.5.5. Tempering
Certain alloys whose ageing is slow or inexistent can have their mechanical properties increased by
tempering or artificial ageing. This consists in heating the metal to a medium temperature (around
200 °C). This activates the ageing phenomenon. After cooling, generally in still air, the alloy will not
change its properties unless the tempering temperature is reached.
Remark :
Ageing = deterioration in mechanical properties
3. WELDING OF ALUMINIUM
The physical and chemical properties of aluminium affect its weldability.
3.1. INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Its thermal conductivity being 5 times greater and its expansion coefficient being double that for steel,
result in large heat dissipation into the metal and severe distortion during welding.
This distortion caused by the transverse and longitudinal shrinkage of the welds takes the form of three
essential effects
ª Creasing effect.
ª Restraint effect.
ª Warping effect.
The main method to limit this distortion consists in using powerful and fast welding means (e.g. MIG) to
avoid the heat dissipation, in using high inertia sections or parts (greater stiffness), careful location of the
welds (symmetry), and in performing the welds in accordance with a specified welding sequence
schedule (welding order and direction)
3.2. INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

3.2.1. Solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminium
Aluminium in the liquid state has a tendency to dissolve a certain amount of hydrogen at high
temperature. On cooling, this hydrogen forms small bubbles in the weld. It is therefore essential to avoid
any presence of hydrogen in contact with the molten metal. The hydrogen comes from water.
The source of this water may be climatic when welding outdoors in the rain, in which case a shelter must
be provided, or condensation in a workshop, whence the need for air conditioning, or structural water
from the alumina hydrate film. Before welding, the alumina film is therefore removed using a rotary
stainless steel abrasive brush. The alumina film re-establishes itself within 2 or 3 hours unless some
protection is applied to the parts after abrasion.
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3.2.2. Alumina AI2O3

The melting temperature of alumina is 2080°C, that for aluminium is 658°C. Alumina reforms
immediately in ambient air. Before welding, it is therefore essential to remove this film and to protect the
metal in order to prevent it from re-forming.
This protection is provided by a flow of inert gas, which also provides ionisation. This gas prevents the
ambient air from re-oxidising the weld pool. The inert gas may be pure argon, as is the case in MIG
welding.
A mixture of 70% helium and 30% is frequently used in MIG welding, as it tends to reduce the degree of
porosity of the welds.
3.3. METALLURGICAL WELDABILITY OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Examination of a transverse section through a weld shows 3 distinct zones :
ª a weld zone,
ª the heat affected zone,
ª the unaffected parent metal.
On work hardened metal, the heat cycle generated by welding modifies the metallurgical state of the
product.
In the weld zone, there is a danger of cracking during solidification (hot cracking).
In the 5000 series, the behaviour of the alloy is :
• Poor up to 2% Mg.
• Good at 3% Mg.
• Very good at 4% Mg.
Figure 7
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3.4. FILLER METAL FOR WELDING OF WORK HARDENED

ALLOYS TO ONE ANOTHER
1080
1050 A
1100 1050
1200
3003
3004 1050* 1050*
3005
5005 5854* 5854*

5052 4043 or or
5050 5754 5754
5454 5183 5854

5754 4043 5356 or or
5356 5754
5056 5183
5083 4043 5356 or 5356 5356
5086 5356
6000 4043 4043 5356 5356* 5356* 5356*
7020 4043 4043 5183* 5356 5356 5356* 5356
1080 5005
Alloys 1050A 3003 5052 5454 5056
1100 3004 5050 5754 5083 6000 7020
1200 3005 5251 5086
(*) To facilitate the welding operation without seriously impairing the mechanical properties of the weld, it
is possible to use alloy 4043 as filler metal.
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3.5. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL FILLER METALS
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Others AI
each total
- - - - - - - -
1050 0.25 0.40 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 99.5
Si + Fe - 0.10 3.1 0.15 - - Rem.

5854 0.45 0.10 0.50 3.9 0.35 0.20 0.20 - 0.15
0.05
- - - 0.50 4.3 0.05 - - - Rem.

5183 0.40 0.40 0.10 1.0 5.2 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15
Si + Fe - 0.05 4.5 0.05 - 0.06 - 0.15 Rem.

5356 0.50 0.10 0.20 5.5 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.05
4.5 - - - - - - - Rem.
4043 6.0 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15
11.0 - - - - - - - Rem.
4047 13.0 0.8 0.30 0.15 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15
The best behaviour is observed with 5086 (AG4MC) and 5083 (AG5M).
The 6000 and 7000 series alloys react rather badly to welding. For these alloys, it is advisable to use
5356 (AG5) filler metal.
In the heat affected zone (HAZ) the thermal gradient generates recovery, recrystallisation and grain
growth in the immediate vicinity of the weld pool.
In the grain growth zone, some cleavage may occur.
Such cleavage is particularly apparent in 2000 and 7000 series alloys, which contain copper.
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3.6. OPERATIONAL WELDABILITY OF CERTAIN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS IN MIG WELDING

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding involves the use of a d.c. electrical supply under reverse polarity (+ on the
electrode).
Protection is provided by an inert gas or mixture of inert gases (argon + helium).
The electric current may be « smooth » or « pulsed » the advantage of pulsed current being better
control and narrower baths.
It is essential to pay particular attention to the welding procedure and to the use of the equipment. Strict
compliance with the instructions is a pledge for quality.
3.6.1. Surface finish of the parts to be joined

Before any welding operation, ensure that the surfaces are clean in the vicinity of the welds.
If the parts have not been protected, they must be degreased immediately prior to welding and
energetically brushed either with a stainless steel brush or a rotary brush.
For high quality welds, the seams must be air-blasted after cleaning in order to remove any aluminium
particles or wire brush debris which could generate flaws in the weld seam.
3.6.2. Protection of the filler wire

In order to avoid any water absorption, the spool of wire must be removed from the wire feeder and
stored in a dry area or even better, in a heated cupboard, whenever work is interrupted for 24 hours or
longer.
Similarly, when installing or removing the spool, avoid contaminating the wire with dirty or greasy hands
or gloves, in order to avoid generating porosity in the welds.
3.6.3. Wire feed

The wire feed is crucial for correct execution of the welding operation. The wires are generally
« pushed » into the sleeve from the feeder. The sleeve must be made of TEFLON and the drive rollers
must be suitable for use with light alloys. The length of the sleeves must be kept to the strictest minimum
and avoid the use of sharp bends which are likely to impede the feed and damage the wire.
Once per day, the sleeve must be dismantled at the feeder end and the internal Teflon sleeve blasted
with air in order to chase out any particles of aluminium which could obstruct the wire feed.
On completion of each weld run and before striking the next arc, the end of the wire protruding from the
nozzle must be pulled with the wire-cutters, in order to keep it tight and to prevent it from coiling up
inside the sleeve. (This prevents binding and « internal arcing » when striking).
The wire must then be cut off flush with the contact tip.
3.6.4. Welding position

The possible welding positions are the same for aluminium as for steel. However, vertical
« descending » welds are strictly prohibited as they generate « lack of fusion » which are unacceptable
plane defects.
In order to achieve the optimum gas protection, the gun or torch must be inclined forward by about 15°.
The weld is always produced by a pushing motion.
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3.6.5. Weld seam ends

At each end and before restarting, the end of the bead must be removed over a length of about 30 to
40 mm at a shallow angle, by gouging (or grinding). Thoroughly brush the bead before restarting.
The bead should be restarted some 10 to 20 mm upstream of the gouged/ground zone. Avoid restarting
directly in the seam. Use the « moustache » technique.
To avoid « moustaches », use variable current equipment and « feed » the craters in the root of the
weld.(cf. Figure 8)
Figure 8
3.6.6. Preheating prior to welding

Items more than 10 mm thick and massive parts must be preheated to around 80° prior to welding. This
precaution avoids the formation of porosity and facilitates the welding operation.
3.6.7. Gas protection of the weld pool

The gas used for welding aluminium is either pure argon or an argon / helium mixture. It is essential to
carefully check the effectiveness of the weld gas protection.
Precautions to be taken to ensure effective gas protection : the gas flow meters must be in perfect
working order and the gas flows must be accurately shown : 22 to 26 litres/minute for butt welds, and 20
to 24 litres/minute for fillet welds.
If a flow meter is defective, it must be replaced. The blowpipe or welding gun nozzles must always be
clean to ensure the gas flows correctly all around the contact tip.
Twice per day (during intensive welding) apply an aerosol spatter-resistant product into the nozzles.
Regularly clean the nozzles throughout the day to remove any spatter. The work stations must be
properly protected against draughts. Deploy screens if necessary and beware of welding equipment
cooling fans.
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3.7. EDGE PREPARATION

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4. WELD IMPERFECTIONS
Weld defects, irrespective of their nature, are always detrimental to the properties of a welded seam. The
degree of severity in decreasing order with respective to in-service strength of welded installations, is as
follows : cracks, especially if they break the surface, lack of penetration, aligned porosity, lack of fusion
or lack of adhesion, geometric imperfections, distributed porosity, inclusions. All these imperfections are
clearly detectable using conventional inspection methods : visual inspection, dye-penetrant crack
detection, X-ray, texture, macrography, etc... Each welded joint must comply with the quality criteria
which correspond to the acceptable level of imperfections. The table below summarises the main
imperfections which may be encountered and provides guidance on the remedial action required.
FAULTS PROBABLE CAUSES

Geometric imperfections Welding advance too slow
Excessive bulging of the weld bead, Incorrect chamfer geometry
excessive penetration, different levels, Inadequate arc voltage
undercuts, intermittent undercuts Excessive welding current
Incorrect torch angle
Lack of penetration Inadequate welding current
Welding advance too fast
Incorrect chamfer preparation, preparation
too narrow, excessive root
High arc voltage
Lack of adhesion Excessive arc voltage
Preparation too narrow for multiple pass
welds = advance too fast
Inadequate welding current
Part too cold
Inclusions Metallic brush particles
Contaminated weld pool backing
Contamination of the bead between passes
Distributed porosity Poor degreasing of the parts before welding
Contaminated or damp filler wire
Damp part
Inadequate inert gas protection
Bead struck on cold part
Excessive arc voltage
Linear porosity Lack of penetration
Excessive temperature gradient between
weld pool backing and parts to be welded
Excessive gap between edges to be joined.
Splits and cracks Badly chosen filler metal
Inadequate filler metal applied
(on 6000 & 7000 series)
Unsuitable parent metal
Excessive restraint
Excessive cooling
Bead struck directly on the part to be welded
Sudden arc break at the end of the bead.
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LEGENDES POUR FIGURES

Page 2 Figure 2
Train bauxite = Bauxite train
Silo bauxite = Bauxite silo
Soude neuve = Caustic soda
Liqueur d'attaque = Attack solution
Chaufferie = Boiler house
Réchauffeurs = Heaters
Broyage = Grinding
Concassage = Crushing
Evaporation = Evaporation
Détendeurs = Pressure reducing valves
Pompes à membranes = Diaphragm pumps
Autoclaves = Autoclaves
Dilueurs = Diluters
Décantation = Settling tank
Filtres = Filters
Echangeurs = Heat exchangers
Lavage = Scrubbing
Filtres d'amorce = Priming filters
Décomposeurs = Separators
Bacs d'amorce = Priming tanks
Boues = Slurry
Fours = Ovens
Filtres de production = Production filters
Refroidisseurs = Coolers
Silos alumine = Alumina silos
Schéma de fabrication de l'alumine = Alumina manufacturing process diagram
(Procédé BAYER) = (BAYER process)
préparation du mierai et attaque par la soude = mineral preparation and caustic soda attack
décomposition de l'aluminate = breakdown of the aluminate
alumine anhydre = anhydrous alumina
recyclage de la liqueur d'attaque = recycling of the attack solution
Page 4 Figure 3
énergie électrique = electrical energy

alumine = alumina
produits fluorés = fluoride products
coke = coke
brai = pitch
pâte crue = raw paste
briquettes = briquettes
goujon = stud
gaine = sleeve
jupe = skirt
caisson = case
briquetage = brickwork
brasquage = brasquing
ANODE SÖDERBERG = SÖDERBERG ANODE
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Presse, four = Press, oven

atelier de scellement = encapsulation workshop
anodes précuites = pre-baked anodes
caisson = case
briquetage = brickwork
brasquage = brasquing
ANODES PRECUITES = PRE-BAKED ANODES
ALUMINIUM = ALUMINIUM
Anode = Anode
Alumine = Alumina
Electrolyte = Electrolyte
Aluminium = Aluminium
Cathode = Cathode
Page 5 Figure 4
TRANSFORMATION DE L'ALUMINIUM PAR CORROYAGE = CONVERSION OF ALUMINIUM BY

MECHANICAL FORMING
Plaques = Plates
Billettes = Billets
FILAGE = EXTRUSION
LAMINAGE = ROLLING
TOLES FORTES = THICK SHEET
TOLES MINCES = THIN SHEET
BANDES = STRIPS
TUBES ET PROFILES DE DIVERSES FORMES = TUBES AND VARIOUS SHAPED SECTIONS
PIECES FORGEES ET MATRICEES = FORGED AND DIE-CAST PARTS
FORGEAGE = FORGING
Page 5 Figure 5
TRANSFORMATION DE L'ALUMINIUM PAR FONDERIE = CONVERSION OF ALUMINIUM BY

CASTING
ALUMINIUM LIQUIDE = LIQUID ALUMINIUM
MOULAGE = DIE CASTING
COULEE CONTINUE SUR ROUE = CONTINUOUS WHEEL CASTING
COULEE CONTINUE ENTRE CYLINDRES = CONTINUOUS CASTING BETWEEN ROLLERS
Laminoir à gorges = Grooved roller mill
Fil machine = Machine wire
FILS TOUS DIAMETRES = ALL DIAMETER WIRES
Ebauche = Blank
Laminoir à froid = Cold rolling mill
BANDES MINCES = THIN STRIPS
PIECES MOULEES = DIE-CAST PARTS
Page 8 Figure 6
Dur = Hardened
1/2 dur = Semi-hardened
Recuit = Annealed
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Page 10 Figure 7 ?
Ecroui = Work hardened

Recuit = Annealed
Filiation de dureté = Hardness relationship
distance des points = distance between points
métal de base écroui = work hardened parent metal
grossissement des grains = enlarged grains
recristallisation = recrystallisation
restauration = recovery
(et relaxation des contraintes résiduelles du métal de base) = (relieving of the parent metal residual
stresses)
zone de recuit = annealed zone
Page 14 Figure 8
arrêt=cratère = stop=crater
départ reprise = beginning of weld restart
30 à 40 mm = 30 to 40 mm
zone à meuler en sifflet = zone to grind to a taper
arrêt = weld stop
"moustaches" = "moustaches"
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.24 : WELDING OF NON FERROUS METALS AND NON

FERROUS ALLOYS
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FORMATION WELDING OF NON-FERROUS METALS AND

1
PROFESSIONNELLE NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
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1. Overview
Beside the common materials like Steel, Aluminium, Copper or Nickel, there is a group of metals
(,,special metals”), which have special properties and characteristics and may substitute other metals
because of that. These are Titan, Zirconium, Molybdenum Magnesium, Tantalum and Tungsten and their
alloys. Very special are the higher or extremely high melting points and corrosion resistance.
Regarding to the welding behaviour, the intensive tendency to pick up atmospheric components
(H2,N2,O2) determines the choice of the welding procedure. From these, the procedures of TIG-, EB-
,Explosive-and Resistance-welding are the favourites.
2. Physical and metallurgical fundamentals
point of fusion : 1668 °C
β -Titan : (from 1668 °C up to 882 °C, krz.), α - Titan : (below 882 °C, hex.)
Fig. 1: Schematic draw of the influence of alloying elements at the binary systems
There are three structural types of titanium alloys:
Alpha alloys are non-heat treatable and are generally very weldable. They have low to medium
strength. good notch toughness, reasonable good ductility and possess excellent mechanical properties
at cryogenic temperatures.
Alpha-Beta alloys are heat treatable and most are weldable. Their strength levels are medium to high.
Their hotforming qualities are good, but the high temperature creep strength is not as good as in most
alpha alloys. The more highly alloyed alpha and near-alpha alloys offer optimum high temperature creep
strength and oxidation resistance as well.
Beta or near-beta alloys are readily heat treatable, generally weldable, capable of high strengths and
good creep resistance to intermediate temperatures. Excellent formability can be expected of the beta
alloys in the solution treated condition. Beta-type alloys have good combinations of properties in sheet,
heavy sections, fasteners and spring applications.
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Fig. 2: Process flow chart of titanium production
material type of Composition (weight in %) rest Ti

short term
No alloy Al V Fe Mo Sn Zr Cu O* H* N* C*
5,5- max. 1,8- 1,8- 3,6-
3.7144 Ti6AISn4Zr2Mo (α+β) -- -- 0,12 0,015 0,05 0,05
6,5 0,25 2,2 2,2 4,4
max. 2,0-
3.7124 Ti2Cu α -- -- -- -- -- (0,2) 0,010 0,05 0,1
0,20 3,0
5,5- 3,5- max.
3.7164 Ti6Al4V (α+β) -- -- -- -- 0,20 0,013 0,07 0,08
6,5 4,5 0,25
5,0- 5,0- 0,35- 1,5- 0,35-
3.7174 Ti6Al6V2Sn (α+β) -- -- 0,20 0,015 0,04 0,05
6,0 6,0 1,0 2,5 1,0
3,0- max. 3,0- 1,5-
3.7184 Ti4Al4Mo2SnSi (α+β) -- -- -- 0,25 0,015 0,05 0,08
5,0 0,20 5,0 2,5
3,0- 2,0-
-- Ti5Al2,5Fe (α+β) -- -- -- -- -- 0,20 0,015 0,05 0,08
5,0 3,0
Ti13V11Cr3Al
-- β 3 3 11 Cr
(USA)
Ti11Cr8Mo3Al
BT15 β 3 8 11 Cr
(Russia)
* - maximum values
Fig. 3: Composition of titanium alloys

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Physical Mechanical Characteristics

Material
o condition Dimension Rm Rp0,2 A Z
N 2 2
mm N/mm n/mm % %
3.7144 hardened <80 900 830 8 25
annealed 0,4-0,6 540 460 15 --
annealed <80 540 400 16 35
3.7124
hardened 0,4-0,6 690 550 10 --
hardened <80 650 540 10 30
annealed 0,6-2,0 930 870 8 --
annealed 2,0-6,0 930 870 10 --
3.7164 annealed <80 900 830 10 25
annealed <160 900 830 8 20
hardened 12,5 1140 1070 8 20
annealed 0,6-6,0 1070 1000 8 10
3.7174 annealed <100 1000 930 8 --
hardened <25 1240 1170 6 15
hardened <25 1000-1280 960 9 25
3.7184 hardened 25-100 1050-1220 920 9 20
hardened 100-150 1000-1200 870 9 20
annealed 0,6-2,0 860 780 8 --
annealed 2,0-6,0 860 780 10 --
Ti5AI2,5e
annealed <80 860 780 10 25
annealed <160 860 780 8 20
Ti11Cr8Mo3Ai
annealed Stab 900 880 14 60
BT 15
Fig. 4: Mechanical characteristics of titanium alloys
3. Welding processing
Fig 5: Physical values important for the welding behaviour of titanium, titanium alloys against
The steel the steel x 12 CrNi 19 9
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Fig 6: Security devices for welding titanium (schematically view)
Fig 7: Root protection (copper bar)

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Welding of titanium:
Welding
Reliability of welded titanium has been demonstrated in a host of applications. Typical of these are solid
propellant rocket motor cases, high pressure storage vessels, tankage, jet engine components and air-
frame components.
Being a reactive metal, titanium will react with oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon and indeed with
most refractories and metals. Therefore, the art of welding titanium is, in large measure, the art of
excluding foreign substances.
Electric arc sources are commonly use to from fusion welds. Tungsten electrodes, metal wire
electrodes, or inert gas plasma using argon or argon/helium mixtures are use to transfer energy to the
fusion zone. Electron beam, laser welding and spot welding are also used extensively as is friction
welding.
Fusion Welding
There are a number of guidelines to be followed as appropriate to each situation. They are:
• Keep the weld area clean. All jigs, fixtures, clamps, etc., should be cleaned prior to use.
• Thoroughly clean and degrease the metal to be welded. Clean all sides back to at least 25 mm
from the edges to be joined. It is good practice to clean the entire set of components to be
welded to prevent dirt transfer to the weldment.
• Use a sharp file to debur edges.
• Do not contaminate with brush metal when removing tough dirt.
• Never use steel wool or sand paper to prepare the surfaces to be welded.
• Use alcohol or acetone to degrease the metal. Never use chlorinated solvents.
• Avoid fingerprinting any area to be welded. Use of clean cotton gloves is recommended.
• Blanket all sides of the area to be welded with helium or argon. Avoid drafts.
• Ventilate the work place.
• Shielding is the most important consideration in welding titanium. The best practice is to employ
an inert atmosphere (argon) chamber whenever feasible.
• Use the minimum gas flow rate that will provide adequate shielding.
• Excessive flow may cause turbulence and result in atmospheric contamination. The best grade
of inert gas available should be used.
• Always weld a test sample before attempting a production weld.
• Clamp the pieces to be welded. Tacks may be used, provided they are made with the same care
and shielding as the primary weld.
• Clean the filler wire by clipping off the end that may have been contaminated when withdrawn
from a previous weld.
• Use filler wire when fusion-welding gauges of 2.4 mm or greater. Filler metal is good practice for
thinner gauges as well, in order to minimise undercutting and/or under flushing.
• Handle filler wire with the same care as the work piece. Degrease and use clean gloves.
• Never touch the work piece with the electrode.
• Fit-up must be good, especially on thin gauges. Gaps are difficult to fill.
• Feed the wire into the weld zone at the junction of the weld joint and arc cone using as short an
arc length as possible.
• Feed the wire continuously into the puddle. Do not dab it in.
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• When using tungsten electrodes, the thoriated varieties retain thir points longer and operate
cooler.
• Never strike an arc unless the job has been thought through.
Weld colour is one indicator of weld quality. The weld should be bright and shiny. Depending on the
application and weld procedure used, some light straw discoloration may be acceptable but this
should be confirmed by testing sufficient welded parts to establish the desired level of confidence.
When all the normal precautions are observed, good quality welds can be made in titanium. The
weld, in the as-welded condition, is generally stronger than in the annealed parent metal if unalloyed
filler metal is not used. A tensile test with weld transverse to the test direction will usually fail in the
parent metal with little or no measurable elongation across the weld zone. Failure outside the weld
does not demonstrate that the weld is satisfactory, but only that joint efficiency is 100 percent, or
better a test of the weld longitudinal to the test direction will b ea test of the weld itself, since the
failure has to occur in the weld area. Solution treatment and ageing of titanium welds is not
recommended because of the resultant low ductility.
One technique used under certain conditions for welding of forged titanium components is worth
describing. This procedure is to fully heat treat and machine the individual forgings prior to welding.
Fusion welding, using commercially pure (unalloyed) welding wire, then produces a diluted weld with
toughness characteristics that are superior to a weld with titanium filler. The lower strength in the
diluted weld is compensated for by thickening the weld area. A 540 °C treatment after welding stress
relieves the weld but has no effect on the STA parent metal strength or ductility. To employ this
technique, however, requires that the hydrogen level be controlled to low levels, preferably below 80
ppm. Otherwise, delayed embrittlement induced by hydrogen may occur.
Electron Beam Welding
EB welding is quite attractive. All welding is done in a high vacuum chamber by mechanized
equipment. The procedure yields a low distortion weld where the fusion zone has a high depth-to
width ratio. Filler wire is not normally used. EB welding has been used to fabricate net shape
assemblies of large complicated parts. The surfaces to be welded must be clean. The cleaning
procedures discussed above may be used.
For very thick material, the first pass is usually made at such a high power density that undercutting
may occur. Undercutting can be reduced by making a second lower power pass with a slightly
defocused beam. Alternately, filler metal can be used to reduce undercutting entirely. If the
undersides of EB welds have undesirable contours, acceptable surfaces are usually obtained by an
appropriate metal removing technique.
EB welds have high integrity and EB welding is recommended where the ultimate in weld quality is
desired. Power setting and focus conditions, however, may vary among machines for a given weld
result. Therefore, if one lacks experience with a given machine, sufficient trials to develop suitable
welding parameter are recommended.
Fit-up is also very important. Generally, the better the fit-up the better the weld.
If excessive porosity occurs, fit-up, cleanliness, equipment settings, and procedure should all be
reviewed and revised as necessary.
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Resistance Welding
Resistance welding of titanium is done in much the same manner as with other metals. It differs from
fusion welding in that inert gas protection is not necessary because of the close proximity of the mating
surfaces and the short period of the welding cycle. The surfaces to be welded must be clean. The
above cleaning procedures may be used. Since titanium and stainless steel have a similar thermal and
electrical conductivity and strength at elevated temperatures, the resistance welding characteristics are
also similar. This has led to the utilization of stainless steel resistance welding techniques for titanium.
Flash Welding
Flash welding is achieved by inducing an electric arc between work pieces in light contact, then upsetting
at the moment of fusion such that the impurities are expelled from the joint. The size and cross section
to be flash welded are, of course, limited by the electric power and upsetting force available in the
machine. Similarly, the weldment profile cannot be too complex. Titanium is commonly flash welded in
air.
Inertia Welding
Inertia welding (friction welding) has become a viable production welding method for parts having radial
symmetry such as compressor drums. In this process, the metal preparation procedures are the same
as for other techniques. The essence of the method is to convert rotational kinetic energy into heat to
bring about controlled degrees of fusion and extrusion. Inertia welding can be done in air.
Brazing
Brazing titanium is seldom used technique. However, it may fine use in assembling sandwich structures
and in joining to dissimilar metal.
4. Zirconium / Zirconium alloys
Designation Sn Fe Cr Ni Nb O Zr Fields of application

Zircaloy 2 1,5 0,14 0,09 0,08 -- 0,13 Rest Boiling water reactor
Zircaloy 1,3 0,22 0,10 -- -- 0,13 Rest Pressurized water reactor
Zr1Nb -- -- -- -- 1 Rest Russian Reactor
Zr2,5Nb -- -- -- -- 2,5 Rest Russian Reactor
Ozhennit 0,5 0,2 0,1 -- 0,1 0,1 Rest Russian Reactor
Fig. 8: Composition of zirconium alloys

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Temperature
20 °C 350 °C
Alloy Rm RP0,2 A Rm Rp0,2 A
2 2
N/mm N/mm2 % N/mm N/mm2 %
Zircalloy 2 490 350 25 210 130* 37*
Zr1Nb 320-380 180-230 30-40 180-220 100-140 33-43
Zr2,5Nb 400-460 380-450 20-30 250-300 220-280 24-35
Pure-Zr
200-260 80-130 48-36 126 66 --
(Jodid-Zr)
Ozhennit 0,5 280-350 130-180 30-40 140 70 50
* - at 316 °C
Fig. 9: Strength of the most know zirconium alloys
Lattice structure
At room temperature as α - zirconium (hex.) ; higher temperature (from 862 °C for pure zirconium,
zircalloy from 800 until 980 °C) conversion in to the β-phase (rccl). A preferred crystallization is the
reason for different characteristic values of zirconium rolling products in dependence of the stress or
testing direction (lengthwise/crosswise).
Fig. 10: Comparison of some for the welding behaviour important characters of zircalloy
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Fig 11: Influence of the oxygen content to the physical properties of zirconium
4. Tantalum
Welding behaviour
Fig. 12: Physical values of Tantalum against x 12 CrNi 18 8

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5. Tungsten
system composition in weight %

term country
Nb Zr Mo Ta Stabilized elements impurities
-- USA 0,6-0,9 - -- -- -- 0,01 – 0,018 O
W-Nb
-- USA 1,5 0,1 -- -- 0,1 Hf, 0,001 B 0,01 C
-- Russia -- -- 50 -- -- --
W-Mo -- USA -- 0,11 25 -- -- 0,05 C
-- USA -- -- 15 -- -- --
TCB Russia -- -- -- 0,2 0,1 – 0,15 C --
W-Ta-C
W - 0,38Tac USA -- -- -- 0,38 TaC -- 0,05 C
W-Ta-Zr-C TCB 1 Russia -- -- -- 0,2 0,15 – 0,20 ZrC 0,05 C
Fig.13: Composition of typical tungsten alloys
Fig 14: Physical characteristics of tungsten and x CrNi 18 8

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.25 : DISSIMILAR METAL JOINING

is dealt with in document PPFPT 0352 A
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 2.26 : METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

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FORMATION METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATIONS

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METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
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METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS .................. 3
2. METALLOGRAPHIC PREPARATION................................................................................. 3
2.1. Choice of the sampling zone ........................................................................................ 3
2.2. Choice of observation plane......................................................................................... 3
2.3. Sampling....................................................................................................................... 4
2.4. POLISHING .................................................................................................................. 5
2.4.1. Polishing for macrographic preparation ........................................................................5
2.4.2. Polishing for micrographic preparation .........................................................................6
2.5. macro or micrographic etch.......................................................................................... 6
3. MACROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ..................................................................................... 8
3.1. EXAMINATION Technique........................................................................................... 8
3.2. INTERPRETATION of the macrographic examination results..................................... 8
3.3. Examples of weld macrographies ................................................................................ 9
3.3.1. Non allied steel, welded in two passes (submerged arc weld) .....................................9
3.3.2. Austenitic stainless steel or aluminium alloy welded in two passes (submerged arc
weld) ...........................................................................................................................10
4. MICROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ..................................................................................... 11

4.1. Examination Technique.............................................................................................. 11
4.2. INTERPRETATION of micrographic examinations.................................................... 11
4.3. Examples of micrographic structures ......................................................................... 11
5. NOTE CONCERNING NON-DESTRUCTIVE METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATIONS .... 12
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1. INTRODUCTION TO THE METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

Metallographic weld examinations are generally destructive examinations, in widespread use for the
following reasons:
- metallographic examinations are a means of evaluating the quality of producing welds,
- metallographic examinations supplement other examination methods such as visual inspection, as
they provide a means of observing the compactness of the welds.
- metallographic examinations are used for detecting anomalies in the structure which are likely to
diminish the operating characteristics of the welded joints.
Remark : A metallographic examination is always localised, as it is usually performed on a section which

is by nature limited to the chosen observation plane. For this reason, before beginning a metallographic
study, it is mandatory to perform a visual inspection of the part as a whole in order to collect any
information which may be useful in choosing the location of the sample to be taken. During this visual
examination, for instance, the presence of any faults visible on the surface can be identified, as well as
the weld start and end or restart zones, etc. which are preferred zones for taking samples.
2. METALLOGRAPHIC PREPARATION
2.1. CHOICE OF THE SAMPLING ZONE

This choice is made according to the information being sought (welding faults, analysis of the structure,
etc.), or criteria specified in a standard, a code, a specification.
Example for searching for compacting flaws: certain regions of welds are more prone to such defects. In
particular, the ends of the weld are subject to shrinkage cavities, the start of the weld is more prone to
lack of fusion, etc. By taking a metallographic sample from a weld restart zone, which combines both a
bead start and a bead end, it is easier to detect both these types of faults.
2.2. CHOICE OF OBSERVATION PLANE

The orientation of the section plane must be carefully chosen, since this contributes to the result, in the
same way as the location of the specimen.
Generally, a section transverse to the weld is chosen in order to examine the weld zone, the fusion line,
the heat affected zone and the parent metal.
Occasionally, a longitudinal section is taken along the weld centre-line, for example to check the
regularity of penetration of a weld which does not break the surface, or to check the freedom from cracks
perpendicular to the bead.
It is also possible to take a section parallel to the surfaces, for example to check the state of inclusions in
the base metal or to determine the longitudinal direction as opposed to the transverse direction of the
sheet.
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Choice of the sampling location Choice of the section plane
2.3. SAMPLING
Sampling must be performed in such a way as to minimise the thermal and mechanical damage to the
material. Irrespective of the sampling method used, it will always generate a heat or mechanically
affected zone of varying depth, which must subsequently be removed in order to retrieve the initial
metallurgical condition of the material.
For information, the following are a few recommended methods:
- manual or machine cutting (machine cutting with a coolant fluid limits the metallurgical and geometric
modification in the cutting plane),
- manual or automatic sawing.
Shearing however, is not recommended, due to the resultant work-hardening which it causes to the
metal, and hot cutting requires an adequate material allowance in order to be able to subsequently
remove the metal modified by the cutting heat.
Sampling using a band-saw with coolant

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2.4. POLISHING
Polishing is intended to prepare the specimen
for metallographic etching. To do this, the
metal modified metallurgically by heat during
the sampling operation (thermal and
mechanical modification), chemically
(superficial oxidation) and geometrically
(scores, dents, etc.), must be removed.
SURFACE A EXAMINER
Zone fortement
écrouie en surface
Polishing
Métal non écroui

(métal d'origine)
Depth affected by work-hardening
Surface during polishing
2.4.1. Polishing for macrographic preparation

A suitable surface finish is obtained via a polishing process. The polishing process sheet must be
complied with in order to achieve the required result (no stages may be omitted).
This polishing process for example, includes the following stages performed using silicon carbide (SiC)
abrasive paper in conjunction with water:
- polishing with 180 grade (or equivalent),
- possibly, finishing with 1000 grade (or equivalent),
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In practice, one only progresses to the next stage when all the polishing marks from the previous stage
have been completely eradicated.
Polishing may be performed manually on a polishing wheel or automatically, depending on the
equipment available (automatic polishing is becoming ever more common, it also reduces the number of
polishing stages).
2.4.2. Polishing for micrographic preparation

Polishing for micrographic preparation includes the stages already described under macrographic
preparation, added to which there is an additional finishing operation. Finishing is performed using a
polishing pad spread with a fine abrasive (generally diamond powder).
Finishing may be performed in accordance with the following process:

- Polishing on a « semi-hard » pad and 6 micron diamond powder,
- Polishing on a « semi-hard » pad and 3 micron diamond powder,
- Polishing on a « soft » pad and 1 micron diamond powder.
2.5. MACRO OR MICROGRAPHIC ETCH

Etching is achieved chemically (or electrochemically), on the polished surface of the metallographic
specimen. The specimen is either rubbed with cotton wool impregnated with the etching agent, or by
dipping the specimen directly in the etching solution.
The polished surface of the specimen must be thoroughly clean and dry prior to etching.
When the intended depth of etching is achieved, the specimen is rinsed in water or alcohol (depending
on the nature of the etching solution) to arrest the chemical reaction, then it is dried very cleanly to avoid
oxidation (using oil-free compressed air for example).
Important remark:
The use of chemicals (especially acids) require
compliance with operating precautions for the
safety of operators. For example, acid must
always be poured into a container which
already contains water, and not the other way
round. For more information, it is essential to
obtain the safety data sheets for the chemicals
employed.
Macrographic etching by rubbing with cotton wool
The following table shows some examples of etching solutions.

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OPERATING
MATERIAL SOLUTION
METHOD
EXAMPLES OF MACROGRAPHIC ETCHING SOLUTIONS
1 part H2O + 2 parts FeCl3

Non- or lightly
alloyed steels
9 parts H2O + 1 part HNO3 Rub
Stainless steels
1 part H2O + 2 parts HCl + 2 parts FeCl3
Aluminium and its

1 part H2O + 1 part HF + 6 Parts HNO3 + 12 parts HCl Dip
alloys
EXAMPLES OF MICROGRAPHIC ETCHING SOLUTIONS

Non- or lightly
20 parts C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol) + 1 part HNO3 Dip
alloyed steels
Austenitic stainless Electrolytic
Oxalic acid
steels (6 Volts)
Aluminium and its
190 parts H2O + 1 part HF + 3 parts HCl + 5 parts HNO3 Dip
alloys
-
Echantillon
Electrolyte Cathode
Electrolytic etch apparatus
Electrolytic etching requires a d.c. supply able to deliver a variable voltage. The specimen is the anode
(+) and is immersed in the etching solution.
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3. MACROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
3.1. EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE

The macrographic examination is first performed with the naked eye. To do this, use a good lamp and
incline the specimen in many directions to reveal as many details by modifying the angle of incidence
between the lamp and the polished reflecting surface of the specimen.
Next a binocular magnifier is generally used, the magnification being adjusted in accordance with the
fineness of detail to be examined (the maximum magnification used in macrographic examination is
generally between 10 and 20 times).
3.2. INTERPRETATION OF THE MACROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION RESULTS

The macrographic examination provides a great deal of information concerning the welding process,
welding faults, the materials.
a) concerning the welding process

The type of process (with or without fusion, high or low energy density),
Type of joint preparation (straight edged, chamfered),
Number of passes,
Sequence of laying the passes,
Linear welding energy (high energy, low energy).
b ) concerning welding faults

Cracks,
Blow holes,
Shrinkage cavities,
Slag inclusions,
Metallic inclusions,
Lack of fusion,
Inadequate penetration,
Shape faults (inadequate throat depth).
c) concerning the materials

Type of parent metal (with or without transformation, rolled or cast material),
Parent metal anomalies (poor inclusion cleanliness, severe segregation, laps, effervescent steels
etc.),
Structural differences between the parent metal (PM), heat affected zones (HAZ), fusion zone (FZ),
Type of filler metal (with or without regeneration between passes),
Possible annealing or tempering heat treatment performed after welding (attenuation, or elimination
of structural differences between the PM, HAZ and FZ).
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3.3. EXAMPLES OF WELD MACROGRAPHIES
3.3.1. Non allied steel, welded in two passes (submerged arc weld)
passe n°2
A B D
E
C
passe n°1
A = parent metal
B = heat affected zone
C = weld metal as solidified
D = regenerated weld zone
E = fusion line
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3.3.2. Austenitic stainless steel or aluminium alloy welded in two passes (submerged
arc weld)
passe n°2
A B
passe n°1
A = parent metal
B = weld metal
Remark : As this type of material is not subject to metallurgical transformation, the heat affected zone is
essentially limited to overheating (grain growth) on the fusion line (just at the edge of the weld metal).
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4. MICROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
4.1. EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE

The micrographic examination is performed using an optical microscope. This type of apparatus allows
examination to be performed at various magnifications, e.g. from 50 to 1000X (2000X maximum).
In order to perform higher magnification examinations, a scanning electron microscope must be used.
4.2. INTERPRETATION OF MICROGRAPHIC EXAMINATIONS

Micrographic analysis supplements the macrographic examination, since it provides additional
information in particular concerning welding defects and material metallurgical characteristics.
a) concerning welding faults

Detection of small dimension defects (microcracks, etc.),
Search for the cause of cracking (cold cracking, hot cracking, lamellar tearing, reheating cracks,
fatigue cracks, stress corrosion, creep ?),
More accurate identification of a volumetric defects (blow hole, shrink cavity, inclusion ?),
b ) concerning the metallurgical characteristics of the material

Constituents present (ferrite and carbides, martensite, etc.),
Grain size,
Metallurgical condition (annealed, quenched-tempered, hyper-tempered, work hardened, …),
Inclusion cleanliness,
Identification of the source of a part (cast, forged, rolled etc.),
and much more information.
4.3. EXAMPLES OF MICROGRAPHIC STRUCTURES
structure consisting of ferrite + cementite X500 essentially martensitic structure X1000

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austenitic structure (stainless steel) X500 cold cracking in a martensitic X500

structure HAZ
hot cracking in an austenitic FZ X250
5. NOTE CONCERNING NON-DESTRUCTIVE METALLOGRAPHIC

EXAMINATIONS
The metallographic examinations performed on sections are destructive, which limits their use on
operating apparatus or parts. For this reason, in addition to conventional examinations, a non-destructive
metallographic examination technique has been developed.
This type of examination is useful for performing macro and micrographic examinations directly on an
apparatus without the need for taking sections. Their disadvantage is that the examination is limited to
observation of the surface of the parts (and does not cover the thickness of the material).
The metallographic preparation is performed using suitable portable equipment, based on the same
principles as a conventional metallographic examination.
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Page 5 figure de droite
surface à examiner = surface to be examined

zone fortement écrouie en surface = severely work-hardened zone on the surface
Métal non écroui (métal d'origine) = Non work-hardened metal (initial metal)
profondeur affectée par écrouissage = Depth affected by work hardening
Page 7
Echantillon = Specimen
Electrolyte = Electrolyte
Cathode = Cathode
Page 9
passe n°2 = Pass No. 2

Page 10

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FORMATION DESIGN AND STRESS 1
PROFESSIONNELLE PP FPT 0130 A date : 13/12/00
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 9
Information file for lecturers

instructing the course :
INTERNATIONAL WELDING TECHNOLOGIST
MODULE 3 : DESIGN AND STRESS
(Modules 3.1 to 3.12)
Sequence of lectures
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CONTENTS
Page
1. – REMINDERS ON UNITS AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 3
2. – NOTIONS & GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 3
3. – TYPES OF LOADING 4
4. – TYPES OF FRACTURE 4
5. – NOTIONS OF FRACTURE MECHANICS 4
6. – APPLICATION OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

TO WELDED ASSEMBLIES 4
7. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF METAL STRUCTURES

SUBJECTED TO STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADING 5
8. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF PRESSURE VESSELS

WHEN SUBJECTED TO STATIC, DYNAMIC AND/OR
THERMAL LOADING 6
9. – DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES 6
10. – WELDED JOINTS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT 7

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1. – REMINDERS ON UNITS AND VECTOR ANALYSIS
1.1. – Units
• Load
• Section
• Pressure – stress
1.2. – Vector analysis
• Vector magnitudes (origin - direction - sense - modulus)

• Vector sum
• Resultant of several forces
• Resolution of a force into 2 concurrent/parallel forces
• Notion of moment of a force
2. – NOTIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2.1. Application and limits of Strength of Materials
2.2. Notations and units
2.3. Types of loading
• Single-axis loading : traction - compression

• Shear
• Torsion
• Bending
2.4. Stress-deformation relationships
• Study of the tensile test curve

• Ductile materials
2.5. Stress measurement
• Grid method
• Strain gauge
• Cracked varnish
2.6. Stress concentration

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2.7. Application exercises
• Tie bar with 1 or several holes

• Stressing of a deflected I-beam (web + flange)
3. – TYPES OF LOADING
3.1. Static loading
• Stress distribution
• Stress concentration
3.2. Dynamic loading
• Different types of loading

• Notion of fatigue strength
• Means of improving fatigue strength
3.3. Thermal loading
4. – TYPES OF FRACTURE
4.1. Ductile fracture
4.2. Brittle fracture
4.3. Fatigue fracture
4.4. Creep fracture
5. – NOTIONS OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Initiation and propagation modes of planar defects
5.3. Stress intensity factors
5.4. Application to in-service structures

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6. – APPLICATION OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TO WELDED

ASSEMBLIES
6.1. Geometry of welded assemblies
6.2. Throat thickness of fillet welds
6.3. Practical design rules of welded assemblies under static loading
6.4. Fatigue design rules for welded assemblies (principle)
7. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF METAL STRUCTURES

SUBJECTED TO STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADING
7.1. Types of structures concerned
7.2. Materials concerned (steels)
7.3. General design principles
• Design rules – transmission of loads

• Intersection of welds
7.4. Construction of elementary sub-assemblies
• Butt jointing of solid, hollow, flanged sections

• Angular jointing of hollow, flanged sections
7.5. Construction of beams and girders
7.6. Stiffening of webs
7.7. On-site jointing of welded beams
• Positions of welds
• Preparation of the parts
• weld sequence
7.8. Construction of box beams
• Applications
• Different types
• Stiffening
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7.9. Plane lattice structures
• General
• Non-tubular lattices
• Tubular lattices
8. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF PRESSURE VESSELS SUBJECTED TO

STATIC, DYNAMIC AND/OR THERMODYNAMIC LOADING
8.1. Types of structures concerned
8.2. Materials concerned
8.3. Regulations (Ministerial Decree dated 24th March 1978)
8.4. Type of loading applied to the shell
8.5. Choice of materials (codes - regulations)
8.6. General design rules
8.7. Determination of the theoretical nominal stress
8.8. Weld coefficient for pressure vessels
8.9. Calculation methods for pressure vessels
8.10. Sizing of shells subjected to internal pressure
8.11. Assembly of shells
8.12. Stress and design of convex ends
8.13. Openings in shells subjected to internal pressure
8.14. Supporting of pressure vessels
9. – DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES
9.1. Aluminium alloy products
9.2. Aluminium alloys - Applications
9.3. Welding
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10. – WELDED JOINTS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
10.1. General
10.2. Types of joints
10.3. Types of tests to be performed

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1. – REMINDERS ON UNITS AND VECTOR ANALYSIS
1.1. – Units
1.1.1. – Load
Loads are always expressed in Newtons (N).
If the load is high, a more suitable notation is used :
– the kilonewton (kN) = 1 000 N

– the Meganewton (MN) = 1 000 000 N (rarer)
NB. – For calculations which do not demand great precision, it is acceptable to use
10 Newtons = 1 kg, which makes it very easy to convert masses (kg) into loads.
Example. – A part weighs 70 kg, therefore gravity generates a force of 700 N.
1.1.2. – Section
Sections are always expressed in terms of the following units :
mm² – cm² – dm² – m²
Examples of surface area calculations :
a
S=axb
(S is in mm² if a and b are in mm)
b
π D²
______
S= = π R²
4
D R
(S is in mm² if D and R are in mm)
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de
di
π (de² - di²)
______________
S=
4
S= πa.b
2b
2a
1.1.3. – Pressure – stress
A pressure (or a stress) corresponds to the ratio of a force per unit area.
It is expressed in :
– N/mm² if F is in (N) and S is in (mm²)
– N/m² if F is in (N) and S is in (m²)
– etc.
N.B. – Another unit is also used for expressing pressures and stresses, which is used
essentially for the sizing of pressure vessels, in particular :
– the bar (Bar)

– the pascal (Pa).
The fundamental relationship which exists between these two units is as follows :
1 bar = 0.1 MPa (1 Megapascal = 1 000 000 Pascals)
where 1 MPa = 1 N/mm² is the most frequently used relationship
Calculation example :
The stress (or pressure) exerted on surface S

is given by :
b
F
a F
_________
σ=
(a . b)
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1.2. – Vector analysis
1.2.1. –Vector magnitudes (origin - direction - sense - modulus)

r
A vector V is characterised by :
– its modulus
– its direction
– its sense
– (its origin, or point of application in strength of materials).
X
A
A
V
Modulus :
r
O O V
Direction :
Y
Sense :
Origin : point O
In the coordinate system (O’, x, y) the coordinates of O and A are (xO, yO), (xA, yA), therefore
r
the modulus of V is equal to : V = ( xA − xO )2 + ( y A − y O )2
NB. – In a 3-dimensional coordinate system (O’, x, y, z), the modulus is given by :

r
V = ( xA − xO )2 + ( y A − y O )2 + ( zA − zO )2
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1.2.2. – Vector sum
Itr is possible
r to combine vectors, by addition or subtraction. Thus if two vectors
V1 and V2 are known, one can define :
r r r
V2 V = V1 + V2
V1
v r r
and V' = V1 − V2
V2
V -V2
V1
r V1 r
V= and V' =
V'
1.2.3. –Resultant of several forces
One can apply vector analysis in order to determine the resultant of several forces acting on a
body.
F2 F1 For example, take a material
r r r body (S)
subjected to 3 forces F1, F2 F3 . One can
r r r r
determine the resultant F = F1 + F2 + F3
F by vector addition of the 3 vector forces.
F1
(S)
(One can conclude that the system (S)
F3 will tend to move rto the
r right, since there
F2 F3 is no equilibrium F ≠ O ).
r r –rThe resultant is the same if the vector addition is performed in a different order
N.B.
F1, F2 F3 .
F
F3 F2
F2
F3
F1 F F1
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1.2.4. – Resolution of a force into 2 concurrent/parallel forces
In the previous paragraph, it was seen that a vector could be defined by a combination of
other vectors.
r
There are, in fact, an infinite number of combinations. Taking vector V below, it can be broken
down as follows:
V
V
V V
This property of breaking-down of forces is often used in static analysis.
Indeed, every load can be resolved into elementary loads in order to simplify the calculations.
Take for example the case of a beam, built-in at one end and subjected to a force F inclined
relative to the x-axis.
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Y
X F X
Fy
Fx
The stress calculation at the built-in end due to load F is unnecessarily

r r complicated due to the
bending inertia. It is preferable to resolve it into two loads Fx and Fy which are collinear to the
coordinate axes. The stresses are much easier to calculate using these two loads, because
the inertias are easy to determine, and quite frequently, are known.
r
In order to ascertain the state of the final
r r stress ( F ), simply perform the algebraic sum of the
stresses generated by the two loads ( Fx , Fy ) (stress > 0 : traction ; stress < 0 : compression).
1.2.5. – Notion of moment of a force
There are two categories of « moments » generated by a force :

– bending moment
– torsional moment.
These are both usually expressed in N.mm (product of a force in Newton by a moment arm in
mm).
Thus to generate a moment, there must be a force and a moment arm.

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Example 1 :
F
0
d (moment arm)
In this case, load F generates a bending moment at the built-in end given by :
Mf = F ⋅ d
NB. – If F « moves towards » the built-in end the moment decreases to zero as F reaches
point O.
Example 2 :
F
h (torsional moment arm)

0
d (bending moment arm)
In this configuration, the load F generates bending as well as torsion at O. The values of these
moments are given by :
• bending : Mb = F ⋅ d
• torsion : Mt = F ⋅ h
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2. – NOTIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2.1. – Uses and limits of strength of materials
This theory is used for determining the stresses present in elements having one dimension
much larger than its other two dimensions.
For this reason, it is also known as the « beam theory ».
It is only valid for very small deformations.

1
For it to be valid, f <<< l
The material constituting the elements must be isotropic, i.e. it must exhibit the same
properties in all directions (Ox, Oy, Oz).
Its behaviour must be purely elastic.
2.2. – Notations and units
In strength of materials, the following notations are used for calculation purposes :
E : modulus of elasticity (in MPa)

ν : Poisson's ratio (no units)
σ : normal stress (in MPa)
τ : shear stress (in MPa)
Mb : bending moment (in N.mm)
Mt : torsional moment (in N.mm)
N : normal tensile (or compression) load (in N)
T : shear load (in N)
G : shear modulus (in MPa)
NB. – 1 MPa = 1 N/mm²
It is permissible to use a different system of units, but be careful to remain consistent.

It is important, for example, not to mix metres with millimetres.
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For certain calculations, the numbers may be too large. In such cases, the following units can
be used :
decanewton : daN (10 N)

kilonewton : kN (1 000 N)
meganewton : MN (1 000 000 N)
giganewton : GN (1 000 000 000 N) )
2.3. – Types of loading
2.3.1. – Single-axis loading : traction - compression
A B
a
F
diffusion de l'effort
A beam subjected to a tensile or compressive load F aligned with its neutral axis, exhibits a
uniform stress distribution at a section A sufficiently far from the point of application of the
load.
F
__________
F
_____
This stress can be expressed as : σ = =
surface a·b
NB. – This is not valid at section B, as the load is concentrated in the centre of the section.
Strength conditions :
• In traction :
σe
Check that : σ≤ where s = safety factor
s
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• In compression :
σe
Check that: σ ≤
s
Additionally, check that the part will not buckle.
P P1 P1 P1
E P5
PC1
PC1
E'
F F1 F1 F1 F5
F5
F F
2 2 F5
y
a
b E' f'1 F f1
f5
f'1 f'5
y' F f3
F F
2 2
F F1 F1 F1 F5 F5 F5
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If a beam is located between two plates, one can observe :

– a deflection ε'
– an offset ε.
This generates bending stresses in the beam. These stresses are superimposed on the
compression stresses. If a load F1 is applied, the part deflects (deflection f1).
If a small lateral load is applied ∆F, the deflection increases slightly to become f’1, the top plate
descends slightly.
Removing ∆F, but maintaining F1, the part returns to deflection f1.
⇒ stable equilibrium condition.
If F1 is increased to a value FS (deflection fs) and a small lateral load is applied ∆F, the
deflection then increases considerably to f’s, the top plate lowers.
When the lateral load ∆F is removed, the collapse of the beam continues slowly. The deflection
continues to increase, the plate descends, the bar buckles.
⇒ divergent equilibrium
FS is known as the buckling limit load.
2.3.2. – Shear
Take as an example two metal sheets bolted together, subjected to tensile loads.
F
G H
S F
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At section S, the loads F generate shear stresses tending to slide parts A and B over each
other.
In strength of materials, this stress is expressed as follows :
F
τ= (S = section of the bolt)
S
2.3.3. – Torsion
γ α
Mt
WARNING : Calculations for torsion are only valid for solid or hollow cylindrical sections. It is
not possible to apply them to rectangular or other shaped sections. This is due to the warping
phenomenon which occurs with the latter.
For a section A, there is a linear distribution of shear stresses generated by a torsional

moment Mt.
τ max d
τ max
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D
The maximum stress is exerted at the skin at a distance : x = .
2
This stress is given by :

Mt Mt
τ max = N.B. : τ ( x) =
 Io   Io 
   
 v  x
where : Io = polar moment of inertia

v = maximum distance from the neutral axis
D
(in this case v = )
2
The expressions for Io ,are as follows :
Solid section Tubular section
De De
Di
Io =
π De4
Io =
(
π De4 − Di4 )
32 32
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2.3.4. – Bending
X 2a
F
Z
Load F generates a bending moment Mf at O. At this section O, it can be seen that the stress
distribution varies linearly.
traction σ max
V
compression
σ min
The expressions for σmax and σ(y) are as follows :
Mf Mf
σmax = σ( y) =
 Ioz   Ioz 
   
 v   y 
where : Ioz = bending moment of inertia in relation to axis Oz.

 I
  is called the bending modulus.
 v
The values of certain bending moments of inertia are provided on the following page for the
most frequently used sections.
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NB. – The inertias are always calculated at the centre of gravity of the section considered.
G h X
b h3 h b3
Ix = Iy =
12 12
b
B H3 b h3
Ix = −
12 12
H
h
b
HB 3 h b3
Iy = −
12 12
B
π d4
Ix = Iy =
64
De
 d 4 − di4 
I x = I y = π  e 

 64 
Di
e a h3  b es3 (h + es) 
ea Ix = + 2  + b es x 
h 12  12 2 
h ⋅ ea 3 es ⋅ b3
Iy = + 2 x
es 12 12
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N.B. 1) Contrary to the torsional case, it is possible to calculate the stress fields for
rectangular sections, as experiment shows that the sections remain plane.
N.B. 2) In metal structures, the deformations are most often caused by bending. In order to
limit such deformation and to provide better resistance to such loading, it is important to
« concentrate » the material as far as possible from the axis passing through the centre of
gravity, as this greatly increases the inertia.
Hence the invention of the I-beam.
Material concentrated as far as possible from axis GZ.
2.4. – Stress-strain relationships
2.4.1. – Examination of the tensile test curve
In order to determine the mechanical properties of a material (Re, E, Rm) tensile testing is
performed on cylindrical-section test-pieces.
2 reference marks A and B are added to the cylindrical portion, in order to be able to measure
the elongation of the cylindrical portion during application of the load.
F
F
L
L0+ L
A 4 4
C
L
d
L0 +
Striction
L0
L0+
F
F
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The results are very different according to the material being tested.
There are principally two types of curve which correspond to ductile and brittle materials.
Ductile Brittle
σ σ
Rm M Rm A
Re A R Re
0 E 0
domaine domaine allongement abscence de E
elastique plastique
domaine plastique
2.4.2. – Ductile material
The curves concerning this type of material comprise two main domains :
a) Elastic domain
This corresponds to the linear portion OA.
The load F increases slowly from 0 to a value Fe. The test-piece stretches in proportion to the
load F. If the load is decreased down to 0, the test-piece returns to its initial state. During the
load application, the section of the test-piece does not decrease significantly.
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This linear portion enables the determination of 2 fundamental properties of the material.
Fe
– Its yield strength Re = (in MPa)
S0
where S0 is the initial section of the test-piece.
– Its modulus of elasticity E (in MPa) which corresponds to the slope of the straight line OA.
Within this elastic domain, the fundamental relationship linking the stress (σ), the relative
elongation (ε) and E is called :
HOOKE'S LAW : σ = E · ε
F ∆l
i.e. : = E⋅
S0 l0
Therefore if 4 of the 5 parameters are known, the equation enables the 5th to be determined.
Example :
F = 2 000 N 
E = 200 000 MPa  F⋅l
l = 100 mm
 ⇒ ∆l = =0.02mm
 E⋅S
S = 50 mm2 
N.B. : The calculation of the variation in section of the test-piece can be achieved using the
∆D
following equation which links the relative diameter variation to the relative elongation
D0
∆l
ε = .
l0
∆D ∆l
= ν⋅
D0 l0
where ν ≈ 0.3 for steels (Poisson's ratio).

