Biology Questions and Answers

Biology Questions and Answers
1800+ Biology Questions

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Table of Contents
Foreword......................................................................................................................................... 3
Disclaimer........................................................................................................................................ 3
Biochemistry.................................................................................................................................... 9
Biochemistry Introduction.......................................................................................................... 11
Water and Mineral Salts............................................................................................................ 13
Carbohydrates........................................................................................................................... 18
Lipids......................................................................................................................................... 20
Proteins..................................................................................................................................... 22
Enzymes................................................................................................................................... 29
Nucleic Acids............................................................................................................................. 35
Cell Biology.................................................................................................................................... 43
Cell Structure............................................................................................................................ 45
Cell Membrane.......................................................................................................................... 54
Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement.............................................................................................. 63
Cell Secretion............................................................................................................................ 65
Cell Digestion............................................................................................................................ 66
Cell Nucleus.............................................................................................................................. 68
Cell Division.............................................................................................................................. 73
Photosynthesis.......................................................................................................................... 84
Cell Respiration......................................................................................................................... 91
Protein Synthesis...................................................................................................................... 99
Microbiology................................................................................................................................ 107
Bacteria................................................................................................................................... 109
Protists.................................................................................................................................... 113
Fungi....................................................................................................................................... 117
Viruses.................................................................................................................................... 120
Zoology........................................................................................................................................ 123
Life Kingdoms......................................................................................................................... 125
Poriferans................................................................................................................................ 128
Cnidarians............................................................................................................................... 131
Platyhelminthes....................................................................................................................... 135
Nematodes.............................................................................................................................. 139
Annelids.................................................................................................................................. 142
Arthropods.............................................................................................................................. 147
Molluscs.................................................................................................................................. 154
Echinoderms........................................................................................................................... 158
Chordates............................................................................................................................... 161
Fishes..................................................................................................................................... 164
Amphibians............................................................................................................................. 167
Reptiles................................................................................................................................... 170
Birds........................................................................................................................................ 173
Mammals................................................................................................................................ 176
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Physiology................................................................................................................................... 179
Basic Histology........................................................................................................................ 181
Blood....................................................................................................................................... 185
Metabolism and Homeostasis................................................................................................. 191
Nutrition and Vitamins............................................................................................................. 193
Digestive System.................................................................................................................... 198
Respiratory System................................................................................................................. 211
Circulatory System.................................................................................................................. 219
Excretory System.................................................................................................................... 231
Epithelia.................................................................................................................................. 238
Musculoskeletal System.......................................................................................................... 241
Nervous System...................................................................................................................... 247
Visual System......................................................................................................................... 261
Hearing System....................................................................................................................... 264
Endocrine System................................................................................................................... 266
Immune System...................................................................................................................... 278
Gametogenesis....................................................................................................................... 286
Reproductive System.............................................................................................................. 291
Embryology.................................................................................................................................. 301
Embryonic Development......................................................................................................... 303
Extraembryonic Membranes................................................................................................... 308
Botany......................................................................................................................................... 311
Plant Classification.................................................................................................................. 313
Bryophytes.............................................................................................................................. 316
Pteridophytes.......................................................................................................................... 317
Gymnosperms......................................................................................................................... 320
Angiosperms........................................................................................................................... 323
Plant Tissues........................................................................................................................... 328
Plant Physiology...................................................................................................................... 334
Genetics...................................................................................................................................... 345
Genetic Concepts.................................................................................................................... 347
Mendel's Laws........................................................................................................................ 352
Non-mendelian Inheritance..................................................................................................... 357
Linkage and Crossing Over..................................................................................................... 362
Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Inheritance...................................................................... 365
Blood Types............................................................................................................................ 370
Karyotype and Genetic Diseases............................................................................................ 375
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle................................................................................................ 379
Genetic Engineering................................................................................................................ 382
Evolution...................................................................................................................................... 387
Origin of Life............................................................................................................................ 389
Theory of Evolution................................................................................................................. 395
Ecology........................................................................................................................................ 403
Concepts of Ecology............................................................................................................... 405
Earth's Biomes........................................................................................................................ 407
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Food Chains and Trophic Pyramids........................................................................................ 411
Biogeochemical Cycles........................................................................................................... 416
Biodiversity.............................................................................................................................. 419
Ecological Interactions............................................................................................................ 422
Ecological Succession............................................................................................................. 426
Population Ecology................................................................................................................. 428
Environmental Issues.............................................................................................................. 432
Diseases...................................................................................................................................... 439
Concepts of Parasitism........................................................................................................... 441
Bacterial Infections.................................................................................................................. 443
Protozoan Diseases............................................................................................................... 446
Fungal Infections..................................................................................................................... 452
Viral Infections......................................................................................................................... 453
Worm Diseases....................................................................................................................... 461
Prion Diseases........................................................................................................................ 467
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Biochemistry
9
The most important inorganic
Biochemistry substances for living beings are water,
Introduction mineral salts, carbon dioxide and
molecular oxygen. (There are several
other inorganic substances without
which cells would die.)
1. What are the chemical

