Fuel properties

Aviation Engineer / Specialist

 Contents
• Classification of fuels
• Definition of lower and higher
heating value
• Analysis methods of solid fuels,
combustible and ash properties,
solid fuel supply systems
• Analysis methods of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
• Analysis methods of gaseous fuels,
gaseous fuel supply systems
 Main requirements for fuels
• Ease of flow under all operating conditions.
• Complete combustion under all conditions.
• High calorific value.
• Non-corrosive.
• No damage to the engine from combustion
by-products.
• Low fire hazard.
• Ease of engine starting.
• Lubricity.
 Fuel classification
State of matter Fossil Renewable
• Solid Coal Biomass:
black, brown, lignite wood, cane, grass, etc.
energy plants & waste materials
• Liquid Crude Oil base Biomass:
Petrol (Gas), Bio-ethanol, bio-methanol
Kerosene, Synthetic fuel (Fischer-Tropsch)
Diesel Oil Vegetable oil & bio-diesel
• Gaseous Natural gas Bio-gas
Digester gas,
pyrolysis-gas from gasification
Circulation of Carbon
 Heating / Calorific Value
• Heating value (calorific value) is the heat released by the fuel when completely
burnt, and may be determined at constant volume or constant pressure,
and flue gas is cooled back to the initial temperature (ambient temperature)

• - higher/gross heating/calorific value - assumes that the water vapor in the

products condenses and thus includes the latent
( HHV, Hs) heat of vaporization of the water vapor in the
products.
• - lower/net heating/calorific value - does not. contain the latent heat, the water
in flue gas remain in steam form at the initial
( LHV, Hi ) temperature

possible dimensions: MJ/kg, MJ/m3, kWh/kg, kWh/m3

 Composition of solid and liquid fuels

Original substance Green coal, damp wood, waste in original state

Incombustible, ballast
General composition Combustible
Mineral Moisture, or
matter Water content

Drying at ambient air Air-dry fuel

Free or
Water free fuel Hygroscopic surface
Drying at 105 °C moisture moisture,
Combustible Incombustible

Heating at 850 °C Coke residue

without air Total moisture,
Volatile matter Water content
Complete combustion Fix
at 850°°C Carbon Ash
(w)
Result: (fixC) (a)
Proximate analysis

Sulphur Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen Total

Ultimate analysis Carbon
(S) (N) (O) (H)
(C)
 Properties of liquid fuels
• Ultimate analysis is used for composition
investigation (similarly to solid fuels)
• Heating value is used for energy content
evaluation (similarly to solid fuels)
• Liquid fuel can not be burnt in liquid form
it has to be in gaseous form,
so it has to be evaporated
• Liquid fuels can be stored in tanks
• Liquid fuels can be delivered via pipelines
by means of appropriate pump
 Properties of liquid fuels
Point of solidification is understood as the temperature at
which the product no longer flows upon the effect of the
gravitational force. Its value is significant first of all in
respect of transportation.
Flash point is the temperature at which as much vapor
generates from the liquid fuel under atmospheric pressure
that, mixed with the ambient air, upon approach of flame it
flashes over the whole oil surface. This value is used also
for characterization of explosion and fire protection.
Firing point is the temperature at which vaporization of the
liquid is of such extent, that with the approach of the flame
for a short time it is ignited and the burning will be
constant on the surface maintaining for at least 5 s.
The firing point is characteristic to the inflammability of
the fuel.
Conradson number The liquid fuel is heated and vaporized
in an air-tight vessel. The retained coke part related to the
initial amount of oil gives the Conradson number. The
coking liability is an important characteristic.
 Inflammability Classification
• There are 5 categories in inflammability classification
• These are:
• „A” - Increased danger of inflammability and explosion
• „B” - Danger of inflammability and explosion
• „C” - Danger of inflammability
• „D” – Moderate danger of inflammability
• „E” – Not flammable
„A” - Increased danger of inflammability and explosion

• In case closed cup flash point is less than 21°C

• Operation temperature is greater or equal with
open cap flash point and greater than Top >35°C
• In case lean limit concentration of flammability
of vapor or gas is maximum10%
 „B” - Danger of inflammability and explosion