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b) Plastic domain
If the load F continues to increase (F > Fe), there is a rapid increase in elongation, in the case
of ductile materials.
If the load F is removed, the test-piece does not recover to its initial state, there remains a
permanent deformation or residual elongation.
« Plastic deformation of the material has taken place. »
As the load F decreases, the return characteristic follows a line running parallel to the straight
line OA (slope E).
A'
F
0 0'
allongement
résiduel
If the test-piece is again loaded in tension, the load line will follow the straight line O'A'. The
material having work-hardened by plastic deformation has strengthened, and exhibits a new
elastic limit Re' (at point A').
But the material has become embrittled, its plastic domain is considerably reduced.
Load F reaches a maximum value Fm (at point M) which enables the ultimate tensile strength
Fm
to be determined Rm = .
S0
This point M corresponds to the appearance of a striction phenomenon, which is very large for
ductile materials and inexistent for brittle materials.
If the elongation induced in the test-piece is increased up to point R, fracture occurs.

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2.5. – Stress measurement
It is sometimes useful to be able to check the design calculations for a mechanical part. To do
this, sometimes involves determining the stress field by various measurement processes.
It should be noted that direct measurement of stresses is not possible. It is only possible to
measure the strains which can then be used to establish the corresponding stresses.
Moreover, these deformations can only be measured at the skin of the part.
Consequently, only the surface stresses of parts may be determined.
The various means of measurement are as follows :
a) Grid method
This consists in tracing a precise grid on the skin of a non-loaded part. If a load is then
applied, the deformations of the grid can be observed.
As the deformations are very small, it is necessary to use optical apparatus to measure them
and hence determine the stresses.
Example : rubber part

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b) Strain-gauges
This method consists in bonding electrical resistances known as strain gauges to the surface
of the part.
These strain gauges are connected to electronic circuits which are able to measure their
resistance values.
When the part is subjected to tensile loading, the dimensions of the gauge are modified.
As a mathematical relationship exists between the electrical resistance and the deformation,
this enables the deformations and hence the stresses to be determined by simply measuring
the electrical resistance.
Circuit
c) Cracked varnish
A thin coat of special liquefied resin is sprayed as uniformly as possible on the parts to be
studied, using a spray-gun similar to those used for flame-spray coating.
After cooling and solidification, the coating thus formed adheres to the part and constitutes a
sensitive coating which has a low ultimate elongation.
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The part is then subjected to external loading, deforms and the varnish cracks. Experiment
has shown that at all points, the cracks in the varnish are perpendicular to the direction of
maximum strain.
This makes it possible to establish the complete network of isostatic lines and thus the
directions of the main stresses at all points.
2.6. – Stress concentration
Parts exhibiting sudden variations in inertia are subject to stress concentration.
The most obvious case concerns notched parts.
The term notched is used to signify either an intentional or accidental discontinuity in the
shape of the material, or a non-homogeneity.
Three types of notch are differentiated:
a) metallurgical,
b) mechanical,
c) service (fatigue crack).
Habitually, the term notch has been used to describe type b) notches.
The sudden variation in inertia generated by such a notch modifies the stress distribution field
and is the source of a stress concentration.
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Theoretical stress concentration factor kt
kt is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum stress at the tip of the notch relative to the
maximum nominal stress in the net section:
σ max
kt =
σ nom
σmax can be calculated by the finite element method or can be measured by photoelastic
structural analysis.
σnom can be calculated via the strength of materials formulae.
kt is dependent solely on the geometry of the part.
Limit of coefficient kt
This coefficient is calculated using the elasticity theory (of which strength of materials is
merely a small part), which assumes that the material is purely elastic. However, in reality, the
material becomes plastic as soon as the elastic limit σe is exceeded (cf. tensile test curve).
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It can therefore be seen that :
– for medium or small loads, the stresses do not exceed σe, even when considering
coefficient kt.
– for higher loads, the maximum stress reaches the elastic limit at the tip of the notch, which
results in partial plastic deformation.
N.B. – If the phenomenon continues, a fracture initiation appears in the plastic deformation
zone leading to destruction of the part.
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Common examples of notched parts
4P
σ nom =
π d2
4P
σ nom =
π d2
4P
σ(b)
nom =
π (D − Di2 )
2
4P
σ nom =
π (D2 − d2 )
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2.7. – Application exercises
2.7.1. –Tie-bar with 1 or several holes
Calculate the stress σ for the following cases :

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2.7.2. – Calculation for a deflected I-beam (web + flange)
F = 1 000 000 N
F/2 F/2
L = 2000 mm
Fl F
At the highest loaded section, there is a bending moment (Mb = ) and a shear force T =
4 2
b = 100
es
a = 150
ea
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3. – TYPES OF LOADING
3.1. – Static loading
As indicated by its name, this type of loading does not vary in strength with respect to time.
However, some slightly time-variable loads may be considered as static loading.
Variations in gravity come into this category.
Stress distribution :
Locally, welded joints are subject to stress concentrations which may be severe.
As shown in the following figures, the stress distribution is far from being uniform throughout
the elements.
α
σ1
A'
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These concentrations are caused by poor « flow » of the load. Indeed, the preferred load path
is strewn with obstacles (changes in direction).
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3.2. – Dynamic loading
3.2.1. – Different types of loading
These are loads which are variable with respect to time. Lorries driving over bridges are an
example of time-variable loading.
This type of loading includes several different categories.
3.2.2. – Notion of fatigue strength
A structure which is subjected to dynamic loading is said to be loaded in fatigue. This

phenomenon can result in the cracking and fracture of a part, although its stresses are well
below the yield strength of the material used. The risk of cracking is all the greater if the
variable loading is tensile.
In the case of welded structures, the presence of stress concentrations, which are often high,
severely increases the risk of cracking.
The presence of defects inherent in the welding operation, such as cracks and lack of fusion,
is even more detrimental, as the crack is already established. Its propagation is dependent on
the degree of loading.
An assembly is said to have great « fatigue strength » if cracking is only observed at « high
loading » (or a large number of cycles).
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A classification has therefore been performed for the various types of welded assembly.
The strongest assemblies are those which exhibit the least stress concentration as well as the
lowest number of possible defects.
Take the case of the following two assemblies :
N° 1 N° 2
∆F/2
∆F
∆F ∆F
e
e
∆F/2
Assembly No. 1 is stronger in fatigue because the « flow path » of the load is good, the stress
concentrations are much lower.
The calculation principle will be described later.
3.2.3. – Means of improving fatigue strength
N.B. – These are referred to as « improvement techniques ».
Welded assemblies are the seat of stress concentrations due to the presence of defects
(planar, volumetric) as well as the geometry of the beads.
The toe and the roots of the bead are the most severely affected.
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α
σ1
A'
In consequence, it is recommended to improve the fatigue strength by improvement

techniques.
These processes may be divided into 2 categories :
1) Modification of the shape of the bead
– TIG dressing (remelting)

– grinding
2) Modification of the residual stress field
– stress relief heat treatment

– pre-stress shot peening
– hammer peening.
However, a good initial shape of the weld beads makes it possible to avoid having to resort to
these processes which are often costly.
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cordon
concave
Premiers cordons Electrodes,

à mouillabilité améliorée
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a) Grinding
This process modifies the toe angle between the weld bead and the base metal.
F F F F
The grinding striations must not constitute new crack initiation points.
⇒ They must therefore be « parallel to the load ».
b) TIG dressing
This process reduces the stress concentrations by :
– flattening the toe profile,

– removal of weld defects (remelting)
as
welded
after TIG dressing

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c) Stress relief heat treatment
In addition to the stress concentrations, the welding operation inevitably generates high
residual tensile stresses on the surface.
This highly encourages the formation of fatigue cracks.
Consequently, stress relief heat treatment is intended to eliminate a large proportion of these
stresses and so improve the service life.
d) Pre-stress shot-peening
This process consists in bombarding the surface of the part with steel shot in order to generate
compressive stresses on the surface.
These stresses have the effect of significantly delaying the onset of crack initiation.
σ
MPa 0.5 1 (mm)
0
profondeur sous
-100
la surface grenaillée
-200
-300
-400
-500
0.5 1 (mm)
E 460 steel
The compressive stresses may reach very high levels. The improvement provided is
considerable. Some test results are provided opposite.
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Fatigue strength of welded joints

in E 460 steel, as welded and after shot-peening
MPa
400
300
200
100
E 460 30mm
air. R=0,1 10-20H2
amorcage rupture
Brut de soudage
grenaille
50 10 2 10 3 10 4 nb de cycles
Fatigue strength of welded joints

in E 550 steel, as welded and after shot-peening
MPa
400
300
200
100
E 550 20mm
air. R=0,1 10-20H2
amorcage rupture
Brut de soudage
grenaille
50 10 2 10 3 10 4 nb de cycles
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e) Hammer peening
This process introduces surface compressive stresses in the same way as shot-peening.
To do this, a pin-hammer is used. The pins are powered by compressed air and impact the
metal a large number of times per second.
Tests have shown that the minimum gain observable is around 35 %.
f) Combined treatment
In order to achieve very high improvements in fatigue strength, combinations of improvements

operations may be considered.
For example :
– grinding + heat treatment

– grinding (or TIG) + hammer peening (or shot-peening)
– heat treatment + hammer peening (or shot-peening)
– heat treatment + TIG dressing + hammer peening (or shot-peening)
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3.3. – Thermal loading
If a metal bar of length L is heated uniformly, it elongates by length ∆L which is proportional to

the temperature rise.
The coefficient of proportionality α is called the linear expansion coefficient.
If ∆θ is the temperature variation, then :
∆l = α ⋅ ∆θ ⋅ L
α ≈ 12 . 10-6 /°C for a carbon-manganese steel at 20°C.
where ∆θ = θfinal – θinitial
If ∆θ > 0 (temperature rise) ⇒ the part elongates.
If ∆θ < 0 (temperature drop) ⇒ the part shortens.
These changes in length do not modify the stress level of the part if nothing counters the
elongation or shrinkage.
Otherwise, there is stress generation.
Take as an example a prismatic bar at 100°C which is built-in at both ends.
bar section S
made of steel (E, γ, α)
θinitial 100°C
L = 1000 mm
If this bar is cooled to a temperature of 20°C, it will tend to shorten (if it were free), but the two
built-in ends force it to retain its initial length L, thus generating tensile stresses in the bar.
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The stress can be calculated as follows :
∆l (free bar) = α · ∆θ · L
∆l
σ = E⋅ = α ⋅ ∆θ ⋅ E = 12 ⋅ 10−6 ⋅ 80 ⋅ 200 000
L
σ = 192 MPa
This explanation can easily be extended to cover 2- or 3-dimensional elements.
Example : A circular disc initially at 20°C heated at its centre by a blowpipe.
Under the effect of the heat, the

material tends to expand, which is
not the case for the material which
is still « cold ». Hence the
generation of compressive stresses
chauffage in the central zone.
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4. – TYPES OF FRACTURE
There are several types of fracture, identifiable by examining the fracture surfaces.
The different types are as follows:
– ductile fracture,
– brittle fracture,
– fatigue fracture (fatigue cracking),
– creep fracture.
4.1. – Ductile fracture
This is an instantaneous fracture mode which occurs in conjunction with plastic deformation of
the part. This can be observed during a tensile test when striction of the test-piece can be
seen just before fracture.
The following stages can be identified:
Tensile load application, elastic

deformation.
Damage of the part, plastic deformation,

movement of the dislocations. One part
rises.
The second plane begins to « slide ».

The test-piece straightens out again, but
the dimensions of the initial section have
been lost.
Striction which continues till fracture.

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This corresponds to the case of a pure material. However, industrial materials include a good
number of inclusions.
RESULTAT
RESULT
There is inconsistency of the networks Cavities form around the inclusions

between the metallic phase and These grow in size
the inclusion under load and their
proximity in conjunction with
striction, results in fracture.
NB. – The fewer the inclusions, the greater the striction. On visual inspection, the surface is
found to exhibit « dimpling » caused by the imprints of the cavities.
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4.2. – Brittle fracture
Contrary to the ductile type fracture, no deformation of the part is observed. It is a very sudden
fracture which is « truly catastrophic ».
The fracture surfaces may exhibit two types of features:
– granular surface (case of intergranular fracture, if the brittle compounds are concentrated at
the grain boundaries).
– cleavage surface (case of transgranular fracture).
It should be noted that steels with an abnormally high number of inclusions exhibit brittle
behaviour, as the striction may be reduced to virtually nothing.
4.3. – Fatigue fracture
Contrary to the two previous fracture modes, fatigue is a gradual fracture mode.
It is found that certain parts fracture under stress loadings well below the yield point of the
material, and this occurs in the presence of cyclic loading.
initiation
Mf
There are three quite distinct phases:
– initiation phase:
Development of a small crack in a zone exhibiting simultaneously:

- stress concentration,
- variable stresses.
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– Propagation phase:
The crack initiated during the previous phase grows gradually (one µm at a time),
progressively as the load cycles are applied.
Mf
– Fracture:
Fracture is sudden. It occurs when the remaining section becomes too weak to withstand the
loading.
The final fracture may be brittle or ductile.
Visual examination of the fracture surfaces shows 2 quite distinct zones:
- 1 smooth surface (slightly striated), which corresponds to the propagation phase,

where the crack grows through the grains.
- 1 dimpled surface or a surface corresponding to a brittle fracture.
4.4. – Creep fracture
This fracture occurs at high temperatures (> 380 °C for conventional steels). It is found that
the material continues to elongate at a certain static stress level. If loading continues
indefinitely, fracture occurs after a certain period.
This is a plastic deformation phenomenon, the displacement of dislocations is facilitated by

high temperature conditions.
Sliding occurs at the grain boundaries and cavities are formed, thus reducing the remaining
section and accelerating the deformation up to fracture.
Creep characterisation of materials is performed using a tensile testing machine incorporating

a heating device.
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allongement (%)
σ5 > σ4 σ4
σ3
σ2
σ1
temps
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5. – NOTIONS OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
5.1. – Introduction
In use, welded constructions are subjected to a certain number of actions by the environment,
which may cause it to fracture. These actions are very diverse and may damage the structure
through various processes.
Amongst these, sudden fracture appears as one of the most dramatic.
In many cases, fracture initiation is associated with a notch effect generated either through
discontinuities inherent in the design, or by defects caused by welding. This locally modifies
the mechanical and structural properties of the metal and increases the risk of fracture by
introducing residual stresses of thermodynamic origin.
The discovery of certain defects (cracks) of a size which cannot be tolerated results in the
destruction of the structures concerned as they are unacceptable in relation to the current
construction standards.
In order to « save » structures exhibiting this type of defect, the use of fracture mechanics has
been essential as it is the only way of establishing whether a defect is in fact redhibitory.
5.2. – Opening and propagation of plane defects
There are 3 modes of crack propagation:
– opening : Mode I
– edge sliding : Mode II
– tearing : Mode III
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MODE I:
The surfaces of the crack move
perpendicularly to one another.
MODE II:
The surfaces of the crack move in the
same plane and perpendicular to the
crack front.
MODE III:
The surfaces of the crack move in the
same plane and parallel to the crack
front.
Mode I is the most frequently encountered and the most detrimental. This is the mode which is
the subject of most studies and experiments.
5.3. – Stress intensity factors
In the case of cracks, it is not possible to σ max

use stress concentration factors KT related
to elliptical cylinders.
b
Indeed b tends towards zero, which results a
σ moy
in a KT of infinity.
KT = 1 + 2a/b
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In consequence another physical magnitude is determined, which is the stress intensity factor
K, KI, KII and KIII each being associated with one of the 3 different fracture modes.
These factors are used to calculate the stresses at a point M identified by its distance from the
crack front and its angular position in relation to the crack plane.
KI has been determined analytically for various configurations.
Example:
For this plate: K I = σ π ⋅ a
A critical value can be defined for the stress intensity factor KIC.
For the notched plate case, this enables determination of:
– the critical stress σcritical (2a being known) which causes fracture,
– the critical length of the crack 2ac (σ being known) which causes fracture.
KIC may be considered as a new characteristic physical magnitude of the material since it is
representative of the ability of the material to withstand the propagation of a crack causing
sudden fracture.
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Coefficients KI, KII and KIII are used when the sum of the primary and secondary stresses is
less than the yield stress (linear domain).
When the sum is greater than the yield stress, one

has to resort to using the Crack Opening
Displacement (C.O.D.) (elasto-plastic domain
fracture) which takes into account the plastic
modification at the notch tip. This is often the case
when a ductile material is used. The C.O.D.
represents the opening at the crack tip.
5.4. – Application to in-service structures
Take for example a pipe on which the circular welds are not fully penetrating.
steel
a: length of plane defect
pressure P
The different construction codes do not allow for any lack of penetration, which entails an often
costly repair of the pipe (there is more than one weld) and shut-down of the installation.
The fracture mechanics make it possible to determine whether or not a crack may propagate
in the weld.
To do this, first determine KIC (Mode I in this case) which is dependent on the material and the
geometric configuration (this applies to the linear mechanics)
If σ is known, it is possible to check whether the existing defect is greater or less than the
critical defect. If it is less, the pipe is « safe ».
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6. – APPLICATION OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TO WELDED

ASSEMBLIES
6.1. – Geometry of welded assemblies
There are two principal assembly geometries:
– by angle joints (non-aligned elements),

– butt joints (aligned elements).
The table below summarises the most frequently encountered configurations.
butt joints angle joints
N.B. – From a mechanical point of view, one side weld assemblies are inferior. This is
because of the bending moment generated by the lack of symmetry of the assembly.
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6.2. – Weld throat thickness
Butt welds
Forte pénétration
a=e
a=e
(These two assemblies do not require any stress calculation)
a1
a < e
e e
a2
T joints:
a=e
(This type of bead does not
require any stress calculation.)
e e
a a
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e e
a a
Effective section of a weld bead:
The effective section corresponds to a rectangle defined by:
– the length of the bead less the end craters if no measures are taken to eliminate them.
– the throat thickness « a » as defined on the preceding pages.
root
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6.3. – Practical calculation of welded assemblies under static loading
In order to calculate a welded assembly, it is mandatory to determine the couple at the

centre of gravity of the assembly due to the applied loading.
This can best be illustrated by a few examples.
Example 1:
Y
Mf
T
N X
G
Z P
Stress calculation of the 4 welds at

the built-in end (section A) involves
determining the couple due to the
loading at point G, the centre of
G gravity of the set of 4 welds.
• The normal load N is entirely transmitted to G.
• Loads T and P are entirely transmitted to G, moreover they generate bending moments:
T induced Mby = T . L
P induced Mbz = P . L
• The bending moment Mb is entirely transmitted to G.

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Thus the loading couple

at G is as follows:
Mf
Mfy
y Mfz
T
N X
Z
P
Example 2:
Determination of the loading couple at A is performed as follows:

– Loads P, N and T are entirely transmitted to G.
– The torsion moment Mt at B becomes a bending moment at G: Mbf.
– The bending moment Mb is entirely transmitted to G.
– Load T induces a torsion moment Mt1 at G given by Mt1 = T . L.
– Load P induces a bending moment Mbz at G given by Mbz = P . L.
– Load N induces a bending moment Mbz1 at G given by Mbz1 = N . H.
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Thus the loading couple at G is as follows:

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WELD DESIGN IN ACCORDANCE WITH NFP 22470
1) Stresses involved
1.a) σ⁄⁄
This stress acts on a section perpendicular to the weld. It is not considered in the weld
design. Various tests have shown that it has no effect.
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1.b) σ⊥
This stress is perpendicular to the plane of the throat (normal stress).
This is determined by dividing the load by the surface of the resisting throat plane.
ρ
In this case: σ ⊥ =
2 ( a ⋅ L)
(2: 2 throat planes)
1.c) τ⊥
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A tensile load F is applied to the T joint.
F
A load of is applied to each fillet weld.
2
F
This load is resolved into:
2
– Ft: component in the plane of the throat.

– Fn: component normal to the throat.
Ft introduces a shear stress τ⊥.

Fn introduces a normal stress σ⊥.
If the surface of a throat plane is equal to a · l (l: length of the joint), then:
 F
 
 2
σ⊥ = τ⊥ =
2 ⋅ a⋅l
1.d) τ//
This is a shear stress in the throat plane .
It is parallel to the joint line, as opposed to τ⊥ which was perpendicular to the same joint
line.
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Take for example the following lap joint:
F
Stress τ// is equal to: τ // =
2 a⋅l
2) Combination of stresses – Equivalent stress
In fact, many welded joints are subjected to combined loading.

This results in the simultaneous application of various stresses.
Therefore stresses σ⊥, τ⊥, τ// are present.
Standard NFP22470 has developed a calculation method based on an equivalent stress,

which may be used to determine the acceptability of complex stress conditions.
k σ ⊥ 2 + 3 ( τ ⊥ 2 + τ // 2 ) ≤ σ e and σ⊥ ≤ σe
where: σe = yield stress of the material of the sheets to be welded together

k = 0.7 for S235 steel
k = 0.85 for S275 steel
k = 1 for S355 steel
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If we take cases 1.b), 1.c) and 1.d), we obtain:
– for case 1.b):

k σ ⊥ 2 ≤ σ e and σ ⊥ ≤ σ e
σe
σ⊥ ≤ and σ⊥ ≤ σe
k
which is the most critical situation from a sizing point of view
P
i.e.: ≤ σe
2⋅ a ⋅ l
which is used for sizing the bead knowing l, P and σe.
P
The following expression must be satisfied: a≥
2⋅ l ⋅σe
– for case 1.c):

k σ ⊥ 2 + 3 τ ⊥ 2 ≤ σ e and σ ⊥ ≤ σ e
As σ⊥ = τ⊥, we have:
k 4 σ⊥2 ≤ σ e
2 k σ⊥ ≤ σe
σe
σ⊥ ≤ et σ⊥ ≤ σe
2k
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which is the most critical situation from a sizing point of view
F σe
i.e.: ≤
2 2 ⋅a⋅l 2k
k ⋅F
⇔ a ≥
2 ⋅ l ⋅ σe
– for case 1.d):
k 3 τ // 2 ≤ σ e
σe
i.e.: τ // ≤
k 3
F σe
⇔ ≤
2⋅a⋅l k 3
k ⋅F ⋅ 3
⇔ a ≥
2 ⋅ l ⋅ σe
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WELD DESIGN ACCORDING TO CM66 RULES
The stresses are calculated identically to standard NFP 22470.
σ⁄⁄ is ignored and σ⊥ is written as σ.
Only the acceptability check formula for the stresses changes. It becomes:
( 2 2
)
σ 2 +1.8 τ ⊥ +τ // ≤ ασ e
α being a quality coefficient for the weld, equal to:
– 1 for a ≤ 4 mm
1
– 0.8 (1 + ) for a > 4 mm.
a
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EXAMPLE 1. – Stress calculation for a beam/column joint according to NFP 22470
15 F = 50000 N
IPE 300 acier S235

10 300
L = 2000mm
150
Characteristic of the section
It is necessary to calculate the flange and web welds. Load F generates :
- a bending moment at O equal to F . L
- a shear load equal to F.

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CALCULATION OF THE WEB WELDS:
L = 270
These welds are assumed to transmit only the shear load F which produces only shear τ//.
There are 2 fillet welds with throat thickness « a » of length 270 mm.
Check that:
k σ ⊥ 2 + 3 ( τ ⊥ 2 + τ // 2 ) ≤ σ e
where: σ2 = 235 ⇒ k = 0.7

σ⊥ = 0
τ⊥ = 0
F
τ// =
2⋅a⋅l
k ⋅F ⋅ 3
⇒ a ≥ formula determined for case 1.d)
2 ⋅ l ⋅ σe
0.7x50000x 3
i.e. : a≥ ≈0.48mm
2x270x235
N.B. – This minimum throat thickness is very small, in practice the minimum throat thickness
used is 3 mm.
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CALCULATION OF FLANGE WELDS:
These beads transmit only the bending moment which generates σ⊥ and τ⊥. The value of the
moment is given by:
Mb = F x L = 50 000 x 2 000 = 100 . 106 N.mm.
It is easier to resolve moment Mb into 2 equal and opposite forces generating a couple.
l' l'
Mb =Fx + Fx =Fl'
2 2
Mf
Consequently: F =
l'
With l' = 285 mm (distance between the centres of gravity of the two sections).
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This is therefore the same as the calculation of an angle joint as in case 1.c).
Considering that the available weld length is:
l" = 150 + (150 – 10) = 290 mm
we obtain:
F
σ⊥ = τ⊥ =
a ⋅ l" ⋅ 2
σe
σ⊥ ≤
2k
F σ
≤ e
2 ⋅ a ⋅ l" 2k
 Mf 
  x 2 xk
F x 2 xk  l' 
a ≥ =
σ e ⋅ l" σ e ⋅ l"
 100⋅10 6 
  x 2 x0.7
 285 
a≥
235 x290
a≥5.1 mm
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EXAMPLE 2. Weld design for a lifting eye
1st case: Normal load
F F
L
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2nd case: Oblique load
F
α F''
F'
L
F'
F''
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6.4. – Fatigue design of welded assemblies (principle)
The calculation method is best described by an example:
The above plate is subjected to a repeated non-negligible load F.
Consequently, the plate is submitted to fatigue. As its dimensions (e, l) are fixed, the
theoretical fatigue life of the welded assembly must be determined (allowable number of
cycles).
To do this:
F
1) Calculate the stress σ = in the throat plane.
e⋅l
2) Use the Woehler curve for this type of structural detail.

This curve corresponds to a 97.7 % survival probability.
Three tables are provided on the following pages, showing the various types of structural
detail
The assembly we are concerned with is shown as class 100.
« This means that for a stress σ' = 100 MPa, the part will withstand at least 2 000 000
cycles. »
In our particular case, the stress is σ. Assume it is equal to ≈ 130 MPa.
Then the Woehler curve for a class 100 assembly indicates a fatigue life equal to
1 000 000 cycles.
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WOEHLER CURVES
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Transverse loaded butt joint (X groove 125

or V groove)ground flush to plate.
100% NDT.


Manual arc-weld with electrode, 100 
transverse loaded butt joint. 
NDT. 

Submerged arc welded transverse butt 90

joint.
NDT.
Transverse butt weld 71

on non-permanent backing
Continuous automatic longitudinal fully 125

penetrated K-butt weld without stop-
start positions
Continuous automatic longitudinal 112

double sided or butt weld without stop-
start positions
Continuous manual longitudinal filet or 100

butt weld
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Stiffener welded to beam flanges. 80
Cruciform-joint.
K-fillet welds.
Misalignment less than 15% of the 71
sheet thickness.
Cruciform-joint.
Transverse fillet weld.
Misalignment less than 15% of the 63
sheet thickness.
root crack
Transverse loaded lap joint with load

carrying fillet welds. Root crack 71
Longitudinally loaded lap joint with load

carrying side fillet welds. 50
Transverse butt weld flange splice,

ground flush, with radius transition, 112
NDT
Transverse butt weld.

Smooth transition: 100
- manual weld
- submerged arc-weld.
90
NDT.
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Transverse butt weld

Smooth ground flush transition. 112
NDT
End of long doubling plate on I-beam.

Welded ends 50
End of long doubling plate on I-beam.

Non - welded ends. 50
End of superimposed long doubling

plate on I-beam. 50
Welded ends.
End of long doubling overhanging plate

on I-beam. 50
Non-welded ends.
Parent plate, flame-cut edges.

Corners removed 125
No cracks visible during inspection.
Weld metal of load carrying fillet weld.

Root crack 45
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7. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF METAL STRUCTURES SUBJECTED

TO STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADING
7.1. – Types of structures concerned
The construction of metal structures is essentially based on the assembly of slender

elements which have two dimensions which are small, or even negligible, compared with
the third.
The main function of frameworks is to support loads; three fields of activity are particularly
concerned:
a) Bridges and civil engineering structures
These are intended for crossing natural obstacles (rivers, valleys) or artificial obstacles
(canals, railway lines, roads... ), this type of construction is subjected to two types of
loading:
– static loading due to the inherent weight of the structure,

– dynamic loading due to crossing vehicles.
b) Building frameworks
As opposed to the type of construction

described in a), the loads applied to buildings
such as hangars and warehouses may be
considered as static.
c) Lifting and handling gear
This category includes:

– travelling cranes,
– gantries,
– cranes,
– conveyor belts.
These constructions are subject to fatigue.
The 3 categories of construction a, b, c have a common feature.

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They are all built-up from beam-type elements, therefore their stress calculations can be
performed in accordance with the strength of materials rules subject to knowing the
torsional loading on the structure at every point M.
Nx ,M x 
 
Ty ,M y 
 
Tz ,M z M
7.2. – Materials concerned (steels)
The principal distinction is between:
7.2.1. – Non-alloyed construction steels: S235, S275, S355
The number indicates the yield stress of the material. This yield stress is applicable to thin
gauge material. In fact, as the material thickness increases, the yield stress decreases as
shown in the graph below.
Re
400
300 S 355
S 275
200 S 235
100
16 40 63 80 100 150 200 250 e(mm)
Delivery condition:
Depending on the quality concerned, the delivery condition may be:
– either the as-rolled condition,
– or after normalising heat treatment or normalising rolling.
7.2.2. – High yield strength sheet delivered in the treated condition (NFA 36204)
These are low alloyed steels whose high mechanical properties are achieved by heat
treatment such as quenching + tempering or precipitation hardening.
The maximum thickness concerned is 70 mm.

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There are 6 different grades:

E 420 T E 620 T
E 460 T E 690 T
E 500 T
E 550 T
7.2.3. – Steel sheet with guaranteed properties in the short transverse direction
(NFA 36202)
Certain inclusions (sulphides, silicates, silico-

Z
aluminates) are flattened during rolling of the
sheets and this may have a detrimental effect
on the ductile properties (A %, Z %, Kcv..) in
the short-transverse direction (z) according to Y
their concentration (characterised
micrographically by the projected inclusion travers
length mm–1). long
travers e
Special elaborations (low sulphur, court
spheroidising additives... ) are available
which guarantee the ductility in the short- X
long
transverse direction, the latter is in principle
characterised by the striction (Zz %).
Three levels of striction are available:

Z15 Zz ≥ 15 % (generally unsuitable for welding)
Z25 Zz ≥ 25 %
Z35 Zz ≥ 35 %
7.3. – General design principles
7.3.1. – Design rule – load transmission
For all metallic constructions, it is essential to avoid creating high stress concentrations.
This may be avoided if the load transmission from one element to the next is performed
uniformly.
This uniformity is achieved when the material is available to provide load continuity.
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Three examples:
EXAMPLE I: Z o
Example I is typical: the load e1
concentration occurs in the e2>e1

zone corresponding to the X
intersection of the projection
of the welds on the e
X
intermediate element (C) and

the concentration is all the Y
greater if the thickness e of
the element is low.
Suitable load transmission in

this case involves an
interlocking forked joint with
gradual variation of the
thickness and assembly by
lateral welds beads.
EXAMPLE II:
Example II, which is also significant,

involves excessive bending of the thin
web (A) of the section which is in
particular not orientated in the plane of
the load or of the moment introduced by
the gusset (G).
ou
Consequently it is essential to transmit

the loads through the flanges (S) of the
section via two additional gussets (R1)
and (R2).
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EXAMPLE III:
De
Example III which represents the
assembly of a tubular upright to two e
deflected I-beams is also open to
criticism. Moreover the curvilinear
trimming of the flanges of the beams
complicates the preparatory task and
hinders on-site erection.
Under radial concentrated loading, the

rigidity of a thin tube is low and the ends
cannot be considered as built-in. Stress
concentrations therefore appear within
the tubular column, at the attachment
point of the I-beam flanges.
An acceptable solution consists in using

two star-shaped crowns which transmit
the moment(s).
On-site erection is facilitated by

prefabrication welding of the lower
crown. The upper crown is then
manufactured in two identical parts
which can easily be welded on-site.
Simplification of the preparation and préparation
erection is also achieved by terminating

the ends of the beams with a straight
cut, the shear load must then be
transmitted to the column via a
triangular gusset orientated in the plane
of the beam webs.
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7.3.2. – Crossing of welds
a) Coplanar welds
This type of weld is principally used for ∆ ≥ 20 x thickness

producing butt assemblies of plates in ∆
order to build up large dimension
surfaces.
The recommended solution consists in

t
offsetting the transverse welds (t), this
does not present any particular problem
if the longitudinal weld (l) is produced
last. A
L
t
B
t
L
The solution of cross-assembly is open
to criticism on two accounts:
– The ends of the opposite transverse t

welds (t) may each be the seat of a
planar lack of compaction which may
behave from the point of view of
fracture mechanics, as a single
defect of unacceptable length.
– The angular defects, which are

systematically present at the ends of
the transverse welds, may subsist
after execution of the longitudinal
weld, resulting in excessive out-of
flatness defects.
b) Trihedral welds
These are encountered in the event of assembly of gussets or stiffeners to deflected

beams. Two cases should be considered:
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1st case: Static and moderate fatigue loading
Ib
Ia
L
For this type of loading, clearances (Ia) or (Ib) are produced to provide access to the
longitudinal bead (l), this is after location of the elements and tack-welding to the
structure.
In the presence of non-corrosive atmospheres, these clearances may be of modest

dimensions.
Ia Ib
h
r = h = max [e, 10 mm
In the event of corrosive atmospheres, it is better to overlap the welds, this involves a
larger clearance or the production of a double bevel on the clearance.
Ib 2 Ia 1
r1
r1 = max [2e,30]
40°
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2nd case: Severe fatigue loading
The clearances produced in the 1st case are subject to stress concentrations at the ends
of the clearance, which is detrimental for a structure subjected to severe fatigue loading.
Consequently, such clearances should be avoided and continuous welds preferred. This
complicates the manufacture of beams which include transverse stiffeners. The latter must
be closed up and tack-welded after completion of the longitudinal welds between the web
and flanges.
7.3.3. – Continuity of the welds
Execution of continuous welds must be given precedence as a general rule. But, in certain
cases, it may be advantageous to produce discontinuous welds. Indeed, they are more
economical and reduce the deformation caused by welding.
e
b
L1
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However, this type of bead cannot be envisaged if corrosion resistance is a criterion to be

considered.
Similarly, these welds are not recommended for cyclic loading unless a fatigue calculation
check is performed.
– Minimum dimensions of the welds:
l1 ≥ b (doubling plates on flanges)

l1 ≥ max [2l, b] (web, stiffener)
– Stitching round the ends of webs, stiffeners additional flanges
– In cases where the additional element is compressed:

it is essential that ∆ ≤ 10 e (to avoid buckling)
when it is in tension, ∆ ≤ 30 e (with a maximum of 600 mm)
7.4. – Construction of elementary sub-assemblies
7.4.1. – Butting of solid, hollow, webbed sections
a) Solid plate, round bar, square bar
PLATE:
Butting of plate sections provides many possibilities with respect to weld preparation.
However, the following principles must be complied with:
– presence of run-on and run-off plates to avoid the presence of defects in the final bead.
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– If the thicknesses involved are « substantial », it is preferable to weld on both sides

to limit distortion.
2
2
3/5
e
2/5 1
1
3
ROUND BAR:
Butting of round bar is not performed on a circular bevel (excessively rapid cooling at the
tip), but on a linear bevel.
surfacing
after grinding
q
Y
SQUARE BAR:
The same principles apply as for round bar.
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b) Tubular hollow sections
BUTT WELDING ON V-BUTT WELD:
Possible operating defects (lack of penetration, undercuts) are unfavourably orientated

with respect to the principal stress, they are in fact perpendicular.
BUTT WELD ON A PERMANENT BACKING:
The backing makes it possible to achieve better welding quality.
6 à 10
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WELDING ON A LINK PLATE:
This type of design facilitates on-site closing-up and welding operations. However several
hazards must be avoided:
– danger of lamellar tearing of thick-walled tubes,
– bending caused by misalignment,
– natural notching which is detrimental with respect to fatigue and brittle fracture.
e1
c) I, H or T sections
The presence of the central web and the

fillet radius presents a problem.
Simple external V-bevelling of the flange

and X-bevelling of the web, generates a
zone in the fillet radius, which is
inaccessible to the fusion metal, where a
very sharp residual notch will remain after
welding, and which will be very detrimental
subsequently in-service.
Consequently, the following measures

must be taken:
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– Sections with thin flanges (e ≤ 12 mm, x

for example): e
r e
A simple solution consists in locally semelle
gouging out each fillet with a disc
zone non soudée ame
grinder prior to the « sealing run » over
virtually the entire length of the flange
weld. x
After executing the web weld, the local

section
gouging may either remain as it is (static XX
loading), or be filled by a longitudinal (après soudure)
weld followed by grinding intended to re-
establish the fillets (fatigue).
e
– Thick-flanged sections (e > 12 mm).
One solution which is suitable for

essentially static loading, consists in e<12mm
flame-cutting then grinding a circular
opening tangent to the internal face of
the flange, of diameter approximately
equal to the thickness of the flanges (20 I
mm minimum). This provides total
access to the root side of the flange 2
seam at which assembly 1 starts, as e aile
well as an opening at the ends of the
1
web weld, the latter being executed last. congé D
A larger opening is used in the event of
on-site butting of the lower flange of the âme
section, on which it is desired to avoid 3
overhead welding either for metallurgical

reasons or due to lack of qualification on D=e, mini=20
the part of the welding personnel.
R=max (e,15)
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7.4.2. – Angle joints of hollow sections, with webs
a) FRAMES DEFLECTED IN THEIR PLANE
Plane system
– I, H, U sections
Ny
2 solutions:
 Tx
M2

 G,G'

Mounting plate 
 Nx
 Ty
 Mz

P


Use of a bisecting  e
diaphragm to pick-up 
 e1
the loads transmitted by  D
the flanges 

 e1 # 1,5 e
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– Tubular section
The simplest solution, which consists in assembling as follows is not recommended for the
following reasons:
Mz
* Thrust phenomenon towards the outside

of the bend with high bending (at A) of 1
the tubular elements.
Mz
* Residual notch which is detrimental

with respect to fatigue.
Consequently, the use of a diaphragm can provide a neat solution:
e
e1 # 1,5 e
e1
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it is also possible to use 2 triangular gussets:
R1a
e1
e1 # e
de
h e
R1b
e1
h > de
Better
b) FRAMES DEFLECTED OUT OF THEIR PLANE
– V-BEVELLING OF THE FLANGES.
Cut-out in the webs to allow for

seal welding of the flanges.
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– Web interlocking and straight cut.
This solution is more complicated

and does not provide any improvement G
over the first solution.
– Use of a diaphragm which provides

significant improvement in static and
fatigue strength.
e e1
e1 e
Reinforcement solutions:
– Detrimental with respect to fatigue
non soudé
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7.5. – Construction of beams and joists

b
The majority of beams consist of 2
flanges and 1 web. Z eS
S1
The catalogues contain a vast number
of sections of various dimensions,
produced by rolling. However, for certain
constructions, the manufacture of A
h
welded beams is necessary as the g y'
required dimensions are not available
commercially. eA
These are referred to as: « reconstituted
welded beams ». S2
Z'
These allow the optimisation of sections, b1
i.e. to put the material where it is
needed. S1 eS1
hA
y y
eA
These beams may have variable inertia.
S2 eS2
e.g. :
b2
variable inertia
beam (material and weight saving)
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This type of joist may be manufactured using two commercially available constant
inertia joists.
The manufacture of variable inertia sections can be achieved by:
* Variation of the web height
* Variation of the flange thickness

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In order to increase the inertia of an existing beam, one can resort to stacking flanges.
The resulting fatigue strength behaviour, however is poor.
Welded web-flange assembly
The web-flange weld beads must not be made unreasonably large as this causes
deformation of the flanges.
This can be corrected by in-line flame heating or suitable pre-forming.

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This type of weld is not very recommended when there is cyclic load variation opposite
to the web, total penetration welding is to be preferred.
7.6. – Stiffening of webs
Certain deflected beams are liable their web to

buckle due to their size. Consequently, it is
necessary to consider the incorporation of
reinforcements intended to stiffen the web.
There are two types of stiffeners:
– transverse stiffeners,
– longitudinal stiffeners.
As a general rule, transverse stiffeners must be

located and welded across the full height of the
web, in order to transmit the load to the flanges.
Concerning their linking to the flanges, adequate

separation (20 to 30 mm) must be provided with
respect to the flange edges in order to avoid
damage by local fusion, which is all the more
detrimental if the loading is variable.
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Transverse stiffeners may have more or less complex sections:
Reduced fatigue strength around the

singular points:
Longitudinal stiffeners generally consist of a plain section or a T or L section.
This arrangement is detrimental due to the

sudden variation in stiffness of the
longitudinal stiffener at the joint with the
transverse stiffener.
Consequently, the following solution

incorporating a cut-out is preferable:
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7.7. – On-site jointing of reconstituted beams
7.7.1. – Positions of welds
Jointing of beams is generally performed in accordance with the following arrangement.
> 40 eS
It is advisable to interrupt the web-flange weld beads during prefabrication, at a certain

distance in order to provide the various elements with a certain degree of flexibility, to
facilitate the closing-up operation.
7.7.2. – Preparation of the parts
As a general rule, the webs are welded in the vertical position, which results in a
symmetrical X-bevel.
For flanges, precedence is given to the bevel which enables « flat » welding, thus
minimising the « overhead » passes (much more difficult to achieve correctly) for
executing the sealing weld.
The purpose of the latter being to avoid compacting flaws in the root, which are a possible
source of crack initiation under cyclic loading.
45 à 70°
eS
gougeage
1,5 à 3
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Triangular or circular cut-out to

facilitate the execution of butt welds.
Filling may be performed for

structures subjected to fatigue
loading.
Avoids the need for an sealing run.
To limit distortion (buckling of the

lower flange) for heavy gauges (es >
40 mm).
50°
eS
eS / 4
7.7.3. – Weld sequence
The weld sequence used is intended to achieve tensile stresses at the web weld, this is
beneficial with respect to web buckling (the flanges are less subject to this phenomenon,
as they are thicker gauge).
This also results in reducing the tensile stresses in the flanges, which constitute the load-
bearing elements of the deflected structure.
General rule: It is best to start with the thickest gauge elements.

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– Execution of S1 and S2 simultaneously

if possible. S1
– Execution of A. L1
– Filling if necessary.
– Execution of L1 and L2.
L2
S2
7.8. – Construction of box beams
7.8.1. – Applications
Conventional I, H or U sections are most frequently used as the structures are generally
deflected.
Their torsional behaviour is poor due to their low torsional inertia. In such cases, it is better
to use tubular or box sections.
The latter have the advantage of high

bending and torsional inertia. The
tendency of the flanges to twist is greatly
reduced.
high Iz (bending)
high IO (torsion)
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7.8.2. – Different types
a) Linked joists
These are box beams built-up from two, I, H or V sections.
b) Constructed box beams
The webs and flanges are cut out from sheet then welded together.
The web-flange welds must be designed in accordance with:
– the type of loading applied to the beam,

– the possibility of accessing the inside of the box.
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F



 2 1


 1

Good 
fatigue 

behaviour 



2








 3



Medium 
fatigue 

behaviour 


 4





5







 S2
Poor 
fatigue 
behaviour 

 6




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7.8.3. – Stiffening
Depending on the type of loading, transverse stiffening may be desirable.
Symmetrical loading
no stiffening required
since the loads are
carried by the webs.
Asymmetric loading
stiffening required
to avoid buckling due
to torsion.
Material must be available

to carry the load
diaphragm required.
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Another example of transverse stiffening:
Cut out sheet

L or T Incorporating
section A stiffened edge
7.9. – Plane lattice structures
7.9.1. – General
Lattice structures consist of bars which converge at points called nodes, where they are
connected together.
The most frequently encountered types are as follows:

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7.9.2. – Non-tubular lattices
a) Assembly by overlap and side fillet weld
When an L section is used for a diagonal,

the web must be laid on the side with the
longest lateral weld (centring of the loads
with respect to the beads).
b) Assembly by interlocking with side welds
This type of assembly is well suited to:
– L sections
– plain sections
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c) Assembly by butt weld
Suitable for plain sections under tension or T

or I sections in compression.
d) I-type braces
General rule: Do not use lattice bars whose

width is close to the width of the brace.
It is better to use the following configuration.
Weld V is principally intended to transmit the

vertical loads, since the latter cannot be
supported by the web of the brace.
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In order to facilitate the welding operations

and to avoid water retention problems, the
following solution may be adopted.
N.B. – For fatigue strength reasons, it is

advisable to eliminate the singular points.
use of cut-out gussets with suitable fillet

radii.
e) V-type braces
It is essential to ensure adequate

transmission of the vertical component, which
demands that the V weld is sized accordingly.
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7.9.3. – Tubular lattices
a) Circular section braces and bars
The presence of spatial intersections

complicates the cutting of the bars and their
attachment to the braces.
This type of brace is in fact difficult to justify in

simple plane lattice constructions.
The convergence of the neutral axes generally

leads to (especially for V lattices) a detrimental
positive spacing with respect to load
transmission.
The most severely loaded zones correspond

to points A, B or D depending on the type of
configuration.
CONSTRUCTION ARRANGEMENTS:
1) Plane cuts at the ends of the lattice bars
This arrangement considerably simplifies the

preparation and facilitates erection. However,
limitation of the spacing (g1) to a reasonable value
(e.g. 3 mm max.) and the requirement d1 ≥ 0.25 d
prevents the use of large diameter braces (d < 200
mm).
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2) Formed cuts at the ends of the lattice bars
ASSEMBLY WITH SPACING:
e1 ≤ 3.2 mm
Zone B: θmin ≤ θ < 60°

straight line cut of a bevel (ground
or trimmed) at the pointed end of
the bar.
60° < θ < 90°

execution of an fillet weld with
groove a > e1.
Zone A and Zone C:
Natural preparation in accordance

with the method of cutting the
ends.
Weld throat thickness a > e1.
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3.2 < e1 ≤ 7 mm
Providing the framework is subjected to static loading only, the above arrangements are
acceptable. Otherwise (fatigue loading), it is advisable to give precedence to the following
arrangements.
e1 > 7 mm
Bevelling is mandatory in zone A.
Geometric parameters (α, g1 and s) in

accordance with the welding process.
Bevelling is extended continuously in zone B

irrespective of the value of angle θ.
If θ is small (θmin ≤ θ ≤ 50°) the above bevel may

be gradually interrupted at the edge of zone C,
where the welding is executed on the natural
preparation.
In order to delete the natural notch at the root in

zone C, which would be detrimental under
fatigue loading, it is possible to resort to a local
internal bevel in this zone. The blending of these
bevels (external and internal) then presents a
manufacturing problem.
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SYMMETRICAL DOUBLE INTERSECTION K ASSEMBLY
Compared to assembly with spacing, this

arrangement provides an advantage from the point
of view of strength, especially when the bracing
has a low e/d ratio.
The presence of a plane intersection does not

complicate the preparation.
It is however necessary to produce a bevel

increasing towards E1 if: e1 ≥ 7 mm.
In the event of thick lattice bars subjected to

fatigue loading, an improvement and simplification (if e1 ≥ 7 mm)
can be achieved by the addition of a median
diaphragm not welded to the brace.
b) square or rectangular section braces
The presence of plane intersections considerably simplifies the preparation.

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Consideration must be given to the presence of severely work-hardened regions in the

corners, where local ageing after welding is to be feared.
c) Coplanar braces and bars
The principles outlined above for the preparation

of the edges in zones B, C and D are fully
applicable to square or rectangular braces.
In zone A, the following arrangements are to be

made:
The natural preparation shown opposite

considerably simplifies the preparation. However,
if thickness e1 exceeds 3 mm in fatigue loading or
6 mm in static loading, the following points must
be checked:
g1 ≥ 2.5 mm  which in practice  e1 ≤ 8 mm

and ψ ≥ 35°  leads to :  and rc ≥ 1.3 e
 
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If these geometric conditions cannot be

satisfied, a bevel must be produced in
accordance with the figure opposite.
d) Non-coplanar braces and bars
Contrary to circular sections, this type of section

enables the use of lattice bars on the side faces
of the braces, whence the following possibilities:
– double brace / single plane of bars,

– single brace / double plane of bars.
This second arrangement is generally less

attractive. Moreover, the presence of tube blend
radii (and the increasing blend radii in particular)
causes a problem regarding the size of the
groove and the execution of the assembly weld
beads.
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8. – DESIGN AND BEHAVIOUR OF PRESSURE VESSELS SUBJECTED TO

STATIC, DYNAMIC AND THERMODYNAMIC LOADING
8.1. – Type of structures concerned
The term « pressure vessel » is most frequently used to cover a great variety of items such as
aerosol sprays, pressure cooking utensils, sterilisers, pump bodies or valve fittings, storage
tanks, distilling or refining plant, gas separators, chemical reactors, nuclear reactors etc...
Contrary to metallic structures, the elements have one dimension which is negligible in relation
to the other two for the construction of shells and ends.
In consequence, the Strength of Materials laws are no longer applicable, and the elastic theory
equations apply.
Example of vessel:
Tubulures Bride boulonnée
Fond plat
Soudure circulaire
Soudure longitudinale
Fond bombé
Virole
Berceaux supports
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8.2. – Materials concerned
The choice of materials is left to the initiative of the manufacturer. The latter can nevertheless
seek guidance from the construction codes.
The materials are chosen in relation to the following criteria:
– mechanical strength,
– corrosion resistance,
– weldability,
– temperature resistance.
Two characteristics are fundamental to the behaviour under internal pressure both in
operational use and during proof testing:
– Toughness (resistance to rapid propagation of a notch). Brittle materials should not be

used. This is applicable especially at low temperatures.
– Plastic deformability.
In steels, two principal types are distinguished:
– non- or low-alloyed steels,

– austenitic stainless steels or nickel alloy steels.
When there is no special requirement, non-alloyed steels are invariably used, as their cost
is the lowest of all categories.
If the apparatus is to operate at high temperatures, austenitic stainless steels or chrome-

molybdenum steels are recommended, as their mechanical properties are sustained to
higher temperatures than for non-alloyed steels.
Low temperature operation (risk of brittle failure) generally requires the use of a steel with a
ductile-brittle transition temperature lower than the operating temperature. Austenitic
stainless steels are recommended, as these exhibit no transition temperature. Nickel alloy
steels are also suitable.
For hydrogen resistance, low chrome-molybdenum alloyed steels are used, as they are
resistant to hydrogen attack and this considerably reduces the danger of hydrogen
embrittlement.
Regarding corrosion resistance, chrome content is generally the decisive factor. The higher
the chrome content, the better the corrosion resistance.
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The main families are summarised below:

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Chrome-molybdenum steel for hydrogen resistance
Hydrogen partial pressure (MPa abs.)

inside the vessel
Carbon steel
Nelson diagram (American Petroleum Institute Department – 1990)
superficial decarbonisation
internal decarbonisation
Temperature (oC)
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8.3. – Regulations (Ministerial Decree dated 24th March 1978)
Decree dated 24th March 1978 controls the use of welding for the construction and repair of
pressure vessels.
– The use of welding by fusion on steel parts is prohibited:
a) If the ultimate tensile strength of the metal at ambient temperature exceeds 1000 N/mm²
for stainless austenitic or austeno-ferritic steels, or 900 N/mm² for other steels (by-law dated
12th August 1993);
b) If its carbon content exceeds 0.35 %;
c) If its sulphur and phosphorus contents exceed 0.05 %.
– A weld factor of 1 may only be used for seams between parts made from products defined
by a standard listed in appendix II of the decree.
– A weld factor of 0.1 may only be used for seams between parts made from products
defined by a standard or specification specifically covering their use in the construction of
pressure vessels and supplied with an inspection certificate or equivalent document.
– Steel sheet whose minimum ultimate tensile strength guaranteed by the standard is at least
equal to 460 N/mm² must be procured from manufacturers approved by the Ministry for
Industry.
8.4. – Type of loading applied to the shell
The shell constitutes the separating surface between the different media by:
– nature (corrosive, erosive action),

– pressure,
– temperature.
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The table below shows schematically the various loadings, as well as the possible resulting
failure modes.
Nature of actions Failure modes
static internal Excessive plastic strain (*) or

Pressure external static fracture
repeated (int. or ext.)

or fluctuating Buckling (*)
Gravitational effects Reduced thickness (*)
Climatic effects (snow, wind) Gradual strain (*)
Dynamic actions
Fatigue cracking
Vibrations
Thermal • Temp. gradient Brittle fracture

• Diff. expansion coeff.
Corrosion or erosion Cracking combined with

corrosion (intergranular,
Residual stresses incisive, cracking...)
may be combined may be combined

(*) covered by design codes
8.5. – Choice of materials (codes - regulations)
Materials play an essential role in the safety of pressure vessels. It is therefore hardly
surprising that regulations have been established to control the choice and implementation of
materials
This presentation is essentially devoted to a review of the main arrangements applicable to

steels as applied to pressure vessels and the evolution of these arrangements in relation to
the European context.
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8.5.1. – Principal arrangements concerning materials:
These arrangements are contained in three decrees. These different arrangements are
applicable according to whether gas or steam pressure is involved. Common arrangements
are applicable to welding.
a) Steam pressure vessels
Decree dated 2nd April 1926 regulating steam pressure vessels, in article 2 states that:
« The choice of materials used in the construction and repair of steam pressure vessels, their
implementation, the nature of their assembly, the determination of their dimensions and
thickness, are left to the judgement of manufacturers and the repairers under their
responsibility. »
b) Gas pressure vessels
Decree dated 23rd July 1943 applicable to apparatus for the production, storage and
implementation of compressed, liquefied or dissolved gases, under articles 3 and 4 contains
the following essential rules:
– The materials must provide, under the intended operating conditions, adequate resistance
to chemical action by the media which they are liable to contain.
– They must not be brittle at the proof pressure and temperature, nor within the intended
range of operating pressures and temperatures.
– For steel parts which contribute to the mechanical strength of the pressure vessel, the
elongation after fracture A and possibly the ultimate tensile strength R shall satisfy the
following relationships:
1. For the products used,
A ≥ 20
In such case, the implementation of the products should not cause any modification
in the mechanical properties in any way detrimental to the safety of the apparatus.
2. For the apparatus when new,
A ≥ 14 and RA ≥ 10500
In these expressions, the tensile strength is expressed in MPa (N/mm²) and the
elongation after fracture in percent.
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8.6. – General design rules
8.6.1. – Codes and regulations
French legal requirements:
Steam pressure vessels: 2/04/1926
Gas pressure vessels: 18/01/1943

23/07/1943
14/12/1989
Common regulations: 28/10/1943

03/08/1966
24/03/1978
Codes:
CODAP 95 (France)
ASME - Section I : boilers for power stations

- Section III : nuclear vessels
- section IV : boilers
- section VIII : pressure vessels not subjected to flames
BS5500 (U.K.)
AD Merkblatt (Germany)
8.6.2. – Design calculations
a) Design
A design calculation situation corresponds to a time interval during which several actions are
exerted simultaneously (combined actions) on the shell.
The time interval may be:

– short term (transient regime),
– long term (steady state regime).
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b) Categories of design calculation situations
b.1) Normal operating situations
These cover:
– the steady state regime, within which it is important to distinguish between:

operation excluding material creep,
operation under creep conditions,
– transient regimes (differential thermal expansion if applicable),
– possible climatic factors (snow and wind) considered as « normal »,
– gravitational effects under normal operating conditions.
b.2) Exceptional operating conditions
For example:
– activation of a regulating or safety device (valve),
– climatic factors considered as « extreme »,
– earthquakes,
– gravitational effects during erection,
– effect of an internal explosion.
b.3) Strength testing situation (regulations: proof testing)
This is to be considered:
– at the end of the manufacturing cycle (favourable thickness allowance for corrosion) in the
position possible in the workshop or on site
– during the regular proof tests (depleted thickness by corrosion) on site.
For this design situation:
* any climatic factors (snow and wind) are taken into account with a reduced characteristic
value,
* the gravity effects (and support reactions in particular) are to be considered and are quite
likely to be determining.
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8.7. – Determination of the nominal design stress
The nominal design stress f is the stress value to be used in the design calculations for the
code concerned, it is the value of the membrane overall primary stress.
This nominal stress is calculated from the mechanical properties (Rp0,2, Rm, Rp... ) of the
material used.
These properties are generally adopted by the various material standards.
Its value differs according to whether the situation considered is:
a) normal operation without material creep,

b) normal operation with material creep,
c) exceptional operation or proof testing.
Taking for example CODAP 95.
The following pages provide the design formulae for the nominal design stress f for situations
a) and c).
For normal operation with creep, the design calculation is based on a standard 100 000-hour
service life.
For the various types of material covered by the Code, the nominal design stress is equal to:
f = σR
1.6
where: σR = mean value of the breaking stress in 100 000 hours at the design
temperature t
The temperatures from which creep occurs are as follows:
Non-alloyed C and C-Mn steels .................................. 370 °C
Austenitic stainless steels ........................................... 425 °C

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TABLE C1.7.2. DETERMINATION OF THE NOMINAL DESIGN STRESS FOR A NORMAL

OPERATING SITUATION WITHOUT MATERIAL CREEP
(for cast materials, refer to C.1.7.5)
Nominal design stress

MATERIAL
f1 f2 f3
Non alloyed steels or alloyed non-
stainless and non-austenitic(1a)  t     t     t   
 R p 0, 2   R m   R p 0, 2   R m   R p 0, 2   R m 
steels MIN  , MIN  , MIN  ,
Stainless austeno-ferritic,      
 1,5   2,4   1,6   2,7   1,6   3 
martensitic, ferritic and semi-ferritic
steels
t t t
R m R m R m
3 3,25 3,5
Austenitic
either t t t
stainless steels R p1, 0 R p1, 0 R p1, 0
1,5 1,6 1,66
 t     t     t   
 R p 0, 2   R m   R p 0, 2   R m   R p 0, 2   R m 
(1b)
MIN  , MIN  , MIN  ,
Nickel and nickel alloys      
 1,5   2,4   1,6   2,7   1,6   3 
 t     t   
 R p 0, 2   R m   R p 0, 2   R m 
MIN  , MIN  ,
Aluminium and aluminium alloys    
 1,6   3   1,9   3 
t
Copper and copper alloys R m
4
t
Titanium and zirconium R m
3
General  t   
case  R p 0, 2   Rm 
Non- MIN 

,
 (2 )
alloyed  3   5 
or
alloyed Assembly by  t   
 R p 0, 2   Rm 
MIN 
threaded
non-au
stenitic studs,  3  4 
, (2)
steels washers and   
2 torque-
Hardware loaded nuts
General t
case R m
5
Austeni Assembly by t
tic threaded R m
steels studs, 4
washers and
2 torque-
loaded nuts
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TABLE C1.7.4. DETERMINATION OF THE NOMINAL DESIGN STRESS FOR AN

EXCEPTIONAL OPERATING SITUATION OR PROOF TEST
(for cast materials, refer to C.1.7.5)
MATERIAL Nominal design stress

Non alloyed steels or alloyed non-stainless and
non-austenitic steels t
Stainless austeno-ferritic, martensitic, ferritic and
0,95 × R p 0, 2
semi-ferritic steels
t
Austenitic stainless steels R m
2
Aluminium and aluminium alloys t
Nickel and nickel alloys
0,95 × R p 0, 2
t
Copper and copper alloys R m
2,6
t
Titanium and zirconium R m
2,3
t
Non-alloyed steels or non- R p 0, 2
austenitic alloyed steels
Hardware
2
t
Austenitic steels R m
3
Rm = Minimum guaranteed ultimate tensile
strength at ambient temperature.
Rmt = Minimum guaranteed ultimate tensile

strength at the design temperature t if the
latter is different from the ambient
temperature.
Rp0.2 = Minimum guaranteed value of the 0.2%

conventional yield point at ambient
temperature
For materials whose guaranteed yield point
is the upper flow limit ReH, part M indicates
how to determine the value of Rp0.2
Rp0.2
t = Minimum guaranteed value of the 0.2%
conventional yield point at the design
temperature t if the latter is different from the
Rp1.0
t = Minimum guaranteed value of the 1%
conventional yield point at the design
temperature t.
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8.8. – Weld factor for pressure vessels
In view of the geometric and metallurgical modifications likely to be generated during welding,
the calculation of the wall thickness for a panel in tension, is performed by reducing the
admissible stress (f) by a factor (z) equal to a maximum of 1.
Constructions governed by the regulations (steam or gas) are allocated one of the 3 factors
specified by the Ministerial Decree dated 24/03/78:
The choice of factor is determined by:
Z = 1.0  - the basic material grade,


Z = 0.85  - the extent of non-destructive and destructive testing,
Z = 0.70  - the severity of the flaw acceptance criteria.