elements that form most of
living biological matter? 4. What are mineral salts?
Where in living beings can
The chemical elements that form most mineral salts be found?
of the molecules of living beings are
oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H) Mineral salts are simple inorganic
and nitrogen (N). substances made of metallic chemical
elements, like iron, sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium, or of non-
metallic elements, like chlorine and
2. Living beings are made of phosphorus.
organic and inorganic
substances. According to the They can be found in non-solubilized
form, as part of structures of the
complexity of their molecules
organism, like the calcium in bones.
how can each of those They can also be found solubilized in
substances be classified? water, as ions: for example, the sodium
and potassium cations within cells.
Inorganic substances, like water,
mineral salts, molecular oxygen and
carbon dioxide, are small molecules
made of few atoms. Organic substances, 5. What are the most
in general, like glucose, fatty acids and important organic molecules
proteins, are much more complex for living beings?
molecules made of sequences of
carbons bound in carbon chains. The
There are many types of organic
capacity of carbon to form chains is one
molecules that are important for the
of the main chemical facts that
living beings. Especially important are
permitted the emergence of life on the
amino acids and proteins, carbohydrates
planet.
(including glucose), lipids and nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA).
Biochemistry Introduction Review -

3. What are the most
Image Diversity: amino acid molecule
important inorganic molecular protein molecule carbohydrate molecule
substances for living beings? lipid molecule nucleic acid molecule
11
6. What are the main Glucose, for example, is the main
functions of the organic energy source for the formation of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), a molecule
molecules for living beings? that is necessary in several metabolic
reactions. ATP is an organic molecule
Organic molecules, like proteins, lipids too and is itself the energy source for
and carbohydrates, perform several many biochemical reactions. Fat,
functions for living organisms. proteins and some types of organic
Noteworthy functions are the structural polymers, like starch and glycogen, that
function (as part of the material that are polymers of glucose, are energy
constitutes, delimits and maintains reservoirs for the organism.
organs, membranes, cell organelles,
etc.), the energetic function (chemical
reactions of the energetic metabolism),
the control and informative function 9. What are some examples of
(genetic code control, inter and
the control and informative
intracellular signaling, endocrine
integration) and the enzymatic function function of organic molecules?
of proteins (facilitation of chemical
reactions). Based on genetic information, organic
molecules control the entire work of the
cell. The nucleic acids, DNA and RNA,
are organic molecules that direct the
7. What are some examples of protein synthesis, and proteins in their
the structural function of turn are the main molecules responsible
for the diversity of cellular biological
organic molecules? tasks. In membranes and within the
cell, some organic molecules act as
Organic molecules have a structural information receptors and signalers.
function as they are part of cell Proteins and lipids have an important
membranes, cytoskeleton, organ walls role in the communication between cells
and blood vessel walls, bones, cartilages and tissues, acting as hormones,
and, in plants, of the conductive and substances that transmit information at
support tissues. a distance throughout the organism.
8. What are some examples of 10. What are biopolymers?

the energetic function of
organic molecules? Polymers are macromolecules made by
the union of several smaller identical
Since they are complex molecules, molecules, called monomers.
presenting many chemical bonds, Biopolymers are polymers present in the
organic molecules store large amount of living beings. Cellulose, starch and
energy. glycogen, for example, are polymers of
glucose.
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3. Water has key participation
Water and Mineral in organic reactions. What are
Salts examples of two types of
organic reactions in which
water is respectively
incorporated or liberated in
1. What is the approximate the products of these
percentage (in mass) of water reactions?
in the human body? Is this
percentage expected to be Photosynthesis is a biochemical process
larger in the adult or in the old in which water is incorporated into
individual? organic molecules. In the reaction, the
hydrogen atoms from water go to the
Approximately 65% of the human produced glucose and the oxygen atoms
individual mass is water. The brain, for from water form the molecular oxygen
example, has around 90% of water in liberated: carbon dioxide + water +
mass, the muscles, 85%, and the bones light = glucose + molecular oxygen.
have between 25% and 40% of water. Aerobic respiration is an example of
biochemical reaction in which water is
Younger adult individuals have produced: glucose + molecular oxygen
proportionally more water in mass than = carbon dioxide + water.
older individuals.
4. Is water a polar or a non-