• In case a dust can form explosive mixture with air

• In case closed cup flash point is greater than 21°C,
open cup flash point is maximum 55°C
• Or operation temperature is less than open cap
flash point but greater than open cap flash point –
20°C and Top >35°C
• In case lean limit concentration of flammability of
vapor or gas is greater than 10%
 „C” - Danger of inflammability

• Solid material where flammability temperature is

maximum 300°C
• Liquid fuels having open cup flash point above
55°C, but not greater than 150°C
• Or operation temperature is less than open cap
flash point –20°C but greater than open cap flash
point –50°C and Top >35°C
• In case of non flammable gas, but that is feeding
the combustion except for air
 „D” – Moderate danger of inflammability

• Solid material where flammability temperature is greater

than 300°C
• Liquid fuels having open cup flash point greater than
150°C
• Or operation temperature is less than
open cap flash point –50°C and Top >35°C
• Dispersion mixture where flammable content is greater
than 25% and water content is less than 50% furthermore
flash point can not be determined by standardised methods
Properties of liquid fuels
Viscosity
variation
of liquid
fuels
Useful link: http://www.ecn.nl/phyllis2/
UNLEADED PETROL EN 228 PREMIUM - 98
Boiling point
curves of
different fuels
 VOLATILITY
• A volatile liquid is one which is capable of changing
readily from the liquid to the vapour state by the
application of heat, or by contact with a gas into which it
can evaporate.
• Fuel is added to the air at the carburettor, the efficiency
with which the fuel mixes with the air is largely
determined by the volatility of the fuel. However, the time
involved is so small that some of the fuel remains in the
form of minute droplets, the evaporation of which occurs
in the induction system.
• A liquid boils when its vapour pressure is greater than the
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.
This means that, as the atmospheric pressure reduces with
altitude, the fuel vaporizes at a lower temperature. This is
generally referred to as ‘low pressure boiling’.
 STABILITY
• A number of the hydro-carbon compounds which
are present in gasoline have a considerable
attraction for the oxygen in the air. When they
come into contact with air, they oxidise and
undergo chemical changes to form heavy resinous
gummy compounds and corrosive bodies.
• It is essential that these potentially unstable hydro-
carbons are not allowed to oxidise, this is
prevented by the addition of oxidation inhibitors
 Characteristic data Ethanol Petrol Isooctane Diesel oil
Formula CH3CH2OH C4 -C12 C8H18 C15H28
Molar mass 46,07 110(average) 114,23 208
Ultimate analysis, %, C 52,14 83-88 84,12 86,1
H 13,13 12-14,3 15,88 13,9
O 34,73 0-2,7 0 0
Density, g/cm3 0,7893 0,720-0,780 0,6919 0,84
Sulphur content, ppm <1 <150 0 <350
Comparis Boiling temperature, ˚C 78,5 25-220 99,2 180-360
on Evaporation heat, 20˚C, MJ/kg 0,839 0,349 0,314 0,256
of bio- Evaporation heat, 20˚C, MJ/dm3 0,662 0,251 0,217 -
ethanol Flammability point, ˚C 12,8 -43 (-) -39 4 70
with fossil Spontaneous ignition
423 495 447 250
temperature, ˚C
fuels
Flammability range
4,3-19,0 1,4-7,6 1,1-6,0 1,4-7,6
in air, V/ V %
Higher heating value, MJ/kg 29,8 47,2 47,8 45,8
Lower heating value, MJ/kg 26,7 43 43,5 42,7
Stoichiometric air to fuel ratio
8,97 14,7 15,07 14,6
mass / mass
Azeotrop water content, % 4,4 - - -
Research octane number 111 88-98 100 -
Motor octane number 92 80-88 100 -
Cetane number 8 8-14 10 45-55
Vapor pressure, 38˚C, kPa 16 40-90 70 -
CO2 emission, g/MJ 71,5 71 - 72 71,8 74,2
 lower
Property Unit upper limit Test-Method
limit
Cetane index 46,0 - EN ISO 4264
EN ISO 3675, EN ISO
Density at 15°C kg/m³ 820 845
12185
Polycyclic aromatic
%(m/m) - 11 EN ISO 12916
hydrocarbons
EN590 Sulphur content mg/kg -
350 (until EN ISO 20846, EN
2004-12-31) or ISO 20847, EN ISO
describes 50,0
10,0 (on the
20884
EN ISO 20846, EN

the physical Flash point °C

Above
01-01-2009)