However, the weld factor is not applicable:
– to transverse joints on cylindrical or conical vessels,

– joints subjected exclusively to compressive loading,
– pipe and tapping joints,
– circular (or transverse) joints on cylindrical shells, conical shells and dished ends (apart
from hemispherical ends),
– joints which do not contribute to the pressure resistance of the shell.
In the case of CODAP 95, factor z is determined according to the category of construction
chosen (A, B, C) and the nominal design stress (f1, f2, f3).
STEEL
STEELS
NON-FERROUS METALS
NON-FERROUS METALS
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Guide for determining the choice of a construction category
Potential risk of failure of the apparatus
CRITERIA LEVEL EVALUATION

S1 : Loading variability high moderate low or nil
S2 : Start/stop frequency very high high normal low
U1: Operating conditions very severe severe normal

inexistent periodic
U2: In-service monitoring of the occasional continuous
or and
apparatus
impossible systematic
impossible periodic
U3: In-service inspection of the occasional continuous
or not and
apparatus
planned systematic
D1: Complexity of the apparatus very high high low low
D2: Intended service life of the extended normal short

apparatus
Consequences of a possible failure
CRITERIA LEVEL EVALUATION

H1: Population involved in such a failure very high high low very low
H2: Operating personnel in the vicinity of permanently occasionally
frequently rarely
the apparatus
T : Product toxicity very high high low nil
F1 : Energy releasable by the apparatus very high high medium low
F2 : Explosion following leakage of the

certain probable improbable impossible
product?
F3 : Fire following leakage of the product? certain probable improbable impossible

F4 : In the event of leakage, the hazard to
certain moderate nil
personnel caused by the temperature
of the product is
M1 : Economic repercussions of a failure very high high moderate low
M2 : Failure of the apparatus may result in
severe medium low
failure of a neighbouring apparatus
whose consequences are
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POTENTIAL RISKS OF FAILURE
high medium low
severe A* A B
CONSEQUENCES
OF A POSSIBLE
medium A B C
FAILURE
low B C C
* In this case, the purchaser must decide whether to choose category Ex.
8.9. – Calculation methods for pressure vessels
8.9.1. – Direct calculation of thickness or dimensions
This is systematic and concerns the constituent parts subjected to the effect of static pressure
(int. or ext.).
– Strength of Materials formulae: eo = φ (P, Ri, f)

– Iterative calculation using graphical methods (P ext. ⇒ buckling)
– Empirical rules (reinforcement of openings).
Additionally, measures must be taken for: ∆Ε ajustement

S3 tolérance en moins sur produit
– corrosion or erosion (s1)
amincissement éventuel
S2 pendant mise en forme
– any possible thinning during forming (s2)
– possible negative tolerance on the thickness

of sheet material (s3).
soudure et orifices
e: épaisseur avec
This results in: en

épaisseur
a nominal ordering thickness: e0 minimale
théorique
en = e + s1 + s2 + s3 + ∆e
S1 surépaisseur
de corrosion
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8.9.2. – Stress analysis (indirect design calculation)
This is performed in certain special cases:
a) In static operation (in service and under hydraulic proof testing)
– local buckling test for compressed walls (gravitational and wind effects);
– design of cylindrical shells of any section (pressure ⇒ M, N, T ⇒ σ, τ);
– supporting of horizontal-axis liquid-filled containers;
– thermal effects (pipes, clad steel vessel... );
– bolted flange assemblies;
– external loads applied to pipes (M, N, T ⇒ σ, τ).
After classification of the stress components, the

following must be determined:
– the most unfavourable loading combination,

– the most highly stressed points of the shell,
– the principal stresses (σ1, σ2, σ3)
– the equivalent stress using the maximum shear
criterion (GUEST.TRESCA)
Finally the limiting conditions are checked by combining the various components and
comparing them with:
– either the admissible stress (associated with a safety factor dependent on the in-service
loading considered),
– or a fraction of the yield stress (loading during proof testing).
b) In fatigue
Beyond a certain number of load cycles, a

fatigue check must be undertaken.
The number of cycles to be considered is

based on the variation:
– in pressure,
– in temperature (thermal effects),
– in external forces.
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At the most highly loaded points in the construction, the following must be determined:
– the principal stresses,
– the TRESCA equivalent stress,
– the stress amplitude under the most unfavourable cycle.
A comparison is finally conducted using a (S – N) fatigue curve for the material concerned.
8.10. – Design of shells subjected to internal pressure
8.10.1. – Cylindrical shells
In the case of a uniform thickness cylindrical shell, the minimum thickness required is obtained
from the following formulae:
de
dm
P ⋅ Di P ⋅ Dm P ⋅ De
e = = =
2⋅f ⋅ z −P 2⋅f ⋅ z 2⋅f ⋅ z +P
di
8.10.2. – Spherical shells
The minimum thickness required for a spherical shell is given by one of the following formulae:
P ⋅ Di P ⋅ Dm P ⋅ De
e = = =
4⋅f ⋅z −P 4⋅f ⋅z 4⋅f ⋅z +P
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8.10.3. – Conical shells
In any straight section, the minimum thickness required is given by one of the following
formulae:
P ⋅ Di 1
e = ⋅
2 ⋅ f ⋅ z − P cos α
P ⋅ Dm 1
e = ⋅
2 ⋅ f ⋅ z cos α
P ⋅ De 1
e = ⋅
2 ⋅ f ⋅ z + P cos α
Grande base
De
Di
Section Dm
droite
Petite base
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8.11. – Assembly of shells
8.11.1. – Constitution of cylindrical shells by rolling and welding
a) General. Cylindrical forming
Depending on the thickness of the shells to be produced, the sheets are formed either on a
roller-type bending machine (3 or 4 rollers) or on a bending press.
The operation is performed at ambient or high temperature, according to the capacity of the
machines.
For non-alloyed steels, cylindrical forming at ambient temperature is admitted without

subsequent heat treatment, providing that the work hardening generated by the forming
e
process is limited to a strain such that A % = ≤ 5 %.
Dm
Cylindrical forming at ambient temperature of thicker shells is followed by a regeneration heat

treatment (normalisation or stress relief).
At high temperature, hot cylindrical forming is performed at between 1000°C and A1.
b) Layout of welds
The most conventional shells incorporate longitudinal and circular welds.
Depending on the dimensions, the forms of sheet available and the cylindrical forming facilities,
the shells may be of type (I) or of type (II).
longitudinal weld
circular weld
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Solution (I), which is more costly due to the total length of the joints, does however provide
better geometric tolerance (balanced shrinkage); moreover, the rolling direction is favourably
orientated. However, the greater length of welds results in a significant increase in the non-
destructive inspection (since circular joints are inspected in the same way as longitudinal
welds.
The longitudinal joints are produced first (with removable run-on and run-off plates), which
allows for any readjustment for each elementary shell section and separate inspection of each
joint. Circular welds are produced subsequently. This sequence is applicable in particular to
apparatus built-up from pre-treated elements, where the steel may be modified by the welding
process; the zone affected by the circular welds then has no detrimental effect.
8.11.2. – Shape of assemblies
PR
The stress loading in longitudinal welds is twice that in circular welds ( σ = compared with
e
PR
σ= ), this explains why they are subject to such severe control with respect to the codes
2e
and regulations.
a) Longitudinal joints
CONSTRAINTS: BUTT WELDS
FULL PENETRATION WELDS
ALIGNED NEUTRAL FIBRES
Overlapping joints are prohibited by the

regulations, as they introduce local bending.
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When internal access is not possible, the

preparation is produced with a single opening
(V or U) and the welding process must ensure
regular and continuous root penetration. The
use of permanent support is generally not
authorised for this type of joint (notch,
distortion
corrosion).
When a given shell incorporates different

material thickness, the thick element is
« bevelled » at a suitable slope (≤ 0.25), the
neutral axes are aligned and the weld is
contained within the bevel.
A curvilinear bevel may also be used. This

facilitates subsequent x-ray inspection of the
weld.
If the difference in thickness results from a

difference in mechanical properties, the thicker
member must not be thinned and the blending
must be achieved through the profile of the
weld only.
If the constituent material of the shell can only

be welded using filler metal having lower
mechanical properties (e.g. in the case of 9%
Ni steels), the welded joint must provide
sufficient extra thickness to achieve equivalent
mechanical strength, which must be
demonstrated experimentally.
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b) Circular joints
The above arrangements remain applicable;

however, the lower longitudinal stresses allow for
some relaxation:
– alignment of the neutral axis is not essential

(indifferently on the internal or the external
diameter depending on the machining
possibilities).
– the bevel slope may be increased to 0.33.
Welded joints with permanent supports are

acceptable providing there is:
* no risk of cracking during the welding

operation.
* no risk of corrosion (presence of an

interface).
Nevertheless, joints with permanent supports

remain difficult to inspect using conventional
non destructive testing techniques.
Joints with joggled edges are acceptable on

ductile materials subject to the above restrictions.
For steels, the thickness is limited to 12 mm and
the fusion must be sufficient for the work
hardened zone to be heated to the regeneration
temperature (at least Ac1) and any risk of lamellar
tearing must be avoided.
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Overlapping joints:
* with double fillet welds where e ≤ 8 mm and in

the absence of an in-service temperature
gradient. Additionally, a vent hole is required.
* with single fillet welds where e ≤ 4 mm and in

the absence of a temperature gradient or
corrosive environment.
8.11.3. – Intersection of welds
Two severe criticisms must be raised regarding

intersection of welds (l: longitudinal, c: circular) from
the point of view of in-service behaviour. The criticisms
are as follows:
a) Alignment of compacting defects
The ends of beads l are quite frequently the seat of a

small plane defect (e.g. lack of penetration), which
when considered in isolation, has no serious
consequences.
The alignment of beads l exhibits two adjacent defects

which from the point of view of the fracture mechanics,
behave as a single defect of unacceptable length.
b) Preservation of angular welding deformations
On long thin-walled shells, longitudinal welds (l) are

systematically associated with an angular deformation
(α) at each end.
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When joining shells together, if an alignment of joints l

is tolerated, manufacturing does not feel obliged to
gauge the edges, and after execution of the joint c,
there remains a local discontinuity in circularity.
Under the effect of internal pressure, local bending

occurs, which when combined with the compacting
defect mentioned above, may lead to:
– either brittle fracture during the initial loading (e.g.

hydraulic proof testing.),
– or fatigue cracking during repeated pressure

loading.
Moreover, it is appropriate to critically examine the

possibility of authorising the intersection of principal
welds in the shell on pressure vessels.
In general, offsetting of longitudinal joints is advisable

with a minimum interval ∆ such that:
∆ ≥ 20 e for e ≤ 5 mm
∆ ≥ 10 e for 5 < e ≤ 40 mm
∆ ≥ 5 e for e > 40 mm
8.11.4. – Angular joining of coaxial elements
At the point of intersection, one can observe:
– longitudinal bending σ'x (in tension on the inner

surface)
– circumferential compression σθ' (risk of circular

buckling).
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On sharp angle joints, stress concentrations are

observed on the inner surface.
⇒ Improvement by grinding should be

performed in order to achieve a peak stress
such that σx ≤ 3f for mild and stainless steels.
This also reduces the circumferential stress

σθ as the cross-section is greater.
8.12. – Design and calculation of dished ends
8.12.1. – Standard profiles of ends
H
Classification by decreasing relative depth ( ) is as follows:
R
H
– hemispherical ends: =0.5
De
– elliptical ends (NF E 81 103)

characterised by:
R
____ Di
_____
= = 1.9
H 2H
– basket-handle ends (or torispherical)
with a high edge radius (NF E 81 102 and

A 49 185), characterised by:
rc ≥ 0.1 De  Di
rc ≥ 3 e  ⇒ 2.58 ≤ ___
≤ 2.60
ri ≤ De  2H
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with a medium edge radius (NF E 81 104)
with a small edge radius (NF E 81 101),

characterised by: rc = 30 to 50 mm
and De ≤ Ri ≤ 1.5 De
The latter two profiles (NF E 81 104 and E 81 101), which are not accepted by the regulations
(decree dated 3/08/60), are restricted to the construction of liquid tanks, powder product
containers or vacuum storage.
There are also flat ends.
8.12.2. – Practical design calculation of ends subjected to internal pressure
The calculations are complex and there are 3 involved in the determination of the minimum
thickness e for an elliptical or torispherical end.
1st calculation: membrane stress at the pole ⇒ thickness 1
2nd calculation: meridian bending at the edge ⇒ thickness 2
3rd calculation: circumferential buckling at the edge

(compressive stress) ⇒ thickness 3
• Uniform thickness e elliptical and torispherical ends
The minimum thickness required for non-welded ends or built-up from welded equal-thickness
elements is given by the relationship:
e = Max { (e1), (e2 ), (e3 ) }

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• Torispherical ends built-up from several different thickness elements welded

together
The minimum thickness required es for the central cap of the end is given by: es = e1.
For the edge, ep = Max { (e2 ), (e3 ) }
• Hemispherical ends
The curvature is constant (part of a sphere). Consequently, the thickness is unique and is
determined using the following calculation formulae:
P⋅D e P⋅R i
e= =
4⋅ f ⋅z+P 2⋅ f ⋅z−0.5P
N.B. – For hemispherical ends without welds, z disappears from the above formulae.
Dished ends must be calculated for external pressure, if applicable, as they are likely
to buckle.
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8.12.3. – Ends consisting of several elements welded together
Positions of welds:
The rules in this chapter apply to the following ends:
a) hemispherical ends, irrespective of the position of the welds,
b) elliptical or torispherical ends, which in the small radius of curvature regions, contain welds
located, within manufacturing tolerances, in the meridian plane or in a plane parallel to the
axis of the end, at a distance from the axis no greater than 0.2 De.
The term small radius of curvature, is used to signify the regions of the end where the distance
from the axis is greater than 0.4 De (region 2 in the figure below).
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8.12.4. – Joints on flanged dished ends

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8.12.5. – Flat ends
Under the effect of pressure, these ends are subjected to much higher bending forces than
dished ends, which results in a considerable increase in the minimum thickness required to
provide the strength of the end.
Disadvantage: Heavier than dished ends.
Advantage: These can be manufactured by machining a thick laminated plate. (Beware

of the layout of the welds: lamellar tearing is possible).
Flat ends may be bolted or welded. In the event of bolting, sealing is achieved using a gasket
seal.
• Welded
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• Bolted
Ends with flat joint face
Male interlocking ends
Female interlocking ends

(or with an annular joint
groove)
8.13. – Openings in internally-pressurised shells
8.13.1. – Compensation principle for an isolated opening
a) Purpose
The attachment of pipes to shells and ends requires the removal of large amounts of material
(Ø of the pipe), which results in an increase in the stresses.
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Consequently, it is necessary to ensure that

additional material is available locally in the
close vicinity of the opening, in order to
withstand the higher stress.
If this is not the case, a reinforcement must

be added.
b) Zones of influence – strength condition
eO, etO : minimum theoretical thickness

calculated for z = 1.
e, et : actual thickness, corrosion deducted
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Shell influence zone: L = Dm ⋅ e
Nozzle influence zone: l = dm ⋅ e
Ensure that: ( A1 + A 4 ) f + ( A 2 + A 3 ) ft ≥ Bf
in which case no reinforcement is necessary.
8.13.2. – Example (A 42 CP steel)
Shell: Di = 2000
P = 12 bar effective
T = 250 °C
z = 0.85
C = corrosion allowance = 2 mm
e = 16 mm
f = 110 MPa
Pipe: di = 500 mm
ft = 110 MPa
e = 10 mm
c = 2 mm
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1) Calculation of mean diameters
Dm = Di + 14 = 2004 + 14 = 2018 mm
dm = di + 8 = 502 + 8 = 510 mm
2) Calculation of zones of influence
L = Dm ⋅ e = 2018 x 14 = 168 mm
l = dm ⋅ et = 510 x 8 = 64 mm
3) Calculation of minimum theoretical thickness
PD i 1.2x2004
eo = = ≈11mm
2f −P 2x110−1.2
Pd i 1.2x502
e to = = ≈ 2.8mm
2ft −P 2x110−1.2
4) Reinforcement check
A1 = 168 x (14 – 11) ≈ 504 mm²
A2 = [ 64 + (14 – 11)] x (8 – 2.8) ≈ 348.4 mm²
 502 
B = 11x  + 2.8  ≈ 2792 mm²
 2 
since f and ft are identical, one can simply check the sections:
A1 + A2 = 852.4 mm² < B = 2792 mm².
Consequently, reinforcement is necessary. The section of the reinforcement must be equal to:
S = 2792 – 852.4 ≈ 1940 mm²
If the reinforcing ring is of length L, its thickness must be at least equal to:
S 1940
= =11.6 mm
L 168
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8.13.2. – Constructional layout of branches and pipes
a) General
The possible layouts are numerous. The choice of a suitable layout is dependent on various
criteria:
a.1) linked to the operating conditions of the apparatus:
– fatigue sensitivity (cyclic pressure),

– sensitivity to thermal effects (temperature variations),
– sensitivity to corrosion.
a.2) linked to the geometry of the opening:
– thickness of elements and diameter of the opening,

– sensitivity to weld distortion,
– sensitivity to lamellar tearing.
a.3) linked to the manufacturing and inspection conditions:
– accessibility of the inside of the shell,

– possibility of performing non-destructive testing,
– possibility of machining.
If the calculations indicate a need for

reinforcement of the opening, four principles
are available:
– Insertion of an « oversleeve »nozzle of

thickened pipe (this solution is limited to
small diameter openings).
– Overall increase in the wall thickness (a

simple solution for multiple openings).
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– Local thickening of the shell using a butt-

welded rolled or forged element (this
solution in recommended in the event of
thermal effects or cycling pressure).
– Addition of a set-on compensation ring
b) General principles
b.1) Position of the compensation metal:
in the immediate vicinity of the opening
b.2) Assembly of the set-on ring
Requires direct attachment to the edge of

the opening whence: 2 peripheral welds
tested by a pneumatic pressure-test
b.3.) Position of pipe and set-on ring welds:
When these items are welded, the weld

should preferably be located in the
transverse plane with respect to the
cylindrical or conical shell.
b.4.) Vicinity of compensations:
A common reinforcement can be used to

avoid the sudden change in inertia which
may result from two adjacent
reinforcements.
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Pressed boss Forged or extruded branch
Set-in branches
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Set-in branches
Set-on branches
Branches and pipes with set-on compensation ring

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Forged compensation rings
Machined connections
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8.14. – Supporting of pressure vessels
8.14.1. – Skirt - supports
This is the most efficient layout for supporting a

vertical vessel, due to the homogeneous stress
distribution.
It is positioned in line with the cylindrical shell, in

order to avoid introducing bending to the normal
component N of the load.
Given the weight of the apparatus as well as the

wind loads, it is possible to determine the
thickness of the skirt.
Two checks:
– compression,
– buckling.
Of layouts I and II, solution II is the best because

the load transmission is very good and underside
access is good. Moreover, solution I leaves an
interface which is subject to corrosion.
8.14.2. – Pillar-supports
This arrangement is not as elegant as that described in § 8.14.1, this is due to the
concentration of the vertical loads on the shell in the vicinity of the pillars.
This solution is not recommended for apparatus subjected to lateral forces such as those
generated by wind.
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commercially
available
section
(L or U)
This design is not authorised for all types of vessel. For example there is a minimum thickness
requirement of e > 3 mm.
It should also be noted that a solution consisting of insertion of a liner between the post and
the shell is preferable as this improves the distribution of the vertical loads.
8.14.3. – Cradle-supports
These are used for supporting cylindrical containers laid horizontally.

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Cradle supports normally consist of:
– a reinforcement-liner,
– a web,
– a base,
– 2 or 3 stiffeners.
θ ≥ 120°
These generate longitudinal and transverse bending of the shell.
longitudinal bending transverse bending

around the supports
in the plane
of the shell
In order to limit the transverse bending, it is therefore necessary to position pads as close as
possible to the ends which are much stiffer than the cylindrical shell in its plane. This
transverse bending is considerably reduced by the presence of liners.
It should also be noted that transverse bending may be limited by fitting a stiffening ring inside
the container in particular in the plane of the support webs.
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9. – DESIGN OF ALUMINIUM STRUCTURES
9.1. – Aluminium alloy products
Aluminium and its alloys are available in all the usual forms.
Dressed products
– Planks, sheet (the term plate is generally taken to signify steel), strip (stacked rolling of
pure aluminium can be used to produce ultra-fine strips ⇒ aluminium foil).
– bar, rolled sheet and wire.
– drawn and extruded sections. Aluminium alloys are generally very suitable for drawing
and extruding, which enables numerous, often complex-shaped sections to be
produced.
– forged, die-forged, stamped parts etc...
Castings
– All methods, all sizes.
9.2. – Aluminium alloys - applications
The various applications of aluminium and its alloys are based on a remarkable set of
physical and chemical properties:
– low density (lightweight structures),

– high thermal and electrical conductivities (radiators),
– good atmospheric corrosion resistance,
– well suited to various forming techniques,
– non toxicity of pure aluminium and of many of its alloys,
– good malleability and ductility at low temperatures,
– aesthetic qualities (surface treatment, colouring).
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The main applications of aluminium and its alloys are as follows :

– aerospace parts,
– shipbuilding,
– transport (motor-vehicles, railways, trailers, etc... )
– armoured land vehicles,
– electrical conductors,
– food industry,
– packaging,
– building,
– etc...
9.3. – Welding
Operational and local welding of aluminium alloys are dominated by the following
properties:
– High thermal conductivity (diffusion), whence :
* A need for high specific energy fusion welding techniques (arc-welding). The thicker the
material involved, the more difficult the welding operation.
* Special design of assemblies in order to exclusively join equal thickness and section
parts.
Indeed, a joint as shown below is likely to result in lack of fusion on the « thick side »,
due to the greater heat dissipation on that side.
– The presence of alumina demands the use of flux before welding and protection of the
molten metal from oxidation in air.
– A high coefficient of expansion which results in a tendency to distortion.
– Very low solubility of gases in the solid state, which often causes blow-holes (gas
pockets) within the solidified metal. This can be detrimental to fatigue strength, in
particular when the blow-holes break the surface.
detrimental for fatigue strength
– Tendency for aluminium alloys to crack at high temperatures.

Consequently, clamping must be kept to a minimum.
Regarding the design of metallic structures and pressure vessels, the same precautions
should be taken as for steel structures, there are no other specific requirements.
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Examples of aluminium alloy sections in the 6000 series

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Design calculation of aluminium alloy welded joints
(in accordance with unified AL document dated January 71)
Design calculations for aluminium welded joints are generally more difficult than for steel
welded joints, because most of the alloys used for the structures achieve their mechanical
properties by work hardening or heat treatment.
The heat generated during welding modifies the mechanical properties and therefore the
local reduction in mechanical strength must be considered, since this may also affect the
overall strength of the part.
Influence factors :
α factor : determined according to the inspection performed, and the difficulty of

performing it.
α = 1 for an X-rayed weld, otherwise α = 0.8.
β factor : takes into account the lowering of the mechanical properties, which may
fall below those of the base metal.
β is determined experimentally.
γ factor : takes into account the complex phenomena associated with highly
loaded fillet welds.
Its value is less than 1.

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Transverse butt welds
T (weighted shear force)
τ L F (weighted
σ tensile force)
F
σ
1) Tensile force ≤ σe
αβ
σ
2) Pure compression force ≤ σe
β
164
,
3) Shear force ⋅ τ ≤ σe
αβ
4) Combined normal stress and shear force
If σ > 0
1
σ2 + 3τ2 ≤ σe
αβ
If σ < 0
1
(α σ ) 2 + 3 τ 2 ≤ σ e
αβ
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Fillet welds
τ
σ
2
α β γ
1
2 2 [σ ⊥
2
+ 2,7 ( τ ⊥ 2 + τ // 2 ) ]≤σ e
2
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10. – WELDED JOINTS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
10.1. – General
It is quite frequent on construction-sites, to have to butt-join rods, either because the

construction constraints make it necessary to cut the bars left pending, or because lengths
required are exceptional, or even to correct a design or constructional error.
Bars of all diameters may be lap welded. In the event of insufficient accessible length, or
for space reasons, butt welds may be performed on 40, 32, 25, or even 20 mm diameter
rods.
General instructions
It is preferable to use a dc welding set, for polarity reasons and for better stability of the
arc. Some basic electrodes are in fact only suitable for dc welding.
The construction-site layout often means that the welding source is out of reach of the
operating welder. It is therefore useful to have a remote control enabling the welder to
adjust the current during the welding operation.
It is recommended to check the good condition of the electrical system, to ensure that the
electrical values indicated are in fact provided at the electrodes.
As reinforcing rods on construction-sites are frequently oxidised, it is important to make a

very good contact between the earthing cable and the rod on which the weld is to be
struck, also avoiding any striking out of the assembly zones.
Welding operations must be undertaken on dry rods and the operator must in all cases be
provided with a work-station sheltered from the weather.
10.2. – Types of joints
There are three types :
– butt welds,
– lap welds,
– cross welds.
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10.2.1. – Butt welds
The rods may be presented :

– in a position close to the horizontal,
– or in a position close to the vertical.
It is exceptional to have to butt weld rods inclined at 45° and in such cases, it would
appear preferable to operate as for the vertical position.
In all cases, check that the butt weld is not performed on one or two non-ribbed sections.
The non-ribbed sections are easy to detect visually and should be cut off.
Butt welding of horizontal rods :
– Chamfer the two ends in opposition, at 60° (see sketch) using a portable bar-cutter. Use
of flame cutting, which requires very specialised skills, is in general prohibited.
– Frequently, one of the two rods is already set in the concrete. The edge of the bevel
must then be established vertically in order to avoid overhead welding.
– Lightly grind the periphery in order to remove any sharp edges which could result in
local overheating.
– Clean up the entire surface involved in the weld, by polishing with a wire brush. This
precaution is all the more necessary if the rods are oxidised or have been splashed with
various contaminants (mud, cement...).
– Carefully arrange the rods in-line with one another, leaving a gap of 2.5 to 3 mm
between the two peaks. It is a good idea to cut the bevel in-line with the helical ribbing
and to butt-join ensuring continuity of the helix.
– Perform the root pass with a suitable-diameter electrode and an appropriate current.
– The passes should be made alternatively on either side of the bevel to balance the
cooling stresses.
– Carefully remove the slag between passes.

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Butt welding of vertical rods :
– Make a straight cut on the lower rod using a rod-cutter and lightly grind the periphery in
order to remove any sharp edges.
– Make two cuts in the upper rod at about 45° as shown in the sketches, and grind off the
sharp edge from the ridges.
– Then proceed as for the horizontal rods.
– The terminal olive may be difficult to achieve with longitudinal runs, as the guttering
effect must be avoided on the top of the weld beads. The olive may therefore be formed
by depositing semi-circular beads to build-up an overlay of about 0.2 d with respect to
the solid section of the rod.
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10.2.2. – Lap welds
The metal is deposited in at least two passes:
– one pass is « drawn », with the electrode moved in a straight line, generating a narrow
bead,
– one or several (depending on the ∅) « waved » passes, generating a wide bead.
In accordance with the applicable regulations, the objective is to join two rods of diameter
d with a weld of length 10 d.
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Preparation of the rods:
Cutting to length of the rods does not demand any special precautions. The ends of the
rods must simply be straight.
The ribbing on the rods simply provides suitable spacing between the rods, and should not
be removed.
The surfaces to be welded must be dry, free from any work-site contamination, and should
be thoroughly brushed if there is significant oxidation.
Geometry of the beads :
The weld bead is to be laid one side only of the rods, as shown below:
One continuous bead, of length l = 10 d for rods of diameter d ≤ 20 mm.
A discontinuous bead, consisting of two sections of length l’ = 5 d, separated by a 20 mm

gap, to avoid overheating, for rods of diameter d > 20 mm.
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It is also possible to arrange the rods to be butt-welded end-to-end and to connect them
via a welded joint cover.
10.2.3. – Cross-welds
Types of assembly:
This type of assembly is used essentially for armature rods of diameter equal to at least
12 mm, resistance welding being better suited to smaller diameters.
The following assemblies can be achieved without any particular difficulty :
∅ mm 12 14 16 20 25 32 40
12 • • • • • •
14 • • • • • • •
16 • • • • • • •
20 • • • • • • •
25 • • • • • • •
32 • • • • • • •
40 • • • • • •
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In the event of assembling 2 different diameters on the construction-site, the large

diameter rod may be laid above or below the small diameter rod.
In all cases, the length of the bead laid must be approximately equal to one quarter of the
perimeter of the bottom rod.
∅ of the rod 12 14 16 20 25 32 40
Length of bead in mm 10 10 15 15 20 25 30
The assembly may be made by 1 or 2 weld beads.
Laying of the beads :
– The arc must always be struck on the smaller diameter rod.
– The weld should be made in two passes, the second pass being intended not only to
reinforce the bond, but also to homogenise the structure of the metal already welded.
d
L≥ π
4
L
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Result of a bend test :
10.3. – Type of tests to be performed
The table below shows the types of tests to be performed for each type of assembly.
Test
Assembly Tensile Bending Shear
Butt-weld of rods with d ≥ 20 mm • •
Lap welds • •
Cross-welds • • •
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Shear test apparatus :

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.1 : INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR

WELDED STRUCTURES
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QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR WELDED
FORMATION STRUCTURES
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INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR WELDED

STRUCTURES
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 2
2. WHAT IS QUALITY? ............................................................................................................ 3
3. BASIC RULES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A QUALITY SYSTEM.............................. 5
4. HISTORY .............................................................................................................................. 6
5. BENEFITS OF REGISTRATION FOR A COMPANY .......................................................... 7
6. CONSTRAINTS OF REGISTRATION FOR A COMPANY.................................................. 7
7. CERTIFYING BODIES ......................................................................................................... 8
8. QUALITY IN WELDING........................................................................................................ 9
8.1. The process .................................................................................................................. 9
8.2. The welder .................................................................................................................... 9
8.3. The welding coordinator ............................................................................................. 10
9. AMERICAN CODES ........................................................................................................... 10
9.1. ASME.......................................................................................................................... 10
9.2. AWS............................................................................................................................ 12
9.3. ASTM.......................................................................................................................... 12
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1. INTRODUCTION
By definition, a weld is a lasting joining means. This implies that Manufacturers must be able to make a
commitment on the lifetime of their structures. This commitment may be statutory (in the case of aircraft,
pressure vessels or handling equipment, for example) or quite simply form part of a contractual
agreement between Customer and Supplier.
The quality of manufactured products depends on the nature of those products and the degree of stress
to which they are subjected.
To assure the quality of a structure, the manufacturer must define:
ª how he expects to go about producing the structure and fulfilling customer requirements;
ª the scope of the tests and inspections implemented to ensure the reliability of the structure;
ª how he can prove to the customer that the service provided fulfils the customer’s requirements.
It is therefore important, within the company, to manage quality - i.e. to be able to:
• define a target in terms of the level of production quality;

• prove that this level has been achieved.
It is therefore important to define a quality policy and ensure that all staff subscribe to it because:
QUALITY is the concern of one and all.

It is the concern of ALL, because everyone must subscribe to the system. Everyone must act in the
same spirit of trust and work in a transparent manner.
But it is also the concern of each and every INDIVIDUAL, because every employee must feel involved.
Everyone must take care to do the right thing. Everyone must comply with the rules laid down within the
company. Everyone is responsible for the traceability of his or her work.
QUALITY IS LEARNED,
QUALITY IS CULTIVATED…
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2. WHAT IS QUALITY?
The quality of a product is defined in paragraph 3.1.1 of standard NF EN ISO 9000 of December 2000:
“Degree to which a set of intrinsic characteristics fulfils requirements”.
Within the meaning of ISO 9000, the following definitions apply:
ª Characteristic: This is a distinguishing feature of an action. For a welder, distinguishing features

should be taken as all actions involved in the successful completion of a welding operation.
ª Requirement: This is the expression of expectations and/or needs. These requirements may be
either stated, implied or obligatory.
The term “quality” can be used with adjectives such as poor, good or excellent.
To sum up,
QUALITY IS
THE PRODUCT’S CAPACITY TO FULFIL CUSTOMER

REQUIREMENTS
Requirements focus generally on the following three areas:
DEADLINES
QUALITY
PRICE
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The Company must therefore:
) Have a quality policy,
) Control its quality,
) Manage its quality.
QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
QM
OPERATING
PROCEDURES
QUALITY
CONTROL
WORKING
INSTRUCTIONS
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3. BASIC RULES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A QUALITY SYSTEM
PLAN WHAT YOU ARE GOING TO DO

AND WRITE IT DOWN
DO WHAT
WAS CHECK WHAT
PLANNED HAS BEEN
AND KEEP DONE
A TRACE
ASSURE QUALITY BY OBJECTIVELY

GUARANTEEING COMPLIANCE WITH
OTHER POINTS
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4. HISTORY
The beginnings of Quality Assurance date back to the early twentieth century. At the time, major
developments in industrialisation urged companies to rationalise production methods. The outcome of
this rationalisation was that jobs were broken down into tasks of varying complexity, performed by a
specialist team. Inputs and the work to be done therefore had to be defined for each team. Once this
work had been completed, the level of quality to be attained in order to be able to track the state of
progress had to be specified and inputs for the following team had to be defined.
Around 1940, major contractors began to lay down instructions. For instance, in 1965, the French
General Delegation for Armaments (DGA) defined its requirements with regard to the use of welding and
allied techniques (standard AIR 0191).
Between 1970 and 1988, the execution of major projects calling for the implementation of precise
regulations (pressure vessels, nuclear, aviation, military equipment, etc.) led contractors to refine their
instructions and detail QA requirements. Codes of practice had to be written into technical specifications.
This was the time when the decree of 24 March 1978 regulating welding for the production and repair of
pressure vessels appeared. In the late 1970s, the DGA set up a “Service for the Industrial Surveillance
of Armaments“ (SIAR) to monitor subcontracted production. This service introduced its own Quality
Assurance Regulations (RAQ 1, RAQ 2, RAQ 3).
In 1987, in view of the progress of globalisation and the economic development of the European
Community, the ISO 9000 series of standards appeared:
ª ISO 9001 defining a model for quality assurance in design/development, production, installation
and servicing,
ª ISO 9002 defining a model for quality assurance in production, installation and servicing,
ª ISO 9003 defining a model for quality assurance in final inspection and test.
These ISO 9000 standards were picked up by the European Community and resulted in the European
standards EN 29001, EN 29002 and EN 29003. They were supplemented by ISO 9004: “Quality
Management”.
It was at this time that the first companies were certified ISO 9000 by an approved body.
In 1994, the EN 29000 series of standards were replaced by the EN ISO 9000 series.
Since that time, the system has evolved and many companies have achieved ISO 9000 registration. In
2000, the standards were revised. We no longer refer to quality assurance but quality management. ISO
9001, 9002, 9003 and 9004 have been replaced by:
ª ISO 9000:2000 - Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary.

ª ISO 9001:2000 - Quality management systems. Requirements.
ª ISO 9004:2000 - Quality management systems. Guidelines for performance improvements.
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5. BENEFITS OF REGISTRATION FOR A COMPANY

The benefits of registration for a company are clear as it provides a means of improving customer
satisfaction. Moreover, registration is an excellent “shop window” because it means that an outside body
has validated the existence of an organisation and working methods that comply with an internationally-
recognised, standardised process.
As a result, when the quality system is set up, the company actually acquires better knowledge of its
organisation and working methods. It generally takes this opportunity to improve its structure, operation
and practice of transparency and traceability. It is capable of showing its customers
• the rigour of its organisation,

• the consistency of its production,
• its capacity to comply with contractual and statutory requirements,
• its capacity to implement an international baseline recognised in every country.
It improves its profitability and the trust placed in the company by its
customers.
6. CONSTRAINTS OF REGISTRATION FOR A COMPANY

Especially when a quality system is first set up, the company has to make a tremendous effort in terms
of investment and staff mobilisation and training. Investments focus mainly on:
ª Preparation
• knowledge and analysis of requirements,
• taking stock in terms of organisation,
• formalisation of industrial processes,
• upgrading,
• writing of a Quality Manual and operating specifications.
ª Implementation
• internal costs
- writing and verifying documents,
- internal audits and expert opinions,
- staff training and awareness;
• external costs
- application and registration,
- official audits,
- renewal of registration.
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7. CERTIFYING BODIES
The certifying body is a third party accredited under standard NF EN 45012 to certify that a company
carries out a certain amount of work according to the rules laid down by the ISO 9000 set of standards.
In France, the best-known organisation is the Association Française pour l’Assurance Qualité (AFAQ). It
does not have a monopoly, however, as it is possible to call on organisations from other countries.
The AFAQ is composed of:
• 29 members from suppliers or trade associations in the following fields:

- mechanical engineering,
- casting,
- chemicals,
- plastics,
- electricity,
- food processing,
- building;
• 31 members from customers or contractors
- EDF
- SNCF
- CEA
- GENERAL DES EAUX
- etc.
• Technical inspection bodies
- IS
- APAVE
- BV
- etc.
The best-known organisations in other countries are:
ª Germany DQS
ª UK BSI
BVQI
LLOYD’S
ª Spain AENOR
ª Denmark DS
ª Switzerland SQS
ª Canada QMI
ª USA AGA
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8. QUALITY IN WELDING
In welding, three components need to be controlled
in order to assure the quality of the work produced:
Process
ª The process: This covers everything that
needs to be implemented in the welding
process with regard to the welding products
and the operation and setting of the welding
equipment.
ª The welder: The welder must be qualified.
This means that it has been verified that he QUALITY
or she is capable of welding correctly. IN
WELDING
Increasingly, a check is also made to ensure
that he or she has the technological skill to Qualified
Welding coordinator
understand what he or she is doing. welders
ª The welding coordinator: This is a person

whose job it is to verify and coordinate the
work of all persons involved in the area of
welding. He or she acts from design through
to completion of the inspections and tests
carried out to prove that the service does in fact comply with customer requirements.
8.1. THE PROCESS

In terms of quality, welding falls within the scope of special processes (as opposed to standardised
methods). Each case corresponds to a specific application that must be described as accurately as
possible. This is the role of the descriptive welding operating procedure (“Descriptif de Mode Opératoire
de Soudage” - DMOS). The content of a DMOS and the way in which it is written are described in
standard NF EN 288–2.
Furthermore, in order to prove that the weld will be produced correctly, the welding operating procedure
generally needs to be qualified (QMOS). This involves a series of inspections and tests designed to
prove that verifications have been carried out to ensure that the joint will indeed have the expected
performance. These tests form the subject of standards NF EN 288 and ISO 15600.
8.2. THE WELDER

Quality demands that every action be accomplished by a person competent to do so. The competence of
a manual welder is verified by the acquisition of a qualification certificate.
Standards NF EN 287-1 for steel and NF EN 287–2 for light alloys describe the tests to be completed by
manual welders. These standards are largely based on the verification of the welder’s skill. By achieving
the most difficult joints, the welder is qualified to tackle the simplest joints.
Operators-setters working on automatic arc or resistance welding machines are qualified in accordance
with standard NF EN 1418.
Increasingly, proof of the workers’ technological competence is requested. Customers are asking more
and more for copies of the welders’ CVs.
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8.3. THE WELDING COORDINATOR

This is a function defined in standard NF EN 719. The welding coordinator is a person whose skill has
been demonstrated and who is responsible for welding activities especially in the following areas:
• specification and preparation of welding operations,

• job coordination (design office, manufacturing, inspection, quality, etc.),
• management particularly in the area of welder qualifications and welding operating
procedures,
• inspection, verification and supervision,
• the drafting of statutory documents and particularly the writing of welding manuals.
Standard NF EN 719 recommends that these functions be entrusted to employees holding EWS (IWS),
EWT (IWT) or EWE (IWE) certificates.
9. AMERICAN CODES
9.1. ASME
The ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) is an association that publishes a Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code. Appendices are written every year if necessary.
Contrary to the situation in Europe where regulated work is monitored by outside bodies (in France,
DRIRE for pressure vessels and vehicles and DQA for military equipment), the Americans trust ASME-
member companies. Moreover, the ASME is legally responsible for equipment built according to its code.
However, accreditation is prerequisite for joining the ASME. Only structures made following all of the
requirements of the code by an accredited company can use the ASME mark with all the consequences
that that implies, including legal protection.
Unaccredited companies working to ASME rules cannot use the ASME mark. Structures made by
accredited companies should therefore not be confused with structures built only according to certain
rules taken from the ASME code that cannot benefit from the ASME seal.
For welders, the most important section is section IX.
This is where the terms of qualification of operating procedures and welders are specified.
The principle is quite similar to ours. Main variables and optional variables are used to define
qualifications. A change in the main variables changes the qualification.
The provisional DMOS validated by the DMOS written during the qualification test forms the welding
procedure.
Welders and operating procedures are qualified under the responsibility of the firm’s manager if the
company is accredited.
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The code is split into eleven sections:
ª Section I: Power Boilers
ª Section II: Materials

• Part A: Ferrous Material Specifications
• Part B: Nonferrous Material Specifications
• Part C: Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes and Filler Metals
• Part D: Properties
ª Section III: Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components

• General Requirements for Divisions 1 & 2
• Division 1:
- Subsection NB: Class 1 Components
- Subsection NC: Class 2 Components
- Subsection ND: Class 3 Components
- Subsection NE: Class MC Components
- Subsection NF: Supports
- Subsection NG: Core Support Structures
- Subsection NH: Components in Elevated Temperature Service
• Division 2: Concrete Reactor Vessels & Containment
• Division 3: Nuclear Spent Fuel Containment System & Transport Packaging
ª Section IV: Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
ª Section V: Nondestructive Examination
ª Section VI: Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
ª Section VII: Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers
ª Section VIII: Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels

• Division 1
• Division 2: Alternative Rules
• Division 3: Alternative Rules for High Pressure Vessels
ª Section IX: Welding and Brazing Qualifications
ª Section X: Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
ª Section XI: Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
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9.2. AWS
The American Welding Society publishes a four-part structural welding code:
• ANSI / AWS D1.1: Steel

• ANSI / AWS D1.2: Aluminium and light alloys
• ANSI / AWS D1.3: Sheet steel
• ANSI / AWS D1.4: Reinforcing steel
The AWS is very often cited in many international codes, particularly ISO standards.
9.3. ASTM
The ASTM is the American Society for Testing and Materials. Each year, it publishes its Annual Book of
ASTM Standards which is roughly equivalent to the French standards published by AFNOR.
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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MODULE 4.2 : QUALITY CONTROL DURING MANUFACTURE

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FORMATION QUALITY CONTROL DURING MANUFACTURE

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QUALITY CONTROL DURING MANUFACTURE
CONTENTS
1. WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION ........................................................................ 3
2. APROUVAL OF WELDING PROCEDURE TESTS ACCORDING TO EN 288 .................. 4

2.1. Normatives references ................................................................................................. 4
2.2. Welding procedure approval record (WPAR)............................................................... 4
2.2.1. Shape and dimensions of test pieces ...........................................................................4
2.2.2. Welding of test pieces...................................................................................................4
2.2.3. Range of approval ........................................................................................................4
2.2.4. Welding process ...........................................................................................................7
2.2.5. Type of current..............................................................................................................7
2.2.6. Heat imput ....................................................................................................................7
2.2.7. Welding position ...........................................................................................................7
2.2.8. Type of joint ..................................................................................................................8
2.2.9. Filler metal and shield gas ............................................................................................8
2.2.10. Welding of test pieces...................................................................................................9
2.2.11. Preheat temperature.....................................................................................................9
2.2.12. Interpass temperature...................................................................................................9
2.2.13. Post weld heat-treatment..............................................................................................9
2.2.14. Examination and testing ...............................................................................................9
2.2.15. Re testing....................................................................................................................11
2.2.16. Specific processes......................................................................................................11
2.3. Range of aprouval ...................................................................................................... 11
2.4. Other Specification and approval welding procedures............................................... 11
3. SENSE OF APPROVAL TESTING OF WELDERS........................................................... 12
3.1. Normative references ................................................................................................. 12
3.2. Principle of the European and ISO norms.................................................................. 12
3.2.1. First Field ....................................................................................................................12
3.2.2. 2sd field........................................................................................................................13
3.2.3. 3rd field .......................................................................................................................13
3.2.4. 4th field ........................................................................................................................13
3.2.5. 5th field ........................................................................................................................13
3.2.6. 6th field ........................................................................................................................14
3.2.7. 7th field and 8th field.....................................................................................................14
3.2.8. 9th field ........................................................................................................................15
3.2.9. 10th field ......................................................................................................................16
3.2.10. 11th field ......................................................................................................................16
3.3. Examination and testing ............................................................................................. 16
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3.3.1. Examiner or examining body ......................................................................................16

3.3.2. Shapes and sizes of tests piece. ................................................................................16
3.3.3. Welding parameters....................................................................................................16
3.3.4. Test methods ..............................................................................................................16
3.3.5. Acceptance requirements for test piece .....................................................................17
3.3.6. Re-test ........................................................................................................................17
3.3.7. Job knowledge............................................................................................................18
3.4. Period of validity ......................................................................................................... 18
3.5. Prolongation ............................................................................................................... 18
4. IDENTIFICATION AND TRACEABILITY........................................................................... 19
5. QUALITY RECORDS ......................................................................................................... 19
6. CALIBRATION ................................................................................................................... 19
7. APENDIX ............................................................................................................................ 20
7.1. Apendix I : WPS format .............................................................................................. 20
7.2. Annexe II : Location of test specimens for butt weld in plate..................................... 21
7.3. Annexe III : Location of test specimens for a butt weld in pipe.................................. 22
7.4. Annexe IV : Welding position for plate ....................................................................... 23
7.5. Annexe V : Welding position for pipes ....................................................................... 24
7.6. Appendix VI : Shape and Dimensions of test pieces ................................................. 25
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1. WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION

Welding procedure specifications are used only for special applications e.g. for nuclear plants or aero-
nautic applications. According to the new European standards, the manufacturer has to prepare a weld-
ing procedure specification (WPS) for all of the five methods before starting a production:
ª Preparation of the components to be welded;

ª Assembling of components for welding,
ª Welding process ;
ª Post work of the welded connections
ª Heat treatments
The technical contents of welding procedure specification is:
ª Related to the manufacturer :

• Identification of the manufacturer,
• Identification of the WPS,
• Reference to the Welding Procedure Approval Record or other document as required,
ª Related to the parent metal
• Parent metal type,
• Material dimensions.
ª Welding procedure
• Welding process number (cf. ISO 4063)
• Type of joint,
• Welding design
• Welding position,
• Groove and edge preparation,
• Welding technique,
• Back gouging,
• Backing,
• Filler metal (designation and dimensions),
• Shield gas
• Electrical parameters,
• Preheat temperature
• Interpass temperature
• Post weld heat-treatment
An example of the WPS format is shown in appendix I.
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2. APROUVAL OF WELDING PROCEDURE TESTS ACCORDING TO EN 288
2.1. NORMATIVES REFERENCES

The most important norms about the approval of welding procedures for metallic materials are:
ª EN 288-1: Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials Part 1: Gen-
eral rules for fusion welding
ª EN 288-2: Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials Part 2: Weld-
ing procedure specification for arc welding.
ing procedure tests for the arc welding steels
ing procedure tests for aluminium and its alloys
2.2. WELDING PROCEDURE APPROVAL RECORD (WPAR)

Although other welding procedures are existing (see paragraph 2.3), most record are established by a
test define in the norm EN 288-3 for the steel and EN 288 –4 for the Aluminium and aluminium alloys
2.2.1. Shape and dimensions of test pieces

The test pieces shall be of a sufficient size to ensure
ª To carry out the destructive tests,

ª To ensure a reasonable heat distribution.
The welded assembly to which the welding procedure will relate in production shall be represented by
making a standardised test piece as follow:
ª Butt weld in plate,

ª Butt weld in pipe,
ª T-butt joint,
ª Branch connection.
ª Fillet weld.
2.2.2. Welding of test pieces

Preparation and welding of test pieces shall be carried out in accordance with pWPS and under the gen-
eral conditions of production welding, which they shall represent. Welding positions and limitations for
angle of slope and rotation of the test piece shall be in accordance with ISO 6947.
If tack welds are to be fused into final joint, they shall be included in the test piece.
Welding and testing of the test pieces shall be witnessed by an examiner or test body.
2.2.3. Range of approval

All the conditions of validity stated below shall be met independently of each other. Changes outside of
the ranges specified shall require a new welding procedure test
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a) Related to the manufacturer

An approval of a WPS obtained by a manufacturer is valid for welding in workshop or sites under the
same technical and quality control of that manufacturer.
b ) Related to the material

In order to minimise the unnecessary multiplication of welding procedure tests, sheets shall be grouped
as shown in the following table:
Group Type of steel (1)

1 Steels with a minimum yield strength ReH ≤ 360 N / mm2 and with analysis not
exceeding in %:
C 0.24 (0.25 for casting)
Si 0.60
Mn 1.70
Mo 0.70
S 0.045
P 0.045
Any other single element 0.3 (0.4 for casting)
All other element total 0.8 (1.0 for casting)
2 Normalized or thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steels with
a specified minimum yield strength ReH ≤ 360 N / mm2
3 Quenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels except stain-
less steels
4 Steels with Cr max 0.75 %, Mo max 0.5 %,V max 0.5 %
5 Steels with Cr max 10 %, Mo max 1.2 %
6 Cr Mo V steels with Cr max 12.2 % Mo max 1.2 % V max 0.5 %
7 Nickel alloyed steels with Ni max 10 %
8 Ferritic or martensitic stainless steels with 10.5 % ≤ Cr ≤ 30 ù
9 Austenitic steels
10 Austenitic ferritic steels stainless steel (duplex)
11 Steels not covered by group 1 to 10 with 0.25 % < C ≤ 0.5%
In accordance with the definition in the material standard. ReH can be replaced by Rp0.2
A procedure test carried out with one of the steels of a group covers the lower alloyed steels of the same
group for the intentional added elements, but not for fortuitous impurities or steels with lower specified
yield stress of this group, as long as the welding consumables used for the test can also be used for the
other steels of this group. Permanent backing material shall be considered as a parent metal.
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For dissimilar metal joints the range of approval is given in the following table:
Existing approved welding proce-

dure test for group of steel or dis- Range of approval
similar metal joints
2 2 welded to 1
3 3 welded to 1
3 welded to 2
8 welded to 2 8 welded to 1
8 welded to 2
8 welded to 2
8 welded to 3
or 9 welded to 2
c) Range of approval for butt welds

The approval of a welding procedure test on thickness t shall include approval for thicknesses in the fol-
lowing range given in the next table:
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d ) Range of approval for the diameter of pipes and branch connections

The approval of a welding procedure test on diameter D shall include approval for diameters in the fol-
lowing range given in the next table:
Diameter of the test piece Range of approval

D (1) (2) in mm
D ≤ 168.3 0.5 D to 2D
D > 168.3 ≥ 0.5 D
(1) D is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside diameter of the branch pipe
(2) Approval given for plates also covers pipes when the outside diameter is
> 500 mm
2.2.4. Welding process

The approval is valid only for the used in the welding procedure test. For the metal arc welding, it is very
important to identify if the gas is inert or active in accordance with EN 439 the because the process did
not have the same normalised designation.
In a multi-process procedure test, the approval is only valid for the order used during the approval test.
2.2.5. Type of current

The approval given is the type of current (DC, AC, pulsed current) and polarity used in the welding pro-
cedure test. With pulsed current, all the current parameters must always be define.
2.2.6. Heat imput

The requirements of this clause only apply when the control of heat input is specified. When the impact
requirements apply, the upper limit of heat input approved is 15% greater that used in welding the test
piece.
2.2.7. Welding position

When neither impact nor hardiness requirements are specified, welding in any one position (pipe or
plate) approves for welding in all positions (pipe or plate).
When ether impact and / or hardness requirements are specified, impact test shall be taken from the
highest heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the lowest heat input position in order
to approve for all positions.
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2.2.8. Type of joint

The range of approval for the type of welded joints used in the procedure test is given in the following
table. The range of approval is indicated in the sae horizontal line.
2.2.9. Filler metal and shield gas

The approval range of filler metals covers other filler metals as long as they are:
ª Either in the same group of tensile proprieties unless impact testing is required.
ª Or within the same nominal chemical composition
The approval given to the face and / or back shielding gas is restricted to the type of gas (nominal com-
position) used in the welding procedure test.
In accordance of the EN 439, all gas of the same group of the nominal composition can be used.
The approval given is restricted to the wire system used in the welding procedure test (e.g. single wire or
multiple wire system).
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2.2.10. Welding of test pieces

The preliminary welding procedure specification (pWPS) shall be prepared in accordance with part 2 of
this standard. It shall specify the range for all the relevant parameters
Preparation and welding of test pieces shall be carried out in accordance with the pWPS, and under the
general conditions of production welding witch they shall represent. Welding positions and limitations for
angle of slope and rotation of the test piece shall be in accordance with ISO 6947.
Welding and testing of the test pieces shall be witnessed by and examiner or test body
2.2.11. Preheat temperature

The lower limit of approval is the nominal preheat temperature applied at the start of the welding proce-
dure test.
2.2.12. Interpass temperature

The upper limit of approval is the nominal preheat temperature applied at the start of the welding proce-
dure test.
2.2.13. Post weld heat-treatment

Addition or deletion of post weld heat-treatment is not permitted.
The temperature range used for the welding procedure test is the range approved. Where require, heat-
ing rates, cooling rates and holding time shall be related to the production component.
2.2.14. Examination and testing

The testing includes both non-destructive examination (NDE) and destructive testing
After any required post weld heat treatments and prior to the cutting of test specimens, all pieces shall
be examined visually and non destructively in accordance with the following table:
Test piece Type of test Extent of testing Footnote

Butt weld Visual 100 %
Radiographic or ultrasonic 100 % 4
Surface crack detection 100 % 1
Transverse tensile test 2 specimens
Transverse bend test 2 root and
2 face specimens 2
Impact test 2 sets 6
Hardness test required 3
Macro-examination 2 specimens
T-butt joint (5) Visual 100 %
Branch connection Ultrasonic or radiographic 100 % 4 and 7
Macro-examination 2 specimens
Fillet weld on plate Visual 100 %
Fillet weld in pipe Macro-examination 2 specimen
.
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NOTE 1: Penetrant testing or magnetic particle testing.