2. What are the main polar molecule? What is the
biological functions of water? consequence of that
characteristic for the function
Water is the fundamental solvent for of water as solvent?
chemical reactions of living beings; it is
the main means of substance Water is made of two atoms of
transportation in the cell and between hydrogen attached by covalent bond
cells and tissues and it is responsible for with one central atom of oxygen making
the maintenance of adequate an angular spatial structure. The
temperature for the functioning of the hydrogen atoms “lend” electrons to the
organism. Water is also the reagent or oxygen and consequently this atom
the product of many biochemical becomes more negative while the
reactions, like photosynthesis, cellular hydrogens become more positive. The
respiration, peptide bond for protein spatial geometry of the water molecule
formation, etc. makes it a polar molecule, with negative
and positive poles.
13
Water is an excellent solvent for polar anions (OH-) by acids and bases in
substances because the electrical water solution.
activity (attraction and repulsion) of its
poles helps the separation and the
mixing of these substances, giving them
more movement and thus increasing the 7. Can the heat capacity of
number of molecular collisions and the water be considered small or
speed of chemical reactions. On the large? What is the biological
other hand, water is not good as a
solvent for non-polar substances. significance of that
characteristic?
Polarity is one of the water properties.
From Thermology it is known that the
quantity of exchanged heat (Q) is equal
to the mass (m) multiplied by the
5. Which kind of polarity do specific heat of the substance (c)
water-soluble and fat-soluble multiplied by the variation of
substances respectively have? temperature (T), Q = m.c.ΔT., and that
heat capacity is Q/T, hence, m.c. Heat
capacity, however, relates to a specific
Water-soluble substances are polar body, since it considers mass, whereas
molecules, i.e., they have electrically specific heat relates to the general
charged areas. These molecules get the substance. Therefore it is more correct
description “water-soluble” because to refer to specific heat in this problem.
they are soluble in water, a polar
molecule too. Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/g.oC
which means that 1 oC per gram is
Fat-soluble substances are non-polar changed in its temperature with the
molecules, i.e., they are electrically addition or subtraction of 1 cal of
neutral. They get the description “fat- energy. This is a very elevated value
soluble” because they dissolve other (for example, the specific heat of
non-polar substances. ethanol is 0,58 cal/g.oC, and mercury, a
metal, has a specific heat of 0,033
cal/g. oC) making water an excellent
thermal protector against variations of
6. What is the importance of temperature. Even if sudden external
water for enzymatic activity? temperature changes occur, the internal
biological conditions are kept stable in
Enzymes, biological catalysts, depend organisms which contain enough water.
on water to reach their substrates and
bind to them. There is no enzymatic High specific heat is one of the most
activity without water. In addition, important water properties.
enzymes depend on adequate pH
interval to work and the pH is a
consequence of the liberation of
hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxyl
14
8. What are the main water 11. What are the main
properties that make water negative ions found in living
special for life? beings?
The water properties that make water The main anions found in living beings
biologically important are molecular are the chlorine anion (Cl-), the
polarity, thermal stability (elevated phosphate anion (PO4--), the bicarbonate
specific heat), fusion and ebullition anion (HCO3-), the nitrate anion (NO3-)
points that allow water to be liquid in and the sulfate anion (SO4-).
most environments, acid-base
neutrality, small molecular size and low
chemical reactivity. (Compared to other
substances, like ethanol or hydrogen 12. How do mineral salts
sulfide.) participate in osmotic
regulation?
9. What are ions? What are Osmotic pressure depends on the