-
ISO 20884

EN ISO 2719
55
properties Carbon residue (on 10%
%m/m - 0,30 EN ISO 10370
distillaiton residue)
that all Ash content % (m/m) - 0,01 EN ISO 6245
Water content mg/kg - 200 EN ISO 12937
diesel fuel Total contamination mg/kg - 24 EN ISO 12662
Copper strip corrosion (3 hours
must meet at 50 °C)
rating Class 1 Class 1 EN ISO 2160

Oxidation Stability g/m3 - 25 EN ISO 12205

Lubricity, corrected wear scar
µm - 460 EN ISO1 2156-1
diameter (wsd 1,4) at 60 °C
Viscosity at 40 °C mm2/s 2,00 4,50 EN ISO 3104
Distillation recovered at 250
%V/V 85 <65 EN ISO 3405
°C, 350 °C
95%(V/V) recovered at °C - 360
Fatty acid methyl ester content % (V/V) - 5 EN 14078
 GAS TURBINE FUELS
• JET A1. (AVTUR)
• (Aviation turbine fuel). This is a kerosene type fuel with a nominal SG
of 0.8 at 15°C. It has a medium flash point 38.7°C and waxing point -
50°C.
• JET A
• This is a similar type of fuel, but it has a waxing point of -40°C. This
fuel is normally only available in the U.S.A.
• JET B. (AVTAG) (Aviation turbine gasoline)
• This is a wide-cut gasoline/kerosene mix type fuel with a nominal S.G.
of 0.77 at 15°C. It has a low flash point -20°C, a wider boiling range
than JET A1, and a waxing point of -60°C.
• This fuel can be used as an alternative to JET A1 but as can be seen,
with its low flash point is a very flammable fuel and for reasons of
safety is not generally used in civilian aircraft
 AVIATION TURBINE FUEL (JET FUEL)
CIVIL JET FUELS
• JET A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engined aircraft. It
is produced to a stringent internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above
38°C (100°F) and a freeze point maximum of -47°C.
• JET A is a similar kerosene type of fuel, produced to an ASTM specification
and normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-1
but a higher freeze point maximum (-40°C).
• JET B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used
as an alternative to Jet A-1 but because it is more difficult to handle (higher
flammability), there is only significant demand in very cold climates where its
better cold weather performance is important.
MILITARY
• JP-4 is the military equivalent of Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitor
and anti-icing additives.
• JP-5 is a high flash point kerosene meeting the requirements of the U.S. Military
Specification
• JP-8 is the military equivalent of Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitor
and anti-icing additives.
 JET FUEL ADDITIVES
• FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor).
A certain amount of water is present in all fuel. The water, which is normally dissolved
within the fuel, gives rise to the following fuel system problems:
• Icing
As an aircraft climbs to altitude the fuel is cooled and the amount of dissolved water it can
hold is reduced. Water droplets form and as the temperature is further reduced they turn to ice
crystals which can block fuel system components.
• Fungal Growth and Corrosion
A microbiological fungus called Cladasporium Resinae is present in all turbine fuels. This
fungus grows rapidly in the presence of water to form long green filaments which can block
fuel system components. The waste products of the fungus are corrosive, especially to fuel
tank sealing substances.
The inclusion of FSII in the fuel will help to overcome these problems.
• HITEC (Lubricity Agent).
A lubricity agent is added to the fuel to reduce wear in the fuel system components.
• Static dissipater additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity generated by the
movement of fuel through modern high flow rate fuel transfer systems.
• Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and
storage tanks, from corrosion. Certain of these corrosion inhibitors appear to improve the
lubricating qualities (lubricity) of some gas turbine fuels.
• Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly copper,
have on fuel oxidation.
 WAXING