For non-magnetic materials, penetrant testing.
NOTE 2: 2 root and 2 face bend test specimens may be preferably substituted by 4 side bend test
specimen for t ≥ 12 mm.
NOTE 3: Not required for parent metals
ª ferritic steels with Rm ≤ 430 N / mm2 Re ≤ 275 N / mm2,

ª Group 9 steels.
Re is defined in the relevant product standard
NOTE 4: Ultrasonic testing is only applicable for ferritic steels and for t > 8 mm.
NOTE 5: Testing as detailed does provide information on the mechanical properties of the joint. Where
these properties are relevant to the application an additional approval shall also be held e.g. a butt weld
approval
NOTE 6: 1 set in the weld metal and 1 set in the HAZ. Required only for t ≥ 12 mm and only for parent
metals having specified impact properties or when required by the application standard. If a testing tem-
perature has not specified, testing shall be performed at room temperature.
NOTE 7: For outside diameter ≤ 50 mm and where it is not technically possible to carry out ultrasonic
examination, a radiographic examination shall be carried out provided that the joint configuration will
allow meaning results
For non post-weld heat treated test piece, account should be taken of the materials that are susceptible
to hydrogen induced cracking and consequently the Non Destructive Examinations should be delayed.
A welding procedure is approved if the imperfections in the test piece are within the specified limit of the
level B in ISO 5847 except for the imperfection types as follows: excess weld metal, excess convexity
excess throat thickness and excessive penetration, for which level C is apply.
The location of test specimens shall be in accordance with the appendix II and III.
Test specimens shall be taken after NDE has shown satisfactory result. It is permitted to take the test
specimens from locations avoiding areas showing acceptable imperfections.
The destructive tests are carried out in accordance with the following norms.
ª NF EN 875 : Impact tests,

ª NF EN 895 : Transverse tensile test,
ª NF EN 910 : Bend test,
ª NF EN 1043-1: Hardness test on welded joints
ª NF EN 1321 : Macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds
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2.2.15. Re testing
If the test piece fails to comply with any of the requirement for visual examination or NDE specified, on
further .test piece shall be welded and subjected to the same examination. If this additional test piece
does not comply with the relevant requirements, the pWPS shall be regarded as not capable of comply-
ing with the requirements of this standard without specification
If either of these additional test specimen does not comply with the relevant requirements, the pWPS
shall be regarded as not capable of complying with the requirements of this standard without modifica-
tion.
2.2.16. Specific processes

ª Processes 111 and 114,: The approval given is for the diameter of the electrode used in the
welding procedure test plus or minus one electrode diameter size for each run, with the exception
of the root run on single sided butt welds without backing for which no size change is permissi-
ble.
ª Processes 131,135 and 136: The approval given is restricted to the wire system used in the
welding procedure test (e.g. single wire or multiple wire system).
ª Process 121 and 122: The approval given is restricted to the wire system used in the welding
procedure test. The approval given for the flux is restricted to the make and classification used in
the procedure-welding test.
2.3. RANGE OF APROUVAL

IF no rejectable features or unacceptable test results are found, a Welding Procedure Approval Record
detailing the welding procedure test piece results is approved and shall be signed and dated by the ex-
aminer or test body.
All the conditions of validity started bellow shall be met independently of each other.
Changes outside of the ranges specified shall require a new procedure test
An removal of WPS obtained by a manufacturer is valid for welding in workshops or sites under the
same technical and quality control of that manufacturer.
The welder who undertakes the welding procedure test satisfactorily in accordance with part 2 of this
standard. It shall specify the range for all the relevant parameters.
2.4. OTHER SPECIFICATION AND APPROVAL WELDING PROCEDURES

The EN 288 standards define other types that there describe in the 288 part 2 and 3. It is:
ª EN 288-5 : Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic materials

Part 5: Approval by using approved welding consumables for arc welding
Part 6: Approval related to previous experience
Part 7: Approved by a standard welding procedure for arc welding
Part 8: Approval by a pre – production welding test
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3. SENSE OF APPROVAL TESTING OF WELDERS
3.1. NORMATIVE REFERENCES

The most important norms about the approval testing of welders are::
ª NF EN 287-1: Approval testing of welders –Fusion welding - Part 1 : steels

ª NF EN 287-2: Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding – Part 2 : Aluminium and his alloys
ª NF EN ISO 9606 -3: Approval testing of welders – Fusion welding - Part 3 : Copper and his al-
loys.
ª NF EN ISO 9606 -4: Approval testing of welders – Fusion welding - Part 4 ::Nickel and his alloys,
ª NF EN ISO 9606 -5: Approval testing of welders – Fusion welding - Part 5 : Titanium, zirconium,
and his alloys.
3.2. PRINCIPLE OF THE EUROPEAN AND ISO NORMS

This standard covers the principles to be observed in the approval testing of welder performance for the
fusion welding of steel.
The quality of work involved in welding depends on the skill of the welder to a high degree. The ability of
the welder to follow verbal or written instructions and testing of his skill are therefore important factors in
ensuring the quality of the welded product.
This standard is intended to provide the basis for the mutual incognition by examining bodies for ap-
proval relating to welders’ competence in the various fields of application. Test shall be carried out in
accordance with this standard unless more severe tests are specified by the relevant application stan-
dard when these shall be applied.
These norms are used for:
ª Manual Welder : A person who holds and manipulates the welding gun and torch with hand
ª Welding Operator: A person who performs fully mechanised or automatic welding
When a operator can not modify the weld parameter of an automatic weld machine during the weld pro-
cess, he shall be approve in accordance with the EN 1418 norm. The operators witch can modify the
setting parameters during the weld process, do not need a typical approval.
The criteria specified in this clause shall be examined in order to identify the ability of the welder in these
areas. Each of the 11 criterions is considered to be a significant factor in the approval testing.
The normalised designation is made of eleven item as follow:
Aa aaaaa, bbb, c, dd, eee, ff, ggg, hhhh, iiiiii, jj, kk
3.2.1. First Field

This field describe the number of the standard. His value is:
• EN 287-1 for the steel welding

• EN 287-2 for the weld of aluminium and his alloys.
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3.2.2. 2sd field

This field has three characters. It describes the reference of the welding processes. They are in accor-
dance with EN ISO 4063. EN 287-1 covers the following welding processes:
ª 111 : Metal arc welding with covered electrode,

ª 114 : Flux cored wire metal arc welding without gas shield,
ª 121 : Submerged arc welding with wire electrode,
ª 122 : Submerges arc welding with strip electrode,
ª 131 : Metal Inert gas welding,
ª 135 : Metal active gas welding,
ª 136 : Flux cored wire metal arc with active gas shield,
ª 137 : Flux cored wire metal arc welding with inert gas shield,
ª 141 : Tungsten inert gas arc welding,
ª 15 : Plasma arc welding

ª 311 : Oxy acetylene welding.
3.2.3. 3rd field

This field of one character has the follow value:
ª P for the plate

ª T for the tube
3.2.4. 4th field

This field of two characters has the follow value:
ª BW : for butt weld
ª FW : for Filled weld
3.2.5. 5th field

This field of three characters has the follow value:
ª W01: Low carbon unalloyed (carbon-manganese) steels and or low alloyed steels This group
also includes fine grained structural steel with a yield strength, ReH ≤ 360 N / mm2.
ª W02: Chromium – molybdenum and / or chromium – molybdenum – vanadium creep resisting
steels.
ª W03: Normalised quenched and tempered, thermomechanically treated fine-grained structural
steels with a yield strength ReH > 360 N / mm2 as well as similarly welded nickel steels, with a
nickel content of 2% to 5%.
ª W04: Ferritic or martensitic stainless steels, with a chromium content of 12% to 20%.
ª W11: Stainless ferritic –austenitic stainless chromium nickel steels.
These groups are not similar than them, which are used in EN 288-3.
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3.2.6. 6th field

These field of two characters describe the type of consumables. It has the follow value:
ª nm: no filler metal
ª wm for with metal.
For the metal arc welding with covered electrode, the type of covered electrodes replaces the designa-
tion wm:
• A : acid covering,
• B : basic covering or core,
• C : cellulosic covering,
• R : rutile covering or core,
• RA : rutile – acid covering,
• RB : rutile – basic covering,
• RC : rutile – cellulosic covering,
• RR : rutile – thick covering,
• S : Electrode core – other type
3.2.7. 7th field and 8th field

The welder approval test should be based on the thickness of the material and pipe diameters which the
welder will used in production. As test is listed for each of the two range of the plate thickness and pipe
wall thickness or pipe diameter as specified in the following table:
Test piece thickness t in mm Range of approval
t≤3 t to 2 t ( 1,5 t with 311 process)
3 < t ≤ 12 3 mm to 2 t ( 1,5 t with 311 process)
t > 12 ≥ 5 mm
Test piece and range of approval
Test piece diameter D(1) in mm Range of approval
D ≤ 25 Dà2D
25 < D ≤ 150 0,5 D to 2D (mini 25 mm)
D > 150 ≥ 0,5 D
(1) for structural hollow section “D” is the dimension of the smallest side
Test piece diameter and range of approval
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3.2.8. 9th field

This field is used for the welding positions. They are in accordance with the ISO standard ISO 6947.
These designations are given in appendix IV for the plates and in appendix, V for the tubes.
Approval on test butt joints in plates welded in the flat (PA) or horizontal vertical (PC) position shall in-
clude approval for butt joints in pipes of outside diameter ≥ 150 mm welded in similar position according
to the following table:
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Welding from one side without backing approves welds from one side with backing and welds from both
sides with and without gouging.
Welding in plates or pipes with backing approves welds made from both sides, but not for welds without
backing.
3.2.9. 10th field

ª ss: for single side welding,
ª bs: for both side welding
3.2.10. 11th field

ª mb: with material backing;
ª nb: no backing;
ª ng; no back gouging or back grinding;
ª gg: back gouging or back grinding support
3.3. EXAMINATION AND TESTING

3.3.1. Examiner or examining body
A person or organisation who verifies compliance with the applicable standard. The examiner or the ex-
amining body shall be acceptable to any contracting party.
A national foreword can list those persons or institutions that are allowed to perform the examinations
and write up the welder approval test certificate
3.3.2. Shapes and sizes of tests piece.

The sizes of the test piece are described in the appendix VI.
3.3.3. Welding parameters

The approval test for the welder shall correspond to the conditions used in production and follow a WPS
prepared in accordance with EN 288-2.
The welding equipment should be similar to that used in production. The welding time for the test piece
shall correspond to the working time under usual production conditions.
Any pre-heat and controlled heat input required in the WPS is mandatory for the welder’s test piece.
3.3.4. Test methods

Each completed weld shall be examined visually in the as welded condition. When required (see the
following table), visual examination can be supplemented by dye penetrant or other test method and
macro test on butt weld.
If accepted by visual inspection, additional radiographic, fracture test, and / or macro tests are required.
The backing shall be remove for the machining of the mechanical test specimens.
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Test method Butt weld plate Butt weld pipe Fillet weld
Visual required required required
Radiography required(1,5) required(1,5) No required
(2)
Bend required
Fracture
Macro (without polishing)
Magnetic particle/ penetrant
Note 1: Radiography or fracture test shall be used, but not both

Note 2: When radiography is used, then bend tests are mandatory for processes 131, 135
and 311
Note 3: The fracture test should be supported by magnetic particle / penetrant testing when
required by the examiner or the examining body.
Note 4: The fracture test may be replaced by a macro examination of at least 4 section,
one of which will be taken from the stop / start location.
Note 5: The radiographic test may be replaced by a ultrasonic test for thickness ≥ 8 mm on
ferritic steel only
3.3.5. Acceptance requirements for test piece

Test pieces shall be evaluated according to the acceptance requirement specified for relevant types of
imperfections.
A welder is approved if the imperfections in the test piece are without the specified limit of level B of ISO
5817, except for the imperfection types as follows: excess of weld metal, excessive convexity, excess
throat thickness and excessive penetration for which the level C shall apply.
If the imperfections in the welder’s test piece exceed the permitted maximum specified, then the welder
shall not approved.
Reference should also be made to the corresponding acceptance criteria for non-destructive examina-
tion. Specified procedures shall be used for all destructive and non-destructive examinations.
3.3.6. Re-test
If it is established that failure is due to metallurgical or other extraneous causes and cannot be directly
attributed to the welder’s lack of skill, an additional test or additional specimens are required in order to
assess the quality and integrity of the new test conditions.
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3.3.7. Job knowledge

The test of job knowledge is recommended but not mandatory. If the job knowledge test is carried out, it
should be recorded on the welder’s certificate
The actual test of a welder’s job knowledge may be given by any of the following methods or combina-
tions of these methods:
ª Written objective tests (multiple choice),

ª Oral questioning following written tests,
ª Computer testing,
ª Demonstration and/or observation testing following a written set of criteria .
3.4. PERIOD OF VALIDITY

The validity of the welder’s approval begins from the date when all requirement tests are satisfactorily
completed. This date may be different to the date of issue marked on the certificate.
A welder’s approval shall remain valid for a period of two years providing that the relevant certificate is
signed at six month intervals by the employer co-ordinator and that all the following conditions are ful-
filled :
ª The welder shall be engaged with reasonable continuity on welding work within the current range
of approval. An interruption for a period no longer than six months is permitted.
ª The welder’s work shall be general accordance with the technical conditions under which the ap-
proval test is carried out.
ª There shall be not specific reason to question the welder’s skill and knowledge.
If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, the approval shall be cancelled.
3.5. PROLONGATION
The validity of the approval on the certificate may be prolonged for further periods of two years, within
the original range of approval, provided each of the following conditions according to 3.4 are fulfilled:
ª The production welds made by the welder are of the required quality;
ª Records of tests, e.g. documentation about X-ray or ultrasonic inspections or test report about
fracture test or comments of appointed co-ordinator, shall be maintained on file with the welder’s
approval certificate.
The examiner or test body shall verify compliance with the above conditions and sign the prolongation of
welder’s approval test certificate.
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4. IDENTIFICATION AND TRACEABILITY

Identification and traceability shall be maintained throughout the manufacturing process, where appro-
priate.
Documented systems to ensure identification and traceability of welding operation should include, when
necessary:
ª Production plans,
ª Routing cards,
ª Records of weld locations in construction ;
ª Weld marking, stamping, labels, etc…
5. QUALITY RECORDS
Quality records, according to the contract requirements, should include, when necessary:
ª Record of contract and design review,

ª Materials certificates,
ª Consumables certificats
ª Welding procedure specification,
ª Welding procedure approval test records,
ª Welder or welding operator approval certificates,
ª Non destructive testing personnel certificates,
ª Heat treatment and procedure specification record
ª Non destructive testing and destructive testing procedures and reports,
ª Dimensional reports,
ª Records of repairs and other non-conformity reports
Quality records shall be retained for a minimum period of five years in the absence of any other specified
requirement. Sometime, the quality records must be retained during the all live of the component.
6. CALIBRATION
In accordance to the norm EN 729-2, the manufacturer shall be responsible for the appropriate calibra-
tion of inspection, measuring and testing equipment. All equipment used to assess the quality of the
welded construction shall be suitably controlled and shall be calibrated at specified intervals.
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7. APENDIX
7.1. APENDIX I : WPS FORMAT

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7.2. ANNEXE II : LOCATION OF TEST SPECIMENS FOR BUTT WELD IN PLATE

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7.3. ANNEXE III : LOCATION OF TEST SPECIMENS FOR A BUTT WELD IN PIPE
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7.4. ANNEXE IV : WELDING POSITION FOR PLATE

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7.5. ANNEXE V : WELDING POSITION FOR PIPES

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7.6. APPENDIX VI : SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF TEST PIECES

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.3 : STRESS AND DEFORMATION IN WELDING

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STRESS AND DEFORMATION IN WELDING
FORMATION 1
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev 0 22
CONTENTS
1. REMINDERS......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Deformation of mechanical origin................................................................................. 2
1.2. Deformation of thermal origin ....................................................................................... 3
1.3. Case of a straight bar ................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Heating the edge of a bar............................................................................................. 6
2. APPLICATION TO WELDING.............................................................................................. 7
2.1. Longitudinal shrinkage ................................................................................................. 7
2.1.1. Clamping effect.............................................................................................................8
2.1.2. Buckling effect ..............................................................................................................9
2.2. Transverse shrinkage ................................................................................................. 11
2.2.1. Bending effect.............................................................................................................12
2.2.2. Transverse shrinkage .................................................................................................12
3. FORECASTING DEFORMATIONS ................................................................................... 13

3.1. Limits .......................................................................................................................... 13
3.2. Forecasting deformations generated by a weld located outside a neutral axis ......... 13
3.2.1. Qualitative forecast .....................................................................................................13
3.2.2. Quantitative forecast...................................................................................................14
3.2.3. Case of two independent beads .................................................................................15
3.2.4. Case of multipass welds .............................................................................................15
4. COMPENSATING DEFORMATIONS ................................................................................ 16

4.1. Deformations due to longitudinal shrinkage ............................................................... 16
4.1.1. Preventive measures ..................................................................................................16
4.1.2. Corrective measures...................................................................................................18
4.2. Deformations due to transverse shrinkage, bending and clamping........................... 18
4.2.1. Preventive measures ..................................................................................................18
4.2.2. Corrective measures...................................................................................................21
5. RELIEVING RESIDUAL STRESS...................................................................................... 22

5.1. Utility ........................................................................................................................... 22
5.2. Thermal stress relieving ............................................................................................. 22
5.3. Mechanical stress relieving ........................................................................................ 22
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1. REMINDERS
1.1. DEFORMATION OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN
The diagram opposite illustrates the

curve corresponding to a tensile test on A
a ductile steel bar. B
Actual curve
It is assumed that exceeding the limit of

elasticity of the material leads to
plasticising of the material with a A B
maximum stress level equal to the limit
of elasticity.
Theoretical curve
Of course, a tensile test curve is valid for the temperature at which the test was carried out.
E Re
A rise in the temperature of the material
causes a reduction in the following E
mechanical characteristics: Re (limit of Re
elasticity), Rm (maximum breaking load)
and E (modulus of elasticity).
The law of evolution relative to Re and 0

T
E is as follows:
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1.2. DEFORMATION OF THERMAL ORIGIN
initial free expansion

state
(20°C)
When expansion and (or) shrinkage are impeded, this produces stress of thermal origin that can result in
the plasticising of the material if its limit of elasticity is exceeded.
Example n° 1: Impeded expansion - Free shrinkage
A small workpiece B is fitted tightly into the gap in a solid U-shaped workpiece A.
The temperature of workpiece B is increased. The following phenomena can be observed:
A A
B B
Together at 20°C. Workpiece B is compressed and the On cooling, workpiece B retracts and
phenomenon of metal upsetting there is now play between A and B
No thermal stress. appears at high temperature in the because B has not regained its
form of lateral bulging. straight faces.
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Example n° 2: Impeded expansion and shrinkage

Let’s assume that A and B form a single workpiece and that it is heated locally at the same point where
we had workpiece B in the first example.
Together at 20°C. Localised heating. Cooling: the previously heated

No thermal stress. This heated zone is subjected zone is subjected to tensile
to the same phenomena as stress because shrinkage is
workpiece B in example 1. restrained.
Example n° 3: Localised heating of a plate
Localised heating Upsetting of the metal Cooling

⇒ Compressive stress (mechanical characteristics ⇒ Tensile stress introduced
introduced. very low at high temperature). into the heated zone.
NB: The compressive stress
generated in the plate
(contour) may be the cause of
peripheral warping.
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1.3. CASE OF A STRAIGHT BAR

Let’s take the example of a straight prismatic bar that is free to expand and contract.
initial θ = 20°C
If the bar is heated uniformly, it expands by a length ∆L calculable as follows:
∆ L = α ⋅L ⋅ ∆ θ
where: α = expansion coefficient.

L = length of the workpiece.
∆θ = temperature variation.
If this bar is free to expand, no thermal stress will be generated.
Now, if we assume that this bar is clamped, it will be subjected to uniform compressive stress equal to:
σ compression = α ⋅ E ⋅ ∆ θ
In this formula, E is the modulus of elasticity of steel at the heating temperature.

If the compressive stress exceeds the limit of elasticity
of the material (at the heating temperature), the steel θ
will be plasticised and tensile stress will be introduced
θ max
into the bar on cooling to ambient temperature.
N.B. In welding, thermal stress will be more difficult

to calculate due to the uneven heating
conditions.
Peak temperature distribution

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1.4. HEATING THE EDGE OF A BAR
Localised heating on the upper

surface of the bar.
B Partly impeded expansion of the
heated zone
⇒ Compression of this zone.

A
Upsetting of the material because the

mechanical characteristics are very
low at high temperature.
B
On cooling: a residual tensile stress

field is established leading to
B deformation of the bar.
A
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2. APPLICATION TO WELDING
2.1. LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
After cooling, the plasticised zone is subjected to tensile stress verging on the limit of elasticity at
The weld is self-restrained along X. In fact, the illustrations below show that the two plates (A and B)
prevent the shrinkage of the weld because of their clearly greater dimensions.
A B
L1 L S1 L2 L S2
If the weld were dissociated from the two However the weld is integral with the two plates.
plates, weld length LS1 < L1. Consequently, an equilibrium will be established.
A slight shortening of the plates (L2 < L1) and an
elongation of the weld (LS2 > LS1) will be observed.
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The stresses are distributed as follows:
The weld tends to compress the

two plates A and B.
Re
Traction
Compression
A longitudinal weld is accompanied by deformation:
2.1.1. Clamping effect
Positive clamping
obtained at low welding
speeds.
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Negative clamping
obtained at high
welding speeds.
2.1.2. Buckling effect

In theory, longitudinal deflection of the sheet is observed. But this deflection is masked by an edge
warping phenomenon that affects the edges of the two plates A and B when the plates are thin.
notch
Warping phenomenon masking the theoretical Theoretically observable longitudinal

longitudinal deflection. deflection (notches added to eliminate the
compression causing plate warping).
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N.B. Other forms of warping may be observed in very thin sheets.
Spiralling. Edge warping.
N.B. – Case of a weld lying outside the plane of symmetry.
σx
The distribution of the longitudinal

stresses (along x) becomes
asymmetrical, leading to deflection
T T of the whole along z.
C
y
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2.2. TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE

Contrary to longitudinal shrinkage (which is always self-restrained), transverse shrinkage can occur
freely in certain cases.
In this case, we refer to welding with free shrinkage.
Let’s take the case of two thin plates and examine the distribution of the residual stress obtained after
welding for the following two cases:
Free shrinkage Restrained shrinkage
x
x
T
T
y
0 y
T
0 l
y y
Low residual stress Practically uniform residual tensile stress

(for thin workpieces) close to the ambient limit of elasticity of the
material.
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A weld is generally accompanied by the following deformations:
2.2.1. Bending effect
This effect can mainly be

observed on joints comprising a
single V preparation or on fillet
joints where the beads are
oversized.
θ
2.2.2. Transverse shrinkage
A significant shortening of the

weldment is observed along
direction OY.
O Y
initial L
final L
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3. FORECASTING DEFORMATIONS
3.1. LIMITS
The deformations generated by welding can only be estimated by calculation in the case of a beam-
shaped workpiece reconstituted with a single welded joint made in a single pass.
For example:
Deformation No deformation
N.B. – There is no formula to calculate the bending effect.
3.2. FORECASTING DEFORMATIONS GENERATED BY A WELD LOCATED OUTSIDE A

NEUTRAL AXIS
3.2.1. Qualitative forecast
Qualitatively speaking, the direction of the deformations can be forecast. Let’s take the following
workpiece:
We have seen above that
longitudinal shrinkage of the weld
was self-restrained, creating residual Soudure
Weld
stress as high as the limit of
elasticity of the material at 20°C. k
G
× axe neutre
neutral axis
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The restraint is not perfect, however, as it allows a slight contraction of the weld along the X-axis. This is
conveyed by a shortening of the zone in proximity to the weld and, as a result, we shall observe the
following deformation:
shortening of
the fibres
X
G
N.B. Deflection occurs because the weld is not situated on the neutral axis (passing though the centre
of gravity).
The deflection is all the more pronounced as distance k increases.
Consequently, the value of k must be reduced to a minimum to reduce the deformations. As a
result, the welds need to be located in relation to the neutral axis during the design phase.
3.2.2. Quantitative forecast

Several authors have developed formulae to calculate
the deflection value on beams deformed by welding.
However, these are only estimates. We are in fact
unable to predict exactly the amount of deformation.
Plasticised zone
This difficulty stems from an inability to estimate the
dimensions of the plasticised zone which will then be Weld
the seat of residual tensile stress.
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3.2.3. Case of two independent beads

If the two beads are not produced simultaneously, the
calculations become very complicated. (1)
Deflection
In actual fact, the second weld is made on a K1
workpiece deformed by weld n° 1 and affected by
residual stress. z Z'
K2
(2)
3.2.4. Case of multipass welds

The phenomena are complicated further still because
the successive deposits are made on areas in tension
and these tensile stresses are partly relieved.
Consequently, no calculation formula is available. Experiments must be carried out.

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4. COMPENSATING DEFORMATIONS
4.1. DEFORMATIONS DUE TO LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE

4.1.1. Preventive measures
¾ During the design phase
Where possible, the weld beads must be placed on the neutral axes.
If this is not feasible, we should try to obtain a plane deflection that would be easy to correct later.
Examples:
• To be avoided - produces a deviated Weld located outside neutral

deflection that is very difficult to axes.
correct.
Z G
• No deflection is observed as the weld

is located on the centre of gravity.
• A plane deflection can be observed as

the weld is offset by a value k in
Y
relation to the horizontal neutral axis.
This deformation will be “easily k
Z
controllable”.
G
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• It is absolutely essential for the beads

to be symmetrical for zero deflection. y y
z G G z
PREFERABLE POSSIBLE
¾ During the production phase

Care must be taken with the welding sequences. The sequence in which the beads are produced has
quite an effect on deformations.
Example n° 1: Y
Z
2 2
1 1 Z
G
2 2
1 1
Preferred solution as the beads are practically To be avoided - as beads 1 are quite a distance
situated on the y-axis which will cause little from the x-axis, they will generate a deflection
deformation. which will not be compensated by beads 2.
Example n° 2:
If a single welder is available to produce two symmetrical beads, then they will have to be split up as
follows:
7 3 1 5
8 4 2 6
It has been confirmed in practice that this welding method is far less deforming than welding the beads in
one go.
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N.B. It may be useful to weld on a workpiece with an inverse elastic predeformation to the deformation
observed after welding:
F F
l1
F F
2f 1
f1
F F
4.1.2. Corrective measures

Hammering may be used to elongate the metal by plasticising and thereby limit the deformations
obtained after welding.
4.2. DEFORMATIONS DUE TO TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE, BENDING AND CLAMPING

4.2.1. Preventive measures
¾ Preparation
Insofar as is possible, preference should be given to double-V preparations.
The bending phenomenon encountered with single-V preparations can therefore be avoided. It is also
possible to deposit less filler metal.
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60º
60º
2 4
3
1
1
60 º
N.B. When access can only be gained from one side, less deformation is observed if a U-groove is
used instead of a single-V preparation (although it is more costly).
¾ Weld bead throat thickness

There is no point in greatly oversizing the
weld beads.
In fact, this will amplify the deformations
linked to a zone plasticised by increased
heating. oversized bead
¾ Inverse elastic predeformations
F F
F'
Free workpieces Restrained workpieces

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¾ Choice of joining sequence
1 1
2 2
1 2 2
1
Poor Good
¾ Splitting the weld seam into several components

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¾ Creating an allowance
The purpose of this allowance is to offset bending

and the transverse shrinkage RT linked to the two
weld beads.
2 1
Rt Rt
4.2.2. Corrective measures

¾ Correcting distortion in line by the thermal technique
The residual tensile stress field present in the plasticised zones is used to reduce the deformations
generated by the weld bead.
The difficulty consists of locating the correct place to apply heat without increasing the deformation.
Example:
On a web-flange joint of a beam reconstituted by welding, in-line heating will be positioned as follows:
In-line heat
F F
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It should be noted in passing that correcting distortion by the thermal technique will be more effective if it
is carried out on a compressed zone.
Consequently, the workpiece will need to be jacked as shown in the diagrams (loads F).
In actual fact, these loads F will recompress the zone where the heat is applied.
5. RELIEVING RESIDUAL STRESS
5.1. UTILITY
The presence of residual stress is harmful, or even dangerous with regard to the behaviour in service of
a welded structure for which the risk of ruin is:
• brittle fracture,
• stress corrosion cracking,
• and, possibly, fatigue cracking.

Furthermore, stress relieving is also justified when the structure has a mechanical function requiring
dimensional stability during machining and in service.
Two stress relieving methods are available:
• thermal,
• mechanical.
5.2. THERMAL STRESS RELIEVING

This technique requires bringing the workpiece in which the stress is to be relieved to a high temperature
(depending on the type of steel).
The temperature rise leads to a considerable reduction in mechanical characteristics. This reduction,
combined with the creeping phenomenon, produces a flow of material in the zones presenting the
greatest residual stress.
Therefore, after appropriate cooling (not too fast), it can be seen that the residual welding stress has
practically been eliminated.
5.3. MECHANICAL STRESS RELIEVING

The plasticising of zones in tension (residual stress) is obtained as a result of mechanical expansion.
This form of cold plasticising is responsible for relieving residual stress. However it can only be used with
simple configurations.
For example: a pressure vessel subjected to a strength test.
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PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.4 : PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT, JIGS AND FIXTURES

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PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT, JIGS AND FIXTURES
CONTENTS
1. PRODUCTION LINE LAYOUT............................................................................................. 3

1.1. Installation of a welding shop...................................................................................... 3
1.2. Constraints and characteristics................................................................................... 3
1.3. Production constraints ................................................................................................ 3
1.4. Various phases of manufacture in a sheet metalworking / welding shop.................... 4
1.5. Ancillary activities related directly to shop operations................................................. 4
1.6. Geographical breakdown of the shop ......................................................................... 4
1.7. Example of a sheet metalworking / welding shop layout and installation.................... 5
2. JIGS AND FIXTURES .......................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Workpiece positioning and supporting fixture ............................................................. 8
2.2. Manipulators ............................................................................................................. 10
3. CABLES.............................................................................................................................. 14
3.1. Plant cables .............................................................................................................. 14
3.2. Cable trays ............................................................................................................... 15
3.3. Cables in arc welding................................................................................................ 15
3.4. Safety ....................................................................................................................... 16
4. CONNECTIONS.................................................................................................................. 16
4.1. Water ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.2. Gas ........................................................................................................................... 16
4.3. Electricity .................................................................................................................. 16
4.4. Compressed air ........................................................................................................ 17
5. WORKING ENVIRONMENT............................................................................................... 17
5.1. The working environment in a sheet metalworking / welding shop ........................... 17
5.1.1. Storage of raw materials and end products ................................................................17
5.1.2. Storage of welding and cutting consumables .............................................................18
5.1.3. Handling......................................................................................................................19
5.1.4. Packing and dispatch..................................................................................................19
5.1.5. Traffic flows.................................................................................................................19
5.1.6. Auxiliary installations ..................................................................................................19
6. EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES .................................................................................. 20

6.1. Welder's equipment and accessories ....................................................................... 20
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6.2. Arc welding equipment and accessories................................................................... 20

6.3. Sundry equipment .................................................................................................... 20
6.4. Inspection equipment................................................................................................ 21
6.5. Gas welding equipment and accessories ................................................................. 21
7. FUME EXTRACTION.......................................................................................................... 21
7.1. Choice of extraction technique ................................................................................. 21
7.2. Available local ventilation systems ........................................................................... 21
7.3. Bibliography.............................................................................................................. 26
8. JOINT FITTING AND EDGE TACKING............................................................................. 27
8.1. Tacking and fitting up the joints ................................................................................ 27
8.2. Clamps ..................................................................................................................... 28
9. STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FILLER PRODUCTS .................................................... 31
9.1. Packaging for filler metals......................................................................................... 31
9.2. Storage of filler metals .............................................................................................. 31
9.3. Preservation of filler metals ...................................................................................... 31
9.4. General information on the precautions to be taken ................................................. 32
9.5. Entry of welding products into the stockroom ........................................................... 33
9.6. Storing welding products in the stockroom ............................................................... 33
9.7. Checking welding materials out of the stockroom..................................................... 33
10. GAS STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION.............................................................................. 33
10.1. Shop distribution of industrial gases ......................................................................... 33
10.2. Distribution network .................................................................................................. 34
10.3. Pressure reduction stations ...................................................................................... 35
10.4. Pipes......................................................................................................................... 37
10.5. Workstations............................................................................................................. 37
10.6. Reference standards ................................................................................................ 37
11. PRESSURE REGULATORS AND FLOWMETERS .......................................................... 38
11.1. Pressure regulators for oxy-fuel gas welding processes........................................... 38
11.2. Regulator flowmeters................................................................................................ 38
11.3. Safety (Oxyacetylene welding) ................................................................................. 39
12. PREHEATING AND TEMPERATURE SETTING APPLIANCES...................................... 40
12.1. Preheating ................................................................................................................ 40
12.2. Preheating and temperature setting apparatus......................................................... 41
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1. PRODUCTION LINE LAYOUT
1.1. INSTALLATION OF A WELDING SHOP

The vital necessity for an industrial company is to manufacture products that comply with the double
requirement of quality and quantity, all within the constraints imposed by profitability.
To meet this objective, production must be organised to take account of a multitude of technical and
human needs.
Shop design must therefore guarantee the safety of staff and their environment, operational continuity
and maintenance of the installations, and offer the possibility of growth, while complying with regulations,
standards, codes of practice and norms of production.
The parameters to be taken into consideration when designing a shop vary from one industrial case to
another.
1.2. CONSTRAINTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

As the choice of a manufacturing shop is made beforehand, it is necessary to take account of the
following characteristics:
ª Dimensions and geometry

ª Upper and lower range values
ª Maximum workable ceiling height
ª Roads and access to the room
ª Heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, etc.
ª Existing foundations
ª All characteristics relating to the flowrate, pressure, routing and layout of shop fluids
(underground and overhead networks)
ª Characteristics relating to the capacity, routing and layout of the electrical system (underground
and overhead networks)
ª Geographical situation (motorways, rivers, etc.)
ª Local labour force.
1.3. PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS

Production constraints relate to all of the requirements liable to brought about by the various types of
manufacturing planned.
They cover all necessary equipment, useful zones for the various phases of manufacture, facilities
required to achieve the expected production targets and guarantee the safety of all persons working in
the sheet metalworking / welding shop.
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1.4. VARIOUS PHASES OF MANUFACTURE IN A SHEET METALWORKING / WELDING

SHOP
• Marking of spread-out surfaces on templates or raw material
• Sizing and cutting
• Shot blasting, deburring, pickling, etc.
• Straightening and truing
• Edge preparation
• Shaping (folding, bending, etc.)
• Joining
• Welding
• Inspection
• Covering and surfacing
• Heat treatment, passivation, pickling, etc.
• Finishing.
1.5. ANCILLARY ACTIVITIES RELATED DIRECTLY TO SHOP OPERATIONS

• Storage of raw materials and end products
• Storage of welding and cutting consumables
• Handling
• Packing and dispatch.
1.6. GEOGRAPHICAL BREAKDOWN OF THE SHOP

A sheet metalworking / welding shop can be broken down into geographical zones corresponding to
each phase of work. However, if the shop is not suited to such a breakdown, it is nevertheless possible
to group a number of the following zones together:
ª Staff and handling equipment traffic zones

ª Storage area for raw materials, consumables, waste and offcuts
ª Marking and workpiece preparation zone
ª Cutting and edge preparation zone
ª Shaping (folding, pressing, bending, etc.) zone
ª Welding zone
ª Machining and finishing zone.
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1.7. EXAMPLE OF A SHEET METALWORKING / WELDING SHOP LAYOUT AND

INSTALLATION
(Typical list of available machines)
ILL. PART REF. QTY DESCRIPTION TOOLING

REF.
A 3 AC welding set, 250 A at 100%
Rail-mounted automatic welding

AS 1 machine (submerged arc), 600 A
at 100%
Plasma oxygen cutting bench
BD 1 2 oxy-propane blowpipes
1 Nertajet 80.120 plasma head
Straight-edge tools
Circular tools
CA P201 1 Short-blade reciprocating shear
Centring device
Straight guide rule
See sheet + digital stop
CG1 GPS 1230 1 Guillotine Squaring arm, 1.5 m
Protractor
CG2 CPS 420 1 Guillotine Digital stop
CP 1 Socad bar bender
MCH TKF1525.0 1 Trumpf grooving machine
Capacity: 3 to 16 mm
CM2 / CM1 taper adapter
PC2 PC15 1 Morse 2 Taper drill press
Automatic taper extractor
Lubricator
PO KLH700 1 Punching machine, 700 kN
PP1 170/4 1 CNC bending press, 1700 kN Standard counter V-block, 3 m

Length: 3050 Split counter V-block with horn
V-block, 16, 20, 25, and 32 mm,
4 programming axes
3 m long
V-block, 50, 80, 120, 160 and
200 mm, 2 m long
Impact bending tooling, 2 m long,
8 - 10 mm V-block
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ILL. PART REF. QTY DESCRIPTION TOOLING

REF.
PP2 PS PRO 1 CNC bending press, 630 kN, Standard counter V-block, 2 m
63.25 Length: 2050 Split counter V-block with horn
V-block, 8, 16, 20, 25 and
2 programming axes
32 mm, 2 m long
V-block, 32, 40 and 50, 1 m long
Impact bending tooling, 2 m long,
6, 8 and 10 mm V-block
Halbronn "CUT" radial drilling
PR 1
machine
Universal bending machine,
PU 1
2000 x 6
Welding set, rectified current,
R 3
240 A at 60%
R1 1 Rolling machine, 2500 x 12
R2 1 Rolling machine, 1000 x 4
Semi-automatic welding set,

SM 4
200 A at 60%
TIG 2 TIG welding set, 160 A at 60%
Metal slitting saw, 315 mm Manual length stop, 2 m infeed,

TDM 1
diameter 4 m discharge
Right and left swivel head
Abrasive cutting machine, Length stop
TM 1
350 mm Cutting depth stop
Bar support
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2. JIGS AND FIXTURES
2.1. WORKPIECE POSITIONING AND SUPPORTING FIXTURE

The basic workpieces to be joined together or to subassemblies must be presented in the appropriate
place, the right way round, taking prior deformation corrections into account and conforming to the
geometry required for correct joint welding.
In the case of mass-produced parts, we use:
ª either tacking jigs which present the workpieces and facilitate tacking prior to welding − the
workpieces are then removed from the jig for welding;
ª or welding fixtures eliminating the need for tacking by allowing the workpieces to be welded
directly in the fixture which can be used, if necessary, to apply restraint to reduce deformations.
Some fixtures are also designed to adopt the best position for every single weld in an assembly.
Occasionally the fixtures are mounted on positioning appliances that are distinct from the actual
fixture.
Restraining welding fixtures can reduce deformations and, to a certain degree, ensure the
interchangeability of parts in the same series. As operations are made easier by the use of such fixtures,
welding speed and quality can be increased as a result.
They must meet the following conditions:
ª allow rapid installation of workpieces;

ª allow rapid discharge of weldments;
ª provide good joint visibility and accessibility;
ª withstand deformations resulting from shrinkage;
ª allow preheating where necessary;
ª prevent excessive overheating in the course of welding to avoid thermal deformation (cooling
devices should be provided for this purpose);
ª allow counterboring where necessary;
ª protect machined parts (projections, etc.)
ª refrain from damaging the workpiece by spurious arcs or overtight or badly positioned clamping
devices;
ª avoid magnetic effects on welding arcs.
Fixtures are often formed by welded sectional frames on which blocks or mechanical, pneumatic or
hydraulic gripping devices (clamps, rams, etc.) are mounted.
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Example of a welding fixture

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Example of a jig
The jig illustrated above has a main structure at workbench height and cradles (A and B) to mount
lattice-type elements, for example.
2.2. MANIPULATORS
There is a working position that is favourable to the application of each welding process or method.
ª Flat welding generally produces large weld pools favourable to a faster deposition rate.
ª Welding in an upward or inclined upward position makes it easier to achieve good penetration.
On a welded assembly comprising several joints with relatively different orientations, several handling
operations to position the workpiece correctly for each joint are necessary.
With light workpieces, these operations can be done manually on a welding bench or on the ground
although it is very often better to have more effective means.
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Manipulators come in a wide variety of models and sizes depending on whether they are "universal" or
designed for a particular type of workpiece.
Universal manipulator: capacity 15 t.
Special manipulator.
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Programmable orbital manipulator (twin-manipulator version also available)

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Basic manipulator movements
There a number of advantages to using manipulators:
ª manual or automatic processes can be used with fast deposition rates;

ª positioning is favourable to weld pool stability resulting in:
• reduced down time for position changes,
• increased welding equipment duty factor,
• improved working conditions and safety.
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Note: With large-sized workpieces, positioning benefits can only be derived if the welding appliance
and the operator are also in a good position. Gantries, towers and platforms can be used for this
purpose.
Welder platform
3. CABLES
3.1. PLANT CABLES

In a plant, sensitive circuit cables should be prevented from picking up interference transmitted by other
cables or the electromagnetic environment.
Plants can include:
ª power cables (large currents)

ª instrumentation and control cables
ª analog signal cables
ª digital signal cables.
The final two types can be connected to apparatus and circuits that are highly sensitive to
electromagnetic interference.
On cables with metal shielding (screen, braid or tape), the screen around the cable can attenuate HF
interference fields at 50 Hz. Ferromagnetic tape is more effective for this purpose than metal braid.
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3.2. CABLE TRAYS

If different types of cable are routed in proximity to one another, conditions are favourable for the
transmission of interference by crosstalk. However it is not advisable to separate the same cables and
place them at quite a distance from each other as this favours the formation of loops which are a source
of interference under the effect of a large field, generated for example by arc welding operations.
The use of metal cable trays appears to be the best solution. This means that cables can be kept at a
reasonably close distance without the risk of crosstalk.
3.3. CABLES IN ARC WELDING

In the area of arc welding, an ultra-flexible single-conductor cable should be chosen.
Due to its original manufacturing characteristics and preferably a double protection, it can offer:
ª a service voltage of 600 volts

ª an above-average current-carrying capacity on an equal section basis (see below)
ª elasticity and flexibility
ª good resistance to oil, ozone and most solvents
ª flame-retarding qualities.
TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS
CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE
BREAKDOWN CURRENT
SECTION OUTER TEMPERATURE BEND PER
VOLTAGE RATING
SHEATH RESISTANCE RADIUS CONDUCTOR
mm2 CORE INSULATION Volts Amps
Ω / Xm
Mixture of
10 PVC,
16 elastomer and
25 nitrile rubber - 18°C
2 x cable 600 V /
35 0.20 mm wires White PVC (NBR) to SEE TABLE BELOW
diameter >3 000 V
50 + 85°C
70 Colour:
95 BLACK or
ORANGE
CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY AT 25°C* (Amps)

Outside RADAFLEX CABLE STANDARD RUBBER-INSULATED CABLE
SECTION Total mass
diameter Duty factor (%) Duty factor (%)
-mm2 -mm kg/km 100% 85% 60% 30% 100% 85% 60% 30%
10 9.5 160 87 98 110 160 NS NS NS NS
16 10.5 247 135 145 175 245 105 115 135 190
25 12.5 340 180 195 230 330 135 145 175 245
35 13.5 460 225 245 290 410 170 185 220 310
50 15.0 606 285 310 370 520 220 240 285 400
70 18.0 860 355 385 460 650 270 295 350 495
95 20.5 1150 430 470 560 790 330 360 425 600
* For ambient temperatures over 25°C, apply the following reduction factors 30°C = 0.96 35°C = 0.91
40°C = 0.87 45°C = 0.82
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3.4. SAFETY
There is a risk of contact with live cables if their insulation is defective.
Insulating cable sheaths must always be in good condition.
Never hesitate to change a faulty connection cable. The metal can be laid bare when the sheath is cut or
damaged due to excessive heating of the conductor core.
Never move a welding set by pulling the cables.
Cables should be chosen in accordance with the specifications of the standards in force.
4. CONNECTIONS
In a production shop, four distribution systems are generally found:
ª Water
ª Gas
ª Electricity
ª Compressed air
4.1. WATER
A factory's water requirements can be satisfied by a connection to the public distribution system.
Supply pressure levels are generally high enough to ensure correct distribution around the shop.
The water used in welding processes, for example, does not require any special treatment.
Shop distribution circuits are made of carbon steel provided that the pH is measured in the case of
deionised water.
4.2. GAS
In many industrial establishments, the gases used to feed workstations for flame welding and ancillary
processes are supplied from a central gas source and distributed via a network of pipes through the
shop. It is essential that these installations are well designed and well built not only to ensure correct
operation of the service appliances, but also to guarantee the safety of persons and property considering
the particular properties of the gases used (see Gas Storage and Distribution). For further information,
refer to French standard NF EN 1089-3.
4.3. ELECTRICITY
The purpose of a shop's electrical energy distribution system is to supply manufacturing machines and
related equipment with the necessary energy under the required conditions of power, voltage, frequency
and regularity. The network must be capable of providing this service without failure.
The machines used in a sheet metalworking / welding shop are powered with a low-voltage supply
(< 1000 V) and can be single-phase or three-phase (230 V or 400 V).
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4.4. COMPRESSED AIR

Compressed air is not generally distributed except in urban or heavily industrialised centres. It must
therefore be produced. When the needs are spread all over the factory, it is worthwhile creating a
network and having a centralised compressed air production unit.
Service pressure varies generally from 5 to 8 bars.
Compressed air can be produced by various types of compressor:
ª reciprocating compressors, rotary compressors, screw compressors, etc.

Compressed air production equipment is always noisy and special attention should be paid to location.
It is advisable to solder or weld pipes to avoid leaks.
Pipes with a diameter in excess of 20 mm are made of steel. Air connections to which the hoses are
fitted are equipped with quick couplings.
5. WORKING ENVIRONMENT
5.1. THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT IN A SHEET METALWORKING / WELDING SHOP

There are a number of ancillary activities that are directly related to shop operations:
5.1.1. Storage of raw materials and end products

Plate or sectional material stockyards are the main places where the various materials used in the
making of products are stored.
Material yards differ as follows:
- Products Î plates
Î sections
- Storage Î horizontal, on shelves
Î vertical, in racks (on edge)
- Materials Î designations (carbon steel, stainless steel,
copper, aluminium, etc.)
Î grades (ferritic, refractory, etc.)
- Forms Î plates (channelled, checkered, etc.)
Î protection (lacquered, galvanised, zinc
electroplated, etc.)
Î sections (solid or hollow)
Î dimensions (format, length, section, etc.).