number of particles dissolved in a
the two types of molecules solution and not on the nature of such
into which ions are classified? particles. Mineral salts, glucose,
proteins and urea are the main
Ions are atoms or substances regulating particles for the osmolarity of
electrically charged by means of loss or the organism. These molecules along
gain of electrons. with other particles inside and outside
the cell generate the larger or smaller
The two types of ions are the cations osmotic gradient between the
and the anions. Cations are ions with intracellular and the extracellular space.
positive total electric charge and anions
are ions with negative total electric
charge.
13. What is the role of mineral
salts in the creation of electric
tension (voltage) at the
10. Which are the main
cellular level?
positive ions found in living
beings? The electric activity of the cell, for
example, in neurons, depends on the
The main cations found in living beings different concentrations of positive and
are the sodium cation (Na+), the negative ions between the inner and the
potassium cation (K+), the calcium outer surfaces of the cell membrane.
cation (Ca++), the iron cations (Fe++, Mineral salts are responsible for that
Fe+++), the magnesium cation (Mg++), voltage.
the zinc cation (Zn++) and the
manganese cation (Mn++). The cell membrane of non-excited cell
has commonly a negative inner side and
15
a positive outer side. This electrical Calcium has an important role in
situation is maintained by ion transport muscular contraction, in the blood
across the membrane. coagulation process, in the structure of
bone tissue, in teeth, in the motility of
the sperm cell flagellum and in the
nervous transmission.
14. Why is pH regulation
important for living beings?
How do mineral salts
17. What is hemoglobin? What
participate in this regulation?
is the inorganic element that
The potential of hydrogen (pH) is a
is fundamental in the
measure of the amount of hydrogen composition of hemoglobin?
ions (H-) in a solution. The regulation of
the pH according to the necessities of Hemoglobin is the protein present in the
each organ or tissue is extremely blood responsible for the transport of
important for the organism since oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
enzymes act only under some pH and cells.
ranges and many proteins are only
active under some pH ranges. Therefore The hemoglobin molecule is composed
biochemical reactions depend on correct of four protein chains, each with a heme
levels of pH to occur. group containing an iron atom. The iron
is responsible for the binding of oxygen
Neutral pH is one of the water in the lungs and also for the red color of
properties. hemoglobin and thus of the blood.
15. How do mineral salts 18. What is the importance of

participate in enzymatic magnesium for plants? What
activity? are the other main biological
functions of magnesium?
Many mineral salts are cofactors of
enzymes, i.e., they are substances Magnesium is fundamentally important
without which enzymes do not work. for plants because it is part of the
chlorophyll molecule (and chlorophyll is
essential for photosynthesis).
16. What are the main Magnesium also acts as a cofactor of

biological processes in which several enzymes and it is important the
calcium participates? muscle relaxation and for the nervous
transmission.
Calcium is present in almost all cells and
has several functions.
16
19. What is phosphorylation? for the acid-base balance of the
What are some biological organism since they participate, along
with bicarbonate anions, in the pH
processes in which buffer system of the body. Another
phosphorylation plays a function of chlorine is in the digestive
critical role? physiology: inside the gastric lumen,
hydrochloric acid secreted by stomach
Phosphorylation is the name given to cells ionizes itself into hydrogen and
processes of the addition of phosphates chlorine ions lowering the pH of the
to some molecules thus making these gastric juice and then permitting the
molecules more energized. enzymatic digestion to take place.
Phosphorylation has an important role,
for example, in photosynthesis (the
photophosphorylation of the light phase)
and in aerobic respiration (oxidative
phosphorylation of the respiratory
chain). In general the phosphate used in
phosphorylation comes from ATP
molecules.
20. Why is iodine important

for human beings?
Iodine is a fundamental chemical

element for the proper functioning of
the thyroid since it is part of the
hormones produced by this gland.
Iodine deficiency creates a kind of
hypothyroidism, a disease known as
endemic goiter.
21. What are the main

biological functions in which
chlorine ions participate?
Like sodium cations, chlorine anions

actively participate in the regulation of
the osmolarity of tissues and cells by
crossing the cellular membrane and
avoiding entrance of water into the cell
or excessive loss of water from the cell.
Chlorine anions have an important role
17
3. What are monosaccharides,
Carbohydrates oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides?
1. What are the organic Monosaccharides are simple molecules

of carbohydrates that cannot be broken
chemical groups that
into smaller molecules of other
characterize carbohydrates? carbohydrates. Oligosaccharides are
How are carbohydrates carbohydrates made by union of a
classified according to the maximum of 10 monosaccharides.
presence of those groups? Polysaccharides are polymers of
monosaccharides made of more than 10
units of such monomers. The most
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars
important polysaccharides are cellulose,
(starches, cellulose and other
starch, glycogen and chitin.
substances are carbohydrates too).
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxylated

aldehydes or polyhydroxylated ketones
(polyalcohol aldehydes or polyalcohol
4. What is the difference
ketones). between monosaccharides and
disaccharides? What are some
Polyhydroxylated aldehydes are called examples of disaccharides and
aldoses and polyhydroxylated ketones of monosaccharides that form
are called ketoses.
them?
Monosaccharides are simple molecules