• Waxing is the depositing of heavy hydrocarbons

from the fuel at low temperatures. The deposits
take the form of paraffin wax crystals which can
clog the fuel filter and interfere with the
operation of the fuel control unit. The effects of
waxing can be minimised by:
• The refinery keeping the levels of heavy
hydrocarbons low.
• The inclusion of a fuel heater in the engine fuel
system.
 BOILING
• The temperature at which a fuel boils will vary
with the pressure on its surface. As an aircraft
climbs, the pressure on the surface of the fuel
reduces and with that reduction comes an
increased likelihood that the fuel will boil and
form vapour.
• The vapour locks that this effect cause will
effectively cut off the fuel supply to the engine
with the inevitable result that the engine will stop.
• Fuel booster pumps fitted inside the tanks can
overcome this problem by pushing fuel towards
the engine rather than engine driven pumps
sucking fuel from the tanks
 THE EFFECTS OF S.G

• The specific gravity of a liquid varies inversely

with its temperature. The heat release from the
fuel is directly related to its specific gravity and so
changes in fuel density can change the power
output of an engine.
• On modern aircraft this usually makes little
difference as modern fuel control units will
automatically compensate for the change in
density of the fuel. It should be appreciated that a
change in specific gravity will also change the
weight of the aircraft.
• Specific gravity is also known as relative density.
Liquid fuel storage conditions
 QUESTIONS:
1. If the specific gravity of a fuel
is known to be 0.7,
100 Imperial Gallons of it will weigh:
a. 700 lb

b. 70 lb

c. 7000 lb

d. 7,100 lb
 2. A fuel grade which is used in
typical aircraft engines is:
a. D.T.D. 585/100

b. D.E.R.D. 2479

c. AVGAS 100

d. D.E.R.D. 2484
3. The “anti-knock” value of a fuel is its:

a. Degree of resistance to pre-ignition.

b. Resistance to adiabatic combustion.

c. Ability to oppose burning.

d. Resistance to detonation.
 4. The differences between
AVGAS 100 and AVGAS 100LL are:
Colour - Anti-Knock value
a. Same - Same
b. Same - Different
c. Different - Same
d. Different - Different
 5. The Octane rating of a fuel is determined
by comparison with mixtures of:

a. Methane and orthodentine

b. Heptane and iso octane.
c. Methane and iso octane.
d. Heptane and orthodentine.
7. The calorific value of a fuel is the:

a. Kinetic energy contained within it.

b. Heat energy in the fuel.
c. Heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the fuel to its boiling point.
d. Heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the fuel to its boiling point
from absolute zero.
 8. The octane rating of a particular grade of
fuel is given as 100/130, this indicates that:
• a. It will act as both 100 octane and 130 octane
fuel at take off power settings.
• b. With a rich mixture it will act as 100 octanes,
and with a weak mixture it will act as 130 octanes.
• c. Its “anti-knock” qualities are identical to iso-
octane.
• d. With a weak mixture it will act as 100 octane,
and with a rich mixture it will act as a 130 octane
fuel.
 9. Tetra ethyl lead is added to some
aviation fuel to:
a. Decrease its octane rating.
b. Decrease the risk of detonation.
c. Increase its calorific value.
d. Increase its specific gravity.
 10. If the vent pipe of an aircraft’s fuel tank
becomes blocked, it will cause:

a. The pressure in the tank to fall when fuel is used.

b. The pressure in the tank to rise when fuel is used.
c. The evaporation rate of the fuel to decrease as
fuel is used from the tank.
d. The fuel pressure at the carburettor to rise.
 15. The colour of 100 / 130 grade low lead
fuel (AVGAS100LL) is:

a. Green.
b. Blue.
c. Red.
d. Straw yellow.
 1. Water in the fuel tanks is:
a. Added with FS11 when refuelling.
b. Is a consequence of atmospheric air
entering the tanks through the engine.
c. Is a consequence of atmospheric air
entering the tanks through the vent system.
d. Is a consequence of atmospheric air
entering the tanks through the feeder box.
2. Water in the fuel tank is removed:

a. Via a drain valve at the lowest point in the

tank.
b. Via a drain tank at the base of the engine.
c. Via a scoop at the top of the tank.
d. Every major servicing only.
 3. The flash point of Avtur is:
a. -38.7°C
b. +38.7°C
c. -40°C
d. -20°C
 4. When using which of the following fuels can
refuelling be carried out with passengers on board?

a. Avtag
b. Jet B
c. Wide cut
d. Jet A1
 Summary
You are already familiar with:
• Properties of different fuels from combustion
viewpoint
• Classification of fuels
• Definition of lower and higher heating value
• Properties of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
Thank You for Your Attention !