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Section storage
Plate storage
5.1.2. Storage of welding and cutting consumables

Filler products must be stored in a dry, sheltered area or, if specified by the supplier, in ovens. Various
types of oven are found, including:
ª Bench electrode drying ovens

ª Portable electrode drying ovens
ª Programmable electrode drying ovens
ª Flux ovens.
Welding and cutting consumables (nozzles, contact tubes, torches, conduits, etc.) are stored in a
stockroom by part number, equipment type, thickness, etc.
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5.1.3. Handling
Various types of handling equipment can be found in a production shop, including:
ª Overhead travelling cranes, gantries and jib cranes with electric or hand-operated hoists
ª Diesel or electric forklift trucks
ª Electric or manual pallet trucks
ª Remote-controlled self-propelling trucks or tow trucks.
5.1.4. Packing and dispatch

An area should be set aside in the shop where the products are packaged and referenced for dispatch.
5.1.5. Traffic flows

Several traffic flows need to be taken into account inside most shops.
ª Power-operated vehicles travelling in the aisles and serving the workstations

ª Pedestrians with loads (trolleys and manual pallet trucks)
ª Pedestrians circulating without loads, at the beginning and end of the shift, during work-time to go
from one workstation to another or to other rooms.
Traffic aisles must be clearly distinguished by painted lines on the floor.
5.1.6. Auxiliary installations

These can include:
ª Thermoelectric emergency power generator

ª Scrap and waste storage system
ª Communications system
ª Fire protection system
ª Special worker safety and prevention systems
ª Medical service
ª Forklift truck parking and recharging area.
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6. EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES
6.1. WELDER'S EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

ª Welder's personal equipment:
• Shield, helmet, tinted goggles
• Plain-glass grinding goggles
• Gloves
• Clothing
• Safety footwear
• Gaiters
• Leather apron
• Hearing protectors
• Etc.
ª Protective and safety equipment in the welding environment

• Fume, gas and dust extraction
- exhaust ducts, suction torches, ventilation, etc.
• Arc radiation protection
- curtains, partitions, etc.
6.2. ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

ª Manual welding set (TIG, MIG, MAG, SMAW, etc.)
ª Automatic or robotic welding set (laser, plasma, etc.)
ª Filler metals (electrodes, solid wires, flux-cored wires, etc.)
ª Etc.
6.3. SUNDRY EQUIPMENT

ª Bevelling machine
ª Cutting machine
ª Preheating equipment
ª Turning gear, manipulators, etc.
ª Electrode and flux ovens
ª Portable texturing and boring machines
ª Tube expanding equipment
ª Pickling and passivation products
ª Etc.
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6.4. INSPECTION EQUIPMENT

ª Supplies and accessories for ultrasonic examination, NDT, dye penetration testing, etc.
6.5. GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

ª Blowpipes and pressure regulators
ª Hoses, couplings, pressure regulators, etc.
ª Non-return valves
ª Filler products
ª Surfacing powder and descaling products
ª Etc.
This is not an exhaustive list. For further information, refer to Soudage et techniques connexes (ISSN
0246 – 2963) "Répertoire des fournisseurs du soudage".
7. FUME EXTRACTION
7.1. CHOICE OF EXTRACTION TECHNIQUE

A production shop adapts its fume control system according to whether it uses:
ª local extraction
ª general extraction.
Local extraction
Consists of capturing the fumes given off as close as possible to their source.
General extraction
On account of its very principle, general extraction alone is not satisfactory because it allows a level of
residual pollution in the workplace and high concentration gradients between the source and the shop
atmosphere.
A general extraction system can only be envisaged as a main air purification technique if the products -
the fumes given off - have a very low level of toxicity and are released at a very low rate.
Local extraction must therefore be used as a priority in all cases.
7.2. AVAILABLE LOCAL VENTILATION SYSTEMS

According to the terms of the regulations, premises where welding work is carried out are "premises
subject to specific contamination". As a result, the employer is obliged to capture the fumes as they are
produced, as close as possible to their source of emission and as effectively as possible, particularly by
taking account of the nature, the characteristics and the flowrates of the air pollutants and air motion (art.
R 232–5 of the French Labour Code).
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The following types of device are available:
ª Exhaust fitted to the tool

• Suction torches used in MIG/MAG processes or with flux-cored wire with or without gas
ª Exhaust built into the tooling:
• Assembly jig fitted with fume extractor nozzles in proximity to the points of emission.
ª Exhaust fitted to the welder's shield
ª Welding booth
ª Table extracting through the work surface
ª Table extracting through the back guard
ª Table extracting through a combination of the work surface and the back guard
ª Portable local exhaust system
ª Suction plenum
NOTE: In all cases, the suction rate must not interfere with the role and effectiveness of the welding
shielding gases.
Typical diagram of a welding booth

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Typical diagram of a table with built-in suction

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Typical installation
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Typical diagram of articulated arms and small portable nozzles
Typical diagram of a welding station equipped with a suction plenum

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7.3. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Valeurs limites d'exposition professionnelle aux substances dangereuses en franco. Cahiers de Notes
Documentaires, 1988,133, ND1708, pp. 691-706.
2. Guide pratique de ventilation n°8. Ventilation des espaces confinés. Paris, INRS, 1988, ED 703.
3. La sécurité dans l'emploi des machines, appareils, accessoires de soudage et d'oxycoupage. Paris,
INRS, 1979, ED 357.
4. ULYSSE J.F. - Fiche technique de sécurité n° 15. Soudage manuel à l'arc avec électrodes enrobées.
Paris, INRS, 1983, ED 569.
5. BLAND J. - The welding environment. Miami, American Welding Society, 1973.
6. SPEIGHT F.Y., CAMPBELL H.C. – Fumes and gases in the welding environment. Miami, American
Welding Society, 1979.
7. MAYER A., SALSI S. et coll. - Pollution Chimique aux postes de soudage à l'arc. Etude en laboratoire
de 18 couples "produit d'apport - métal soudé". Cahiers de Notes. Documentaires, 1980, 101, ND 1281,
pp. 485-497.
8. LIMASSET J.C, MARGOSSIAN N. - Substances toxiques formées par décomposition photochimique
de solvant chlorés lors du soudage à l’arc. Cahiers de notes. Documentaires, 1974, 75 ND 897, pp. 219-
228.
9. Aération et assainissement des ambiances de travail. Réglementation générale. Textes et
commentaires. Paris, INRS, 1989, ED 720.
10. Les maladies professionnelles. Paris, INRS, 1990, ED 486.
11. Guide pratique de ventilation. Principes généraux de ventilation. Paris, INRS, 1989, ED 695.
12. ASTLEFORD W. - Engineering control of welding fumes. Cincinnati, NIOSH, DHEW Publication n°
75-115, 1974.
13. VAN WAGENEN H.D. - Assessment of selected control techniques for welding fumes. Cincinnati,
NIOSH, DHEW Publication79-125, 1979.
14. MILLIGTON D. - Gas shielding efficiency in MIG welding. Welding Institute Bulletin, 11, 2, 1970, pp.
347-352.
15. THIEBAUT D. et coll. - Le procédé de captage des polluants double flux. Travail et Sécurité, 1983, 1-
2, pp. 75-86 and 112.
16. Guide pratique de ventilation n°1. L'assainissement de l'air des locaux de travail. Paris, INRS, 1982,
ED 657, 1982.
17. BRUNNER A. - Elimination des substances nocives lors du soudage par la ventilation et l'aspiration
locale. Zeitschrift fur Schweisstechnik/Journal de la Soudure, 1979, 69, 8, pp. 218-223.
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8. JOINT FITTING AND EDGE TACKING
8.1. TACKING AND FITTING UP THE JOINTS

Tacking is an operation that consists of temporarily holding together the elements to be welded by
applying small, discontinuous beads (spots) in the joints themselves before making the actual welds.
There is no hard and fast rule for defining the number of sports or their dimension. The distance between
the spots must be quite small to avoid variations in the spacing between the elements under the effect of
deformations in the course of welding.
In the case of butt welds on heavy-duty workpieces, it is preferable to use clamps. The section of each
spot must be adequate to withstand the loads to which they are subjected, without breaking, particularly
during the first welding passes on an assembly already formed by tacking.
For certain heavy or thick joints, we can resort to one of the following methods:
ª Direct tack welding by means of “stepped” beads. In this case, the tacks are true partial welds
and must be treated as such (same degree of care as for actual welding).
ª Use of a rod, the diameter of which is adapted to the groove opening, to shift the tacking outside
the groove and refrain from deteriorating the faces of grooves that have been machined for
example:
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To conclude, tack welding is a delicate operation that should be given considerable attention.
Qualification of the operating procedures and the welders charged with applying them may be necessary
for work on safety structures.
8.2. CLAMPS
Clamps are accessories that are used to present the edges in the appropriate position for welding.
Although there is a great variety on the market, they can be grouped into one of two categories
depending on whether they are welded to the workpieces to be joined or not.
For butt welding thin workpieces, such clamps are formed by two elements arranged on either side of the
joint and assembled mechanically by a tab running between the edges and performing the clamping
action.
For butt and fillet welding on thicker workpieces, we use clamps of which two components are welded
temporarily to the same side on each of the workpieces, with mechanical gripping devices then providing
the force required to squeeze and level the two workpieces to be welded. These clamps can then be
removed and reused.
A grinding wheel must be used for removal and care must be taken to avoid damage to the parts. A dye
penetration test is sometimes recommended to verify the absence of surface flaws.
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Example of a butt-welded joint
Forces A & B Bring C1 and C2 together

Forces D & E Push C1 and C2 apart
The clearance “e” can be maintained by a threaded rod with nuts, or with the aid of bolts.
The clamping plane AB is not in line. By passing a pin through C1 or C2, as applicable, a force F1 or F2
can be applied to ensure plate contact during tack welding.
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Description
x - centre distance to be complied with
A - attachment nuts drilled then welded

on the shells
B - Base plate: 10 to 15 mm thick
C - Slots accommodating nuts A
D and E - Stiffeners used to guide the

pins
F – tapered pins: 4 required per clamp:
- 2 for adjustment
- 2 for clamping
Example of the use of US-style clamps (Chicago bridge)
ª With the nuts welded to the shells, fit the clamp and insert the clamping pins.
ª Tap each pin lightly and alternately until the shells are perfectly level.
ª Fit shims.
ª Introduce the adjustment pins. These are used to adjust the space between the two plates. The
clamping force is conveyed according to the two arrows “Sr”.
ª For the shells, the clamps are flat, while 90° angled clamps are used to join the bottom and the
lower shell.
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9. STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FILLER PRODUCTS
9.1. PACKAGING FOR FILLER METALS

The filler metals used in the various welding processes are packed in a variety of containers:
ª steel cans, plastic or cardboard boxes, vacuum packs, drums, reels, etc.
Of course, the type of packaging used depends on the weight.
For example: In the MIG – MAG process, we find spools of around 10 kg and reels for robots and
automatic machines of up to 200 kg.
9.2. STORAGE OF FILLER METALS
In all cases, refer to the supplier’s instructions. You should find various information on the filler metal
packs:
ª Lot or batch n°
ª Electrode diameter and length or wire diameter
ª Pack quantity
ª Endorsements (GDF, French Navy, UK MoD, etc.)
ª Nomenclature number
ª Trade name
ª Dimensions (mm)
ª Oven drying conditions
ª Standardisation classification (ISO, NF, AWS, etc.)
ª Welding positions
ª Chemical composition
ª For arc welding processes:
• nature of the current
• minimum AC voltage
• average and maximum current (covered electrodes)
• symbolisation of welding positions.
As far as covered electrodes for arc welding are concerned, some products will have to be dried in an
oven (see supplier’s instructions). The oven must comply with French standard NF 85620.
9.3. PRESERVATION OF FILLER METALS

Filler metals must be kept in their original containers in a cool, dry place, ordered by welding process,
reference and grade.
Electrodes with a basic covering require special attention due to the great impact of the humidity of the
covering on the characteristics of deposits (oven drying).
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It is worth noting, however, that hygroscopic electrodes with a pure basic covering have recently been
introduced onto the market. The risks of cold cracking due to hydrogen are reduced with such
electrodes.
Example of an oven and programmable drying cabinet
9.4. GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN

The precautions to be taken in handling and storing welding materials fall into two categories:
ª Precautions against impacts: In transport and handling, every effort should be made to avoid
violent impacts which can lead to the deterioration of electrode coverings or damage the
watertight packaging of all products.
ª Precautions against the regain of moisture: Welding materials must always remain in their
original packaging until they leave the stockroom. They must also be effectively protected against
bad weather while in transit between the supplier’s and the company and must never be kept
outside while waiting to be put away in the stockroom.
These precautions are vital to prevent the electrodes and flux from regaining moisture and to avoid
damage to the surface condition of the wires and strips which can cause serious weld defects.
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9.5. ENTRY OF WELDING PRODUCTS INTO THE STOCKROOM

Welding products are unloaded under the responsibility of the Storekeeper who ensures during this
operation that:
ª the welding products have been correctly loaded on wooden pallets to avoid ground contact;
ª the packages are intact and have not been damaged in transit.
The Storekeeper has the products brought into the stockroom immediately.
9.6. STORING WELDING PRODUCTS IN THE STOCKROOM

Packs of electrodes are stored on shelves and classified by internal order, diameter and batch number.
Bags of flux and spools of wire and strip are stored on wooden pallets and classified by internal order.
The stockroom must be kept at a minimum temperature of 20°C checked with a thermometer
permanently mounted inside the stockroom.
9.7. CHECKING WELDING MATERIALS OUT OF THE STOCKROOM

Welding materials are checked out of the stockroom with a welding materials issue voucher which must
mention the following details:
ª Type of materials
ª Trade name
ª Heat or batch number
ª Quantity
Filler materials must be checked out of the stockroom by “packaging unit” (pack of electrodes or bag of
flux).
10. GAS STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION
10.1. SHOP DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL GASES

In many shops and industrial establishments, the gases used to feed workstations for flame welding and
ancillary processes are supplied from a central gas source and distributed via a network of pipes through
the plant.
It is essential that these installations are well designed and well built not only to ensure correct operation
of the service appliances, but also to guarantee the safety of persons and property considering the
particular properties of the gases used.
ª Risks due to oxygen enrichment or the creation of flammable mixtures in the event of a leak.
ª Risks due to appliance malfunctions if the gas is supplied at an insufficient flowrate, pressure or
purity.
ª Risks due to gas reactions on materials or to excessive overpressure in the case of incorrect
choice of materials or incorrect design calculations.
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Remember that each gas has its own intrinsic characteristics:
ª physical state of the stored gas

• gaseous
• liquid
• under pressure
• flammability
• combustive power
• corrosiveness
• toxicity.
The supplier must provide the user with general quality and safety data sheets on the gases and gas
mixtures used.
10.2. DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

Two types of distribution network are distinguished:
ª The loop network (Figure 1) guaranteeing constant pressure.
The non–loop network (Figure 2) reduces the length of the piping required.
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10.3. PRESSURE REDUCTION STATIONS

For small sheet metalworking / welding shops, the gas source is a pressure reduction station containing
cylinders or cylinder bundles of compressed, liquefied or dissolved gas.
A station comprises two gas stores (one in service, the other as a backup).
(Diagram extracted from standard A.84.440)

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INSTALLATION WITH A PRESSURE REDUCTION STATION
20
17 28 19
Auxiliary source
14
16 P 17
11
7 13
15
5 6
4 P P
CONTROL
PANEL
10 12
2 1 9
TYPICAL CONTROL PANEL
Pressure reduction station installation

1 Cylinder hose 6 Shutoff valve 11 Stop limiter
Safety valve 16
2
2 Non-return valve 7 P High pressure gauge 12 Safety shutoff valve Stop valve
17
3 8 Low pressure gauge 13 18 Pressure regulator

Shutoff valve Anti-flashback
Distribution pipe: galvanised

4 9 19 Dry back pressure
steel, painted amber with light Manual or automatic 14 Connection with shutoff valve valve
brown stripes change-over device for a possible auxiliary source
5 Venting valve 10 Pressure regulator 15 Sectional valve 20 Bursting disc

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10.4. PIPES
The type of pipes to be used is determined in several stages:
ª Choice of material compatible with the gas to be carried

ª Choice of routing and position of the workstations (calculation of diameters and flowrates
according to pressure losses).
Preference is given to overhead pipes (per specifications of standard A 84.440).
ª Seamless tubular steel for pressure levels less than or equal to 25 bar (tubular copper strictly
forbidden for acetylene).
10.5. WORKSTATIONS
The workstation comprises the equipment situated downstream of the outlet shutoff valve and used to
couple up the welding equipment. It must be able to provide the gas flowrate required for the connected
appliance, at the design pressure, and be made of materials compatible with the gases used.
They comprise the following components:
ª a pressure regulator and low pressure gauge

ª separate or combined safety devices (anti-flashback, flame arrester, thermal shutoff device,
mechanical shutoff device, etc.)
ª an outlet coupling (with anti-flashback and flame arrester in line with standard NF A 84.330).
10.6. REFERENCE STANDARDS

ª European standard: Gas cylinder colour code NF EN 1089-3
ª NF E 29.650 to 29.660 (fittings).
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11. PRESSURE REGULATORS AND FLOWMETERS
11.1. PRESSURE REGULATORS FOR OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING PROCESSES

Pressure regulators are designed to reduce the pressure and keep it stable.
1. A gauge giving a constant reading of the pressure to be regulated (high pressure) and indicating
the contents of the cylinder.
2. A gauge indicating the regulated pressure (low pressure).
3. A device for setting the pressure to be regulated.
4. Safety valve.
Example of a pressure regulator for oxygen and other compressed gases
11.2. REGULATOR FLOWMETERS

Specially designed to relieve the pressure and regulate the flowrates of inert gases, mainly in MIG and
TIG applications.
A regulator flowmeter is used to reduce pressure from 196 bar (argon) to a service pressure of
approximately 3 bar.
As its name implies, this apparatus also regulates the flowrate by acting on the valve or with the knob on
its body. The gas flowrate is generally expressed in litres per minute (l/min).
Example: In TIG welding, the flowrate must vary from 4 to 10 litres per minute.
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11.3. SAFETY (OXYACETYLENE WELDING)

Insofar as is possible, the cylinder valve outlet, the pressure regulator and the regulator outlet will be
arranged parallel to the wall.
Similarly, it should be ensured that the pressure regulator outlets are placed in the opposite direction and
directed towards a zone free of any combustible or flammable material to ensure quick, safe access to
the valves of the two cylinders in the event of a fire.
ª The pressure regulator must be airtight.

ª Mount the pressure regulator (do not overtighten). O2 = never use grease.
ª Slacken off the pressure adjusting screw completely.
ª Connect to the service circuit.
ª Open the supply valve very slowly.
ª Never retighten the fitting under pressure.
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Regulators and flowmeters must comply with standards:
NF – A 84 – 430
NF – A 84 – 410
ISO 51 71
12. PREHEATING AND TEMPERATURE SETTING APPLIANCES
12.1. PREHEATING
Preheating may be necessary in the following cases:
ª Heavy workpiece
ª Workpiece to be welded at low temperature
ª Workpiece to be welded surrounded by bodies at low temperature
ª Weld made with small diameter electrodes
ª Weld completed at high linear speed
ª Workpiece with a complicated shape
ª Workpiece with great variations in mass
ª High percentage of carbon equivalent, Mn and alloys
ª Workpiece with high cooling capacity.
This preparation is particularly necessary to avoid temper under the bead and the possible cold cracking
of temper-sensitive steels.
Preheating may also be useful to reduce the level of residual welding stress and, in certain cases, it
provides a means of avoiding rupture on shrinkage. This is the purpose of preheating operations in the
welding of certain non-ferrous metal alloys (bronzes, light alloy housings) and also in the welding of cast
iron by hot running.
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12.2. PREHEATING AND TEMPERATURE SETTING APPARATUS

There are various types of heating element built into insulated muffles adapted to each specific case.
Assembly on varied shapes
Preheating
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Heating muffles
Insulated plate assembly with built-in heating

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Burner equipment
To heat 4 m diameter; 300 mm thick shells.

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For thin plate welding on a structure
A portable electric radiating panel running on a rail is placed in front of the plate. When the set
temperature is reached, an optical pyrometer control system maintains the temperature during the
welding operation.
Advantages of this process
When the plate regains its initial dimensions after welding, it stretches between fixed points. If these
points are correctly aligned, the plate having been preheated, the weld will be of better quality (better
weld pool penetration).
The plate becomes a stiffening element of the structure.
Field of application
Companies manufacturing enclosures from fixed plates:
ª railway stock (trucks, engines)

ª industrial vehicles (buses, cabs)
ª marine (boats)
ª sheet metalwork (cabinets, frames, etc.)
ª etc.
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IMPLANTATION DES MACHINES MACHINE LAYOUT

ETABLI BENCH
MARBRE DE MONTAGE ASSEMBLY BED
POSTES DE SOUDAGE WELDING SETS
AIRE DE MONTAGE ASSEMBLY AREA
MARBRE DE CONTROLE INSPECTION BED
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équerre fixe Fixed bracket

référence "O" du banc Bench "O" point
supports mobiles… Travelling supports for tube translation and
rotation
équerre mobile Travelling bracket
tablette mobile… Travelling plate with centring pins for gusset fitting
rail dressé étalonné Calibrated true rail
index de mise à longueur Length adjustment indicator
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Conduit d'extraction Vent

Fentes d'aspiration Suction slots
Face ouverte Open side
Caisson de répartition de débit d'air Air flow plenum
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9a. Through the back. Fume capture is less hindered

by the presence of the workpiece.
9b. Downwards. The workpiece obstructs the
ventilation. Not all fumes are captured.
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Fixe Fixed
Ventilateur Fan
Kit éclairage Lighting kit
Support mural Wall bracket
Boîtier de commande Control unit
Sensor pour M/A automatique Sensor for automatic On/Off function
Mobile Portable
Chariot Trolley
Peut également se combiner avec un filtre Can also be combined with an electrostatic filter
électrostatique
Collecteur d'évacuation Exhaust manifold
Clapet automatique Automatic valve
Sensor de contrôle automatique Automatic control sensor
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Longueur L et section S… Length L and section S of the spots to be defined

according to the thickness and weight of the
workpieces.
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d : décalage ≥ 30 mm d = stagger ≥ 30 mm
Avant raccordement… All bead ends are moulded before joining with the
welds
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Soudures de pointage Tack welds

Rond Rod
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Cornières pointées Tacked angle irons

Plan de serrage Clamping plane
Fond Base
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Tuyauterie principale Main piping

Tuyauterie secondaire Secondary piping
long. maxi 100 m max. length: 100 m
Postes d’utilisation Workstations
Source de gaz Gas source
Figure 1 - Schéma réseau bouclé Figure 1 - Loop network
Figure 2 - Schéma réseau non bouclé Figure 2 - Non-loop network
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Pression d’utilisation Service pressure

Pression de stockage Storage pressure
Figure 3 - Installation avec bouteilles individuelles Figure 3 - Installation with individual cylinders
Acétylène et mélanges de gaz… Acetylene and acetylene and/or methylacetylene
mixtures
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If the cylinder catches fire, protect yourself and calmly close the cylinder valve.
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PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 4.5 : HEALTH AND SAFETY

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HEALTH AND SAFETY
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. General information ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Bodies under the Ministry of Labour ............................................................................ 4
1.2.1. Role of the Ministry of Labour.......................................................................................4
1.2.2. The National Agency for Improved Working Conditions (ANACT) ...............................4
1.2.3. The Senior Council for the Prevention of Occupational Hazards .................................4
1.2.4. Works Inspectorate.......................................................................................................4
1.2.5. The Occupational Health Inspectorate .........................................................................5
1.3. National Social Security Organisations ........................................................................ 5
1.4. Regional Social Security Organisations ....................................................................... 5
1.5. accident prevention officers in France ......................................................................... 5
1.5.1. The Works Inspector.....................................................................................................5
1.5.2. The Occupation Health Physician.................................................................................6
1.5.3. The Expert Adviser and Safety Inspector .....................................................................6
1.6. Prevention in the workplace ......................................................................................... 7
1.6.1. The Company Manager ................................................................................................7
1.6.2. The Works Council .......................................................................................................7
1.6.3. The Health, Safety and Working Conditions Committee (CHSCT)...............................7
1.6.4. Shop Stewards .............................................................................................................8
1.6.5. Groups of expression....................................................................................................8
2. VARIOUS ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MATTERS ... 9

2.1. Industrial safety for welders.......................................................................................... 9
2.2. User safety ................................................................................................................. 11
2.3. Compliance with rules ................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1. Preventive attitudes ....................................................................................................11
3. RISKS RELATING TO ELECTRIC CURRENT - CONNECTING APPLIANCES.............. 12

3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................. 12
3.2. Electric current............................................................................................................ 12
3.3. Risks of electric current .............................................................................................. 12
3.3.1. Direct current ..............................................................................................................12
3.3.2. Alternating current ......................................................................................................12
3.4. Protection against the risks of electric current ........................................................... 12
3.5. Precautions to be taken during welding ..................................................................... 13
3.6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 14
3.7. Relevant standards..................................................................................................... 15
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4. PROBLEMS RELATING TO SHIELDING GASES: MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE

CONCENTRATIONS AND TLV ......................................................................................... 15
4.1. Risks caused by gas................................................................................................... 15
4.2. Risk of anoxia ............................................................................................................. 15
4.3. Asphyxia: argon and CO2 ........................................................................................... 16
4.4. Threshold limit value (TLV) ........................................................................................ 16
4.5. Reference ................................................................................................................... 16
5. RADIATION AND EYE PROTECTION .............................................................................. 16
5.1. Visible radiation .......................................................................................................... 16
5.2. Radiation classification............................................................................................... 16
5.3. Helmets and optical filters for arc welding.................................................................. 17
5.4. Skin and body protection............................................................................................ 18
5.4.1. Protecting the welder’s skin ........................................................................................18
5.5. Protection for nearby workers .................................................................................... 18
6. WELDING FUME EMISSIONS, VENTILATION AND EXTRACTION ............................... 18
6.2. Extraction and ventilation ........................................................................................... 20
6.3. The two main types of ventilation ............................................................................... 20
6.4. Local ventilation systems ........................................................................................... 20
6.5. Bibliography................................................................................................................ 22
7. ERGONOMICS ................................................................................................................... 22
7.1. Definition..................................................................................................................... 22
7.2. Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 22
7.3. Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 23
7.4. Difficulty rating ............................................................................................................ 24
7.5. Ergonomic study......................................................................................................... 25
7.6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 25
8. SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS AND NOISE PROTECTION ............................................. 25
8.1. Sound and noise......................................................................................................... 25
8.2. Sound pressure levels................................................................................................ 26
8.2.1. Tests to measure noise emissions .............................................................................26
8.3. Noise abatement methods ......................................................................................... 27
8.3.1. Noise reduction at source by action on the machine ..................................................28
8.3.2. Individual protection....................................................................................................28
8.4. Bibliography................................................................................................................ 28
9. STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................. 28
9.2. European directives.................................................................................................... 29
9.2.1. Personal protective equipment (PPE).........................................................................29
9.2.2. A few other standards.................................................................................................29
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1. INTRODUCTION

There are a multitude of precise rules relating to health, safety and working conditions.
Application of these rules by companies is strictly monitored.
Organisation of the prevention of occupational risks in France

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1.2. BODIES UNDER THE MINISTRY OF LABOUR

These bodies work with companies, professional and union organisations and government
representatives to improve conditions of work, health and safety.
1.2.1. Role of the Ministry of Labour

This ministry is charged with preparing, implementing and monitoring the application of labour legislation,
particularly in the area of health, safety and working conditions.
In this respect, the Department of Labour Relations (DRT):
ª supervises the National Agency for Improved Working Conditions (ANACT)

ª prepares the work of the Senior Council for the Prevention of Occupational Hazards
ª coordinates and boosts the action of the Works Inspectorate (and collects and analyses its
reports and statistics).
1.2.2. The National Agency for Improved Working Conditions (ANACT)

Status: Public body under the wing of the Ministry of Labour and governed by an administrative
council made up of employers and employees.
Mission: To help companies (employers and employees) and professional and union organisations in
the area of improving working conditions. In this respect, the Agency is notably concerned
with the organisation of work (duration, timetables), the introduction of new technologies, the
design and fitting of premises and amenities.
Action: It gathers and circulates information in the area of working conditions, produces guides and
means of analysis, training materials, etc., and conducts or instigates studies and pilot
actions in companies (to which it can provide financial support).
1.2.3. The Senior Council for the Prevention of Occupational Hazards

Status: Consultative body working with the Ministry of Labour. It associates employers and
employees in the development of rules and national guidelines in the area of prevention. It is
composed of representatives of professional organisations of employers, trade unions,
government representatives and qualified persons.
Mission: It is consulted on bills and draft legislation dealing with the prevention of occupational
hazards (chemical, biological, physical, mechanical and electrical hazards, industrial
diseases, occupational health and training).
Action: It can propose all measures liable to improve prevention.
1.2.4. Works Inspectorate

Status: A civil service body charged with ensuring that labour legislation (Labour Code and rules,
orders and regulations) is properly implemented.
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Action:
ª The regional offices (corresponding to the 21 administrative regions) are charged with inspecting
and coordinating the activity and running of the departmental offices and guaranteeing the
implementation of ministerial directives.
ª The departmental offices coordinate the inspectorate sections, composed of a works inspector
assisted by controllers, who maintain direct contact with the companies.
ª In France, 90% of salaried employees work in firms that are monitored by the works inspectorate.
1.2.5. The Occupational Health Inspectorate

Status: Regional Works Inspectorate Officers are assisted by Occupational Health Inspectors. The
Occupational Health Inspector acts as technical adviser to the Works Inspectorate.
Mission: The Occupational Health Inspector participates in monitoring the running of the occupational
health services. He acts as adviser to Occupational Health Physicians and, in liaison with the
Works Inspector, supervises the implementation of regulations.
1.3. NATIONAL SOCIAL SECURITY ORGANISATIONS

Three national bodies take care of accident prevention in the workplace:
ª the National Health Insurance Fund (CNAM)

ª the National Technical Committees (CTN)
ª the National Safety and Research Institute (INRS).
1.4. REGIONAL SOCIAL SECURITY ORGANISATIONS

The mission of the regional social security organisations is to collect information, put forward results and
coordinate prevention in each region.
ª Regional Health Insurance Fund (CRAM)

ª General Social Security Funds (CGSS)
ª Regional Technical Committees (CTR)
1.5. ACCIDENT PREVENTION OFFICERS IN FRANCE

Accident prevention officers in France include civil servants under the Ministry of Labour, company
employees and CRAM employees.
1.5.1. The Works Inspector

Status: A sworn civil servant working for the Ministry of Labour.
Missions:
ª He/she intervenes directly in the workplace to inspect, advise and arbitrate in every area affecting
working relations: hiring and dismissal, contracts of employment, working conditions, etc.
ª He/she also performs a preventive action which is only one aspect of his/her activity: he/she
monitors the implementation of the regulations, advises employers and employees and produces
statistics and reports on working conditions in his/her area.
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Capabilities:
ª He/she has right of entry into companies and can question all employees under his/her authority.
He/she can ask to have the noise levels measured, the air sampled, products analysed, etc.
He/she makes inquiries after accidents and attends CHSCT meetings.
ª If regulations are breached, he/she can:
• issue a statement that will be communicated to the legal authorities and that may result in
penalties (the amount fined is determined in the Labour Code);
• give formal notice to the works manager, setting a time limit to comply with statutory
requirements.
The Works Inspector’s contact details must be displayed in the firm.
1.5.2. The Occupation Health Physician

Status: A salaried employee of the company or the business-to-business service. He/she can only
be hired or dismissed with the agreement of the Works Council. He/she is subject to the law
on doctor/patient privilege.
Missions:
He or she has a purely preventive role consisting of providing medical supervision of the employees and
action on the working environment.
ª Staff medical supervision:

• On recruitment, the physician checks that the employee is medically fit enough for the job
concerned. Every year, the fitness of the employee is checked again by the physician.
• If the employee is considered to be either temporarily or permanently unfit from a medical
aspect for a particular job, the physician proposes individual measures (transfer, job
changes, etc.).
ª Action on the working environment: the Occupational Health Physician must devote one-third of
his working time to this matter. He or she acts as adviser to the Works Manager, staff
representatives and employees on all problems relating to health and working conditions.
The Occupational Health Physician’s contact details must be displayed in the firm.
1.5.3. The Expert Adviser and Safety Inspector

Status: They are sworn employees of the Regional Health Insurance Fund (CRAM).
Missions:
ª They are in charge of carrying out the preventive actions of the CRAMs.
ª They deal directly with the Works Manager and employees to advise, inform, train and inspect on
matters relating to occupational hazards.
ª They can conduct inquests following accidents to determine the causes and advise on the
measures to be taken.
ª They can attend CHSCT meetings.
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ª They lead information days and training sessions on accident prevention for employees and
employers.
ª They can ask the prevention service to impose an additional contribution (after seeking the
opinion of the CTR) on companies who refuse to apply their recommended measures. Their
reports also serve as a basis for the prevention service to award (after seeking the opinion of the
relevant CTR) a reduction in the rate of contribution, a loan or a grant to a company.
1.6. PREVENTION IN THE WORKPLACE

In every firm employing at least 50 staff, the Company Manager chairs the Health, Safety and Working
Conditions Committee. He or she is responsible for employee safety.
1.6.1. The Company Manager

He or she holds the power and the means of determining working organisation, production processes
and the choice of equipment.
He or she is responsible for employee safety. Under certain conditions, some of these powers can be
delegated to one of his or her colleagues.
The Company Manager can be assisted in this area by a department set up on his or her own initiative:
the Safety Department. The Safety Department is a technical body that has no legal status: it cannot
discharge the Company Manager and management as a whole of their responsibility with regard to
safety, or invade the prerogatives of the CHSCT.
1.6.2. The Works Council

The Works Council is informed and consulted on all matter relating to the general running of the
company, from both an economic and social point of view.
It is consulted on questions concerning working conditions (length, working day, workplace layout, etc.)
and the introduction of new technologies.
It is involved in the appointment of staff representatives on the CHSCT (Health, Safety and Working
Conditions Committee). CHSCT notices are submitted to the Works Council.
1.6.3. The Health, Safety and Working Conditions Committee (CHSCT)

Status:
ª A CHSCT is compulsory in firms employing at least 50 staff.

ª It is chaired by the Works Manager and is composed of staff representatives appointed by the
Works Council assisted by shop stewards. The Occupational Health Physician and other qualified
persons (Safety Manager, Training Manager, etc.) attend committee meetings in an advisory
capacity. The secretary is elected from the staff representatives.
ª The Works Inspector and an officer from the CRAM Prevention Department are invited to CHSCT
meetings.
ª The Committee meets at least once a quarter and immediately after any accident.
The staff representative members of the CHSCT are appointed for two years by a “college” formed by
elected members of the Works Council and shop stewards. The list of CHSCT members’ names must be
displayed in designated work premises with the location of their place of work.
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The number of members depends on the size of the workforce at the company or establishment.
Supervisory and
Other staff
Workforce managerial staff Total
representatives
representatives
0 to 199 staff 1 2 3
200 to 499 staff 1 3 4
500 to 1499 staff 2 4 6
1500 and over 3 6 9
Mission:
ª To help protect the health and safety of the company’s employees and temporary workers, as
well as to improving working conditions.
ª To analyse occupational hazards and working conditions (for example: job studies).
ª To carry out regular inspections of the places of work and conduct surveys in the areas of
industrial accidents and diseases.
ª To help promote the prevention of occupational hazards in the company and encourage any
initiative that it considers useful in this perspective.
The committee is consulted before any decision is taken regarding layout that will affect health and
safety conditions or working conditions, and particularly before any significant changes to the
workstations linked, for examples, to the introduction of a new technology.
1.6.4. Shop Stewards

Shop stewards are responsible for presenting individual and collective staff claims to the employer.
In the absence of a CHSCT, they are entrusted with the missions usually assigned to CHSCT members.
1.6.5. Groups of expression

Since the Auroux acts were introduced on 4 August 1982, employees have an individual and collective
right of expression on their working conditions and work organisation. Their suggestions and opinions
are passed on to the CHSCT.
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2. VARIOUS ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

MATTERS
2.1. INDUSTRIAL SAFETY FOR WELDERS

Welding is encountered everywhere…
ª Main fields
• sheet metalworking
• ornamental ironwork
• structural framework
• pipework
• mechanical engineering
• etc.
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To be able to carry out his/her job in total safety, a welder must have:
ª physical qualities
ª moral qualities
ª technical qualities.
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Morality
ª dedication
ª human contact
ª cooperation with supervisory staff
ª observance of health and safety rules
ª spirit of safety
Contra-indications to performing the job of welder
ª Skeletal disease
ª Amputation
ª Ankylosis
ª Chronic rheumatism
ª Heart disease (pacemaker)
ª Hypertension
ª Chronic bronchitis
ª Serious lung disease
ª Alcoholism
ª Epilepsy
ª Vertigo
ª Eye damage
ª Hearing damage
ª Nervousness
ª Tremor
2.2. USER SAFETY

Failure to comply with safety rules when using machines is a major cause of accidents. The user is
responsible for his or her attitude with regard to the machine.
The safety measures taken by the user in all cases and working practices must be strict:
ª Adequate training
ª Safety working procedures
ª Regular inspections
ª Supply of individual protection equipment (helmet, gloves, footwear, goggles, etc.).
These provisions are the responsibility of users.
2.3. COMPLIANCE WITH RULES
2.3.1. Preventive attitudes

Operators can avoid the risk of an accident by observing the following safety rules:
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ª Before work: The operator must ensure that the machine is in good condition (welding set,
automatic gantry, etc.), the guards are fitted and the area surrounding the machine is clear.
He/she must use individual protection equipment.
ª During work: Individual protection equipment must be kept on at all times. The operator must
use and adjust the guards. He/she must be well balanced and find a good working position
facing his/her workstation or machine to make assured moves. He/she remains attentive and
should not allow him/herself to be distracted.
ª After work: He/she makes sure that the machine is shut down on the workstation, cleans the
work area and puts away his/her tools.
3. RISKS RELATING TO ELECTRIC CURRENT - CONNECTING APPLIANCES
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In our industrial society, electricity is the most widely used form of energy with its ease of transmission
and particularly simple transformation largely contributing to the development of its applications.
Electricity cannot be seen. This phenomenon, which escapes our senses, is only revealed by its
external manifestations or familiar signs of its use: light, heat and movement.
As a result, the worker is all too often exposed to risks that have been ignored or underestimated.
3.2. ELECTRIC CURRENT

Accidental contact with live components or conductors always cause an electric shock which can be
fatal. Contrary to popular belief, it should be emphasised that direct current can be dangerous.
3.3. RISKS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

The nature of the electric current produces different physiological effects.
3.3.1. Direct current

Direct current produces burns and causes the body to recoil instinctively, the consequences of which can
be serious when working at height. A current of 0.1 amperes passing through the human body is
considered fatal.
3.3.2. Alternating current

Alternating current acts on the nervous system and tends to paralyse the victim. It leads to heart trouble
that can result in death. The intensity of the current considered fatal is much lower than the DC intensity.
3.4. PROTECTION AGAINST THE RISKS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Safety instructions relating to the current generators used in welding are identical, viz.

ª installation of an automatic ground fault circuit interrupter.
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Additional protection includes:

ª elastomer footwear providing excellent electrical insulation.
3.5. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING WELDING
Electric cables must not be used to drag an arc

welding set. To move the welding set, it must be
unplugged from the energy supply and the cables
wound up to prevent damage.
When working conditions require the welder to lie

or sit on metal parts in contact with the workpiece
(sheet metal assembly, machine frame, metallic
structure, etc.), he/she must insulate him/herself
from these current-carrying parts by means of a
duckboard, planks or a tarpaulin and wear gloves
and close-fitting clothes.
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By laying the electrode holder on a metallic part

during a break in work, the welder is in danger of
electrocuting him/herself or a colleague.
The ground clamp of an electric welding set must

connected to the workpiece and not to its support.
Before starting any welding operation, the welder
must also make sure that this clamp is connected
to the return cord and is tight on the workpiece and
is as close as possible to the point of work.
3.6. CONCLUSIONS
ª Choose equipment with care. They must be suited to the job at hand and to the electricity supply
network.
ª Put active conductors out of reach or insulate them to avoid direct contact.
ª Insulate active parts in relation to the ground and the protective conductor or provide double
insulation or reinforced insulation to avoid direct contact.
ª Use as low a voltage as possible.
ª Use top quality insulation to increase contact resistance due to the inevitable risk of contact.
ª Make sure that the installation is correct and sensible to avoid stray currents.
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3.7. RELEVANT STANDARDS

ª Power supply network: see standards NF C 15100 and EN 50199.
ª Machines: Manufacturers must take constructive measures and comply with the corresponding
standards:
• NF EN 60974-1
• NF EN 50060
• NF EN 60974-12
4. PROBLEMS RELATING TO SHIELDING GASES: MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE

CONCENTRATIONS AND TLV
4.1. RISKS CAUSED BY GAS

All welding and cutting work produces noxious gases, fumes and vapours that can bother the welder.
Exposure to acceptable quantities of any one of these substances is limited in the workplace by
“maximum permissible concentrations”.
These values are designed to protect the health of welders in the workplace.
4.2. RISK OF ANOXIA

In gas-shielded welding processes, the gas emitted by torch and any backing gas used can in certain
cases (hollow receptacle, high gas flowrate, etc.) displace the air sufficiently to affect its quality by
reducing the oxygen content of the surrounding atmosphere.
Below 18% oxygen, dizziness can occur, rapidly leading to asphyxia if the situation is not remedied
quickly.
ANOXIA Oxygen content in the breathing

ASPHYXIA air depleted by the shielding gas
Individual and general protection
Adequate ventilation − forced ventilation in confined welding areas.

Failing this, a breathing mask must be worn and the gas circuits
must be checked for leaks.
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4.3. ASPHYXIA: ARGON AND CO2

Gases heavier than air:
ª From 3 to 5% Breathing difficulties

Headaches
ª From 8 to 15% Sickness

Nausea
Unconsciousness
etc.
Exposure to higher concentrations leads rapidly to circulatory failure, coma and death.
4.4. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV)

This is the maximum permissible concentration for a given substance in the form of gas, vapour or
suspended matter in the workplace, generally in relation to eight hours’ exposure per day.
TLVs are specified by the CRAM.
Examples: permissible exposure limit
ª Chromium oxide: 0.1 mg/m3

ª Argon, CO2, CO: 9 000 mg/m3
ª NO2 : 9 mg/m3
4.5. REFERENCE
Guide pratique de ventilation n°7, I.N.R.S. ED 668.
5. RADIATION AND EYE PROTECTION
5.1. VISIBLE RADIATION

The electric arc emits intense radiation in the visible range, as well as in the near infrared (up to
2000 mm) and near ultraviolet range (up to 210 mm).
5.2. RADIATION CLASSIFICATION
Ultraviolet (UV): Ultraviolet radiation has an irritating action on the skin and eyes. It produces a sunburn
effect. At low doses, it causes photophthalmia resulting in an inflammation of the conjunctiva.
Conjunctivitis generally appears several hours after exposure.
Infrared (IR): Infrared radiation penetrates where it is absorbed and transformed into heat. This causes
watering eyes and headaches. The effects are slow and cumulative and can, in time, lead to cataracts.
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5.3. HELMETS AND OPTICAL FILTERS FOR ARC WELDING

To protect the arc welder’s face, eyes and neck correctly from ultraviolet, infrared and visible radiation, a
helmet equipped with an optical filter of appropriate opacity is essential.
The absorption properties of the filter must be suited to the nature and extent of the risk produced by arc
radiation.
The risk depends mainly on the process and the intensity of the welding current.
(1) Depending on the conditions of use, the shade number immediately above or below can be used.
(2) The term “heavy metals” covers steels, alloyed steels, copper and copper alloys, etc.
Note: The shaded areas in the above chart correspond to current values where the welding processes are not
commonly used in present-day welding practice.
Medical studies have shown that a welder using adequate filters throughout his/her career will
not have any problems.
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Filters have been standardised in EN 169 (encompassing French standard NF 977–104).
5.4. SKIN AND BODY PROTECTION

Radiation does not only affect eyes; the electric arc produces the same effects as the sun (burning of the
skin).
5.4.1. Protecting the welder’s skin

ª The face is protected by the welding screen or helmet in which the filtering glass protecting the
eyes is mounted.
ª The body is protected by fireproof (cotton) work clothes with the collar and sleeves buttoned.
These clothes must be dry to increase electrical contact resistance and close-fitting so as not to
let spattered metal through onto the skin.
ª The welder must wear leather welding gloves that sometimes incorporate sleeves to protect the
forearms.
ª The welder must wear dry safety shoes or boots.
ª Items such as leather aprons, gaiters, half-jackets or hoods can also be worn.
5.5. PROTECTION FOR NEARBY WORKERS

For nearby workers, the problems are different. It is generally adequate to set up screens that will
prevent them from being affected by radiation, dazzling and photophthalmia in the long run. Transparent
welding screens and curtains, conforming to experimental French standard A88–230, are now available
that also protect passers-by. They also stop spatter.
6. WELDING FUME EMISSIONS, VENTILATION AND EXTRACTION

Due to the high temperatures reached at the melting point, the various welding processes share the
drawback of emitting fumes that can be inhaled by welders and other people working in welding shops.
Fumes mixed with hot air are formed of gases and dust in variable proportions according to the process
concerned. The size of the dust particles is almost always less than 1 micrometer and, as a result, they
are liable to reach the alveolar region of the respiratory tract.
The diagram below shows the main pollutants contained in these fumes:
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Fume emission rate and composition depend on several parameters (some of which are interlinked)
including:
ª the welding process,

ª wire or electrode diameter and efficiency,
ª composition and thickness of the covering or flux (flux-cored wires),
ª composition of the wire or electrode which, combined with the above characteristics, determine
the risk induced by the filler product,
ª welding parameters:
• current intensity
• voltage
• arc length
• speed
ª duty factor of the installation (ratio of the actual welding time to the total working time),
ª welding position
• flat
• corner
• upward vertical
• etc.
ª nature of the de welding operation: joining or surfacing,
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ª shielding gas flowrate and composition,

ª parent metal composition and any preheating required,
ª presence of a coating (containing zinc, lead, cadmium, etc.) or contaminant on the parent metal
(e.g. dirt, grease, traces of solvents, etc.).
OVERALL RISK = Risk due to filler metal

+
Risk due to parent metal
+
Risk due to covering
+
Risk due to gas
6.2. EXTRACTION AND VENTILATION

Fumes must be controlled at the source at a rate of 9 to 11 m3/h per welder.
In arc welding shops, the air must be renewed between one and 20 times per welding set, although
obviously this depends on the volume of the shop.
Fresh air inlets must be wide enough to prevent a vacuum from being created in the room and must not
cause a draught. This fresh air will be heated if applicable.
6.3. THE TWO MAIN TYPES OF VENTILATION

ª Local ventilation or ventilation by local extraction of contaminants
ª General ventilation or ventilation by dilution of the contaminants.
Local ventilation must be used as a priority in all cases, particularly where significant quantities of
hazardous substances are emitted.
6.4. LOCAL VENTILATION SYSTEMS

The following types of device are available:
ª Exhaust fitted to the tool

• Suction torches used in MIG/MAG processes or with flux-cored wire with or without gas
ª Exhaust built into the tooling:
ª Exhaust fitted to the welder's shield
ª Extractor table
ª Portable local exhaust system
ª Suction plenum
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N.B. According to the terms of the regulations, premises where welding work is carried out are
“premises subject to specific contamination”. As a result, the employer is obliged to capture
the fumes “as they are produced, as close as possible to their source of emission and as
effectively as possible, particularly by taking account of the nature, the characteristics and
the flowrates of the air pollutants and air motion” (art. R 232–5-7 of the French Labour Code).
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6.5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
ª Guide pratique de ventilation, n°8 ED 703 (INRS).
ª Valeurs limites d’exposition professionnelle aux substances dangereuses en France, ND 17 08
pp. 691 – 706.
ª BRUNNER A, Journal de la soudure, 1979, 69, 8, pp. 218 – 223.
7. ERGONOMICS
7.1. DEFINITION
Ergonomics can be defined as an attempt by an interdisciplinary team to highlight and measure the
conflicts between humans and the conditions in which they work using a scientific approach.
It is an attempt to grasp a better understanding of humans in a working situation from the aspects of their
health, safety and comfort with a view to attaining a workload that is better suited to their capacities,
skills and individual and collective aspirations.
It is essential that adjustments and adaptations are planned wherever possible (shop, site, etc.)
to allow everybody to work under normal conditions.
This means that machines, workstations, hardware and controls must be able to be adapted to at least
90% of the population concerned.
7.2. PURPOSE
Ergonomics are designed to improve working conditions at the actual place of work and in the
surrounding environment with the active participation of the social partners.
For this purpose, when designing a new or improved workstation, the technician must take into
consideration:
ª the rules of motion economy

ª the working atmosphere
Therefore, for example, the design of tools and apparatus, jigs for welding operations, turning gear, etc.
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7.3. LIGHTING
Good lighting has a number of effects:
ª increased production
ª reduced number of accidents
ª improved quality
ª reduced scrap
ª workers’ health (eye strain).
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Light intensity: the quantity of light received by the work surface is measured in lux with a light meter.
Measuring the light intensity on a

workbench with a light meter.
Work area lighting:
ª Poor lighting increases the diameter of the retina.

Prevention: 500 Lux minimum.
7.4. DIFFICULTY RATING
POSTURES SEATED STANDING
Hands above heart 1 2

Trunk vertical
(15 – 30°) 2.5 3

Trunk leaning forwards (30 – 45°) 4 4
(15 – 30°) 2.5 3.5

Trunk leaning to one side (30 – 45°) 4 4
(15 – 45°) 2.5 2

Twisting of the body (45 – 90°) 4.5 3.5
Hands above head 4.5 5
Hands at head level 2.5 3.5
Trunk leaning backwards and 5 5

Hands at head level
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7.5. ERGONOMIC STUDY
EYES 9.1
NECK 2
SHOULDERS 3–6
CHEST 2.3
STOMACH 13.5
BELLY 3.3
THIGHS 2.2
KNEES 4 – 6.5
LEGS 2-3
7.6. CONCLUSION
Ergonomics is the scientific study of work:
ª human/task relations
ª human/system relations
ERGONOMICS Î SAFETY Î QUALITY
• Increased productivity
• Reduced absenteeism
• Greater operator satisfaction
• Better general safety.
8. SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS AND NOISE PROTECTION
8.1. SOUND AND NOISE

Sound is a propagated vibration of the air.
This causes a hearing sensation that may be pleasant (sound of the sea, birdsong, etc.) but can quite
often be disagreeable, unwanted or harmful - it is then generally referred to as noise.
Vibration of the air causes a variation in its pressure. Depending on whether these variations are fast or
slow, the sounds are high or low pitched.
The rapidity of the variations is characterised by frequency, measured in Hertz.
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8.2. SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS

Sound pressure levels are physically measured in decibels.
The zero decibel level is the lowest sound perceptible to the human ear.
The 120 decibel level is the level at which noise causes a painful sensation to the human ear.
A sound level meter is used for measuring.
Scale of sound pressure levels
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL IN DECIBELS dB(A) SOURCE OF THE SOUND

140 Jet engine (aeroplane)
130
Propeller-driven aircraft
120
110
Sheet metalwork or welding shop
100
90 Heavy goods vehicle (lorry)
80
Car
70
60
Normal conversation
50
40
Soft music, radio
30
20
Whispering
10
0 Perception threshold
8.2.1. Tests to measure noise emissions

The decibel (A), or the A-weighted decibel, is suitable for evaluating perceived sound levels and
forecasting the effects of noise.
Testing is done using a sound level meter. When the sound level is not stable over a period of time, an
average called the “equivalent continuous sound level” is measured.
When this average is evaluated over eight hours, it takes the name of “daily sound exposure level”.
Noises are not added together.
Example: machine 1 = 70 dB (A)
+ machine 2 = 82 dB (A)
= 82 dB (A)
BEWARE!!
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In a welding shop, the most harmful operations are:
ª Arc gouging
ª Plasma cutting
ª Grinding and cutting off
ª Hammering
Welding itself usually only produces low noise levels, generally situated in the safe zone: less than
85 dB.
8.3. NOISE ABATEMENT METHODS

Modern life and the environment are damaging to hearing.
ª Destruction of the cells then total or partial isolation

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ª Each destroyed cell is destroyed for ever

ª It is never too late to do something about it.
We are all born with around 40,000 acoustic hair cells with the function of transmitting sounds to the
brain and selecting low and high-pitched sounds.
To do this correctly, a full complement of healthy cells is required.
8.3.1. Noise reduction at source by action on the machine

This is the most effective means of noise abatement at the workplace.
Examples:
ª Use of vibration insulation

ª Enclosing the machine
ª Acoustic screen
ª Soundproof booth for staff.
8.3.2. Individual protection

When all collective noise abatement means have been envisaged and have not been able to be
implemented for technical reasons, individual protectors can be used.
ª Ear muffs
ª Ear plugs
Individual hearing protectors can commonly reduce overall noise by 20 dB(A).
8.4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
ª Damangeot A., Limites d’exposition aux sons aigus, ND 1537 – 120 – 85, I.N.R.S.
ª Standard NF S 31015, AFNOR, Paris.
ª LATAYE. R, ED 501, Efficacité et confort des protecteurs individuels contre le bruit, I.N.R.S.
ª ND 2018 – 163 – 96, Normalisation EN, I.N.R.S.
9. STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

The purpose of standardisation can be conveyed by three principles:
ª Specify: definition of the characteristics of a product and its minimum performance levels for a
particular use.
ª Unify: determination of dimensions and tolerances enabling product interchangeability.
ª Simplify: rationalisation of models and products satisfying common needs.
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The multitude of products calls for strict regulation. To this effect, specific standards have been created
to designate them.
French and other national standards are in the process of being replaced by European Standards.
During this transition period, it is vital to be aware of both sets of standards.
9.2. EUROPEAN DIRECTIVES
9.2.1. Personal protective equipment (PPE)

A huge range of European standards is devoted to the PPE sector. Around 160 standards or draft
standards are currently listed.
To simplify this general approach to European standardisation, PPE standards need to be broken down
in relation to various parts of the human body, from head to toe.
ª Helmets (industrial safety helmets, EN 397)

ª Eye protection (EN 172/EN 169/EN 379)
ª Hearing protectors (EN 352-1/EN 352-2)
ª Respiratory protective devices (EN 132 to EN 135)
ª Protective clothing (EN 348/EN 366/EN 367/EN 373)
ª Safety footwear (EN 345 to EN 347)
ª Protective gloves (EN 407)
(see INRS ND 2069 – 169 – 97).
9.2.2. A few other standards

ª Safety of laser products
• NF EN 60825-1
ª Acoustics
• See EN ISO 11200 series of standards (refer to INRS ND 2035 – 165 – 96)
ª Inert gas shielded arc welding
• NF EN 26848
ª Welding, brazing and braze welding aluminium and aluminium alloys
• NF A81–331
ª Safety rules for arc welding equipment
• NF EN 60974–1 et seq. (11 and 12)
ª Personal eye protection. Filters for welding.
• NF EN 169
• NF EN 170
• NF EN 171
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As this is not an exhaustive list, below are a few useful addresses for further information.
INRS
INSTITUT NATIONAL DE RECHERCHE ET DE SECURITE
30 rue Olivier Noyer
75680 PARIS CEDES 01
SYNAMAP
SYNDICAT NATIONAL DES MATERIELS ET ARTICLES DE PROTECTION
Cedex 72
92038 PARIS LA DEFENSE
CRAM
CAISSE REGIONAL D’ASSURANCE MALADIE (see each region for details)
ASSOCIATION FRANCAISE DE NORMALISATION (AFNOR)

Tour Europe, Cedex 7
92 PARIS LA DEFENSE
AGENCE NATIONALE POUR L’AMELIORATION DES CONDITIONS DE TRAVAIL (ANACT)

7 boulevard Romain Rolland
92128 MONTROUGE
INSTITUT NATIONAL DE L’ENVIRONNEMENT INDUSTRIEL ET DES RISQUES (INERIS)

BP 2
60550 VERNEUIL EN HALATE
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§ 1.1.
Ministère chargé du travail Ministry of Labour
Direction des relations du travail Department of Labour Relations
Conseil supérieur… Senior Council for the Prevention of Occupational
Hazards
Ministère chargé de la Sécurité Sociale Ministry of Social Security
Direction de la Sécurité Sociale Department of Social Security
Caisse nationale de l’assurance maladie… National Health Insurance Fund for salaried
workers assisted by:
- the Occupational Injury and Industrial Disease
Prevention Commission
- the Central Coordination Committee
- 15 National Technical Committees
- the Overseas Departments Technical Committee
Agence nationale pour l’amélioration des National Agency for Improved Working Conditions
conditions de travail
Institut national de recherche et de sécurité National Safety & Research Institute
Préfet de Région Regional Prefect
Commissions régionales de médecine du travail Regional Industrial Health Commissions
23 Directions régionales du travail et de l’emploi… 23 Regional Labour & Employment Offices
Works Health Inspectorate
100 Departmental Labour & Employment Offices
405 Works Inspectorate Sections
Comités régionaux de coordination Regional Coordination Committees
16 Caisse régionales d’assurance maladie 16 Regional Health Insurance Funds
4 General Overseas Funds
assisted by Regional Technical Committees
Entreprises… Companies
Works Manager
Occupational Health Physician
Health, Safety & Working Conditions Committee
(CHSCT)
Shop stewards
Employees
Laboratoires interrégionaux… Interregional Laboratories
Physical Measurement Centres
Page 9
LA COMPOSITION DU CHSCT CHSCT COMPOSITION

les représentants du personnel… Staff representatives (3, 4, 6 or 9, including the
secretary)
personne qualifiée invitée Invited qualified person
le chef d’établissement… Works Manager or his/her representative: Chair
le chef du service de sécurité du travail Head of the Industrial Safety Department
le médecin du travail Occupational Health Physician
l’ingénieur conseil… Expert Adviser or Safety Inspector of the CPAM
Prevention Service
l’inspecteur du travail Works Inspector
Page 10
PHYSIQUE = PHYSICAL
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§ 3.5
NON! = NO!
§ 5.3 (tableau)
Numéros d’échelon… Shade numbers (1) and recommended use for arc
welding
Procédé de soudage… Welding process or related technique
Intensités du courant en ampères Current in amperes
Electrodes enrobées SMAW
MIG sur métaux lourds (2) MIG on heavy metals (2)
MIG sur alliages légers MIG on light alloys
TIG sur tous métaux et alliages TIG on all metals and alloys
MAG MAG
Gougeage air-arc Arc-air gouging
Coupage au jet de plasma Plasma cutting
Soudage plasma Plasma welding
§ 6.1
Fumées de soudage Welding fumes

Poussières Dust
Gaz Gases
Aluminium.. Aluminium
Antimony
Barium
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Fluorides
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Lead
Titanium
Vanadium
Zinc
Zirconium
Silice amorphe… Amorphous silica
Iron
Tin
Cobalt Cobalt
Béryllium Beryllium
Chrome (IV)… Chromium (IV)
Nickel
Beryllium
Ozone… Ozone
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Oxyde de carbone… Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen monoxide
Poussières réputées de surcharge Dust reputed to be benign
Poussières fibrogènes Fibre-forming dust
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Poussières entraînant la bérylliose Dust causing berylliosis

Entraînant des pneumoconioses Causing pneumoconiosis
A potentialité cancérogène Potentially carcinogenic
Irritants pulmonaires Lung irritants
Inhibiteurs d’hématose Haematosis inhibitors
Irritantes Irritant
Toxiques Toxic
Allergisantes Allergenic
Fumées de soudage… Welding fumes. Categories of poison
classified according to the main pathogens
that can result. These biological effects have
been revealed in certain circumstances that do
not necessarily involve welding.
§ 7.2
Normal Normal
Maximal Maximum
§ 8.2
Seuil de l’audition Hearing threshold

Attention : Beware:
1 machine 1 machine
2 machines 2 machines
Les décibels : Decibels:
2 + 2 ne font pas 4 ! 2 + 2 do not make 4!
Les niveaux sonores ne s’ajoutent pas. Ils se Sound pressure levels are not added together.
composent. They are composed.
Lorsque deux machines… When two identical machines are running at the
same time, stopping one of them will reduce the
noise level by only 3 dB(A).
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MODULE 4.6 : MEASUREMENTS, REGULATION AND

RECORDS IN WELDING
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MEASUREMENTS, REGULATION AND RECORDS
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MEASUREMENTS, REGULATION AND RECORDS IN WELDING
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
2. MEASURING WELDING PARAMETERS............................................................................ 3