2. What is the molecular of carbohydrates that cannot be broken
into other carbohydrates. Glucose and
formula of glucose? How can
fructose are examples of
its structural formula be monosaccharides. Disaccharides are
described? carbohydrates made of two
monosaccharides and with the loss of
The molecular formula of glucose is one molecule of water (dehydration).
C6H12O6. The chemical bond between two
monosaccharides is known as a
Structurally glucose is a hexagonal ring glycosidic bond.
formed by one atom of oxygen and five
atoms of carbon; a hydroxyl radical and Sucrose (table sugar) is a disaccharide
a hydrogen atom bind in each carbon of made by the union of one molecule of
the ring, except for one of the carbons glucose with one molecule of fructose.
bound to the oxygen of the ring; this Maltose is a disaccharide made by two
carbon binds to a CH2OH radical. Spatial glucose molecules. Lactose (milk sugar)
sides of hydroxyl bonds are alternated. is another disaccharide and it is created
18
by the union of one molecule of 7. What are the main
galactose with one molecule of glucose. biological functions of the
polysaccharides?
5. What are hexoses? What Polysaccharides have an energy storage

function and a structural function.
are some examples of hexoses
Polysaccharides incorporated by living
with important biological beings along the food chain are
functions? important sources of carbohydrates for
the energetic metabolism of organisms
Hexoses are carbohydrates made of six of the next trophic levels.
carbons. Glucose, fructose and
galactose are examples of hexoses. Starch is the polysaccharide used for
Hexoses have an important biological energy store by plants. Glycogen is a
role as energy sources for the macromolecule responsible for the
metabolism. storage of glucose in the liver and
muscles. Chitin is a polysaccharide with
structural functions that constitutes the
exoskeleton of the arthropods and the
cell wall in fungi.
6. What are pentoses? What

are the roles of pentoses in
DNA and RNA molecules?
Pentoses are carbohydrates made of

five carbons.
The DNA molecule is made of a

sequence of molecules called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed
by the association of one pentose called
deoxyribose with a phosphoric acid and
a nitrogen-containing base (A, T, C or
G). RNA is also formed by a sequence of
nucleotides. The RNA nucleotides are
made by association of one ribose (a
pentose) with one phosphoric acid and
one nitrogen-containing base (A, U, C or
G).
So pentoses are fundamental

components of DNA and RNA.
19
4. What are phospholipids?
Lipids
Phospholipids are molecules made of
glycerol bound to two long molecules of
fatty acids and to one phosphate group.
1. What are the main types of Therefore, phospholipids are
lipids? amphipathic molecules, i.e., they have a
non-polar portion, due to the long fatty
The main types of lipids are triglycerides acid chains, and a polar portion, due to
(fats and oils), phospholipids, waxes the group phosphate.
and steroids.
Phospholipids are the main component
of cell membranes. Sphingomyelin, the
substance that forms the myelin sheath
2. What is the structural of axons in the nervous system, is a
formula of glycerol? To which phospholipid too.
organic function do these
molecules belong?
5. What are steroids? What
Glycerol is a linear chain of three are some examples of steroids
carbons; the central carbon is bound to
with a biological function?
one hydroxyl radical and to one
hydrogen and the two other carbons in
the extremities are bound to a hydroxyl Steroids are lipids based in an angular
radical and to two hydrogens. Spatial combination of four carbon rings, three
sides of the hydroxyls are the same. of them made of six carbons and one
ring made of five carbons in the
extremity. The union of each ring to the
adjacent ring is made by the sharing of
3. How are triglycerides two adjacent carbons belonging to both
rings.
made?
Bile salts, cholesterol, the sexual
Triglycerides, fats or oils, are made of hormones estrogen, progesterone and
three molecules of fatty acids bound to testosterone, the corticosteroids and the
one molecule of glycerol. Hydroxyls of pro-vitamin D are examples of steroids.
each one of the three fatty acids and
each hydrogen of the hydroxyls of the
glycerol bind to form three molecules of
water that are liberated.
20
6. What are hydrophobic hydrophilic portion, like the
molecules (or hydrophobic phospholipids, giving them the property
of being dragged by water, and a
molecular regions)? What are hydrophobic portion (non polar).
hydrophilic molecules? How
can they be characterized in
relation to their polarity?
9. What is meant by
Hydrophobic molecules are those that saturation or unsaturation of
have little or no propensity to dissolve oils and fats?
in water (hydro = water, phobia = fear).
Hydrophilic molecules are those that When it is said that a triglyceride is
have great propensity to dissolve in saturated it means that in its molecule
water (philia = friendship). the carbon chain is bound in its
maximum capacity to hydrogens, i.e.,
Water is a polar substance. there are no double or triple bonds
Remembering the rule that “equal between carbons. These saturated
dissolves equal” one can conclude that molecules are generally solid fats at
hydrophobic substances are non-polar normal temperature.
molecules while hydrophilic molecules
are polar molecules. Unsaturated triglyceride molecules are
those in which there are double or triple
bonds between carbons and so they do
not accomplish their maximum capacity
7. Are organic solvents like of hydrogenation. These unsaturated
benzene and ether polar or molecules in general are oils, liquid at
non-polar substances? normal temperature.
Benzene and the ethers are molecules The terms saturated or unsaturated
without electrically charged portions and refer then to the saturation of the
thus they are non-polar substances. carbonic chain by hydrogen atoms.
8. Regarding solubility, how