2.1. Characteristic welding parameter quantities ................................................................ 3
2.2. Measuring apparatus for electrical quantities............................................................... 3
2.2.1. Galvanometers .............................................................................................................3
2.2.2. Pointer-type galvanometers..........................................................................................4
2.2.3. Digital galvanometers ...................................................................................................5
2.2.4. Hook-on ammeters .......................................................................................................6
2.2.5. Oscilloscopes................................................................................................................6
2.2.6. Graphic recorders .........................................................................................................6
2.2.7. Central measuring systems ..........................................................................................7
2.3. Measuring voltage and current on a D.C. circuit.......................................................... 7
2.4. Measuring voltage and current on a sinusoidal A.C. circuit......................................... 7
2.5. Measuring voltage and current in welding.................................................................... 8
2.5.1. General case ................................................................................................................8
2.5.2. Case of pulsed current..................................................................................................9
3. MEASURING SPEEDS ...................................................................................................... 10

3.1. Measuring welding speeds......................................................................................... 10
3.2. Measuring wire feed rates .......................................................................................... 10
3.3. Measuring gas flowrates ............................................................................................ 10
4. MEASURING TEMPERATURES ....................................................................................... 11
4.1. Measuring a temperature at a precise point............................................................... 11
4.2. Temperature measuring instruments ......................................................................... 11
4.2.1. Optical pyrometers......................................................................................................11
4.2.2. Temperature indicator crayons ...................................................................................11
4.2.3. Contact thermometers ................................................................................................12
5. HEAT TREATMENT ........................................................................................................... 12

5.1. Heat treatment equipment.......................................................................................... 12
5.1.1. Heat treatment furnaces .............................................................................................12
5.1.2. Burners and heating panels........................................................................................13
5.1.3. Heating mats and cords..............................................................................................13
5.1.4. Top-hat furnaces.........................................................................................................14
5.1.5. Temperature regulators ..............................................................................................14
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5.2. Pre- and postheating treatment.................................................................................. 15

5.3. Global heat treatment ................................................................................................. 15
5.4. Local heat treatment................................................................................................... 16
6. CALIBRATING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ................................................................. 16
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1. INTRODUCTION
The measuring of welding parameters is an important quality point. It helps towards compliance with the
descriptive welding operating procedure (DMOS).
This document will prove that the weld concerned:
ª is correctly identified,
ª is produced with controlled parameters,
ª complies with “qualified” welds.
The measuring of welding parameters focuses on the evaluation of three physical quantities:
ª welding currents and voltages,

ª welding speed and wire feed rate,
ª temperatures and the performance of heat treatments.
2. MEASURING WELDING PARAMETERS
2.1. CHARACTERISTIC WELDING PARAMETER QUANTITIES

The idea of noting welding parameters stems from the need to qualify weld beads in order to verify that
the welds do indeed have the expected levels of performance. This is why we shall be paying particular
attention to the recording of weld bead dimensions, the pass temperature and the measurement of
welding energy.
U ×I
For the record, welding energy is equal to E = 60 × where:
V
• E is the welding energy in J / cm,
• U is the arc voltage in volts,
• I is the welding current in amperes,
• V is the welding speed in cm / min.
2.2. MEASURING APPARATUS FOR ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

2.2.1. Galvanometers
Electrical quantities are always measured with an apparatus called a galvanometer. Galvanometers can
either have a pointer or a digital readout. These instruments give a value proportional to the current
passing through them. An electric current of a few microamperes is enough to obtain a reliable
measurement. As these instruments have a high level of internal resistance, placing them in parallel with
the electric circuit does not disturb the current flow to be measured (a few precautions are required for
measurements on printed circuit boards).
Some galvanometers have both a pointer and a digital readout. In this case, the pointer is used to
monitor a quantity from a distance, whereas the digital display gives a precise indication of the
measurement.
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2.2.2. Pointer-type galvanometers

A pointer-type galvanometer works in fact like a small DC
motor, where the driving torque is strictly proportional to the
current passing through it.
To prevent it from turning through several rotations, the
pointer is attached to a small spring that brings it back to 0
when the current is no longer flowing through the apparatus.
Like all DC electric motors, the pointer-type galvanometer is
capable of rotating both ways. Except for zero-centre
instruments, attention will have to be paid to the current
direction. Accidental inversion of the direction of rotation will
bend the pointer and deform the stops and the return
springs. This would have an adverse effect on the accuracy
and reliability of a measuring instrument.
When the voltage across the galvanometer varies, the Figure 1
pointer follows the movements of this variation with a delay
that depends on the mechanical and electrical inertia of the
moving element. The value will then be the average value of the current, calculated over a time equal to
the integration constant of the instrument. This constant is specific to each measuring instrument. It
depends mainly on the mass of the moving element but can also be changed by adding a condenser in
parallel with the moving coil of the instrument.
a) Advantage of these instruments

Pointer-type galvanometers are generally robust and quickly give an idea of the voltage value.
They work without any external power source.
When the pointer moves, it is still possible to gain an idea of the voltage value by estimating an average
by sight.
These instruments are insensitive to the effects of HF (but not high voltages) and radio interference.
b ) Drawbacks
These instruments are sensitive to the direction of current and therefore attention must be paid to
electrical connections.
The stator is generally a permanent magnet that risks being affected by powerful magnetic fields. Care
should therefore be taken when positioning the instruments in relation to workpieces and cables that can
often carry currents of several hundred amperes.
The moving element is generally mounted on bearings that are similar to the ones used in clock making.
They are therefore highly sensitive to knocks and dust.
The measurement is obtained by reading the position of the pointer on a scale which means that the
reader must be directly facing the dial (parallax error). Furthermore, depending on the quantities used,
measurement is not always direct and manual scaling may be required.
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2.2.3. Digital galvanometers

Digital galvanometers are electronic instruments that
indicate the voltage measured across the instrument
directly. The voltage value is digitised by an electronic
circuit then transmitted to the digital display.
They always have a very high input impedance which
means that they do not disturb the current being
measured.
They are mostly insensitive to current direction and
differentiate polarity by a minus sign.
These instruments have zero mechanical inertia and
very short integration times. They cannot therefore be
used to measure welding currents without alteration.
There are several types of display available:
• light-emitting diodes
• liquid crystals
• LED bars.
Light-emitting diode displays are very bright. They can Figure 2
vary in size from a few millimetres to several
decimetres.
Liquid-crystal displays are similar in size to the LED displays but are not as bright and therefore not as
easy to read. They are quite rarely used for panel apparatus but are often used for portable instruments
because they consume less electricity than LED displays.
LED bar instruments are commonly used to indicate a level. Contrary to the other devices, an average
value can be determined by sight.
a) Advantage
The only advantage of these instruments compared with the pointer-type is that they give a direct
reading and are always to the right scale. Light-emitting diode instruments are very bright and visible
from a distance.
b ) Drawbacks
These instruments require an external electricity supply.
They are sensitive to HF currents and radio interference. On the other hand, they are less sensitive to
high voltages than pointer instruments.
When the current varies, as they have low inertia, the digits change constantly making them impossible
to read.
They must always be modified by an electronics engineer to be able to measure welding currents.
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2.2.4. Hook-on ammeters

Hook-on ammeters are robust instruments that are
used to measure current directly without having to
disconnect the electric circuit.
They use the properties of the transformer effect.
They are directly graduated in peak values or rms
values. They work just as well with alternating current
as with variable current. They can be used with direct
current providing that certain precautions are taken.
If the welding cable is a double cable, remember to
clamp both of them.
These ammeters can be used to measure a very wide
current range. Currents can vary from less than a
hundred to several thousand amperes.
Figure 3
For low current levels, the sensitivity of the ammeter
can be increased by winding the cable several times
around the jaws. To obtain the current value, remember to divide the value of the reading by the number
of turns made with the cable around the clamp.
2.2.5. Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes are electronic instruments that are used
to display variable voltages in relation to time by
means of a cathode ray tube.
These instruments have three main settings:
• a time base setting,

• a signal activation setting,
• a signal amplitude setting.
As these instruments generally have several
measuring channels, it is possible to compare shape Figure 4
and time variations of several electrical quantities.
Oscilloscopes can be analog or digital. Digital
oscilloscopes can be connected to a computer for
mathematical processing of the recorded quantity.
Certain oscilloscopes are known as “storage” oscilloscopes. They store the trace on screen or in an
electronic memory. They are used to compare two apparently identical signals or to monitor minor
variations in a signal over a period of time.
Generally speaking, oscilloscopes are laboratory instruments that are only seen in workshops for
maintenance operations or for spot checks on welding currents.
2.2.6. Graphic recorders

Graphic recorders are galvanometers with a pen fitted to the end of the pointer to record variations in an
electrical quantity over a period of time. An electric motor drives a strip of paper at a known constant
speed. The paper speed can range from a few centimetres per hour to several metres per second.
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These instruments are used to keep a paper trace of welding currents (voltage or intensity) or
temperatures.
Given the mechanical inertia of the pen, these devices cannot be used to record the fastest phenomena.
Ultra-fast recorders working on the same principle as paper recorders must be used for this purpose.
The pointer is replaced by a beam of light that marks photosensitive paper. This paper is very expensive
and does not keep for very long. In welding, this type of recorder is only used for analysing arc instability.
2.2.7. Central measuring systems

Central measuring systems are complex electronic instruments capable of recording several electrical
quantities at the same time. These quantities are generally digitised and processed mathematically by a
microcomputer that can make logical decisions by applying a pre-established program. These decisions
can be warning sounds or lights if the measured quantities exceed certain thresholds.
Some systems can give orders to modify the setting parameters of a welding generator or a robot.
Central measuring systems are generally multi-channel devices. They can record parameters originating
from several welding generators. They can record electrical quantities, speeds measured with a
displacement transducer or tacho-generators and temperatures measured by a thermocouple.
2.3. MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON A D.C. CIRCUIT

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter. This is a
galvanometer mounted in series with resistors, the Ammeter
value of which depends on the voltage to be

measured. The apparatus is connected in parallel shunt
with the circuit to be measured.
Current is measured with an ammeter. This
consists of a galvanometer that measures the
voltage across a resistor of known value. This
Receiver
Voltmeter
Generator V
resistor is called a shunt. This shunt is either inside
or outside the ammeter.
The shunt is always mounted serially with the
circuit to be measured.
Figure 5
By definition, a direct current has a fixed value.
The value will be easy to read because the display
will not move.
To find out the voltage across the receiver, a voltmeter must be placed at this point. If this cannot be
done, the voltage loss in the cables must be deducted from the voltage measured across the generator
(otherwise it can be considered negligible).
2.4. MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ON A SINUSOIDAL A.C. CIRCUIT

If a zero-centre galvanometer is connected to an alternator that is rotated by hand, it can be seen that,
over a revolution, the pointer deviates as many times to the left as to the right. The average value is
therefore nil.
To use a galvanometer with alternating current, the current must be rectified and smoothed. But the
value indicated by the galvanometer would then correspond to the peak value of the rectified current.
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As a general rule, AC measurements are given as an rms value, i.e. the direct current value with the
same energy.
For a sinusoidal alternating current, the rms value is equal to 0.707 ( 2 ) times the peak value. As this
2
value is fixed and does not depend on the frequency of the current, the instruments are directly
graduated with the rms value.
Beware: this correction is only valid for sinusoidal alternating currents. It does not apply to
currents of any other shape such as square-wave signals or disturbed alternating currents as
found in welding.
2.5. MEASURING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN WELDING

2.5.1. General case
If we were to look at the graphic recording of a
welding current or voltage, we would see constant
variations in current and voltage - even if we were to
use direct current.
This is due to the permanent variations in the arc
voltage which ranges from zero (short arc) to the no-
load voltage of the generator (arc cut off).
These phenomena explain the constant vibrations
affecting the measuring instrument pointers or the fact
Figure 6
that it is impossible to obtain a constant digit on digital
instruments.
To obtain a measurement easily, an integrator capable of giving the average value of the quantity over a
sufficiently long integration time to be able to read the measurement must be used. The time constants
(and therefore the integrating capacity) of the instruments vary from a few milliseconds for pointer
instruments to a few nanoseconds for digital instruments. For measurements to be read easily and
repeatedly, they must be settled for approximately one second.
This function can be achieved in two ways:
ª Mechanically - by over-weighting the moving element of a pointer galvanometer. This system

was used a while ago when the second solution was not available.
ª Electronically - by inserting a low-pass filter in series with the galvanometer.
A low-pass filter (cf. Figure 7) is a setup based on a

resistor, inductor and/or capacitor that prevents high-
frequency currents passing and attenuates variations.
These small assemblies are simple to make and can
easily be integrated into measuring instruments.
The drawback is that they need several seconds to
Figure 7
stabilise and do not record small breaks in the arc
which can be a problem.
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2.5.2. Case of pulsed current

When the welding generator is producing a pulsed current (TIG or MIG process), there are naturally wide
variations in the arc voltage. Measuring such currents poses a real problem because it is important to
know what is to be measured.
a) On the generator
With the measuring instruments installed on the generator, it is generally possible to set the voltage or
current high or the voltage or current low with a static characteristic, i.e. in the absence of a welding
current. It should be remembered that the voltage is adjusted in MIG, and the current in TIG.
b ) With measuring instruments

Measuring instruments such as ammeters or voltmeters give an average value which depends on the
time constant of the apparatus. This value is generally sufficient to calculate welding energy but not to
quantify welding generator settings. Indeed, two pulsed currents with different amplitudes and heat
time/cool time ratios might very well have the same average value.
To obtain a real trace of this type of welding current, time-based recordings using either graphic
recorders or central measuring systems are needed.
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3. MEASURING SPEEDS
3.1. MEASURING WELDING SPEEDS

The measuring of welding speeds is an important point because this measurement plays a part in
calculating welding energy.
Welding speed is easy to measure on an automatic machine because the speed of welding head travel
is always adjustable. To obtain this value, simply calibrate the values indicated on the settings button.
Measuring the welding speed of a manual welder is more delicate because a welder never really welds
at the same speed. Measuring consists of recording the welding time between two fixed marks on the
weld. As a general rule, several measurements are taken and the average is calculated.
3.2. MEASURING WIRE FEED RATES

The wire rate is most often measured by feeding wire out of the torch for a given period of time and
measuring its length.
Some control units display the wire feed rate. Two systems are used:
ª The first system displays the speed of motor feeder rotation converted into a wire feed rate in
cm/min. This device is simple but ignores the wire slip effect.
ª The second system consists of measuring the feed rate with a DC tacho-generator mounted on a
wire pinch roll.
3.3. MEASURING GAS FLOWRATES
The measuring of gas flowrates poses no problems because the value is read directly on a dial.
On the other hand, the flowrate of a gas into a flowmeter depends on the density of the gas for which it is
intended. It is therefore advisable to purchase the right flowmeter for the gas used.
Beware: a flowmeter calibrated for argon will give an incorrect value for helium or carbon
dioxide.
If an argon flowmeter is used with another gas, the reading must be corrected using this formula:
ρ Argon
F = F argon x (ρ = density)
ρ du gaz
Gas Chemical symbol Density

Carbon dioxide CO2 1.87 g/l
Argon Ar 1.65 g/l
Air 1.21 g/l
Nitrogen N2 1.16 g/l
Helium He 0.17 g/l
Hydrogen H2 0.083 g/l
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4. MEASURING TEMPERATURES
4.1. MEASURING A TEMPERATURE AT A PRECISE POINT

In the field of welding, temperatures are measured over a range varying from 50°C to 1600°C.
Below 50°C, there are no longer any transformations liable to modify the welding operation. Above
1600°C, steel is liquid and the weld pool temperature or temperature of the actual arc rarely has to be
monitored.
During welding operations, preheating temperatures
or the temperatures between passes are inspected.
Then the problem of the actual place where the
temperature is to be taken is raised.
Usually, this temperature is measured at a distance
equal to four times the thickness of the workpiece
from the edge of the groove, on the side to be welded
(cf. Figure 8).
As the temperature can sometimes change quickly,
preheating and interpass temperatures must be Figure 8
measured just before the welding operation.
If the bead end temperature is being checked, usage shows that the measurement is not affected by the
welding operation if the measurement is taken in a zone located from 50 to 200 mm from the point where
the weld ended.
4.2. TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

A relatively wide choice of instruments capable of measuring temperatures in the 50 to 1500°C range is
available.
4.2.1. Optical pyrometers

These instruments evaluate the temperature of the workpiece in comparison with their visible radiation
power. These instruments give a global value and are not accurate for temperatures below 300°C.
They are used very little in welding. The rare cases in which they are used revolve around the checking
of the temperature of a workpiece prior to a tempering or rapid quenching operation. They are
sometimes used for research purposes to check arc and weld pool temperatures.
On the other hand, they are widely used in the iron and steel industry.
4.2.2. Temperature indicator crayons

These are crayons made with a material that changes colour according to the temperature. There are
several types of crayon available that are designed to measure temperatures in the 40 to 1800°C range.
Of course, they are less accurate than a thermometer but their low cost and extremely easy
implementation makes them useful in workshops, mainly for checking preheating temperatures or
maximum interpass temperatures. Under no circumstances can they give an indication that is accurate
enough to be entered in a report.
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4.2.3. Contact thermometers

These thermometers are portable instruments that
measure the temperature by placing the sensitive part
of the thermometer in contact with the workpiece to be
measured. The sensor may be mechanical (an
expanding material) or electric.
Electric instruments measure the temperature with a
thermocouple or resistance temperature device.
Depending on the materials used to make the sensor,
these thermometers can only measure a relatively
narrow temperature range.
In the field of welding, a different thermometer will be
used to measure temperatures in the 50 to 200°C
range to one used to monitor temperatures between
500 and 800°C.
Figure 9
Furthermore, the sensitive zone of the thermometer
takes several seconds to reach the temperature of the
workpiece.
5. HEAT TREATMENT
5.1. HEAT TREATMENT EQUIPMENT

5.1.1. Heat treatment furnaces
Heat treatment furnaces are ovens in which whole
workpieces can be placed (cf. Figure 10).
These furnaces can be heated by either electricity or
gas. They are used for high-temperature treatment
(annealing, tempering, stress relieving, etc.). They can
rise to temperatures of 500, 800 or even 1200°C.
A regulating device is used to adapt the temperature
to the requirements of heat treatment operations, i.e.
compliance with holding temperatures and heating
and cooling rates. A graphic recorder records the
temperatures measured by thermocouples sensibly
placed on the workpiece.
Figure 10
These furnaces are always installed in shops,
generally near to welding zones so that heat treatment
can be carried out just after the welding operations.
This limits the need for postheating. The furnace has a moving hearth that can be fully extracted to
facilitate handling operations and natural cooling of the workpiece. This is where cooling in still air takes
place.
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5.1.2. Burners and heating panels

These are burners running off an air-gas mixture.
They can be connected to the town gas supply or to
cylinders (generally in a bundle) of propane or a gas
with a higher calorific value (crylene).
There are two types of burner:
Flame burners heat the workpiece especially by the
conduction and convection currents of the combustion
gases.
Heating panels (cf. Figure 11) cumulate the action of
flame heat and the radiating effect of the reflector
behind the burner. As a result, their efficiency is some Figure 11
30% higher than the previous type.
These burners are primarily used for pre- and
postheating. They can be used alone or in a group,
installed on portable scaffolding.
5.1.3. Heating mats and cords

These are flexible elements usually intended for local treatment although they are sometimes used for
global treatment on site.
These are heating elements operating at different voltages. They are either low voltage (24 to 48 volts)
for use with a central regulating unit or even with a welding set, or designed to operate at 220 V or
380 V. They are available either as a cord (cf. Figure 12) or as a mat (cf. Figure 13).
Cords are wound around the workpieces whereas mats are placed on the workpieces and held by a
strap. They are then covered with lagging.
Figure 12 Figure 13
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5.1.4. Top-hat furnaces
Top-hat furnaces represent a half-way solution

between the heat treatment furnace and heating
element assemblies.
Like furnaces, they have a great volume and are
designed for the global treatment of solid workpieces.
The heating elements and lagging are permanently
installed on the cover or “top hat”. They often consist
of mats operating under the same voltages as
individual elements. They can generally be connected
Figure 14
to the same voltage-regulating transformers.
Top-hat furnaces can equally be used in the shop or
on site.
5.1.5. Temperature regulators

These are power transformers coupled to a
temperature regulator and a multi-channel
recorder.
The measurements from the
thermocouples are compared with a preset
value to determine whether to open or
close the heating element supply relays.
The appliances often have several
independent channels.
These devices are always equipped with
safety features designed to warn the
operator in the event of a malfunction on a
channel or a power cut. Indeed, from a
metallurgical aspect, incorrectly completed
heat treatment can have dramatic
consequences on the mechanical strength
of the workpiece.
These systems are fairly easy to program
and a single temperature setting can be
entered in the case of pre- and postheating
or a more complex thermal cycle in the
case of heat treatment control. Figure 15
A backup device stores the temperatures
even in the case of a mains power failure.
These systems can equally be used in the shop or on site. For large workpieces, several voltage-
regulating transformers can often be seen running together.
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5.2. PRE- AND POSTHEATING TREATMENT

Pre- and postheating treatments are generally local
treatments. They are carried out using portable
heating elements, often gas burners (cf. Figure 16).
The purpose of such treatments is the prevention of
cold cracking risks.
Indeed, the hotter a workpiece, the slower the post-
welding cooling rate. And the longer the time during
which the workpiece is held between 800 and 500°C,
the less risk there is of hardening the metal and
therefore increasing a factor favourable to cold
cracking.
Preheating is almost systematic for welding heavy-
duty workpieces. Manufacturing codes recommend
the use of preheating on low-alloy steels as soon as
the thickness of the workpiece exceeds 20 mm. Usual
preheating temperatures are situated in the 75 to
300°C range.
During the welding operation, a check should be
made to ensure that the workpiece temperature never
drops below the preheating temperature. The
equipment is always portable and easy to set up. Figure 16
Postheating treatment is carried out practically under

the same conditions as preheating. It has the effect of helping to remove gas from thick welds. It is
carried out at the same temperature as preheating.
Sometimes, before welding, the workpiece is preheated to a temperature of around 40-60°C. The main
effect of this is to eliminate any moisture from the workpieces. It is sometimes used to carry out
differential preheating when the workpieces to be joined are not of the same thickness.
5.3. GLOBAL HEAT TREATMENT

Global heat treatment can have two different effects:
ª a mechanical effect on stress,

ª a metallurgical effect.
Heat treatment that is designed to even out the stress resulting from welding operations is called stress
relieving treatment. It is carried out at relatively high temperatures (450–650°C) but always below
temperatures liable to produce tempering or intermetallic phase precipitates. If these treatments are
carried out immediately after a welding phase, postheating is not required.
Metallurgical heat treatments are global treatments designed to modify the metallurgical (and therefore
physical) properties of the materials.
Welding often seriously disturbs the physico-chemical properties of materials. It is occasionally
necessary to repeat heat treatment after the welding operations to give the weld similar properties to the
parent metal. These treatments are annealing, tempering (after quenching) and rapid quenching.
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In this case, the following need to be defined:
• a heating rate,
• a treatment temperature and hold time,
• a cooling rate.
5.4. LOCAL HEAT TREATMENT

When the entire workpiece cannot be treated, local
treatment is carried out.
The heating installation is built from cords and mats.
Sometimes muffles forming a sort of furnace adapted
to a given geometry are made.
When heat treatment is carried out on a branch
connection, it is important to heat a certain length of
straight section because heat treatment that is too
localised and asymmetric behaves in fact like the
technique used to correct distortion which would in
this case deform the structure in an unforeseen
manner.
The temperature is monitored by carefully placed
thermocouples. They should not be positioned too
close to heating elements. Good practice
recommends that they are placed at least at a
distance equal to four times the thickness of the
workpiece.
Lagging is dimensioned so that heat losses are
minimised and the requested cooling rate can be
controlled. Figure 17
Regulating assemblies must be able to control a
defined heat treatment cycle as in the case of a global
control system.
6. CALIBRATING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The sensitivity and the accuracy of measuring instruments should be checked every year, in principle, to
comply with the requirements of certain manufacturing codes or quality management requirements.
This calibration procedure must be carried out by an accredited laboratory, or at least one that has
standards traceable to national standards.
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Figure 1
Miroir Mirror
Cadre Coil
Champ magnétique radial Radial magnetic field
Figure 6
Acquisition à l’enregistreur graphique Graphic recorder printout

Acquisition à l’oscilloscope Oscilloscope printout
§ 3.3. (formule)
ρ Argon ρ of Argon
ρ du gaz ρ of gas
Figure 17
Montage sur formes variées Assembly on various shapes

Préchauffages Preheating
Traitements Treatment
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.7 : NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
FORMATION 1
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Contents
SECTION 1 3
COFREND 4
1.1. ORGANISATION 6
1.2. QUALIFICATIONS 7
1.3. REQUIREMENTS 8
1.4. VALIDITY AND RENEWAL 9
SECTION 2 10
QUALITY OF WELDED JOINTS 10

2.1. INTRODUCTION 11
2.2. TYPES OF FAULTS 14
2.3. STANDARDISATION 15
SECTION 3 17
IMPERFECTIONS IN WELDED STRUCTURES 17

CRACKS 19
CAVITIES 21
SOLID INCLUSIONS 24
LACK OF FUSION AND PENETRATION 26
INCORRECT SHAPE AND SIZE 29
SUNDRY IMPERFECTIONS 36
CRACKING PHENOMENA 38
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SECTION 4 39
VISUAL INSPECTION 39
4.1. GENERAL INFORMATION 40
4.2. EQUIPMENT 42
4.3. EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA: CODAP 95 43
SECTION 5 45
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING 45

5.1. PRINCIPLE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION 47
5.2. PHYSICAL PHENOMENA 49
5.3. OPERATING PROCEDURE 50
5.4. INTERPRETATION AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 58
5.5. REFERENCE STANDARDS AND PRODUCT SELECTION CRITERIA 60
SECTION 6 62
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING 62

6.2. MAGNETISATION AND EXAMINATION METHODS 66
6.3. OPERATING PROCEDURE 67
6.4. INTERPRETING INDICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 73
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SECTION 7 75
RADIOGRAPHY 75
7.2. X AND GAMMA RADIATION 79
7.3. RADIO RECEIVER 83
7.4. IMAGE QUALITY AND INSPECTION 91
7.5. OPERATING TECHNIQUES 95
SECTION 8 97
ULTRASONIC TESTING 97
8.2. ULTRASOUND PRODUCTION 101
8.3. INSPECTION EQUIPMENT 109
8.4. EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES 113
8.5. BUTT WELDING PROCEDURE 114
SECTION 9 118
OTHER TECHNIQUES 118

9.1. ACOUSTIC EMISSION 120
9.2. EDDY CURRENTS 122
9.3. THERMAL INFRARED ANALYSIS 124
SECTION 10 125
SUMMARY 125
10.1. COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL NDT METHODS 126
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SECTION 1
COFREND
• ORGANISATION
• QUALIFICATIONS
• REQUIREMENTS
• VALIDITY AND RENEWAL

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Figure 1 - COFREND Organisation Chart
AGM
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Certification Sectoral Committees SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL BOARD
COSAC: Aerospace industry Standing Committees

COMES: Metallurgical structures and welding
CFCM: Railways
CCF: Smelting works NDT Industrial Applications
COSGEM: Heavy equipment Automatic weld testing by ultrasound imaging systems
CCS: Iron & steel industry Weld testing by radioscopy
CCT: Tubes and related products Concrete testing by ionising radiation
CPSC: Multi-sectoral Structural engineering applications
Industrial applications of tomography
Cable testing
NDT Methods and Equipment
Electromagnetic methods
Ultrasonic methods
Radiography
Acoustic emission
Leak tightness
Training and education
Health and safety
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1.1. ORGANISATION
1.1.1 ORGANISATION CHART
1.1.2 THE COMES SECTORAL COMMITTEE

The Metallurgical Structures and Welding Sectoral Committee (COMES) was formed in June
1978 with the participation of the following bodies: CTICM, FIM, IS, IRCN, SNCT, UFIP and,
more recently, AFIM. The common denominator of the members of these bodies is that they
use welding in significant proportions.
Level 3 certification is the responsibility of the Committee’s Board of Certification at its

secretarial office address.
The COMES-accredited centre located at the Ennery Welding Institute examines Level 1 and 2
agents at the Committee’s examination centres.
1.1.3 CERTIFICATION
Described by standard NF EN 473, classification index A 09-010, “Qualification and certification
of NDT personnel - General principles”, certification is organised under the responsibility of
COFREND.
Certification is the procedure used to demonstrate the qualification of a non-destructive testing

agent for a method, level and industrial sector, leading to the award of certification; qualification
itself meets strict criteria (training and experience).
COFREND offers employers a guaranteed means of checking and certifying the qualification of
their NDT agents.
Symbol
Eddy currents AND

Liquid penetrant PT
Magnetic particle MT
Radiography RT
Ultrasonic UT
Leak testing LT
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1.2. QUALIFICATIONS
1.2.1 LEVEL 1 AGENTS

Must be capable of:
- adjusting equipment;
- carrying out testing;
- recording and filing results according to written criteria;
- reporting the results.

Must be able to:
- choose the technique of the process to be used;
- define the scope of the process for which the level 2 agent is qualified;
- understand non-destructive testing standards and specifications and to transcribe them into
practical testing instructions suited to actual working conditions;
- adjust and calibrate equipment;
- carry out and supervise the tests;
- evaluate and interpret the results according to the relevant standards, codes or
specifications;
- prepare and write instructions;
- carry out and supervise all tasks delegated to level 1 agents;
- train and guide testing staff at a level lower than level 2;
- structure and write non-destructive test reports.

Must be able to:
- assume entire responsibility for a testing laboratory and staff;
- establish and validate techniques and procedures;
- interpret standards, techniques, specifications and procedures
- indicate the appropriate testing processes, techniques and procedures to be used.
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1.3. REQUIREMENTS
1.3.1 LEVEL 1 AND 2 TRAINING REQUIREMENTS

Method Level 1 Level 2
(Hours) (Hours)
AND 40 40
PT 16 24
MT 16 24
RT 40 80
UT 40 80
A - Basic knowledge 8 16
LT 1) B - Pressure variation method 14 28
C - Tracer gas method 18 36
Note 1: The hours of training include theoretical and practical sessions.

Note 2: The hours of training indicated for levels 1 and 2 must be cumulated for direct access to level
2.
Note 3: In the event of national legislation relating to the working week, 40 hours are equivalent to the
legal duration of a week’s work.
1.3.2 INDUSTRIAL NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING EXPERIENCE

Method Experience (Months)
Level 1 Level 2
AND 3 9
PT 1 3
MT 1 3
RT 3 9
UT 3 9
Total experience 3 9
LT Partial experience in pressure variation methods 2 6
Partial experience in a tracer gas method 2 6
Note 1: The number of months of experience is based on a 40-hour working week or a legal working
week. Where an agent works more than 40 hours per week, experience may be credited on the total
number of hours but proof must be provided of this experience.
Note 2: For level 2 certification, the experience required by the current European standard is that
obtained as a level 1 certified technician. When an agent is directly qualified to level 2, without going
through level 1, the required experience includes the sum of the periods required for levels 1 and 2.
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1.4. VALIDITY AND RENEWAL
1.4.1 VALIDITY FOLLOWING EXAMINATION

The period of validity of certification is five years from the certification date indicated on the
certificate and/or card.
1.4.2 RENEWAL
At the end of the first period of validity, and every ten years thereafter, certification may be
renewed by the independent certification body for a new five-year period provided that the agent
fulfils the following requirements:
- the agent provides proof that he/she has passed the visual acuity examination in the last
year;
- the agent provides proof that he/she has pursued his/her activity in the method for which
he/she is certified, without any notable interruption.
1.4.3 RECERTIFICATION
At the end of each second period of validity (every ten years), certification may be renewed by
the independent certification body for a new five-year period on the basis of the following
requirement:
- for levels 1 and 2: the agent must meet the two conditions for renewal and pass a practical
examination organised according to a simplified procedure. If the candidate fails to obtain a
score of at least 80%, the certification procedure must be started again from the beginning.
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SECTION 2
QUALITY OF
WELDED JOINTS
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPE OF SEARCH
• STANDARDISATION
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2.1. INTRODUCTION
Every welded joint must offer maximum guarantees in terms of safety and endurance,
irrespective of whether it is for a new structure or one currently being used.
The quality of the assembly is rooted in various stages of construction.
To ensure quality production, we have a number of appropriate tests at several stages of

development or use.
Quality of manufacture is linked to the nature and scope of the tests which will be selected
according to the stresses to which the part is subjected.
2.1.1 NATURE OF THE TESTS
The various tests that can be carried out on a manufactured item depend on a number of
elements (nature of the materials, shape of the part, etc.).
This explains the diversity of existing Non Destructive Tests.
There is no “universal” NDT but a number of tests appropriate to the search for quite specific
faults.
NATURE OF THE MATERIALS
SHAPE OF THE PART
DIMENSIONAL CHARACTER OF THE PART

QUALITY OF
MANUFACTURE
TYPE OF JOINT
CLASS OF CONSTRUCTION
STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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2.1.2 IMPOSED REQUIREMENTS
Quality of manufacture is basically founded on compliance with a set of clearly predefined

specifications. This means that the manufacturer must have a rational internal organisation
(precise instructions, compliance with codes, standards, etc.).
STANDARDS
SCOPE
CODES
NATURE
TEST SPECIFICATIONS
CRITERION
REQUIREMENTS
2.1.3 PURPOSE OF THE TESTS
The tests are aimed at highlighting faults either directly (visual or liquid penetrant tests) or
indirectly by their effects (magnetic particle, ultrasonic tests, etc.).
FAULT DETERMINATION APPLICATION

DETECTION NATURE OF
DIMENSIONS CRITERIA
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2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF INSPECTION BY STAGE OF MANUFACTURE
In welding where the factors governing joint quality are many and complex, there are three
distinct types of inspection according to the stage of the manufacturing process.
Design inspection
Equipment inspection
INSPECTION
BEFORE WELDING Parent metal inspection
Filler metal inspection
Qualification of labour
Qualification of the welding process
Compliance with joint characteristics
Application of techniques & procedures

INSPECTION
DURING WELDING Compliance with sequences
Compliance with run arrangements
Application of heat treatment
Destructive tests
INSPECTION
AFTER WELDING Semi-destructive tests
Non-destructive tests
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2.2. TYPES OF FAULTS
2.2.1 SEARCH FOR SURFACE FLAWS

Exposed or subsurface flaws.
2.2.2 SEARCH FOR INTERNAL FLAWS

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2.3.1 GENERAL STANDARDS
NF EN 473 Qualification and certification of NDT personnel - General principles (April 93)
NF EN ISO 6520-1 Classification of geometric imperfections in metallic materials. Part 1: fusion

welding (February 92)
NF EN 25817 Arc-welded joints in steel (November 92)

Guidance on quality levels for imperfections
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2.3.2 ARCHITECTURE OF EUROPEAN NDT STANDARDS
Non-destructive examination of welds.

General rules for metallic materials. 1.1.2. EN 12062 (October
97)
Pr EN.1 List of general terms

Pr EN.2 Terms comm. to NDT
EN.3 Radiographic
EN.4 Ultrasonic
Non-destructive testing. Pr EN.5 Eddy current
Terminology. 1.1.3. EN 1330 Pr EN.6 Liquid penetrant
Pr EN.7 Magnetic penetrant
Terms used in […] testing. Pr EN.8 Leak tightness
Pr EN.9 Acoustic emission
Pr EN.10 Visual
Radiographic Eddy currents Magnetic Liquid Ultrasonic Visual

Technique penetrant penetrant
Method EN 1435 EN 1711 EN 1290 EN 571-1 EN 1714 EN 970
Acceptance EN
EN 1291 EN 1289 EN 1712 EN 25817
levels 12517 EN 30042
Others
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SECTION 3
IMPERFECTIONS IN
WELDED
STRUCTURES
• INTRODUCTION
• CLASSIFICATION OF WELD IMPERFECTIONS

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3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The presentation of imperfections in welded structures in this section uses the classification
system, descriptions and terminology of standard NF EN ISO 6520-1 of 1998.
The purpose of this text is to define the vocabulary relating to imperfections in fusion welded
joints. It replaces international standard ISO 6520 of 1982 and European standard EN 26520 of
1992 derived therefrom.
Several classification modes can be envisaged. The one in NF EN ISO 6520-1 defines six
groups:
GROUP N° 1. Cracks
GROUP N° 2. Cavities
GROUP N° 3. Solid inclusions
GROUP N° 4. Lack of fusion and penetration
GROUP N° 5. Incorrect shape and size
GROUP N° 6. Sundry imperfections
Imperfections with an asterisked number differ in relation to the old ISO 6520 standard.
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CRACKS
Ref. Name Illustrations
Comments
GROUP 1
Cracks
100
1.1.1.a.1.1.1 Cracks
Discontinuity produced by a local rupture

in the solid state which may arise from the
effects of cooling or stresses.
1001 Microcracks
Crack only visible under the microscope.

101 Longitudinal crack 1011
Crack substantially parallel to the axis of
the weld. It may be situated:
1014
1011 - in the weld metal,

1012 - at the weld junction,
1013 - in the heat affected zone,
1014 - in the parent metal.
1013 1012
102 Transverse crack
1024 1021
Crack substantially transverse to the axis
of the weld. It may be situated:

1023
103 Radiating cracks 1034 1031
Cracks radiating from a common point.
They may be found:

Note: Small radiating cracks are also known as “star

cracks”.
1033
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104 Crater crack
A crack in the end crater of a weld which

may be:
1045 - longitudinal,
1046 - transverse,
1047 - star cracking.
1045
1046
1047
105 Group of disconnected cracks 1051

A group of disconnected cracks which 1054
may be situated:

1053
106 Branching cracks 1061
A group of connected cracks originating 1064
from a common crack and distinguishable
from disconnected cracks (105) and from
radiating cracks (103). They may be
situated:

1063
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CAVITIES
Comments
GROUP 2
Cavities
200 Cavities
201 Gas cavity
A cavity formed by entrapped gas.

2011 Gas pore (blowhole)
A substantially round gas cavity.
2011
2012 Uniformly distributed porosity
A number of gas pores distributed in a

substantially uniform manner throughout
the weld metal. Not to be confused with
linear porosity (2014) or localised porosity
(2013).
2012
2013 Localised porosity
Group of gas cavities distributed in a

random manner.
2013
2014 Linear porosity
A line of gas pores situated parallel to the

axis of the weld.
2014
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2015 Elongated cavity
A large non spherical cavity with its major

dimension parallel to the axis of the weld.
2015
2016 Wormhole
A tubular cavity in weld metal caused by

release of gas. The shape and position of
worm-holes is determined by the mode of
solidification and the sources of the gas
and they may be distributed in a
herringbone formation. Some wormholes
can appear at the weld surface.
2016
2016
2016
2017 Pitting
2017
Gas cavity appearing at the weld surface.
202 Shrinkage cavity
A cavity due to shrinkage during

solidification.
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2021 Interdendritic shrinkage (loosening)
An elongated shrinkage cavity formed

between dendrites during cooling which
may contain entrapped gas. Such a defect
is generally to be found perpendicular to
the weld face.
2021
2024 Crater pipe
2024
The depression due to shrinkage at the
end of a weld run and not eliminated
before or during the deposition of
subsequent weld passes.
2024
*2025 Open crater pipe 2025

Open crater pipe reducing the transverse
section of the weld.
*203 Microshrinkage
Shrinkage only visible under the

microscope.
*2031 Interdendritic microshrinkage
An elongated microshrinkage cavity

formed between dendrites during cooling
along grain boundaries.
*2032 Transgranular microshrinkage
An elongated microshrinkage cavity

formed across grains during solidification.
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SOLID INCLUSIONS

Comments
GROUP 3
Solid inclusions
300 Solid inclusion
Solid foreign substance entrapped in the

weld metal.
301 Slag inclusion
Slag entrapped in the weld metal.

According to the circumstances of their
formation such inclusions may be:
3011 - linear,
3012 - isolated,
*3014 - localised.
3011
3012
3014
302 Flux inclusion
Flux entrapped in the weld metal.

According to circumstances such
inclusions may be:
3021 - linear,
3022 - isolated,
*3024 - localised.
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303 Oxide inclusion
Metallic oxide trapped in the weld metal

during solidification. Such inclusions may
be:
*3031 - linear,
*3032 - isolated,
*3033 - localised.
304 Metallic inclusion
A particle of foreign metal trapped in the

weld metal. It may be of:
- tungsten,
- copper,
- other metal.
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LACK OF FUSION AND PENETRATION

Comments
GROUP 4
Lack of fusion and penetration
400 Lack of fusion and penetration
401 Lack of fusion
Lack of union between weld metal and

parent metal or weld metal and weld
metal. It will be one of the following:
4011
- lack of side wall fusion, 4011
4012
- lack of inter-run fusion,
4013
- lack of fusion at the root1).
4012
4012
4012
4013
4013
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402 Lack of penetration (incomplete penetration)

2/
Difference between actual penetration and
design penetration. 1/
402
2/
1/
402
1/
2/
2/
1/
402
1/ Actual penetration
2/ Design penetration
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4021 Lack of penetration at the root
Lack of fusion on one or both edges of the

root.
4021
4021
4021
403 Spikes
Extremely irregular penetration found in

electron beam welding or laser welding,
giving the bead a jagged appearance. Can
include cavities, cracks, shrinkage, etc.
403
1) In French, the terms “collage noir” (literally “black sticking”) and “collage blanc” (“white sticking”) are used, depending on the presence or
absence of oxide inclusions together with the lack of fusion.
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INCORRECT SHAPE AND SIZE

Comments
GROUP 5
Incorrect shape
500 Imperfect shape
Imperfect shape of the external surfaces of

the weld or defective joint geometry.
*501 Undercut
Irregular groove at the toe of a weld run,

situated either in the parent metal or in the
previously deposited weld metal.
5011 Continuous undercut
Long undercut without a break. 5011
5011
5011
5011
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5012 Intermittent undercut

5012
Short undercut appearing intermittently
along the weld.
5012 5012
5012
5013 Shrinkage groove
Depressions appearing on either side of

the root pass.
5013
5013
5013
*5014 Interpass groove 5014
Depressions appearing in the longitudinal
direction of the weld, between passes.
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*5015 Local intermittent undercut

5015
Short, irregularly spaced undercuts
situated along or on the surface of the
weld passes.
502 Excessive reinforcement

normale
An excess of weld metal at the face of a
butt weld.
502
503 Excessive convexity

normale
An excess of weld metal at the face of a
fillet weld.
503
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504 Excessive penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the

root of a weld.
It can be:
5041 - Local excessive penetration

*5042 - Continuous excessive penetration
*5043 - Full penetration
504
5043
5043
505 Bad reinforcement angle
normale
Too small an angle (α) between the plane
tangential to the parent metal surface and
the plane tangential to the weld bead
surface at the toe.
a
505
a
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506 Overlap
5061
Excess of weld metal at the toe of a weld
covering the parent metal surface but not
fused to it.
*5061 Capping run overlap

*5062 Root run overlap
5062
507 Linear misalignment
Misalignment between two welded pieces

such that whilst their surface planes are
parallel their projected surfaces are not at
the required level.
This can involve:
5071
5071 - sheet misalignment, where the
workpieces are sheets;
5072 - tube misalignment, where the
workpieces are tubes.
5072
508 Angular misalignment
Misalignment between two welded pieces

such that their surface planes are not 508
parallel (or at the intended angle).
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509 Collapse
Sagging of the weld metal due to gravity. 5091

The following cases can be distinguished
as appropriate:
5091 - collapse of a horizontal vertical butt weld,

5092 - collapse of a flat or overhead weld,
5093 - collapse of a fillet weld in a corner joint,
5094 - collapse of a fillet weld in an overlap joint. 5092
5093
5094
510 Burn through
Collapse of the weld pool resulting in a

hole in the weld or at the side of the weld.
510
511 Incompletely filled groove 511 511
A longitudinal continuous or intermittent

channel in the surface of a weld due to
insufficient deposition of weld metal.
512 Asymmetrical fillet weld Forme nominale

No comment required.
512
Exécution réelle
513 Irregular width
Excessive variation in the width of the weld

bead.
514 Irregular surface
Excessive irregularity in the surface.

515 Root concavity
A shallow groove due to shrinkage of a

butt weld at the root (see also 5013).
515
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516 Excessive root porosity
Spongy formation at the weld root due to

turbulence in the weld metal at the point of
solidification.
517 Poor restart 5171 5172
A local surface irregularity at a weld restart.
Can be found in:
*5171 - the capping run,

*5172 - the root run.
*520 Excessive deformation
Size deviation due to the shrinkage and

deformation of the weld.
*521 Incorrect weld size
Deviation in relation to the specified weld

dimensions.
*5211 Excess weld thickness 5212
The weld is too thick.
Epaisseur réelle
5211
Epaisseure nominale
*5212 Excess weld width
The weld is too wide.

*5213 Inadequate throat height
Throat height lower than required.
5213
*5214 Excess throat height
Throat height greater than required.
5214
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SUNDRY IMPERFECTIONS
Comments
GROUP 6
Sundry imperfections
600 Sundry imperfections
Imperfections falling outside the scope of

groups 1 to 5.
601 Stray flash or accidental striking
Local damage to the surface of the parent

metal adjacent to weld resulting from
accidental arcing or striking the arc outside
the weld groove.
602 Spatter
Globules of weld metal or filler expelled

during welding and adhering to the surface
of parent metal or solidified weld metal.
6021 Tungsten spatter
Particles of tungsten transferred from the

electrode to the surface of parent metal or
solidified weld metal.
603 Torn surface
Surface damage due to removal by

fracture of temporary welded attachments.
604 Grinding mark
Local damage due to grinding.

605 Chipping mark
Local damage due to the action of a chisel

or other tool.
606 Underflushing
Reduction in thickness of metal due to

excessive grinding.
*607 Imperfect tack weld
Imperfection due to an incorrect tack weld,

for example:
*6071 - the tack weld has broken or
failed to penetrate,
*6072
- the welder has welded over the
imperfect tack weld.
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*608 Offset opposite beads

608
Deviation between the centre lines of two
passes.
*610 Tempering colours
Slight surface oxidation in the weld metal

zone, in stainless steels for example.
*613 Scaled surface
Heavy surface oxidation in the weld metal

zone.
*614 Residue flux
Inadequate removal of residue flux from

the surface.
*615 Residue slag
Inadequate removal of slag sticking to the

surface of the weld.
*617 Poor fillet weld joints
Excessive or insufficient spacing between

the workpieces to be welded. 617
*618 Swelling
618
Imperfection due to burning of welded light
alloy joints resulting from prolonged
holding in the solidification range.
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CRACKING PHENOMENA
Appendix A of standard NF EN ISO 6520-1 references cracking phenomena.
The table below shows this classification, adding a brief explanation.
Ref. Name Explanations

Comments
E Welding cracks Crack occurring during or after welding
Ea Hot crack
Eb Solidification crack
Ec Liquation crack
Ed Precipitation crack
Ee Structural hardening crack
Ef Cold crack
Eg Crack due to insufficient ductility

(fragile crack)
Eh Shrinkage crack
Ei Hydrogen crack
Ej Lamellar tearing
Ek Toe crack
El Ageing crack
(nitrogen diffusion crack)
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SECTION 4
VISUAL INSPECTION
• GENERAL INFORMATION
• EQUIPMENT
• EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
• STANDARDISATION
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4.1.1 PURPOSE
The visual examination is the simplest and first of the weld inspection processes to be
implemented.
It is used on the one hand to detect incorrect shapes and other imperfections on the surface of
the welded joint and, on the other, to provide the observer with indications (metal appearance,
bead width, line angles, etc.) that point to the conditions under which the weld was made and,
as a result, the probability of internal faults.
It is an essential preliminary to all surface and compactness examinations.
Interpretation problems encountered during these investigations are often due to imperfect
appearance.
If surface and compactness examinations are not imposed, it is often the visual inspection that
is used to decide whether a more comprehensive inspection should be carried out.
4.1.2 STAFF
Visual inspection requires knowledge and physical aptitude on the part of inspectors. Standard
EN 970 (Non-destructive examination of fusion welds) recommends that inspection staff:
are thoroughly familiar with inspection standards, rules and specifications
are well informed about the welding procedure
have good sight, in accordance with the provisions of standard EN 473, with visual acuity
checked every twelve months.
4.1.3 EXAMINATION CONDITIONS

These are defined, for example, by standard EN 970:
Lighting must be at least 350 lux, although the recommended level is 500 lux.
Access must be adequate to position the eye less than 600 mm of the surface to be
examined and at an angle of not less than 30°.
Remote inspection (endoscope, camera, optical fibre, etc.) must be considered as

additional provisions.
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Figure 1: Visual inspection gauges
Weld inspection gauge Description
Vernier gauge
Measures fillet welds and reinforcements and checks

groove geometry.
Multipurpose gauge
Measures undercuts, misalignment, reinforcements

and incompletely filled grooves and checks groove
geometry.
Multipurpose gauge
Measures undercuts, reinforcements and

incompletely filled grooves and can be used to
estimate pitting size.
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4.2. EQUIPMENT
4.2.1 MAGNIFYING GLASS
Certain codes lay down a magnification value:

- CODAP: 3 to 10 times
- RCCM : limited to 6 times
4.2.2 MICROSCOPE OR BINOCULAR MAGNIFIER
Depending on the type of apparatus used, magnification of up to 40 times, or even 70 times, is

possible.
4.2.3 ENDOSCOPE
Used for visual and non-destructive inspection of hollow objects and inaccessible cavities of
structural elements that would require dismantling to be inspected, resulting in a loss of time.
4.2.4 GAUGES
See figures.
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4.3. EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA: CODAP 95

Partial summary of the CODAP document (not to be considered as a working document).
The following are unacceptable:
- plane defects: lack of penetration and fusion
- cracks
- gas cavities and inclusions visible on the surface
- excessive root porosity (except for category C).
Reinforcements, incompletely filled grooves, undercuts and misalignment are only acceptable within the
limits indicated in the table below:
JOINT TYPE WELD EFFICIENCY
Z=1 Z = 0,85 Z = 0,7

L
 Loul 
S1
S1 et S2 ≤  + 2 mm
 10 
S2
s1 = see above
L
S1
S3 ≤ 3mm S3 ≤ 4 mm S3 ≤ 5mm
Reinforcement
S3
g1
S4 ≤ where g1 ≥ gcalculé
3
S4
g1
Collapse S5 ≤ Min (t/10; 2 mm)

S5
S6 ≤ 0.5 mm over
S6
10 mm 20 mm 40 mm
Undercut Acceptable distance between two faults
greater than six times the length of the
shorter.
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VISUAL INSPECTION
NDE of fusion welds

Visual inspection
NF EN 970 (May 97)
Guidance of quality levels for Welding procedures

imperfections NF EN 288.2 (June 92)
NF EN 25817 (Nov. 92) NF EN 288.2/A1 (August 97)
NF EN 30042 (Aluminium)
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SECTION 5
LIQUID PENETRANT
TESTING
• PRINCIPLE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
• PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
• OPEERATING PROCEDURE
• INTERPRETATION AND ACCEPTANCE

CRITERIA
• REFERENCE STANDARDS AND PRODUCT

SELECTION CRITERIA
• STANDARDISATION
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Figure 2: Principle of liquid penetrant inspection
Figure 3: Field of application of liquid penetrant inspection
ouverts : détection assurée
Défauts bouchés : détection aléatoire

débouchants
Tous matériaux matés : détection aléatoire

non poreux
Défauts non internes ou sous jacents

débouchants détection impossible
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5.1. PRINCIPLE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
5.1.1 PRINCIPLE
This method can be used to detect surface-breaking flaws on all types of non-porous material. It
is an inexpensive technique that is simple to implement although inspection operators need to
be qualified.
The liquid penetrant exploits the capillary properties of the products used.
PRINCIPLE:
Clean the surface to be examined

Apply coloured or fluorescent penetrant
Eliminate excess penetrant
Apply the developer
Examine under white or UV light
Recondition the workpiece.
5.1.2 FIELD OF APPLICATION

On account of its principle, liquid penetrant inspection can only be used to detect, identify and,
to a lesser extent, estimate the size of imperfections breaking the surface of a weld.
This process is usable on all types of materials provided that they do not have a porous
structure (certain types of cast iron, sintered materials and light alloys).
For example: on aluminium alloys, the presence of a fine coating of porous alumina reduces the
sensitivity of the inspection due to the degree of subsequent background noise (reduction in
contrast).
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Figure 4: Wetting power and surface tension
a
a
a
liquid penetrant mercury water
Figure 5: Relative efficiency of the eye (photo: INRS)

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5.2. PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
5.2.1 SURFACE TENSION AND WETTING POWER

Surface tension represents the internal forces acting on the surface of a liquid, with the volume
of this liquid tending towards a minimum envelope surface.
Wetting power is the capacity of a liquid to spread over a surface.
It is characterised by the angle α (alpha).
Low surface tension favours high wetting power. Manufacturers use additives to promote
wetting tendency (surface-active agents) to favour the spread of the penetrant.
5.2.2 CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is the capacity of a liquid to climb in narrow openings.
On account of this property, the liquid penetrant flows into the defect and then rises to the
surface of the developer which forms a multitude of capillary tubes.
5.2.3 RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE EYE

Electromagnetic radiation from the visible field to the ultraviolet field is the “vehicle” for energy. This
energy is measured with the aid of a receiver. The receiver that we have in our eyes is highly selective,
its sensitivity region ranging from a wavelength of 400 nm to 700 nm.
Furthermore, the eye is not sensitive to all radiation, the luminosity appreciated by the eye varies
according to the wavelength of the monochromatic radiation in question. Thus, at equal luminous energy,
yellow is more readily perceived than red.
INRS PHOTO
Fluorescent penetrants emit a bright, internal fluorescence with a wavelength equal to 550 nanometres
(nm) when they are subjected to a wavelength of de 365 nanometres.
This wavelength of 365 nanometres is easily obtained with the aid of a mercury vapour lamp (Wood’s
light).
Maximum sensitivity is obtained for this yellow-green colour (550 nm) whereas for a red colour with a
wavelength equal to 670 nanometres, the luminosity appreciated by the eye is only 3% of the total value.
NOTE: For liquid penetrant, the sensitivity of the penetrant - developer

combination is taken into account, not the penetrant alone.
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5.3. OPERATING PROCEDURE
5.3.1 CLEANING
Preliminary cleaning of the surfaces to be inspected is necessary to facilitate penetrant access
directly over surface-breaking cavities. Contaminants such as oil, water, scale, oxides,
combustion residues and salts that obstruct the penetration of the liquid and risk generating
spurious images must therefore be eliminated.
a/ Mechanical cleaning
Mechanical cleaning techniques such as polishing, grinding and sand or shot blasting eliminate
surface contamination effectively but they can cause the metal to creep on the surface and, as a
result, reduce or prevent penetrant access directly over the cavity.
Brushing can therefore be recommended as a cleaning method.
Ferritic steel brushes must not be used to clean austenitic stainless steels.
Note: Due to the application of certain welding processes, quite significant imperfect shapes
can be generated on the surface (overlaps, interpass grooves, etc.). These possible sources of
error will therefore have to be overcome and a more energetic cleaning process used (grinding,
deburring, shaving, etc.).
b/ Chemical cleaning
Cleaning must end with a powerful degreasing operation to avoid any possible reaction between
the penetrant and the residues in the faults.
Acids and chromates in particular reduce the fluorescence of several penetrants considerably.
Solvents
Residue-free organic solvents can be used as manually applied solvents. These solvents are
suitable for removing grease and oil, but not for solid particles trapped in interstices. Chlorine-
based solvents are not to be used with austenitic stainless steels, particularly those intended to
be in contact with pressurised hot water. The main manufacturing codes require that the
products used have chlorine and sulphur contents ≤ 200 ppm (RCCM).
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Figure 6: Application of a coloured penetrant by spraying

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5.3.2 APPLICATION OF THE PENETRANT

The method of penetrant application has no impact on the quality of the liquid penetrant
examination, just on the cost of the examination. The method of application depends on the
geometry, size and quantity of the workpieces.
a/ Dipping
The workpieces are completely immersed in penetrant for at least one minute ten removed from
the bath and left to drain. This draining operation limits product losses. It is a technique that is
often used on inspection lines.
b/ Brushing
This method localises the application of the product to the inspected area. Cleaning is easier as
a result.
c/ Spraying
This can be done with either:
- aerosols with chlorinated and non-chlorinated hydrocarbon propellants
- conventional spraying (air gun)
- electrostatic spraying.
5.3.3 ELIMINATION OF EXCESS PENETRANT

A very important phase because the readability of the indications depends on this (presence or
absence of background noise interfering with interpretation).
- If coloured penetrants are used, rinsing must continue until all pink traces have
disappeared from the surface.
- If fluorescent products are used, the elimination of excess penetrant is checked under
black light.
a/ Water-washable (pre and post-emulsified) penetrants: rinsing in water
- in a tank with a stirring system
- by automatic spraying
- by manual spraying
Note: In the case of spraying, the pressure must be equal to 200 kPa at most.
Penetrants are suitably rinsed at a water temperature of 15°C to 30°C.
Rinsing time must be as short as possible to avoid eliminating penetrant from the most open
defects.
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b/ Solvent-removable penetrants
This cleaning method must only be adopted if the above method cannot be applied.
This is done in two stages:
1) Maximum excess penetrant is removed with dry, fluff-free paper.
2) A lint-free cloth slightly moistened with solvent is used to wipe off the rest of the
excess penetrant.
Note: Under no circumstances must the solvent be sprayed directly onto the
surface to be inspected.
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Figure 7: Application of a developer suspended in a volatile liquid by spraying
Figure 8: Relative sensitivity according to the type of developer

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5.3.4 APPLYING THE DEVELOPER
Developers are classified into five categories according to their nature:
- Dry developers: dry powders

- Water-suspendable developers: powders in suspension in water
- Water-soluble developers: powders soluble in water
- Non-aqueous wet developers with a volatile organic support
- Peelable developers.
The developer must be kept in a homogenous state whilst in use.
It must cover the workpiece evenly with as thin a coating as possible in order to highlight minor
imperfections that are liable to be present.
The sensitivity of the examination will depend on the thickness of the coating of developer
applied.
A developer should have the following characteristics:
- Small particles (dry powder 1 µm), the shape of which enables good dispersion of
the penetrant plumb over a defect.
- High absorbency
- Giving a sharp, contrasted image of the defects
- Masking the shade of the examined surface
- Easily applied
- Forming a fine, even coating
- Non-fluorescent
- Fast drying
- Easily removed after examination
- Non-corrosive and non-toxic

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5.3.5 EXAMINATION CONDITIONS

These examination conditions will be checked with the aid of calibrated measuring instruments.
a/ Under white light
The measurement takes account of the entire visible spectrum. The intensity received at the
surface of the workpiece is measured with a photometer; the unit of photometry is the lux.
- The recommended value may be 500 lux with a minimum of 350 lux.
b/ Under ultraviolet light
We use radiometers gauged around a wavelength “λ 365 nm” capable of measuring the level of
energy per unit of surface area.
The ultraviolet lamps and radiometers must comply with the requirements of NF A09-599
(characterisation of ultraviolet light sources).
Recommended values may differ according to the codes or specifications in force.
Example: 800 µW/cm2 at 30 cm per NF A09-599

1000 µW/cm2 with no indication of distance per NF EN 571-1
The indications are interpreted in a dark room. The operator should be given sufficient time,
normally at least five minutes, for his/her sight to adapt to the darkness in the examination
booth.
5.3.6 RECONDITIONING THE WORKPIECE

The workpiece is reconditioned by cleaning and drying the surface to avoid any problem of
corrosion.
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Figure 9: Liquid penetrant inspection with a water-washable coloured penetrant - duration: 30 mins
Figure 10: Liquid penetrant inspection with a fluorescent coloured penetrant - duration: 30 mins
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5.4. INTERPRETATION AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
5.4.1 DEVELOPING TIME

Developing time depends on the operating procedure used and on the type of discontinuities
investigated.
However, it is advisable to carry out an observation as soon as the developer has been applied
so as to detect indications and have some information on the scale and nature of the
imperfections. Discrimination will then be possible between a series of small round, aligned
defects and a linear defect as acceptance criteria are different.
Developing time is generally between 7 and 30 min. However, for quite specific defects, longer
developing time may be envisaged.
5.4.2 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA: RCCM LEVEL 1
a/ Interpreting the indications

The indications are characterised by their dimensions. They are classified into linear or round
indications.
An indication is said to be linear when its largest dimension is more than three times the size of
the smallest.
Other indications are said to be rounded.

b/ Acceptance criteria
Only indications > 2 mm are considered.

- Linear indications
- Rounded indications where the largest dimension is > 4 mm
- Three of more aligned indications where the distance between them is less than
3 mm edge to edge.
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Figure 11: Runchek panel
Figure 12: ASME test block
Figure 13: Ni-Cr panels

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5.5. REFERENCE STANDARDS AND PRODUCT SELECTION

CRITERIA
To ensure the consistency and quality of products over time, we have a number of reference
pieces.
These standards can also be used to check suitability between the product range used, the type
of defect investigated and the surface roughness of the workpiece.
We shall then be able to evaluate the sensitivity of a range and, for certain standards, the
washability of the penetrant.
5.5.1 RUNCHEK CRACKED TEST PANEL

Liquid penetrant test panel made from plastic.
One of the faces has two micro-flaws. These panels follow the various phases of liquid
penetrant inspection by accompanying the workpiece under examination.
5.5.2 ASME ALUMINIUM TEST BLOCK

By quenching, a network of cracks is made in an aluminium block.
This block is then divided in two by a saw mark so that a comparative test can be conducted
between part A and part B.
Due to oxidation, the samples cannot be used for more than three or four tests.
5.5.3 NICHROME TEST PANELS

These cracked reference test panels are formed by a brass backing plate covered with a
required thickness of nickel electroplating then a protective electroplated covering of chromium.
Fine linear cracks are obtained by charging these test panels.
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General principles
NF EN 571-1 (Sept. 97)
pr EN 571-2: Penetrant product testing Penetrant testing.

pr EN 571-3: Reference blocks Equipment
pr EN 1956: Conditions of observation NF EN ISO 3452-4
(Dec. 99)
Non-destructive testing of steel Founding

forgings NF EN 1371-1 (August 97)
NF EN 10228-2 (May 98) NF EN 1371-2 (July 98)
Acceptance levels
NF EN 1289 (August 98)
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SECTION 6
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
TESTING
• METHODS OF EXAMINATION
• OPERATING PROCEDURE
• INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS AND

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
• STANDARDISATION
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Figure 14: Magnetic particle examination
Magnetisation and application of indicator Interpretation of the magnetic image
S N
S N
N S
N S
Figure 15: Field of application of magnetic particle testing
Défauts superficiels
ouverts, matés ou bouchés :
détection assurée
Défauts sous jacents :
Matériaux détection satisfaisante
ferromagnétiques ou aléatoire
défauts internes :
détection impossible
Matériaux métalliques
Matériaux non défauts internes ou sous jacents :

ferromagnétiques détection impossible
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The magnetic particle testing (MPT) process only applies to ferromagnetic materials: steels
(except austenitic steels), cast iron, nickel and cobalt.
MPT can be used to detect surface or even near surface flaws.
6.1.1 PRINCIPLE
1/ Magnetise to saturation
2/ Apply a magnetic developer
3/ Visualise the indications perpendicular to the magnetic field by build-up of developer
above the flaws.

MPT applies to ferromagnetic materials.
According to French standard NF A 09590 (Magnetic particle examination. General principles),

a material is said to be ferromagnetic if its induction is at least 1 T (Tesla) when subjected to a
field of 2400 A/m (Amperes per metre).
The following can be considered ferromagnetic:

- iron,
- nickel,
- cobalt,
- cast iron,
- unalloyed and low-alloy steels,
- steels with 3, 5, 6 and 9% nickel (martensitic and ferritic),
- ferritic steels with 13% chromium.
These materials are not considered ferromagnetic:

- austenitic steels,
- steel with 12% manganese,
- steels with a chromium content > 13% and a nickel content > 4%.
Example:
- X 120 Mn 12
- X2 Cr Ni 18-8
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Figure 16: Examples of portable electromagnetic crack detectors
Figure 17: Current flow between the electrodes with networking
d
b
β
b
d
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6.2. MAGNETISATION AND EXAMINATION METHODS
6.2.1 BY INDUCING A MAGNETIC FLUX
a/ Portable electromagnet
In this case, the workpiece closes the magnetic circuit. It is generally powered with a fixed-
intensity, 50 Hz AC supply (sometimes rectified) under 220 V or low voltage (legislation
specifies a voltage of less than 48 V for the inspection of current-carrying structures or
apparatus).
The poles of the electromagnet can be articulated to limit air gaps.
This technique offers greatest sensitivity for detecting discontinuities that are perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field.
According to RCCM, the electromagnet must be strong enough to lift a ferromagnetic mass of
4.5 kg with an AC supply and 18 kg with a DC supply.
NF A 09-590 recommends a field value of 2000 to 4000 A/m.

b/ Permanent magnet
A permanent magnet produces a stationary field which is highly effective for detecting deep
flaws (together with a dry powder).
6.2.2 BY CURRENT FLOW

Current flows between handheld or clamped-on contact electrodes for the inspection of a small
area of a large surface. The electrodes are then moved along a designated network to cover the
entire surface to be inspected.
This technique offers greatest sensitivity for detecting discontinuities that are parallel to the
direction of the magnetic field.
A generator capable of supplying high-intensity current at low voltage is used.
To avoid arcing:
- the current will be established once the electrodes are in position and cut before they are
removed,
- the contact between the workpiece and the electrode must be of good quality: ground
surface and silver-plated copper electrodes.
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6.3. OPERATING PROCEDURE
6.3.1 CHECKING THE LIGHTING CONDITIONS

UNDER WHITE LIGHT:
The area must be lit with natural or artificial light with an intensity at least equal to:
350 Lux for standard NF A 09-590 and 500 Lux for draft standard pr EN 1956.
UNDER BLACK LIGHT:

The examination under black light must be conducted with a minimum lighting level of:
8 W/m2 at a distance of at least 30 cm for standard NF A 09-590 (800 µW/cm2),
10 W/m2 with no distance specified for draft standard pr EN 9934.1 (1000 µW/cm2).
EYE HABITUATION: The eyes must be given at least five minutes to acclimatise to the ambient
lighting before the start of observation.
INTERPRETATION ROOM: For observation under UV light, intensity must not exceed:
40 Lux of ambient light for standard NF A 09-599.
20 Lux of ambient light for draft standard PR EN 9934.1.
6.3.2 MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL CLEANING

Mechanical cleaning with a metal brush as a general rule, chemical cleaning with an appropriate
solvent.
6.3.3 VISUAL INSPECTION

Per NF EN ISO 6520-1.
The main purpose of the visual inspection at this stage is to enable correct interpretation of the
magnetic writing and to inform the reader of the report on inspection conditions.
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Figure 18: Examination with black magnetic ink, AFNOR N°1 test panel
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6.3.4 APPLICATION OF THE CONTRAST LACQUER

In the case of an inspection with a coloured indicator product.
6.3.5 MAGNETISATION
Application of the pole pieces of the electromagnet on either side of the inspected area
(maximum 200 mm apart) in two complementary positions for the detection of longitudinal and
transverse defects.
OR
Application of the electrodes on either side of the inspected area (maximum 200 mm apart) in
two complementary positions for the detection of longitudinal and transverse defects.
6.3.6 POSITIONING OF THE FLUX-SHUNTING INDICATOR AT THE LIMIT

OF THE FIELD OF OPERATION
The flux-shunting indicator is used to check globally that examination conditions have been
fulfilled:
- magnetising conditions,
- developer quality,
- examination conditions,
- operator skill.
6.3.7 VARIOUS INDICATORS

AFNOR n°1 indicator
This is a mild steel plate with 20 mm sides containing a 0.1 mm circular discontinuity, covered
with a 0.2 mm thick tin coating.
Once the magnetic field has been established and the developer applied, sensitivity will be
considered satisfactory if two diametrically opposite arcs can be clearly seen.
The direction of the magnetic field will be indicated by the diameter joining the centres of the
arcs.
AFNOR n°2 indicator

Dead-mild steel disc, 28 mm in diameter, with a 14 mm diameter circular discontinuity at mid-
radius, covered with a 0.5 mm thick copper foil.
The other face is covered (observation face) by a film of paint.

It must be placed with the copper foil facing down at the limit of the field of operation.
Once the magnetic field has been established and the indicator product applied, sensitivity will
be considered satisfactory if two diametrically opposite arcs can be clearly seen.
The direction of the magnetic field will be indicated by the diameter joining the centres of the
arcs.
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Figure 19: Result of the magnetisation illustrated in the previous figure

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6.3.8 ESTABLISHING THE MAGNETIC FIELD

For five seconds with simultaneous application of the indicator product.
Magnetisation time is specified by codes, standards and specifications.
a/ Magnetic indicator products

The magnetic indicator products are composed of ferromagnetic particles:
- natural magnetite (Fe3O4, iron oxide),
- finely divided iron powder,
- organic powder.
They can be grey or blue (natural colours) or coloured (red, fluorescent, etc.) by pigmentation or
by thermochemical means.
b/ Monitoring the sensitivity of the examination

With a flux-shunting indicator.
For example: two arcs on the AFNOR N°1 plate (figure opposite).
6.3.9 INTERPRETING AND RECORDING MAGNETIC WRITING

According to the standards and specifications to be applied (see figure opposite).
6.3.10 WRITING A REPORT

The inspector must write a report indicating:
- the characteristics recorded on each product used (consumable or non-consumable),
- the nature of the indications,
- the dimension of the indications,
- the location of the indications.
6.3.11 RECONDITIONING THE WORKPIECE

Demagnetisation and cleaning.
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Figure 20: Surface-breaking crack revealed by an AC field and a fluorescent wet powder
Figure 21: Near-surface forging lap revealed by a DC field and a coloured dry powder
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6.4. INTERPRETING INDICATIONS AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
6.4.1 INTERPRETATION
Specification extract:
Discontinuities are revealed by a build-up of ferromagnetic particles.
However, not all revealed indications correspond to flaws (for example: irregular geometry,
excessive surface roughness, etc.).
Significant flaw indications are characterised by their dimensions and are classified into linear or
non-linear (rounded) indications.
An indication is said to be linear when its largest dimension is more than three times the size of
the smallest. Other indications are said to be non-linear (rounded).
6.4.2 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

(Per CODAP - RCCM)
Only indications > 2 mm are considered.
- linear indications,
- non-linear indications > 4 mm,
- three of more aligned indications where the distance between them is less than 3 mm edge
to edge, or spread over more than 20 mm if the distance between them is 3 to 6 mm.
Two indications are considered as just one if the distance between them is less than twice the
length of the smallest.
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6.5.1 FRENCH STANDARDS

NF A 04-121: Iron and steel.
NF A 09-570: Product characterisation.
NF A 09-590: General principles.
NF A 09-599: Characterisation of ultraviolet light sources.
6.5.2 EUROPEAN STANDARDS
pr EN ISO 9934-1
Principes généraux du contrôle
NF EN 473
Avril 1993 pr EN ISO 9934-2
Qualification et certification du personnel Caractérisation des produits
en contrôle non destructifs
pr EN ISO 9934-3
Equipement
NF EN 1290
Août 1998
Contrôle par magnétoscopie
Essais non destructifs des assemblages soudés pr EN 1956 Fonderie
des pièces forgées Essai par ressuage NF EN 1369
NF EN 10228-1 NF EN 1291 et essai magnétoscopique Fév. 1997
Juin 1999 Août 1998 Conditions d'observation Contrôle par magnétoscopie
Contrôle par magnétoscopie Contrôle par magnétoscopie
des soudures
Niveaux d'acceptation
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SECTION 7
RADIOGRAPHY
• X AND GAMMA RAYS
• RADIO RECEIVER
• IMAGE QUALITY AND INSPECTION
• OPERATING TECHNIQUES
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Figure 22: Principle of radiography

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7.1.1 PRINCIPLE
This test is based on the differential absorption of X or gamma radiation (see figure opposite).
The differences in radiation emerging from the workpiece will generate a “latent image” on the
film which will then be developed by chemical means.

X-ray or gamma-ray examination can be applied to all sorts of materials of a very different
nature (paper, plastics and metallic materials). It can be used to detect volumetric compactness
flaws as well as plane defects favourably oriented compared with incident radiation. The
parameters influencing the probability of detecting discontinuities in the material are mainly:
- the thickness and shape of the radiographed material,

- the nature of this material,
- the shape and nature of the discontinuities affecting the material,
- the position of these flaws in the inspected thickness,
- the nature of the radiation source (energy) and the type of film used,
- beam direction and focal length conditions.
When a flaw is revealed by radiography, it is possible to determine its nature and apparent
dimension on the film. On the other hand, assessing the depth of the flaw is a long and delicate
operation. Consequently, the height of the flaws - one of the parameters characterising their
harmfulness - cannot be measured using the usual techniques.
According to regulations, the use of ionising radiation can only be entrusted to medically fit staff
holding an appropriate certificate (CAMARI = Certificate of aptitude for the handling of industrial
radioscopic and radiographic equipment).
The fields of application of the various techniques depend primarily on the energy of the
generated radiation (thickness of steel in mm).
Field of application of Gamma rays per EN 1435: - Iridium 192: 20 to 100 mm

- Cobalt 60: 40 to 200 mm
Field of application of traditional X-rays per EN 1435:

From 40 keV to 400 keV: 0 to 60 mm, recommended maximum voltage: U=500 kV
for 50 mm of steel
Field of application of X-rays obtained with the use of an accelerator

1 to 10 MeV: up to 500 mm.
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Figure 23: X-ray tube
1 X-RAY GENERATOR
11 Insulant (gas or oil)

12 Collimator
2 CONTROL UNIT
21 Power plug
22 On-Off key
23 kV-meter
24 High voltage control
25 Milliammeter
26 Output control
27 Timer
28 Power on lamp
29 X-ray emission lamp
210 Fault warning lamp
3 CONTROL UNIT - X-RAY

GENERATOR
CONNECTION CABLE
(Low voltage)
4 FLASHING BEACON
5 DIAPHRAGM
6 X-RAY TUBE
61 Filament
62 Focusing cup
63 Copper anode
64 Tungsten target
65 Electron beam
7 LEAD SHIELDING
8 TRANSFORMER
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7.2. X AND GAMMA RADIATION
7.2.1 X-RAYS
a/ The vacuum X-ray tube

The electrons are emitted inside a glass bulb with a high vacuum to avoid electron obstruction.
The electrons, accelerated by a very high potential difference, hit a tungsten target at very high
speed.
The energy emitted and resulting from this impact appears in two distinct forms:
99% in the form of heat energy

1% in the form of X-rays
This explains the need for effective cooling of the apparatus on the one hand, and for a target
with a high melting point on the other.
Electron production is the result of a phenomenon known as a thermionic effect. A filament of

tungsten or tantalum is heated when charged by a current of a few amperes flows. The heating
of the filament produces an electron cloud and these are the electrons that, when focused and
accelerated, will be used to produce the X-rays.
b/ The X-ray spectrum
The X-ray spectrum represents the quantity of radiation according to wavelength. The spectrum
obtained is polychromatic and continuous: because of the richness of the spectrum, a very high
quality image is obtained.
7.2.2 GAMMA RAYS
a/ Emission principle
The emission of gamma rays is induced by the phenomenon of radioactivity. Discovered by
Henri Becquerel in 1896, natural radioactivity (of uranium) led Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie to
the production of artificial radioelements in 1934.
Radioactivity is a state of instability of the nucleus of the atom which, by successive emissions
of α, β, and γ radiation, ends up with a stable nucleus. These emissions are the result of
nuclear transformations designated under the general term of decay. In the following
paragraphs, we shall only approach the emission of γ rays.
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GAM PROJECTOR (ALSTOM)
1: Remote control cable

2: Remote control sleeve
3: Remote control end half
coupling
4: Remote control socket
5: Source holder ball-type
receptacle
6: Source holder lock
7: Transport cap
8: Indicator lamp
9: Lamp controlled by n°17
10: Automatic closing system
11: Source holder
12: Biological barrier
13: Shutter control
14: Shutter linkage
15: Shutter
16: Transfer channel
17: Key safety lock
18: Ejection half-coupling
19: Guard
20: Irradiation device
21: Safety lever
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b/ Gamma-ray spectra
It is important never to lose sight of the notion of radiographic contrast. This image quality factor
is strongly influenced by the richness of the spectrum. In actual fact, the richer the incident
radiation beam is in terms of the variety of energy composing its spectrum, the more contrasted
the radiograph will be due to the increase in the probability of interaction of photons with the
matter.
c/ Characteristics of the most widely used elements
Radioelement Ir 192 Co 60 Se 75
Half-life 74 days 5.3 years 119 days
Γ in mGy/h at
1 m for 1 TBq 135 353.7 60
Principal rays 7 rays of 295 to 2 rays of 1.17 7 rays of 66 to

613 keV and 1.33 MeV 400 keV
Field of
application per 20 to 100 mm 40 to 200 mm 10 to 40 mm
EN 1435 class
A (steel)
Most commonly used Used for very Image quality close

source in thick materials. to X-rays for thin
radiography. Low-contrast materials.
Good compromise radiogram due to Will it replace
Comments between image the poorness of Ir 192?
quality and its spectrum and
penetration power. its high energy.
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Figure 24: Radiographique film structure
Figure 25: Expression of optical density
I0
I0
Film D = log10
It
It
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7.3. RADIO RECEIVER
7.3.1 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM STRUCTURE
1 - Transparent, flexible plastic base material (polyester and cellulose triacetate)

2 - Substrate: very thin layer ensuring the adhesion of the emulsion to the base
3 - Emulsion: formed by an infinite number of silver halide grains
4 - Gelatine: hardener to protect the emulsion.
Radiographic film has two layers to enhance the sensitivity of the film and obtain more
contrasted images.
Single-layer films offering optimum sharpness by avoiding the blur of the crossover effect. This
type of film is particularly advantageous when big enlargements are required.
7.3.2 EXPRESSION OF OPTICAL DENSITY

The optical density scale D of a film is defined as follows:
D=log10 lo
lt
where Io = quantity of incident light on the film

It = quantity of light transmitted by the film
D = 1 means that the film transmits 1/10 of the incident light

Instruments called densitometers are used to evaluate optical density.
Remember that it’s the variations in density that will enable us to detect compactness defects on
interpreting the radiograph.
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7.3.3 VARIOUS TYPES OF FILM

In an attempt to meet the needs of radiographic examination, several types of film are available
on the market.
These films have differing characteristics with regard to their definition, i.e. their ability to reveal
fine defects. The smaller the grains making up the emulsion, the higher the definition.
Therefore, to qualify radiographic films, we use the terms “fast (sensitive) film” or “slow film”.
KODAK K AGFA
CX 0.65 D8
Speed
(sensitivity) Ê AX 1 D7
1.6
T D5
Definition Ì
MX 3.2
D4
Granulation Ê
M 4.4 D3
The K value (relative exposure factor) are usable for iridium 192. They are provided for
information only as they can fluctuate according to batches of films.
With X-rays, exposure time charts are required for every type of film due to the variation of K
according to energy.
7.3.4 DEVELOPMENT (MANUAL)
a/ Developer
The role of the developer is to enlarge the size of the image formed during irradiation so that it
becomes visible.
As time and temperature are beneficial to the migration of silver atoms, the average
recommended parameters are 5 minutes at 20°C. It is possible to remedy minor temperature
deviations: a correction of ± 30" per °C within reasonable temperature limits (18 to 24°C).
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b/ Stop bath
Before fixing the developed film, it needs to be dipped for 30 seconds in a bath containing 30 ml
of acetic acid per litre of water. The aim of this is to neutralise all of the chemical agents.
The stop bath may be replaced by rinsing under running water for two minutes.
c/ Fixing bath
The purpose of fixing is to dissolve the silver halide crystals non ionised during exposure and to
ensure that the developed image is preserved.
The recommended time is 10 minutes.

d/ Rinsing
The purpose is to eliminate all chemical products contained in the emulsion. Washing is done
under running water for 20 to 30 minutes, avoiding temperatures over 25°C.
e/ Drying
There are several possibilities for carrying out this operation:
- in the open air, in a dry, dust-free atmosphere,
- in a drying cabinet specifically designed for this operation,
- in an automatic roller dryer. Great care is to be taken when using such equipment.
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Figure 26: Metal intensifying screens
Figure 27: Additional filtration
Figure 28: Beam-limiting device

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7.3.5 PACKET CONTENTS
a/ Intensifying screens
The film is “sandwiched” between two intensifying screens with the purpose of reducing
exposure time.
There are three main types of screen: metal screens (dividing exposure time by three),
fluorescent screens (dividing exposure time by ten) and fluorometallic screens (dividing
exposure time by 100).
b/ Additional and back filters
During the shooting process, the X or γ radiation beam passing through the object under
examination will change wavelength and direction. The photons, having changed wavelength,
are called scattered photons. Their presence is disruptive as they will leave an anarchic
impression on the film creating uniform blurring (scattered blurring) on the one hand and
reduced object contrast on the other.
Furthermore, the entire environment of the object under examination (wall, ceiling, floor, etc.)
can generate scattered or backscattered radiation towards the film.
Therefore, to reduce the negative effect of scattered radiation, filtration techniques are used.
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Figure 29: Barrier screen
Figure 30: Double film technique

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c/ Double film technique

Arrangements will be made for the intermediate screen (card base with lead foil on each side) to
be the same total thickness as the front screen.
This technique has a number of advantages:
Reduced exposure time.
Elimination of any doubt regarding film and screen defects as such defects will only exist on a
single film.
Better perception of fine defects (dynamic interpretation).
Production of two identical films, one of which can be archived.

In this case, pose time will not differ from a single film.
Increased exposure latitude. This means that this technique also enables the interpretation of a
workpiece with variations in thickness in a single exposure: the thicker part will be interpreted on
a double film, the other on a single film.
A parallel technique for this type of shooting process consists of using films of differing speed by
carefully selecting sensitivity according to thickness.
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Figure 31: Geometric blurring
Source
Film développé
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7.4. IMAGE QUALITY AND INSPECTION
7.4.1 GEOMETRIC BLURRING

Geometric blurring determines the size of the penumbral shadow zone around a defect due to
the fact that the sources of radiation are not pointed.
Hence: F = source to film distance

d = source dimension
a = defect to film distance (largest possible projection)
f = geometric blurring
f = d×a where F = d×a + a

F−a f
Note: In European standards, the notion of geometric blurring is replaced by the

minimum source to object distance to be observed.
7.4.2 CONTRASTS
Image quality is closely tied to the various contrasts:
- object contrast depending essentially on the energy and the object,
- film contrast linked to the film and developing conditions,
- image contrast, a combination of the first two.
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Figure 32: Step-and-hole image quality indicators
Figure 33: Wire image quality indicators

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7.4.3 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
a/ Role of image quality indicators

An Image Quality Indicator (IQI) must only be used to provide an overall assessment of whether
the radiographic technique has been correctly implemented.
Image quality estimation is based on the perception of details of the image produced by the IQI
on the same radiograph as the workpiece. Experience has shown that there is no reliable
relationship between the image quality obtained and the dimension of the smallest visible
defect.
b/ Wire IQIs
European standard NF EN 462-1 defines four IQIs for four different grades of wire:
Copper: used for copper, zinc, tin and alloys of these metals
Steel: for ferrous materials (all grades of steel and cast iron)
Titanium: for titanium and titanium alloys
Aluminium: for aluminium and aluminium alloys
Each IQI consists of seven consecutively numbered wires arranged in parallel in a protective
envelope.
c/ Step-and-hole IQIs
European standard NF EN 462-2 defines the same grades as above.
Each IQI has six steps with one or two drilled holes numbered consecutively.
Steps less than 0.8 mm thick have two holes whereas those 0.8 mm thick and over have just
one hole.
During the radiographic examination, the IQI must be placed on the surface of the inspected
part on the radiation source side, at a point where the thickness is as uniform as possible. If this
is not possible, the IQI can be placed on the film side; a letter “F” must then be added right next
to the IQI.
In this case, certain specifications or codes (e.g. CODAP 95) require a test to be carried out on
a representative workpiece for which it is possible to place an IQI on the film side and another
on the source side so that the reading can be corrected if necessary.
The number of the smallest hole or wire visible on the radiogram must be taken as the image
quality value. When the step has two holes, both holes must be visible. A wire image is
considered to be visible if a continuous length of at least 10 mm can be seen in a region of
uniform optical density.
Then simply compare this diameter with what is recommended in the specification.
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Figure 34: Relative source / film positions
Source Source Source Source
Film Film
Source Source Source Source
Film Film
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7.5. OPERATING TECHNIQUES
7.5.1 EXAMPLE OF A CODAP 95 RECOMMENDED TECHNIQUE
Butt welds on ∅ < 90 mm tube:
φext
If ≤10 : technique plan/plan 1
e
or
source and film outside in contact 2
φext
>10 : projection elliptique (ouverture X au plus égale à 15 mm) 3
e
or
plane/plane technique 1
or
Butt welds on 90 mm < ∅ ≤ 170 mm tube:
φext
If ≤5 : Source à l'intérieur, décentrée 4
e
or
φext
If >5 : Source à l'intérieur centrée
e
or
source inside, off-centre 4
or
Butt welds on ∅ > 170 mm tube:
If possible, source inside and preferably centred, otherwise source and film outside in contact.
Root penetration fillet welds:
Penetrated or fitted ports: see diagram opposite.

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Figure 36: General standards
General principles
NF EN 444
(Apr.94)
Image quality standards Film standards Equipment standards
NF EN 462-1: Wire IQIs (April 94) NF EN 584-1: Classification NF EN 25580: Radiographic

NF EN 462-2: Step/hole IQIs of film systems (Nov.94) illuminators (August 92)
(August 94)
NF EN 462-3: Image quality NF EN 584-2: Control of film
classes (Dec. 96) processing (July 97)
NF EN 462-4: Image quality values
(Dec. 94)
NF EN 462-5: Duplex wire IQIs
(July 96)
Figure 35: Specific standards
Radiographic examination of welded joints

NF EN 1435 (Oct. 97)
General standards Specific standards

NF EN 473 NF EN 12517 (Sept. 98)
NF EN 444 Acceptance level
NF EN 462-1, 2, 3, 4 NF EN 25817 (Nov. 92)
and 5 NF EN 26520 (Feb. 92)
NF EN 584-1
NF EN 584-2
NF EN 25580
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SECTION 8
ULTRASONIC
TESTING
• ULTRASOUND PRODUCTION
• ULTRASOUND PROPAGATION
• INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
• EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
• BUTT WELD OPERATING PROCEDURE
• STANDARDISATION
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Figure 37: Principle of ultrasonic examination
parcours US Anomalie
parcours US
Figure 38: Ultrasonic frequency spectrum
Figure 39: Common field of application of frequencies in NDT
Concrete Cast iron Rolled sheet Thickness Measurement of thin

Refractory materials Aluminium Copper Forgings measurement parts
Certain composites Scaly parts Welds Flaw pinpointing
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8.1.1 PRINCIPLE
Ultrasounds are mechanical waves that are propagated in elastic media. When these waves
meet an interface between two media of a different nature to that of the propagating medium, all
or part of the incident wave will be reflected.
The reflected energy is picked up on the surface by the crystal (probe) which generated it.
This mechanical energy transformed into an electric signal will cause a deflection of the
horizontal line on an oscilloscope.
The reflective interface will be able to located from the position of the line deflection.
a/ Examinable materials
If all materials are capable of propagating mechanical vibrations, their structures and particularly
the internal damping, heterogeneity and anisotropy that they induce can reduce the possibilities
of using ultrasonic examination methods.
Unalloyed and low-alloy steels do not have such drawbacks. Due to the extent of their use as
structural components, they form the subject of most searches for flaws in welds.
The inspection of light alloys, cast irons, copper alloys, alloyed steels and more especially
austenitic stainless steels is delicate due to the coarse structure of these materials. The use of
specific techniques and equipment is often necessary.
Composites are difficult to examine due to the heterogeneity of their constituents.

b/ Searching and characterising flaws in welds
The search for a compromise between the safety and inspection cost of a structure results in a
reduction of the field of investigation. Consequently, the search for transverse defects is not
always carried out for instance. The terms and scope of inspection are determined by
standards, codes and specifications.
The location of defects and the determination of their lengths are relatively easy and precise
operations.
However, in a traditional manual inspection, the identification of an anomaly and the estimation
of its height are operations where significant errors may affect the result.
Recent techniques are liable to improve the situation in these last two areas.
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Figure 40: Quartz plate subject to stress (pressure)
Figure 41: Quartz plate subject to a P.D.

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8.2. ULTRASOUND PRODUCTION
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic examination requires the use of energy converters called transducers. Commonly
used crystals transform an acoustic pressure difference into voltage and vice versa.
A traditional transducer can therefore be used in both production and reception.
The physical principles adopted are primarily piezoelectricity and ferroelectricity or

electrostriction
8.2.2 PIEZOELECTRICITY
Piezoelectricity is a natural quality of certain crystals which was revealed at the end of the 19th
century. Quartz crystal sometimes used in NDT is typical of the phenomenon.
A quartz plate suitably cut in relation to the crystallographic axis reacts by a potential difference
to a pressure variation (see figure opposite). This property is used in reception.
Conversely, the same quartz plate subjected to a voltage contracts or expands according to the
sign of the voltage applied (see figure opposite). This property is used in transmission.
They lose their properties beyond a temperature called the Curie temperature. As
piezoelectricity is a natural phenomenon, when the crystal returns to a temperature below this
limit, it regains its properties. This is why they are mainly used for hot inspection.
The efficiency of these crystals in transmission and reception is generally rather poor. This is
why ferroelectric crystals are used.
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Figure 42: Compression and expansion in a wave train
Figure 43: Field of CW application

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8.2.3 VARIOUS TYPES OF WAVE
a/ Introduction
The type of stress initiated in the structure under examination conditions the mode of vibration.
For a wave type thus created, the physical characteristics of the material determine the velocity
value, regardless of the frequency.
Significant variations in velocity can sometimes be observed in the same product due to the
heterogeneity and anisotropy of the product (fibre structure of the metal, grain size, etc.).
b/ Compression waves (CW)
The material is subjected to compression-expansion stress and particle displacement is parallel
to the main direction of propagation (see figures opposite).
A few velocity values at 20° adopted by standards for compression waves:
Steel: 5850 m/s

Water:1480 m/s
Air: 333 m/s
c/ Field of CW application
The method of obtaining these waves makes them particularly suited to the search for defects
parallel to the input surface (see figure opposite):
• Thickness measurement.
• Plate inspection.
• Search for corrosion.
• Flush butt weld inspection.
• Round bar inspection.
• Fillet weld inspection on plates.
• Fitted port inspection.
• Through port inspection.
• Shear wave calibration.
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Figure 44: Shearing of layers of material in a wave train
Figure 45: Field of SW application

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d/ Shear waves (SW)

The material is subjected to shear stress, with particle displacement perpendicular to the main
direction of propagation (see figures opposite). Only solids are liable to propagate shear waves
as fluids do not have an elastic response to shear.
Velocity value in steel at 20° adopted by the standards: 3250 m/s.

e/ Field of SW application
The direction of propagation of these waves presents a non-zero angle in relation to the norm at
the interface to the input surface, which makes them particularly useful for the detection of
orientation defects (see figure opposite).
• Weld inspection.
• Base product inspection.
• Search for corrosion.
In this manual, we shall only deal with surface waves (evaluation of the depth of surface-
breaking cracks) and Lamb waves (thickness measurement).
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Figure 46: Beam shape

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8.2.4 SOUND BEAM SHAPE (SEE FIGURE OPPOSITE)

The beam is delimited by comparing the sound pressure at one point with the sound pressure
on a point at the same depth on the beam axis.
Zones are thereby defined where the acoustic pressure is never lower than a given value.
Reference is therefore made to beams at –6 dB, at –12 dB or at –20 dB, as illustrated in the
figure opposite.
Zones at characteristic distances - corresponding to specific beam properties on its axis – will
also be distinguished:
a/ Near field
The beam is convergent and acoustic pressure varies “randomly”. It can even be cancelled
out at certain depths.
This is why inspection in this zone is not recommended.
Near field length depends on the size and frequency of the probe.
b/ Focal region
Name given to the volume where acoustic pressure is always greater than half maximum
acoustic pressure. This is therefore the preferred inspection zone.
c/ Far field
The beam is divergent and acoustic pressure diminishes continuously.
Divergence depends on the size and frequency of the probe.
The basic functions of an ultrasonic test unit comprise a gain amplifier to overcome this
drawback.
8.2.5 CONCLUSION
Knowledge and the study of wave propagation forms the basis of ultrasonic inspection.
Several hours of practice are required to carry out interpretation by selection of signals
produced by a variety of phenomena including reflection, refraction and absorption found not
only on the discontinuities induced by defects but also on the interfaces defined by the geometry
of the parts.
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Figure 47: Schematic diagram of an analog ultrasonic flaw detector
Synchronisation Display
Recurrence Horizontal deflecting

frequency voltage
Reception
Vertical deflecting voltage

Pulse generator Gain amplifier Rejection
Signal processing
Transmission
Oscilloscope
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8.3. INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
8.3.1 THE ULTRASONIC TEST UNIT
a/ Transmission
Traditional ultrasonic test units work on the free transmission principle.
A capacitor discharge generates a sudden variation in voltage across the piezoelectric crystal of
the probe which begins to vibrate at its natural frequency.
Pulse-type generators are used. They deliver pulses to the piezoelectric crystal at the so-called
recurrence frequency.
The majority of traditional generators cover a frequency range of 0.5 to 15 MHz.
b/ Reception
When an ultrasonic wave returns to the probe, the piezoelectric crystal generates an electric
signal (voltage).
The amplitude of this signal depends on the reflective power of the reflector concerned, which
depends on:
- the size of the reflector,

- the nature of the reflector (nature of the interfaces),
- the orientation of the reflector in relation to the direction of beam propagation,
- the shape of the reflector and the geometry of the interfaces.
The reception circuit analyses these return signals between each generator pulse.
The raw signal is amplified and generally rectified and filtered.
Ultrasonic examination techniques are based on a comparison of the amplitude of the signals
received against those observed on blocks containing artificial reflectors. The reflective power
of a flaw can therefore be evaluated in comparison with the selected reference.
Signal amplification can be adjusted by the user: this function is performed by the gain
amplifier. Gain is expressed in dB (decibels) and is usually denoted by the letter G.
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Figure 47: General probe structure
Figure 48: A few examples of probes
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
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8.3.2 THE PROBE
a/ General structure
The central of a probe is the piezoelectric crystal. Its job is to transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy and vice versa. For common applications, piezoelectric crystals are
generally in barium titanate.
The crystal backing dampens the waves transmitted by the side and rear faces of the active
crystal and reduces its vibration time.
The quarter-wave plate adapts the impedance of the active crystal to that of the coupling device,
generally made of Plexiglas (Perspex).
The casing houses these elements as well as a coaxial electrical connector.

b/ Types of probes
(1) Single crystal CW probe: This is the simplest probe where the piezoelectric patch
transmits and receives.
(2) Twin crystal CW probe: Two identical active crystals are used simultaneously, one to
transmit and one to receive. The angle between the two crystals is called the tee-in
angle, and can be zero or non-zero. In the second case, the probe is said to be pseudo-
focused.
(3) SW probe: The piezoelectric patch is inclined to obtain a shear wave refracted in the
material being inspected with the required angle.
(4) Focused probe: A focusing lens concentrates the sound energy at a given depth, which
increases the sensitivity of the inspection.
(Non-exhaustive list)
8.3.3 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT

A coupling medium is interposed to ensure good wave transmission from the probe to the
workpiece. Manufacturers supply effective gels and pastes that fulfil this function. Oils, greases
or wallpaper paste can also be used. It is essential that calibration and inspection are
carried out with the same coupling medium.
A standard calibration block is necessary to set the time base of the equipment, in addition to
the reference blocks indicated by the code for sensitivity calibration.
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Figure 49: Pulse echo examination

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8.4. EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES

Only the pulse echo technique will be dealt with in this overview.
8.4.1 PULSE ECHO EXAMINATION (SEE FIGURE OPPOSITE)

This is the most commonly used method and the simplest to implement.
A single probe acts as a transmitter and receiver. The ultrasonic waves are transmitted
intermittently. Between two pulses, the probe receives the reflected waves.
This method allows a flaw to be detected provided that it presents a normal reflecting surface to
the ultrasonic beam.
If the testing unit is correctly calibrated, the position of the flaw in the thickness of the workpiece
can be determined.
When examining with shear waves, it is possible to bounce off the opposite side of the
workpiece and thereby change the angle of incidence of the beam in relation to the flaw (V
transmission).
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8.5. BUTT WELDING PROCEDURE
(IS US 319-21, second edition, June 1995)

This presentation is only provided as an example.
8.5.1 SCOPE OF THE EXAMINATION

Examination of the weld metal zone, the bonding zone and 10 mm either side of the weld (heat
affected zone).
The weld will be inspected along the entire bead length.
8.5.2 VISUAL INSPECTION

Search for imperfections in accordance with NF EN ISO 6520-1 and geometric characteristics
liable to disturb ultrasound propagation.
8.5.3 PARENT METAL INSPECTION

Purpose: As sheet metal acceptance standards are very broad, the inspector must ensure that
the zones on which angle probes are placed are free from defects such as splitting.
- Length: 100% of the bead length

- Width of sweeping zone: depending on SW probe displacement during the weld
inspection.
- Probe: CW, single or twin crystal.
- Time base calibration: sufficient to have a bottom echo.
- Sensitivity calibration: plotting of a distance amplitude curve (DAC) on the appropriate
reference block.
- Verification of attenuation: according to the method comparing the amplitude of a bottom
echo with identical sound path between the workpiece under examination and the
reference block.
- Characterisation of indications:
- Location
- Evaluation of the maximum reflective power
- Evaluation of the length of the indication: conventional method at -6 dB
- Scoring threshold: RP ≥ 50% of DAC (after attenuation correction).
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8.5.4 WELD INSPECTION
a/ Shear wave inspection

- Scope of the inspection: 100% of the bead length to be inspected.
- Probes: one or more angle probes according to the class of joint.
- Time base calibration: depending on thickness and techniques.
- Sensitivity calibration: plotting of DACs on the reference block.
- Determination of transmission correction: according to the “V” method (transmission
method) between the workpiece under examination and the reference block.
- Characterisation of indications:
- Location
- Evaluation of the maximum reflective power
- Evaluation of the length of the indication: conventional method at -6 dB
- Classification of volumetric/non volumetric indications: see Document B
IS.US.319.21.
- Scoring threshold: RP ≥ 50% of DAC (after attenuation correction).
8.5.5 WRITING AN EXAMINATION REPORT

The examination report must include the following elements:
- the characteristics of the inspected joint,
- the equipment used,
- the codes or specifications governing the inspection,
- operating conditions,
- a map diagram of detected indications as well as all characteristics used subsequently to
apply acceptance criteria, such as reflective power, size and nature.
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8.6.1 INTERACTION BETWEEN EUROPEAN STANDARDS RELATING TO

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION
GENERAL ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION STANDARDS
General principles
pr EN 583.1
pr EN 583-2: Setting the NF EN 27963 Steel Characterisation and

sensitivity and time base (August 92): forgings verification of ultrasonic
NF EN 583-3 (Nov. 97): Calibration NF EN examination equipment
Transmission technique block n° 2 10228-3
pr EN 583-4: pr EN 12223: (Sept.98) pr EN 12668-1:
Examination for Calibration Instruments
discontinuities block n°1 EN 10228-4
perpendicular to the pr EN 12668-2: Probes
surface
pr EN 583-5: pr EN 12668-3:
Characterisation and Combined equipment
sizing of discontinuities
Pr EN V 583-6: TOFT
method
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8.6.2 SPECIFIC ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION STANDARDS
SPECIFIC ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION STANDARDS
Revised
US examination of welded joints
document IS
NF EN 1714 (October 97)
US 319-21
NF EN 1712 (Nov. 97): Acceptance levels NF EN 25817

NF EN 1713 (Sept. 98): Characterisation of
indications
pr EN NDT: Inspection methods for austenitic

steel welds
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SECTION 9
OTHER TECHNIQUES
• ACOUSTIC EMISSION
• EDDY CURRENTS
• THERMAL INFRARED ANALYSIS

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Figure 50: Acoustic emission on a pressure vessel

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9.1. ACOUSTIC EMISSION
9.1.1 PRINCIPLE
The internal micro-displacements of a material create transient elastic waves (similar to sounds
and ultrasounds). Acoustic emission is the discipline that uses this phenomenon for analysis or
inspection purposes.
The investigator places an acoustic emission sensor on a structure and applies stress. The
deformation induces two types of emission:
Continuous emission, generally associated in metallic materials with plastic deformation

(dislocation movement).
Burst emission that accompanies damage phenomena leading to rupture (incipient and
propagating cracks, stress corrosion, etc.).
Analysis of the signals from the experiments provides information of the damage to the structure
during the test or in real time.
9.1.2 APPLICATIONS
Due to the specific features of acoustic emission, structures can be tested and inspected during
trials and in service.
Recent developments in this promising technique have earned it a place in several applications:
- Testing of LPG tanks.

- Testing and inspection of pressure and hydrocarbon storage vessels.
- Detection of the appearance of cracks on drawing.
- Real-time inspection of spot welding.
- Monitoring of aeronautical structures.
- Prediction of ruptures in composite high pressure tanks.
- Testing of pressurised marine tanks.
- Leak testing: detection of leaks by acoustic monitoring.
- Supervision of the leak tightness of primary circuit welds (nuclear power plants).
- Tests and continuous supervision of structures (bridge suspension cables).
- Etc.
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Figure 51: Principle

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9.2. EDDY CURRENTS
9.2.1 PRINCIPLE
When a coil charged by an alternating current is brought towards a piece of metal, EDDY
CURRENTS are created in the metal by electromagnetic induction.
H: magnetic field created by the coil in the absence of the piece.
Hf: secondary field created by Eddy currents.
The analyse of information and the detection of indications are based on the systematic
comparison of a reference signal (the equilibrium) between the analysed signal. Detection
thresholds and the measurement of indications are established by gauging and calibrating the
instrument and the sensor on the reference pieces.

Eddy current examination techniques are only used for inspecting current conducting materials
in order to detect:
- flaws (geometric discontinuities),
- structural irregularities,
- variations in chemical composition.
Consequently, applications of Eddy current examination include:

- metal classification (σ, µr),
- the detection of cracks, internal underfilling and various inclusions,
- the measurement of plate or tube wall thicknesses,
- the determination of the thickness of a non-conducting coating or film applied to a current-
conducting base material.
Eddy current examination can be implemented at various stages in the life of a component or
appliance.
Due to the origin of the Eddy currents (induction phenomenon), the inspection of a components
does not require any mechanical contact between the component and the field coil.
This advantage that is not found in ultrasonic examination gives the method an industrial edge
by the speed of execution that can be achieved in production.
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Figure 52: Overall view of a furnace with display of the temperature at a given point.
Spot 1
120,0
NORTH VIEW
>120,0°C
120,0
110,0
100,0
90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
Spot 1
20,0
118,1
<15,0°C
EAST VIEW
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9.3. THERMAL INFRARED ANALYSIS
9.3.1 PRINCIPLE
Thermal techniques consist of evaluating the local temperature of the surface of a part under
examination when it is heated or cooled or according to its natural emissivity in a given
environment.
In practice, information is obtained on the internal structure by observing surface thermal effects
due to the propagation of a heat flux in the material.

There are two fields of application for thermal infrared analysis. The first is local non-destructive
testing of light-duty components. This area includes:
- the inspection of composites for delamination,
- the inspection of bonded joints,
- the inspection of thin depositions (ceramic or other).
For this type of application, heating is generally necessary and development is required for each
particular case.
The second type of application is the search for inhomogeneity in temperature on working
systems, such as hot spots on an electrical cabinet or the heat balance of a structure.
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SECTION 10
SUMMARY
• COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL NDT
METHODS
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10.1. COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL NDT METHODS
10.1.1 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MAIN NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

PROCESSES ACCORDING TO THE STAGE OF USE
STAGE OF UT RT MT PT
PROCESS
zzzz zzz zzz z z (z)

INSPECTION
BEFORE (Inspection of (Inspection of (Inspection of (Inspection of
WELDING parent materials) moulded groove faces) parent materials)
materials)
z zzz z z (z) z z (z)

INSPECTION
DURING Welding in Welding in Welding in Welding in
WELDING process process process process
zzzz z z z (z) z z z (z) z z (z)

INSPECTION
AFTER If the material and Quite ineffective If the material Limited to
WELDING thickness allow it on thick allows it surface-breaking
workpieces defects
zzzz = Very good zzz = Good zz = Average - Poor z = Ineffective

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PROCESSES ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALS
(WELD METAL)
MATERIAL UT RT MT PT
CARBON OR
LOW-ALLOY zzzz zzzz zzzz zzzz
STEELS
FERRITIC zz zzzz z z (µÌ) zzzz

ALLOYED
STEELS
AUSTENITIC zz zzz z zzzz

ALLOYED
STEELS
LIGHT ALLOYS zzzz zzzz z zzzz
COPPER
ALLOYS z z z (z) z zzzz
TITANIUM zzz zzzz z zzzz

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PROCESSES IN RELATION TO THE DETECTION AND
CHARACTERISATION OF WELD DEFECTS
UT RT MT PT
Volumetric z z (z) (3) zzzz zz zzzz

defects
DETECTION
OF DEFECTS
z z z z (1) z z z z (1)
z z z (z) (2) zzzz
Plane defects
z (2) z z (2)
Position in the zzzz zz z z z (z) z z z (z)

thickness
CHARACTERISATION
OF DEFECTS
l zzz zzzz z z z (z) zzz
Size
t z z (z) z zz
Nature zz z z z (z) zzzz zzzz

Plane or
Volumetric
(1) If correctly oriented (2) If poorly oriented (3) Depending on shape and
size

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PROCESSES ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF WELDED JOINT AND
THE THICKNESS OF THE JOINED ELEMENTS
th (mm) WELD TYPE UT RT MT (1) PT (1)
th ≤ 8 zz zzzz zzz z z (z)

dc
Butt welds
8 < th ≤ 80 zzzz zzz z z (z) z z (z)
th > 80 zzzz z z (z) z z (z) z z (z)
th, a ≤ 8 z z z (z) zzz z z (z)
a
th, a > 8 zz zz z z (z) z z (z)
Fillet welds
(corner)
th ≤ 8 zzz zz zzz z z (z)
th ≥ 8 zzzz z z z (z) z z (z)
th < 8 zz z z (z) zzz z z (z)

Ports
th ≥ 8 z z z (z) z (z) z z (z) z z (z)
th ≤ 8 zz zz zzz z z (z)
Fillet welds
(lap joint)
th > 8 zzz zz z z (z) z z (z)
(1) Limited to the detection of surface defects (MT – PT) or near-surface defects (MT)
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PROCESSES ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF THE WELD
DEFECTS AND THEIR POSITION IN THE THICKNESS
EXAMINED
SIDE OR UT RT MT PT
FILM SIDE
A z (z) z z z (z) zzzz z z z (z)
B zzzz z z (z) z z
Surface
defects
A z zzzz zz zz
B zz z z z (z) z z
A z z (z) (1) z z z (z) z z (z) z
Near- B zzz z z (z) z z

surface
defects
A z (z) zzzz z (z) z
z
B zzz z z z (z) z
A or B z z z (z) z (z z) z z
Internal
defects
A or B z z z (z) zzzz z z
A = defect situated on the examined side (UT) or film side (RT)

B = defect on the opposite side to the examined side (UT) or film side (RT)
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Pages 34 - 35
Normale Normal
Page 37
Forme nominale Design shape

Exécution réelle Actual shape
Page 38
Epaisseur réelle Actual thickness

Epaisseur nominale Design thickness
Page 48
et and
Loul L or l
gcalculé gcalculated
Page 51
Tous matériaux non poreux All non-porous materials

Défauts débouchants Surface-breaking defects
Défauts non débouchants Blind defects
ouverts : détection assurée open: detection guaranteed
bouchés : détection aléatoire blocked: detection unpredictable
maté : détection aléatoire caulked: detection unpredictable
internes ou sous jacents : détection impossible internal or subsurface: detection impossible
Page 61
sensibilité en % sensitivity (%)

Pénétrant C Penetrant C
Pénétrant D Penetrant D
non révélé undeveloped
en suspension aqueuse suspended in water
poudre sèche dry powder
en suspension dans un solvant suspended in solvent
Page 71
Matériaux métalliques Magnetic materials

Matériaux ferromagnétiques Ferromagnetic materials
Matériaux non ferromagnétiques Non-ferromagnetic materials
Défauts superficiels ouverts, matés ou bouchés : Open, caulked or blocked surface defects:
détection assurée detection guaranteed
Défauts sous jacents : détection satisfaisante ou Subsurface defects: detection satisfactory or
aléatoire unpredictable
Défauts internes : détection impossible Internal defects: detection impossible
Défauts internes ou sous jacents : détection Internal or subsurface defects: detection
impossible impossible
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Page 83
NF EN 473
April 1993
Qualification and certification of NDT personnel
pr EN ISO 9934-1
General principles of testing
pr EN ISO 9934-2
Product characterisation
pr EN ISO 9934-3
Equipment
Non-destructive testing of steel forgings

NF EN 10228-1
June 1999
Magnetic particle inspection
NF EN 1290
August 1998
Magnetic particle examination of welds
NF EN 1291
August 1998
Magnetic particle testing of welds
Acceptance levels
pr EN 1956
Liquid penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing
Observation conditions
Founding
NF EN 1369
Feb. 1997
Magnetic particle inspection
Page 85
Quantité de rayonnement incident Quantity of incident radiation

Différences d’épaisseur Differences in thickness
Soufflure Gas cavity
Objet Object
Inclusion de tungstène Tungsten inclusion
Quantité de rayonnement transmis Quantity of transmitted radiation
Film Film
Page 95
Ecran antérieur Front screen

Film Film
Ecran postérieur Back screen
Source X Source of radiation
Filtration additionnelle Additional filtration
Masques de plomb Lead masks
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Page 97
Source X Source of radiation

Cassette porte-film Film cassette
Ecran de blocage Barrier screen
RX rétrodiffusé Backscattered radiation
Pochette, cassette Packet, cassette
Ecran renforçateur antérieur Front intensifying screen
Filtre antérieur Front filter
Films Films
Ecran renforçateur intermédiaire Intermediate intensifying screen
Blocage Barrier
Ecran renforçateur postérieur Back intensifying screen
Page 99
Source Source
Film développé Developed film
Page 104 (équations)
∅ext OD
e Th.
technique plan/plan plane/plane technique
projection elliptique elliptical projection
ouverture X au plus égale à 15 mm opening X = 15 mm max.
source à l’intérieur, décentrée source inside, off-centre
source à l’intérieur, centrée source inside, centred
Fig. 37
parcours US US path
Anomalie Anomaly
Fig. 38
Infrasons Infrasound
Sons Sound
0,1 0.1
0,5 0.5
Matériaux métalliques Metallic materials
Contrôle Non Destructif Non-Destructive Testing
Ultrasons Ultrasound
Ultrasons haute fréquence High-frequency ultrasound
Hypersons Hypersound
Fig. 39
0,1 0.1
0,5 0.5
Matériaux métalliques Metallic materials
Contrôle Non Destructif Non-Destructive Testing
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Fig. 42
Train d’ondes Wave train

Zone de compression Compression section
Zone de traction Traction section
Fig. 43
Mesure d’épaisseur Thickness measurement

Contrôle de tôles Plate inspection
Recherche de corrosion Search for corrosion
Contrôle de soudures bout à bout arasées Flush butt weld inspection
Contrôle de ronds Round bar inspection
Contrôle de soudures d’angle sur tôles Fillet weld inspection on plates
Contrôle de piquages posés Fitted port inspection
Contrôle de piquages traversants Through port inspection
Etalonnage en OT Shear wave calibration
Fig. 44
Shearing of layers of material
Fig. 45
Contrôle de soudures Weld inspection

Contrôle des produits de base Base product inspection
Recherche de corrosion Search for corrosion
Fig. 46
Champ proche Near field

Champ éloigné Far field
Dard focal Focal region
Faisceau à -6 dB Beam at -6 dB
Faisceau à -12 dB Beam at -12 dB
maxi max
Pression acoustique sur l’axe en fonction de la Sound pressure on the axis according to distance
distance
Fig. 47
Synchronisation Synchronisation
Visualisation Display
Fréquence de récurrence Recurrence frequency
Tension de déflexion horizontale Horizontal deflecting voltage
Base de temps Time base
Retard Delay
Emission Transmission
Générateur d’impulsions Pulse generator
Réception Reception
Tension de déflexion verticale Vertical deflecting voltage
Amplificateur de gain Gain amplifier
Rejet Rejection
Traitement du signal Signal processing
Oscilloscope Oscilloscope
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Fig. 48
Connecteur coaxial Coaxial connector

Bloc amortisseur Crystal backing
Boîtier Housing
Connexion électrique Electrical connection
Enrobage Coating
Elément piézo-électrique métallisé sur les deux Piezoelectric crystal metal-plated on both sides
faces
Lame quart d’onde Quarter-wave plate
Ligne à retard Delay line
Fig. 52
Tôle Plate
Courants de Foucault Eddy currents
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IWT
MODULE 4.8 : ECONOMIC ASPECTS

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ECONOMIC ASPECTS
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 3
2. ANALYSIS OF WELDING COSTS ...................................................................................... 4
3. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED........................................................................................ 4
3.1. Nature of the material to be welded ............................................................................. 4
3.2. Thickness to be welded ................................................................................................ 4
3.3. Quantity to be produced and renewal .......................................................................... 6
3.4. Place where the welding work is performed................................................................. 6
3.5. Joint accessibility.......................................................................................................... 6
3.6. Preparation of the edges to be welded ........................................................................ 6
3.7. Health and safety rules................................................................................................. 7
3.8. Manufacturing codes, standards and specifications .................................................... 7
3.9. Metallurgical requirements ........................................................................................... 7
3.10. Handling and lifting gear............................................................................................... 7
3.11. Subsequent deformations ............................................................................................ 8
3.12. Inspection means ......................................................................................................... 8
4. CALCULATION AND COST OF WELDING ........................................................................ 9
4.1. Direct costs ................................................................................................................... 9
4.1.1. Consumables................................................................................................................9
4.1.2. Energy costs ...............................................................................................................12
4.1.3. Labour cost .................................................................................................................12
4.1.4. Duty cycle ...................................................................................................................14
4.1.5. Weight of metal to be deposited .................................................................................14
4.1.6. Hourly rates ................................................................................................................16
4.2. Indirect costs .............................................................................................................. 16
4.2.1. Equipment write-off and maintenance ........................................................................16
4.2.2. Period of training.........................................................................................................16
5. ELEMENTS OF COMPARISON......................................................................................... 17
5.1. Products...................................................................................................................... 17
5.2. Deposition time........................................................................................................... 18
5.3. Cost ............................................................................................................................ 18
6. USE OF COMPUTERS....................................................................................................... 19
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7. MEASURES DESIGNED TO CUT WELDING COSTS...................................................... 19

7.1. Measures relating to the implementation of welding processes ................................ 19
7.2. Measures relating to maintenance ............................................................................. 20
7.3. Measures linked to welding preparation..................................................................... 20
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1. INTRODUCTION
Several factors contribute to the choice of a welding process.
A process may be selected on the basis of facts relating to the design and production of a workpiece.
The following considerations are important but, depending on the purpose of a product and its use, a
choice will be made between:
ª reliability and efficiency

ª appearance
ª cost price
An order of priority is established according to the type of manufacture:
ª A bridge structure: all three factors are important but the order of priority will probably be as
follows
• 1. Efficiency - 2. Cost price - 3. Appearance
ª A car body: a manufacturing process where welding plays a large part because this technique is
applied with the aid of PLC’s and robots on assembly lines
• 1. Appearance - 2. Efficiency & reliability - 3. Cost price
ª Engine gearing manufactured with the aid of high-energy or high-speed processes:

• 1. Manufacturing cost - 2. Reliability. Appearance is relatively unimportant.
The notion of required quality must then be taken into consideration.

Correctly assessing the required quality in a welded structure is an important point that is defined by
manufacturing codes, standards or specifications governing this structure.
There is opposition between required quality and minimum cost; over-quality can be very expensive.
It is difficult to define a level of quality in a general manner because factors specific to each firm and
each order must be taken in account.
But the production of a weld at lowest cost can be dealt with in a more general way in spite of the many
factors that are again often specific to each firm.
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2. ANALYSIS OF WELDING COSTS
The choice of welding process and operating procedure must take the following points into account:
• Nature of the material to be welded

• Thickness to be welded
• Quantity to be produced and renewal
• Place where the welding work is performed
• Joint accessibility
• Preparation of the edges to be welded
• Health and safety rules
• Manufacturing codes, standards and specifications
• Metallurgical requirements
• Handling and lifting gear
• Subsequent deformations
• Inspection means
A few conclusions will already be able to be drawn from an examination of these factors.
3. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
3.1. NATURE OF THE MATERIAL TO BE WELDED

3.2. THICKNESS TO BE WELDED
These two areas are closely linked and already establish a choice in terms of processes.
A comparison is made below for three common groups of materials, taking account of the fact that they
are all weldable grades that are free from any operating or metallurgical weldability problems:
ª unalloyed steels
ª austenitic stainless steels
ª light alloys
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UNALLOYED STEELS
Thickness/
0.5 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 16 20
Process
311 xxx xxx xxx xx xx x x x x x
111 x x xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
141 xx xx xx xx xx x x x x x
114 x x xx xx xxx xxx
131
135 x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
136 x x xx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx
LIGHT ALLOYS
Thickness/
0.5 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 16 20
Process
311 xxx xxx xx xx xx x x x x x
111 x x x x x x x x x x
141 xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx
114
131 xx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
135
136
STAINLESS STEELS
Thickness/
0.5 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 16 20
Process
311 x x xx xx xx x x x
111 x x xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
141 xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx x
114
131 x x x x x x x x x x
135 x x x xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
136 x x x x x xx xx xx xx xx
xxx in common use with good results

xx possible,
x difficult or impossible in certain cases
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3.3. QUANTITY TO BE PRODUCED AND RENEWAL
Welding is not only applied to the manufacture of small, medium and large production runs but also to
the production of single parts or even to the renewal of all of these.
This factor can be considered as one of the main criteria to be taken into account when choosing a
process, as it determines whether an available process should be adopted or, on the other hand,
whether new equipment needs to be purchased. Also availability cannot be determined until the
manufacturing schedule is known.
3.4. PLACE WHERE THE WELDING WORK IS PERFORMED
Welding will be done on site or in the shop. The problems relating to these conditions differ: supervisory
operations, electric current supply, filler product and welding gas supply, workpiece manipulation, and
possible and impossible welding positions will all contribute to limiting the choice of process.
3.5. JOINT ACCESSIBILITY
Checking joint accessibility is an important point: the shape of the workpieces and the types of joint are
important factors when automatic or semiautomatic processes are to be used. Flanges or sections can
cause an obstruction to the use of automatic processes or certain welding accessories. Difficulties linked
to the space required by TIG or MIG torches then appear.
If the cost can be justified by the scale of production, special equipment can be designed in collaboration
with welding equipment manufacturers.
Good coordination between the Methods Departments and the Design Office can either avoid a number
of errors or, quite often, make it possible to rectify errors.
3.6. PREPARATION OF THE EDGES TO BE WELDED
Will the joint be made with a square butt or grooved edge preparation?
Will there be a sealing run or not?
If these two questions are not fully considered (or not considered at all), significant variations in the
weight of the deposited metal can result.
Correctly prepared edges help to obtain quality welds without the implementation of heavy or expensive
means.
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ª Example: butt weld, 10 mm thick, 1 m long
Groove angle 60° 70° 80° 90°

Weight of
600 g 772 g 900 g 1030g
deposited metal
3.7. HEALTH AND SAFETY RULES
Efficient welding processes can sometimes be limited in their use, or even prohibited, because they give
off large quantities of fumes.
Effective ventilation and extraction systems must be selected and installed, especially in confined
spaces.
3.8. MANUFACTURING CODES, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Although a welding process may satisfy economic requirements, qualification tests on the operating
procedure are necessary to meet certain other requirements… and operating procedure qualification is
not an insignificant cost factor.
If a qualified operating procedure is already available, using the process concerned can then prove to be
the most economical solution: it is worth conducting a comparative study in this case.
3.9. METALLURGICAL REQUIREMENTS
Working on new materials may force the company to comply with weldability rules that are sometimes
strict and difficult to implement or apply due to a lack of experience .
Preheating or heat treatment operations may have to be carried out or welding processes used that
involve high energy or high deposition rates.
These provisions may lead to other consequences such as serious deformation and changes in
mechanical characteristics.
3.10. HANDLING AND LIFTING GEAR
The choice of a process is linked to its workability: if the workpieces need to be welded in position,
positioning and manipulating equipment are required. If this is the case, check that joint accessibility is
not reduced by certain parts of the fixtures.
It is important, however, for the workpieces to be able to be correctly joined and therefore properly fitted
up before welding.
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3.11. SUBSEQUENT DEFORMATIONS
A low number of welded joints is recommended.

If the workpiece must be made with strict dimensional tolerances, a welding process creating very little
deformation will be selected.
Establishing welding sequences is also an effective way of limiting deformations.
3.12. INSPECTION MEANS
The joints must be positioned in such a way as to facilitate inspection operations.

There is a close relationship between inspection method and types of joint. For example, fillet welds and
T-joints are more difficult to inspect by X-ray. The nature of a material can also be incompatible with an
inspection method: a light alloy and ultrasound testing, for instance.
The choice of method therefore implies the need for knowledge on the part of users as this can lead to
irreversible situations: eddy current examination on welds made with covered electrodes on steel tubes
will be difficult to implement.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT PROCESS AT THE RIGHT COST DEMANDS CLOSE

COOPERATION BETWEEN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS:
ª METHODS AND PERFORMANCE INSPECTION

ª TIME CONTROL
ª DESIGN OFFICE
ª WELDING DEPARTMENT
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4. CALCULATION AND COST OF WELDING
Welding cost is always linked to other operations:
ª Purchase and storage of raw materials

ª Preparation, cutting into lengths, cutting out, bending and machining
ª Joining with aid of fixtures, jigs and tacking
ª Welding
ª Mechanical post-welding operations
ª Heat treatment
ª Inspection
According to statistics, this cost can be evaluated at 30% - a significant amount therefore.
It can be split into two distinct items:
ª Direct costs
ª Indirect costs
4.1. DIRECT COSTS
• Consumables
• Labour
• Overheads
4.1.1. Consumables
Although this a relatively low-cost item, it is necessary to have an overall view of costs as action is
required in two areas.
• Appropriate selection of filler products for a given process.

• Avoidance of situations leading to waste: poor storage of filler products, leaks in gas pipes,
faulty flux infeed line, badly maintained wire feeders, etc.
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Filler product Gas Elec.

Flux
current
Process Electrode Wire O2 C2H2 Ar CO2 Ar+CO2
311 (3)
111 (1)
141 (2)
131 (2)
135
136
(1) The tungsten electrode is a consumable

(2) Remember backing gas consumption
(3) For welding light alloys
In the case of filler products, efficiency is never 100%: losses must be taken into account.
ª Stub ends: consumable wire processes

ª Butts: welding with covered electrodes
ª Volatilisation: practically all processes
Product loss Eff. Deposited Gas
Process V% SE+B% % metal Shielding C2H2 O2
311 4 1 95 1.05 700/900 800/1100
111-Rutile electrode 20-30 12 58-68 1.47-1.72
111-Basic electrode 28 12 60 1.66
111-Hi-eff. electrode 20 12 68 1.47
141 4 1 95 1.05 200/1000
131 3-7 2 91-95 1.06-1.1 200/1000
135 3-7 2 91-96 1.05-1.1 200/1000
136 15 2 83 1.2 200/400

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Efficiency is therefore determined as follows:
POIDS.METAL.DEPOSE
RENDEMENT =
POIDS.METAL.FONDU
“Small” consumables - equipment and accessories that constitute a major point in the operating
expenses of welding shops - must then be added. These items are often neglected or forgotten.
Process
Products 311 111 141 131 135 136
Pipes
Nozzles
Filter glass
Plain glass
Electrode holders
Contact tubes
Conduits
Gloves
Aprons
The cost for A KILOGRAM OF DEPOSITED METAL includes
PRIX .D' ACHAT .au.KG

• filler metals:
RENDEMENT
PRIX .D' ACHAT .m3.x.DEBIT .m3 / h

• gas consumption:
VITESSE.DE.DEPOT .Kg / h
To conclude, the expression of the cost of consumables shall take account of the aforementioned
indications to which the cost of energy is then added.
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4.1.2. Energy costs
The proportion of the overall cost corresponding to this item is low but must not be neglected.
Electrical energy is supplied by the Electricity Board (EDF) in the majority of cases: contracts signed with
corporate users take account of the following in the calculation of prices:
• daily period of consumption: peak or off-peak times

• seasonal period of consumption: summer, winter.
Freedom of action is limited in this area: at most, the manager can choose to run a heavy-consumer
welding machine during a cheaper time slot.
ª Energy: 2.5 to 3.5 kW per kg x purchase price of kWh
4.1.3. Labour cost
In each company, the hourly operating rate of a machine, the cost of an operation or the cost of a shop is
updated every year. Welding time, however, will be determined by a technician. The purpose of this task
will be to carefully establish manufacturing cost and to help draw up schedules.
Reference was made above to the “weight of deposited metal”, although methods of calculating per
linear metre are also valid.
Arc time
POIDS.DE.METAL. A.DEPOSER
ª corresponds to the
VITESSE.DE.DEPOT
For a given welding process, this time is determined by taking account of:
• the welding positions encountered during the manufacturing process

• the filler products selected: diameter, efficiency, etc.
• welding parameters
This gives a theoretical time that must then be divided by the duty factor to obtain the actual welding
time.
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The duty factor is variable and depends on:
ª the welding process and its degree of automation (manual, semiautomatic or automatic)
ª the type of joint and the production of continuous or intermittent welds
ª the various points raised in paragraph 3
ª the internal organisation of the company
ª the joining means used.
Examples:
ª Process 111
• Change of electrode
• Slag breaking, weld cleaning and possible grinding
ª Process 135
• Change of wire, cleaning of the installation
• Nozzle and contact tube replacement
• Wire cutting on restarting
• Possible grinding of bead restarts
ª Process 136
• Same remarks as above, although the size and weight of torch must be taken into
account
• Installation of fume extractors
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4.1.4. Duty cycle
Duty cycle
Process
min. average max.
311 10 20 30
111 10 30 50
141 20 30 50
135 Semiautomatic 20 40 70
131 Automatic 30 60 90
Semiautomatic 15 35 65
136
Automatic 30 55 85
4.1.5. Weight of metal to be deposited
The calculation depends on criteria such as:
ª Types of joint
ª Edge preparation
ª It is a theoretical calculation but feasible with simple geometrical shapes
The formula is:
VOLUME x DENSITY
(Increased by a 10% allowance)
The weight of deposited metal can also be found out from
ª charts supplied by welding equipment manufacturers

ª the company’s own data based on experience.
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Examples of wire fusion curves

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Increasing the size of the groove angle can lead to considerable variations. A precisely calculated angle
can also result in significant savings in terms of filler metal weight.
This also applies to gap variations.
4.1.6. Hourly rates
Depending on the size of the firm and its method of management, this heading covers costs such as
salaries, social contributions and overheads, and also other charges such as rent, insurance, lighting,
heating, aftersales service, marketing, research and development, training, stock keeping, non-
productive staff, etc.
4.2. INDIRECT COSTS

• Equipment write-off
• Maintenance
• Staff training
4.2.1. Equipment write-off and maintenance
As soon as an item of equipment exists in a company, it must be written off: this is generally done over
five years.
The need to acquire new equipment is a complex subject. However, it is worth asking the question and
finding out whether investments, that are sometimes heavy, do not contribute to real savings.
Equipment maintenance, which also has an impact on the duty cycle, is another important point.
Equipment in good working order and suited to the job at hand contributes to a reduction in the duty
cycle.
4.2.2. Period of training
The duration of training will depend on the targets to be achieved. Nevertheless, training remains a
significant token of the quality of welding work and helps improve adaptation to the workstation.
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5. ELEMENTS OF COMPARISON
The following example shows how the cost per kilogram of deposited metal can be determined from
three basic items of information.
Although these elements of comparison are provided for information purposes only, they do give food for
thought in terms of the calculation of cost prices.
ª Table 1 ¾ PRODUCT
ª Table 2 ¾ DEPOSITION TIME
ª Table 3 ¾ COST
5.1. PRODUCTS
Process Filler product Gas Cost
Φ 3.15: 76 electrodes
0.90 F x 76 = 68.40 F
Φ 4: 48 electrodes
111
1.27 F x 48 = 60.96 F 64 F
Φ 5: 31 electrodes
2 F x 31 = 62 F
Flowrate: 16 l/min
Deposition rate 1200 g/h
or 20 g/min 40 F
135 1.05 kg x 11 F = 11.55 F
Consumption = 840 l
1050 / 20 x 16)
Cost of gas: 28.56 F
136 1.25 kg x 35 = 44 kg 44 F
Typical efficiencies have been take into account for the use of the above processes. These figures show
that unshielded flux-cored arc welding is clearly the most attractive in terms of product cost.
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5.2. DEPOSITION TIME
Weight of
kg per N° of hours
Process deposited Duty cycle
welder hour per kg
metal
111
Φ 4, length: 350 mm
1.2 30% 0.360 2.78 h.
Current: 160A
135
Φ1.2
3 40% 1.200 0.83 h.
Current: 250 A
136
Φ2.4
6 35% 2.100 0.48 h.
Current: 300 A
The joints have been made by welders qualified for the above-mentioned processes and an average has
been calculated from three distinct tests per process. Professional experience may be employed
provided that the working factors are the same.
5.3. COST
Cost will be determined as follows:
ª Product cost + Labour cost
Cost per kg of
Process Product Labour
deposited metal
111 64 2.78 x 150 = 417 F 481 F
135 40 0.83 x 150 = 124.50 F 164.50 F
136 44 0.48 x 150 = 72 F 116 F
An hourly salary of 150 F (hourly wage plus charges) has been taken as a basis for calculation.
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6. USE OF COMPUTERS
Cost calculation is an operation that must take account of:

ª the volume, and therefore the weight of metal to be deposited
ª welding time.
If some calculations can be long and fastidious, the use of computers helps to resolve a number of
difficulties and also improve weld quality.
• Qualified operating procedure (QMOS) management software

• Welder qualification management software
• Welding time management tools
• Weldability assessment tools
7. MEASURES DESIGNED TO CUT WELDING COSTS
The various points approached above provide food for thought in terms of the possibilities of limiting
welding costs, assuming that the process has already been chosen.
This means that the company must take account of the conditions for implementing this process and the
possibilities of improving productivity and efficiency while observing quality criteria.
7.1. MEASURES RELATING TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
Automating or robotising a welding process is a solution that helps improve the duty cycle, increasing it
from 30 to 80%, and limit labour costs. However, restrictions relating to parts supply problems can go
against this type of measure.
Using high-performance welding equipment is also a positive point but calls for qualified labour. By
undergoing training tailored to the company’s needs, welders or operators can learn to practise self-
inspection.
Expenses linked to the operation of certain installations are made by selecting the appropriate welding
gas supply mode: cylinders, bundles or bulk. The price per cubic metre can be reduced considerably.
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7.2. MEASURES RELATING TO MAINTENANCE
The checking and maintenance of gas supply and distribution systems is also an area where savings
can be made: state of pipes and fittings, stop valves, argon backing, etc.
Substantial savings can also be made when selecting an installation cooling technique that requires
water: a central cooling station is sometimes much more economical than circuits connected to the
wastewater drain.
7.3. MEASURES LINKED TO WELDING PREPARATION
It is true that a joint that is well prepared is a joint that is half done, providing that it is well done of
course.
It is the result of the combination of preparation and welding that counts: there is no point in over-quality.
The choice of one welding technique may require that the user complies with very strict tolerances and
therefore leads to high costs, whereas another will be implemented at lower cost due to the wider
tolerances.
The result will also depend on the accuracy applied by the operator or welder in carrying out joining and
welding work.
This document provides a basis for reflection

on the various parameters to be taken into
account when establishing a welding cost
price.
The figures and percentages are given as an

indication only and are designed to raise the
reader’s awareness of the influence and
fluctuation of variables.
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§ 4.1.1. (équations)
Rendement Efficiency
Poids métal déposé Weight of deposited metal
Poids métal fondu Weight of molten metal
Prix d’achat au kg Purchase price per kg
Prix d’achat m3 Purchase price per m3
Débit m3/h Flowrate in m3/h
Vitesse de dépôt kg/h Deposition rate in kg/h
§ 4.1.3. (équation)
Poids de métal à déposer Weight of metal to be deposited

Vitesse de dépôt Deposition rate
§ 4.1.5.
V fil m/mn Wire V (m/min.)

partie terminale en mm stickout in mm
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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.9 : REPAIR BY WELDING

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REPAIR BY WELDING
CONTENTS
1. WHY REPAIR? ..................................................................................................................... 2
2. EVALUATING THE REPAIR................................................................................................ 2

2.1. Analysing the situation prior to repair........................................................................... 3
2.2. Determining the advantage of a repair......................................................................... 3
2.2.1. Feasibility......................................................................................................................3
2.2.2. Place of operation.........................................................................................................3
2.2.3. Cost and leadtime analysis...........................................................................................4
3. REPAIR FILE........................................................................................................................ 4
4. QUALIFYING THE REPAIR ................................................................................................. 4

4.1. Ordinary weld ............................................................................................................... 4
4.2. Regulated weld............................................................................................................. 5
4.3. Special precautions ...................................................................................................... 5
4.3.1. Detecting reasons for the defect or damage.................................................................5
4.3.2. Local weldability............................................................................................................5
4.3.3. Heat treatments ............................................................................................................6
5. REPAIR METHODS.............................................................................................................. 6
5.1. Elimination of unfit parts ............................................................................................... 6
5.2. Preparation ................................................................................................................... 7
5.3. Actual repair ................................................................................................................. 7
6. INSPECTING THE WELDS.................................................................................................. 8
6.1. Surface inspections ...................................................................................................... 8
6.2. Near-surface inspections.............................................................................................. 8
6.3. Compactness inspections ............................................................................................ 8
6.4. Inspection before welding............................................................................................. 8
6.5. Inspection during welding............................................................................................. 9
6.6. Inspection after welding................................................................................................ 9
6.7. In-service inspections ................................................................................................... 9
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1. WHY REPAIR?
When welding is used as a joining technique, the
resulting joint is expected to have a certain level of
performance in areas such as:
ª the transmission of static loads (traction,

compression, shear),
ª the transmission of time-variable loads
(alternate deflection),
ª corrosion resistance.
As welding is a durable joining method, the
manufacturer must guarantee the performance level
of the structure for a time defined by the customer’s
needs. This period varies greatly from a few minutes
(tacking) to several hundred years (bridges, Figure 1
radioactive waste containers, etc.).
To guarantee such a level of performance, it is generally assumed that there is no discontinuity in the
material and that the thickness of the workpiece is constant and at least equal to the minimum thickness
considered in the design calculations. The mechanical characteristics of the metal must also be known.
This implies, therefore, that the performance features of the weld zone and the heat affected zone are
known when welding is used.
Consequently, any structure that does not have or no longer has the performance level required in the
specification must be reformed or repaired. The problem will also be dealt with differently depending on
whether the apparatus is in production or at the end of its working life as repairs always have a high cost
and systematically affect the mechanical performance of the joint.
In addition to actual repairs, there are also modifications or alterations. This situation is relatively
frequent when the apparatus has a long working life. Alterations are dealt with in a similar way to major
repairs.
2. EVALUATING THE REPAIR

There is a difference in reasoning depending on whether the job involves a repair to equipment in
production or a repair or alteration to a piece of apparatus in service.
This difference stems mainly from the fact that the method differs when the operation involves a minor
repair (little preparation, short length, thin application, etc.) or a major repair or alteration requiring a
comprehensive design phase.
On new equipment, repairs are done quite willingly particularly if the repair process is very close to the
manufacturing process. It must be remembered, however, that a repair is never “transparent” with regard
to the manufacturing process or the performance level to be obtained. Even if it appears simple, the
repair must always be done advisedly.
On equipment in service, if it is preferable to keep the existing equipment in activity, the decision will be
made to repair. The opportunity may also be taken to make functional alterations or to increase the
working life of the apparatus.
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Before repairing or altering a weld, it will be necessary to draw up a repair file, the importance of which
will grow with the size of the operation at hand. This will generate costs which will have a strong impact
on the means to be implemented or even the advantage of carrying out the repair.
2.1. ANALYSING THE SITUATION PRIOR TO REPAIR

Before looking at the restoration process, the reasons for the flaw need to be analysed. This can have a
number of causes. The most frequent include:
ª Flaws off-reference in relation to an applicable baseline,

ª Material corrosion or ageing,
ª Breaking in service,
ª Accidental damage,
ª An alteration to the apparatus affecting the material to a greater or lesser degree.
2.2. DETERMINING THE ADVANTAGE OF A REPAIR

The following problems should be analysed before undertaking a repair:
ª Feasibility,
ª Place of operation,
ª Cost,
ª Leadtimes.
2.2.1. Feasibility
Feasibility will depend on the following parameters:
• Nature and state of the materials,

• Consideration of the cause(s) of the disorder(s),
• Consideration of the temporary or permanent nature of the repair,
• Approval of a repair description prior to qualification,
• Inspection possibilities,
• Possible modification to the in-service inspection programme.
2.2.2. Place of operation

The question needs to be raised to find out whether the repair is to be done in situ, sometimes in the
open air, or if it can be done in a near-identical situation to the manufacturing conditions.
The further one deviates from the manufacturing conditions, the more difficult the repair will be. It is also
possible that the workpiece will be in a very different situation to that encountered in production (creep
resistance, dimensional tolerances, possibility of heat treatment).
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2.2.3. Cost and leadtime analysis

The cost of repair - including downtime costs and possibly the impact of downgraded performance - must
be evaluated and compared with the replacement of the apparatus by a new one (also generating
indirect costs). Choice of the period of repair will have to be taken into consideration.
In fact, the effects of a repair on production downtime will be increasingly penalising as the length of the
downtime increases.
3. REPAIR FILE
The repair file must include a certain number of documents. Content may differ according to the
company or statutory requirements, but the constituent parts of the repair file are always more or less as
follows.
• General layout or diagram with labelling of the joints and identification of the repaired welds,
• Kinematics of repair showing the following sequences:
- workpiece cleaning and preparation (working down, cutting and edge preparation),
- pre-welding inspection,
- welding,
- inspection and testing during and after welding,
- post-welding heat treatment,
• Description(s) of the repair procedures,
• Qualification reports relating to the operating procedures used and the corresponding
worksheets,
• Welder qualification reports,
• If applicable, the description of repair qualification reference joints.
All of these elements will be included in the welding manual in the section on repaired joints.
4. QUALIFYING THE REPAIR
4.1. ORDINARY WELD

Even if no contractual or statutory requirements are defined for repairs, the most basic codes of practice
ensure that the performance level of the repaired joint will be at least equal to that of the parent metal.
Obviously this requires knowledge of the parent metal and its weldability.
Such knowledge is easy to implement for new structures as long as a welding manual is available.
Experience shows that, for old structures, it is very difficult - if at all possible - to recreate the welding
conditions of the time when it was constructed. In most cases, where there is damage, it can be seen
that the welders of the time did not take the vital precautions to produce a quality weld, primarily due to a
lack of knowledge of the raw materials and the consequences of welding on these materials. They were
therefore a long way from writing a welding manual providing information for the future repairer of the
incriminated zones.
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4.2. REGULATED WELD

A regulated weld can only be repaired if this type of work is permitted by the building code. Where
allowed, it must of course be done with the same professional conscience as an ordinary weld. A
distinction has to be made between minor repairs and major repairs which are often considered in the
codes as new structures. As the evidence to be provided is identical to the proof required for a new
structure, the manufacturer will often use feedback to improve the behaviour of the structure and
increase its life expectancy.
Generally the repair is processed differently depending on whether a short length (e.g. 200 mm for the
AQUAP) or a greater length is involved. It also depends on whether it concerns the entire thickness or
only a part.
The repair must always be qualified before undertaking the operation. Qualifications must be approved
by an accredited body and the work (the actual qualification and repair) must be supervised by an
inspector.
Similarly, thorough knowledge must be acquired of the parent metal. It will therefore be necessary to
take samples or resort to production references if the manufacturer’s file is incomplete.
All work, including qualifications needing to be re-established for the occasion, will be entered in the
welding manual.
4.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS

4.3.1. Detecting reasons for the defect or damage
Before undertaking a repair to an imperfect weld or to the premature failure of a piece of apparatus in
service, the evolution of the previous operations must be retraced. This is a long job during which
certainties and strong presumptions must be accumulated for the cause of the damage to be analysed. A
statement will also have to be made with regard to the probability of the anomaly being reproducible.
If a welding flaw is involved, the cause of its appearance must be examined and the welding process or
the descriptive operating procedure (DMOS) must be revised. It must also be remembered that this
approach can call into question the qualification of the manufacturing process or even that of the
welders.
If the damage was discovered in service, the reason for the damage must also be identified. This can be:
ª excessive stress due to a load not taken into account during the sizing phase,
ª a design or calculating error,
ª poor choice of parent materials and/or filler metal,
ª a manufacturing flaw undetected at the time or during an in-service inspection.
Most of the time, this analysis will lead to the need for a macrographic examination. This can be done in
situ but, more generally, a replica or a sample will be used to conduct this examination in the laboratory.
It is possible that this sample, taken from the incriminated zone, will subsequently complicate the repair.
Other samples may be taken from the parent metal, thereby generating additional repairs.
4.3.2. Local weldability

The use of materials with downgraded performance due to poorly controlled corrosion or abnormal
stress poses major local weldability problems. Working on materials that have been activated or
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contaminated by radioactive elements raises specific problems that need to be controlled before
implementing the repair process.
The main metallurgical problems encountered in repair are as follows:
ª Considerable work hardening at the break,

ª Oxidation of the broken surfaces to a greater or lesser extent,
ª Deformations and concentration of stress in the zones to be repaired.
Action must therefore be taken to restore the original properties to the metal and, to do this, it will be
necessary to apply local heat treatments based on the recrystallising and regenerative capabilities of the
materials used.
Furthermore, if certain thermal techniques used to correct distortion are not performed correctly, this can
lead to an exaggerated enlargement of the metal grains or accidentally create hardened zones - this
must be checked.
The filler metal will be suitably chosen according to the nature and mechanical characteristics of the
parent metal. Its use may occasionally require pre- and postheating treatment.
Where an electrode depositing an austenitic metal or nickel alloy is used, it must be remembered that, in
principle, no further ferritic metals can be deposited on these materials.
4.3.3. Heat treatments

In addition to pre- and postheating treatments designed to secure the welding operation with regard to
the risk of cold cracking, heat treatments can be carried out for two reasons:
ª relieving stress,
ª changing the metallurgical structure of a part of the construction.
When performed after a repair, it is rare that such treatments affect the entire workpiece. It should be
remembered that the entire workpiece is not necessarily capable of supporting heat treatment for
reasons such as creeping or excessive softening of the mechanical performance of the structures (on
low-alloy steels) or the presence of austenitic steel.
The use of local treatments must take account of the different dilatation between hot and cold parts. In
actual fact, excessive dilatation of certain parts leads to the creation of local stresses over the limit of
elasticity. In this case, deformations such as those created to correct distortion are produced on cooling.
Deformations or stresses contrary to the intended effect are thus created.
Heat treatments used at the end of the manufacturing process are rarely carried out in the factory in
furnaces. They tend to be performed with heating elements installed on site. The worksite must therefore
be equipped with a gas supply for the burners and an adequate supply of electric current for stress
relieving or metallurgical heat treatments.
5. REPAIR METHODS
5.1. ELIMINATION OF UNFIT PARTS

The first phase of the repair is the elimination of unfit parts, either because they are irreparable or
because they are no longer required on account of a new design. This is done using traditional methods:
oxygen cutting, plasma cutting, water cutting, parting off and working down.
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When carrying out a local repair, the zones considered unacceptable must be removed beforehand and
the workpiece prepared to simplify the repair phase.
Working down is generally done by grinding. This
eliminates the defective zones completely and
prepares for the deposit of new weld beads.
Another method of working down is air-carbon arc
gouging (see opposite).
An electric arc is struck between the workpiece and a
carbon electrode.
A jet of compressed air is circulated at a tangent to
this electrode. The electric arc is designed to fuse the
metal and the jet of air to blow away the fused metal.
It should be noted that some codes forbid the use of
air-carbon arc gouging for certain applications, Air-carbon arc gouging
particularly when the risk of hardening is high.
5.2. PREPARATION
Edge preparation is necessary for a successful repair. The zones where new weld beads are to be
deposited must be clean and free from imperfections. The preparation should favour accessibility to the
zones to be repaired.
Occasionally, after working down, there is not enough
metal left to produce the weld beads correctly. In this
case, the faces of the weld joint are coated by
welding or buttering.
The two techniques are quite similar as they consist of
depositing weld seams with a view to increasing the
thickness of the parent metal locally.
We refer to buttering when this deposition contributes
to the mechanical strength of the workpiece and
coating when the deposited metal is only intended to
increase the thickness of the workpiece.
Buttering can be done using a metal close to the
parent metal or different for metallurgical reasons, in the scope of producing a heterogeneous weld.
5.3. ACTUAL REPAIR

All processes can be used for repairs. The same process as used in manufacture is generally adopted
unless this has actually been the cause of the problem or is impossible to use owing to prevailing
circumstances.
Welding may require preheating that will need to be anticipated with equipment adapted to the site.
If heat treatments cannot be reproduced with the same effectiveness as in the factory, a different repair
method will have to be used.
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6. INSPECTING THE WELDS

Repairs must be accompanied by inspections. These inspections may be global or take the form of spot
checks. They can relate to the surface of the materials, near-surface zones or the interior. Testing
methods are selected according to the nature of the suspected flaws.
6.1. SURFACE INSPECTIONS

A visual examination of a weld provides important information on the way in which the weld was made,
any restarts and the existence of surface flaws. It is inexpensive to implement and must always be
carried out at every stage of production or repair. It is originally done by the welder who assesses the
quality of his or her work. This examination will then be resumed by an inspector who will search for
particular indications. The visual examination may be direct if it is done with the naked eye or indirect if
the operator uses an instrument such as an endoscope or a television camera.
Liquid penetrant testing is used to reveal small surface-breaking flaws. According to certain statutory or
contractual requirements, this examination must be done by an inspector certified by the French Non-
Destructive Testing Confederation (COFREND).
6.2. NEAR-SURFACE INSPECTIONS

Near-surface inspections are generally carried out by means of magnetic particle or eddy current testing.
Some ultrasonic inspection techniques are optimised to search for near-surface flaws (twin-crystal
probes, focused probes).
All of these techniques require a qualified operator. COFREND issues operator qualification certificates
for these techniques.
6.3. COMPACTNESS INSPECTIONS

The compactness of a workpiece or a weld is generally tested by means of a radiographic or ultrasonic
examination.
Ultrasonic testing detects flaws perpendicular to the probe beam. Radiography detects flaws parallel to
the radiation.
Unless the probe has been specially designed for this purpose, ultrasonic testing cannot be used to
detect near-surface flaws.
Radiography - which can be used with an X-ray or gamma ray source - is a transmission measuring
process. Access must therefore be available to both sides of the workpiece: one to position the film, the
other the source.
In addition to possible COFREND certification, the use of radiography requires precise knowledge in
health physics and medical clearance to work with ionising radiation.
6.4. INSPECTION BEFORE WELDING

Pre-welding inspection is particularly important for repairs. Before starting welding, the welder needs to
ascertain that the parent metal to which the repair is to be deposited is sound and indeed has the
characteristics considered in the original calculations.
It must also be ensured that the cut is free from defects.
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6.5. INSPECTION DURING WELDING

The purpose of inspections carried out during welding is to verify that the first passes (i.e. those made on
the original structure) are perfect. They are justified by the fact that they are often easier to carry out or
more accurate than those done when the repair is complete.
In case of doubt, it will be easier to do the repair as the zones affected by the new repair will be smaller.
6.6. INSPECTION AFTER WELDING

These inspections are designed to prove that the repair has been done correctly. They have therefore an
important contractual role.
They will often be used as a “zero state” for future in-service inspections.
6.7. IN-SERVICE INSPECTIONS

As a matter of principle, it is considered that a repair is less solid than the new structure. In-service
monitoring will therefore need to be even more meticulous, on the one hand by using a more
sophisticated technique or by increasing the number of inspections, and on the other hand by stepping
up the frequency of inspection.
It is also possible that a modification to the original programme will be required to take account of the
fact that certain inspections may no longer be able to be carried out.
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§ 5.1
électrode de carbone carbon electrode
saignée kerf
arc arc
jets d’air comprimé compressed air jets
§ 5.2
Beurrage Buttering
Métal fondu Fused metal
Acier faiblement allié Low alloy steel
Acier austénitique Austenitic steel
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date: 27 05 03
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IWT
MODULE 4.10 : FITNESS FOR PURPOSE

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FORMATION FITNESS FOR PURPOSE

1
PROFESSIONNELLE
PPFPT 0397rév 0 date: 29/06/01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 8
FITNESS FOR PURPOSE
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 2
2. FITNESS FOR PURPOSE CONCEPT................................................................................. 2

2.1. Manufacturing and repair works ................................................................................... 2
2.2. Detection or acceptance of imperfection...................................................................... 2
2.3. Detection of failures during service .............................................................................. 3
3. ASPECT FOR USE OF THE FITNESS OF PURPOSE CONCEPT .................................... 3
3.1. Parent metal ................................................................................................................. 3
3.2. Certificates of materials ................................................................................................ 4
3.3. Welding consumables .................................................................................................. 4
3.4. Aqquracy of the dimensions ......................................................................................... 4
3.5. Imperfections ................................................................................................................ 4
4. APPENDIX............................................................................................................................ 5
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1. INTRODUCTION
Products have to meet the quality requirement of the application standards, delivery requirements or
project specification, in order to obtain the customer satisfaction.
Some disagreement may bee appear during the manufacturing. It is possible that the product will not
meet the specified and required quality.
To obtain the customer satisfaction you have to reach the fitness for purpose of your manufacturing.
In 1990, The INERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING issue IIW Guidance on Assessment of The
Fitness for purpose of welded Structure (IIW/ISS-SST-1157-90). The summary of this document is given
in appendix 1.
2. FITNESS FOR PURPOSE CONCEPT

To carry out the quality requirement, you have to determine the quality level.
The quality level determine the nature and the importance of the testing (destructive, or non destructive).
These testing may be carrying out during the manufacturing and during the life of the material in fact
during maintenance work.
2.1. MANUFACTURING AND REPAIR WORKS

During fabrication of new material or repair work of service material some specified requirements are not
met by the product, for examples:
ª The parent metals or consumables do not meet the specified requirements.

ª The dimension or the tolerances do not met the specified requirement.
ª The imperfection detect by visual, non destructive testing do not meet the specified
requirement.
2.2. DETECTION OR ACCEPTANCE OF IMPERFECTION

In order to improve the correct level of quality, some non-destructive testing may be carrying out. The
objective of these testing are:
ª Detecting the defects and recording if the are upper the evaluation level.
ª Determination of the defect place.
ª Sizing of the defects.
ª ncreasing of the defect’s sizing between to in service inspection.
The level of detection depends of the requirement’s severity,
The acceptability of flaws, failures or defects as well as deviation on the required material properties may
be given when the are outside of the specified requirement. Perhaps, some regulations have to be apply
and always, the customer has to agree to the use of the fitness for purpose concept.
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RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 8
The annexe B of EN 12062 norm (Non destructive examinations of weld-General rules for metallic
materials) shows the use of the fitness for purpose concept.
Indication
EXAMINATION LEVEL ACTION
size
Acceptance level Rejection or repair
(Fitness for purpose)
Rejection or repair or further
Acceptance level
evaluation based on fitness for
(quality assurance)
purpose criteria
Recording level Recording of the indication
Evaluation of indication with
Evaluation level regard to size type or others
characteristics
2.3. DETECTION OF FAILURES DURING SERVICE

If during maintenance failures or defects are detected the fitness of purpose concept may be used. Two
questions are to be answered
ª Can the failure or defect be accepted without any problems for the further use of the equipment
or machine ?
ª If not, how long can the equipment or machine operate with the detected failure or defect? Is
there a need to repair the failure or defect at once?
Failure criteria are for example:
ª Ductile fracture,
ª Brittle fracture,
ª Fatigue fracture,
ª Lamellar tearing,
ª Corrosion, Abrasion, Instability,
3. ASPECT FOR USE OF THE FITNESS OF PURPOSE CONCEPT
3.1. PARENT METAL

Evaluation of the parent metal (see e.g. EN 1011-2), Furthermore the treatment of the parent metal
during the fabrication has be considered:
ª Cold forming,
ª Flame cutting
ª Pre heating
ª Welding,
ª Heat treatment
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4
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3.2. CERTIFICATES OF MATERIALS

The type of certificates of the parent metal may be determined in the application standard depending on
the type and grade of materials and the different methods of calculation.
3.3. WELDING CONSUMABLES

The use of welding consumables with do not meet the specific requirement depend on:
ª Thickness of the parent metal,
ª Heat treatment,
ª Mechanical properties of parent metal,
ª Service temperature.
3.4. AQQURACY OF THE DIMENSIONS

If the required dimensions are not available, the following question have to be answered
ª Is the required accuracy of the dimensions of the product really necessary for the use of this
product?
ª If not, with tolerances can be accepted?
3.5. IMPERFECTIONS
The acceptance of imperfection outside of the specified requirements depends on:
ª Type of load, (static or fatigue),
ª Tensile or compression stresses,
ª Utilisation of permissible stress,
ª Type, size, shape, location of the imperfections

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5
PROFESSIONNELLE
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 8
4. APPENDIX
IIW Guidance
On Assessment
of
The Fitness for Purpose of

Welded Structures
Draft for development
IIW/IIS-SST-1157-90
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LIST OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………............... 1
2. SCOPE AND APPLICATION……………………………………………………… 3
2.1. Scope………………………………………………………………………………… 3
2.2. Application…………………………………………………………………............... 4
2.2.1. Fields of Application………………………………………………………................4
2.2.2. Modes of failure covered……………………………………………………………. 6
3. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………… 7
3.1. Other IIW Documents……………………………………………………………...... 7
3.2. International standards………………………………………………………………. 7
4. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS………………………………………………………. 9
4.1. Classes of deviations in welded structures…………………………………………...9
4.2. Classification and description of imperfections……………………………………... 9
4.3. Classification and description of metallurgical in homogeneities…………………. 10
4.4. Materials…………………………………………………………………………… 11
4.5. Definitions…………………………………………………………………………..11
4.6. Notation……………………………………………………………………………..13
4.7. Units………………………………………………………………………………... 14
5. RELIABILITY ASPECTS………………………………………………………….15
5.1 Fitness for purpose…………………………………………………………………. 15
5.1.1. Limit states…………………………………………………………………………. 15
5.1.2. Ultimate limit states………………………………………………………………... 15
5.1.3. Serviceability limit states…………………………………………………………... 15
5.1.4. Structure response to failure at a Weld…………………………………………….. 16
5.2. Design procedures………………………………………………………………….. 16
5.3. Influencing factors…………………………………………………………………. 18
5.3.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 18
5.3.2. Loads……………………………………………………………………………….. 19
5.3.3. Stresses……………………………………………………………………………... 20
5.3.4. Environmental conditions…………………………………………………………...20
5.3.5. Overall structure geometry………………………………………………………….20
5.3.6. Material properties…………………………………………………………………. 20
5.3.7. Safety factors and partial coefficients……………………………………………… 21
5.3.8. Gradual deterioration………………………………………………………………. 21
5.4. Design critical discontinuity size…………………………………………………... 22
5.5. Allowance for discontinuity position………………………………………………. 22
5.6. Design for inspection………………………………………………………………. 22
6. STRESSES TO BE CONSIDERED……………………………………………….. 25
6.1. Stress components………………………………………………………………….. 25
6.2. Residual stresses…………………………………………………………………… 26
7. INSTANTANEOUS FAILURE…………………………………………………… 27
7.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 27
7.2. Date required for analysis………………………………………………………….. 28
7.2.1. Stresses……………………………………………………………………………... 28
7.2.2. Discontinuity dimensions and orientation…………………………………………. 29
7.2.3. Materials properties aspects………………………………………………………... 29
7.2.4. History of previous loading – warm prestressing/proof testing……………………. 30
7.3. Fracture mechanics methods for planar discontinuities……………………………. 31
7.3.1. Crack driving force aspects………………………………………………………… 33
IIW/IIS Guidance SST-1157-90 . 1990

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7.3.2. Fracture toughness aspects………………………………………………………… 35

7.3.3. Assessment by fracture mechanics methods………………………………………. 37
7.4. Structural testing methods…………………………………………………………. 40
7.4.1. Structural and material aspects…………………………………………………….. 40
7.4.2. Assessment by structural testing methods…………………………………………. 41
7.5. Volumetric discontinuities…………………………………………………………. 43
7.6. Validation and verification requirements……………………………………….…..44
7.7. Reliability considerations……………………………………………………….…..46
8. FATIGUE………………………………………………………………………….. 49
8.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 49
8.2. Data required for analysis………………………………………………………….. 49
8.2.1. Stress……………………………………………………………………………….. 49
8.2.2. Discontinuity dimensions and interaction………………………………………….. 50
8.2.3. Crack propagation and interaction…………………………………………………. 50
8.2.4. Lower threshold value………………………………………………………………50
8.2.5. Upper limit to crack propagation…………………………………………………... 51
8.2.6. Characteristic fatigue strength……………………………………………………... 51
8.3. Safety considerations………………………………………………………………. 51
8.4. Further information………………………………………………………………… 52
9. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS…………………………………………………....53
9.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 53
9.2. Corrosion/erosion………………………………………………………………….. 53
9.3. Environmentally-assisted cracking………………………………………………… 54
9.3.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 54
9.3.2. Stress corrosion cracking…………………………………………………………... 55
9.3.2.1. KISCC determination……………………………………………………………….57
9.3.2.2. Stress Corrosion Crack Velocity Determination……………………………………57
9.3.3. Corrosion Fatigue…………………………………………………………………...58
9.3.3.1. Determination……………………………………………………………………… 59
10. OTHER FAILURE MODES………………………………………………………. 61
10.1. Instability……………………………………………………………………………61
10.1.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 61
10.1.2. Discontinuities which reduce the local cross section………………………………. 61
10.1.3. Discontinuities parallel to the plate surfaces………………………………………..62
10.1.4. Geometrical deviations……………………………………………………………...62
10.1.5. Residual stresses…………………………………………………………………… 62
10.2. Creep……………………………………………………………………………….. 62
11. FABRICATION……………………………………………………………………. 65
11.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 65
11.2. Quality system……………………………………………………………………... 65
11.3. Personnel…………………………………………………………………………… 65
11.4. Qualification of welding procedure………………………………………………... 65
11.5. Process control……………………………………………………………………... 66
11.6. Non-conforming structures………………………………………………………… 66
12. NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION…………………………………………. 67
12.1. General……………………………………………………………………………... 67
12.2. General requirements for non-destructive examination……………………………. 69
12.3. Personnel…………………………………………………………………………… 71
12.4. Planning and Preparation for Inspection…………………………………………… 71
12.5. Sampled inspection………………………………………………………………… 71

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12.6. Inspection at manufacture of new structures………………………………………..72

12.6.1. Acceptance criteria………………………………………………………………….72
12.6.2. Repair welds………………………………………………………………………...72
12.7. Inspections of non-conforming structures at manufacture………………………….73
12.8. In-service inspection………………………………………………………………...73
12.8.1. Planned inspection…………………………………………………………………. 73
12.8.2. Ad hoc in-service inspection……………………………………………………….. 74
13. LEAK-BEFORE-BREAK…………………………………………………………. 75
APPENDIX 1 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS DUE TO MISALIGNMENT……………..77

APPENDIX 2 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS……………………………………………..95
APPENDIX 3 INSTANTANEOUS FAILURE…………………………………………... 105
APPENDIX 4 FATIGUE…………………………………………………………………. 153
APPENDIX 5 NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION…………………………………227
APPENDIX 6 CREEP EXEMPTION CRITERIA………………………………………...295
APPENDIX 7 STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR SOLUTION FOR
CRACKS IN WELDED JOINTS…………………………………………. 305

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FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date: 27 05 03
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1
IWT
MODULE 4.11 : CASE STUDY

PAGE
PPFPT 0394 A SEITE
FORMATION EWF FORMATION 1

CASE STUDY
01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 5
EWF FORMATION - CASE STUDY
STEEL SPAN TRUSS BRIDGE
TOPIC
In order to join two factories by rail which are separated by a small river without navigation possibly , a
company wants to build a 25,6 m lenght steel bridge which is drawn as following:
6000
M' M 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
2000
3000
1600
N' N 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
y'
p p p p p p p p p
1500
2500
8 x 3,2 = 25,6 m
3600
This bridge is composed by :

- Two identical brace beams
- This bridge has to be calculated owing to CM66 rules
The material used is a carbon manganese steel (S235GM)
The beams MM' must be constructed with cross sectional area type "IPE 160" , where as beams NN'
have to be builded with cross sectional area type "IPE 300"
The supplies available in the workshop of your factory are :
- Beams "IPE 220" , "UAP 220" and "HEA 220".
All these beams are 12 m length
- Plates with 10 , 15 and 20 mm thicknesses , 10 m lenght
PAGE
PPFPT 0394 A SEITE

CASE STUDY
01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 5
You have to study the conception of nodes marked X and Y
This study will comprise :
- The choice of each beam which is connected at nodes marked X and Y

- The calculation of each beam
- You have to draw a convenient conception for these nodes
Before the resolution of these case study , by to solve the problem which is following :
CS
a
IPE 300
0 A
HEA 180 P
L : 2000
The horizontal beam is constructed with type "IPE 300" and is connected with vertical post (HEA 180) by
a continuous fillet weld (throat "a")
The effort P applied is limited to 30 KN
a) Explain why this conception is very bad
b) Try to find a convenient conception
c) Calculate the minimale weld throat
PAGE
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CASE STUDY
01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 5
EWF FORMATION - CASE STUDY
SEPARATOR
TOPIC
The separator is a gaz pressure vessel composed by :
• 2 cylindrical shells , marked D and G

• 1 conical shells , marked F
• 1 hemispherical end , marked H
• 1 torispherical end , marked C
The vessel is also equiped by three set on nozzles on :
• torispherical end , nozzle marked B

• cylindrical shell , nozzle marked E
• hemispherical end , nozzle marked J
The material used for construction is carbon manganese steel
Operating conditions :
• Gaz pressure vessel
• Maximal pressure : 30 bar
• Maximal temperature : 100 C°
• Maximal weight : 8 tons
• Corrosion allowance : 1 mm
• Joint efficiency : 0,85
The vessel will be fixed on four posts already installed in the site (height 3100 mm)
PAGE
PPFPT 0394 A SEITE

CASE STUDY
01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 5
QUESTIONS
In order to insure fabrication of only one pressure vessel , you have to answer theses questions:
1) Is this vessel submitted european reglementation ?
2) Check thicknesses of parts D , E , F , G , H
3) Check openings due to nozzles B , E
If they need reinforcement , calculate the compensation and draw your conception precisely
4) Owing to a manufacturing graph , explain the order of fabrication
5) For welded joint marked III , IV , VI , XI and XII define a suitable welding procedure
specification
6) Find a convenient conception for fixing the pressure vessel on the four posts (IPE 200 , lengh
3100 mm) .
This link is not permanent.
PAGE
PPFPT 0394 A SEITE

CASE STUDY
01
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 5
SEPARATEUR
B
30
A Ø750
1
De : 500
280
8 34
2
495
C
3 De : 2000
6 7
D
Ø750
4
1000
8
500
Plan de raccordement 5 30
A
375
pour montage sur site
E
1100
8
4220
F 28
De : 750
632
10
G 30°
16
11
H 10
713
De : 738 12
r : 200
J
Tube Ø114 x 5
750
4 IPE 200
50
50
J 1 Tubulure inférieure Tube 114x5 P295GH

H 1 Fond inférieur (hémisphérique) Tôle ép.10mm P295GH
G 1 Elément cylindrique de corps Tôle ép.16mm P295GH
F 1 Elément tronconique de corps Tôle ép.28mm P295GH
E 1 Tubulure de corps Tôle ép.8mm P295GH
D 1 Elément cylindrique de corps Tôle ép.32mm P295GH
C 1 Fond supérieur Tôle ép.34mm P295GH
A 2 Bride Tôle ép.8mm P295GH
Rep .Nb. DESIGNATION MATIERE OBSERVATIONS
FORMATION EWF
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ETUDE DE CAS CHARPENTE
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE
date:
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 3

FORMATION EWF
PAGE
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FORMATION 2
PROFESSIONNELLE
date:
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 3

FORMATION EWF
PAGE
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FORMATION 3
PROFESSIONNELLE
date:
RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 3

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RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 1

MODULE 1.1 : GENRAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING TECHNOLOGY

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

3. METALLURGICAL ASPECT ............................................................................................... 3

4. WELDING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................... 4

5. DISCRIMINATION IN THE USE OF THE PROCESSES..................................................... 9

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

1.2. AUTOGENOUS WELDING

1.3. FUSION WELDING

1.4. FUSION WELDING WITH PRESSURE

1.5. PRESSURE WELDING

1.6. BRAZING AND SOLDERING

1.7. BRAZE WELDING

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

Initial input from the Loss in the workpiece

Q JOULES > q (joules) + q (joules)

Examples of energy sources:

* exothermic chemical reaction

ª use an energy source at elevated temperature to melt the metal,

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

4. WELDING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

The following table summarises the various classifications:

R = Reducing − O = Oxidising − I = Inert − V = Vacuum − G = Global – S = Step-by-step

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

11 – Metal-arc welding without gas protection

111: Metal-arc welding with covered electrode

12 – Submerged arc welding

121: Submerged arc welding with wire electrode

13 – Gas-shielded metal-arc welding

131: MIG welding: metal-arc inert gas welding

14 – Gas-shielded welding with non-consumable electrode

141: TIG welding: tungsten inert gas arc welding

15 – Plasma arc welding

18 – Other arc welding processes

185: Rotating arc welding

221: Lap seam welding

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

25 – Resistance butt welding

29 – Other resistance welding processes

291: High-frequency resistance welding

31 – Oxy-fuel gas welding

311: Oxy-acetylene welding

32 – Air-fuel gas welding

321: Air-acetylene welding

44 – Welding by high mechanical energy

441: Explosive welding

47 – Gas pressure welding

48 – Cold pressure welding

7 – OTHER WELDING PROCESSES

FORMATION GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rev. 0 9

75 – Light radiation welding

751: Laser beam welding