are lipids classified?
Fats and oils are hydrophobic molecules,

i.e., they are non polar and insoluble in
water. Lipids in general are molecules
with a large non-polar extension and so
they are soluble in non polar solvents,
like benzene, ether and chloroform.
There are some amphipathic lipids, i.e.,

lipids whose molecules have a
21
proteins), the endocrine integration
Proteins function (hormones) and the
informative function (membrane
receptors, intracellular signalers). There
are also many proteins whose biological
1. What are proteins? How can functions are not yet known.
the protein diversity of living
beings be explained?
3. What is the constitutional
Proteins are molecules made of
unit of proteins?
sequences of amino acids bound by a
peptide bond.
The constitutional units of proteins are
The genetic code codifies twenty the amino acids.
different amino acids that can compose
proteins. So there are numerous
combinations of amino acid which can
form polypeptide chains and for this 4. What is an oligopeptide?
reason protein molecules can be How is it different from a
immensely diverse. polypeptide?
Peptide is the molecule formed by the

union of amino acids through the
2. What is the importance of peptide bond. Oligopeptide is a peptide
proteins for living beings? made of few amino acids (oligo = few).
Polypeptides are peptides with many
Proteins play a fundamental role in amino acids (poli = many), in general
nearly all biological processes. Due to more than 50.
their diversity they can assume many
different configurations and they can
play varied roles in cells and tissues.
5. How many are the known
Some protein functions are noteworthy: amino acids that form proteins
the structural function (cell membrane in living beings?
proteins, cytoskeleton proteins, proteins
of the connective tissue), the enzymatic
function (enzymes are proteins), the There are twenty different known amino
energy storage function (proteins can acids that form proteins related to the
be degraded into acetyl-CoA and “cycle” genetic code of the living beings.
the Krebs cycle), the osmotic regulation
function (albumin), the transportation There are still many other amino acids
function (membrane channels, as yet not known.
respiratory pigments), the immune
protection function (antibodies), the
movement function (contractile
22
6. Does every amino acid have An amino acid has a central carbon to
a central carbon? To which which a carboxyl group binds on a side
and to which a –R (variable radical)
organic group is that central binds on the opposite side. In the
carbon bound? perpendicular direction of those ligands
an amine group binds the central carbon
A carboxyl group –COOH, an amine on one side and a hydrogen binds on
group – NH2, an atom of hydrogen –H the opposite side.
and a variable radical -R necessarily are
bound to the central carbon of an amino The bind of the carboxyl group to a
acid. carbon where a hydrogen is laterally
attached is responsible for the name
“acid” in amino acids. The bound of an
amine group in the central carbon
7. How can amine groups be provides the name “amino”.
classified?
Amines can be classified into primary

amines, those to which one –R (variable 10. What is the importance of
radical) is attached to a –NH2, the –R group (variable
secondary amines, those where one radical) in an amino acid
hydrogen of NH2 is substituted by molecule?
another –R, thus having two –R, and
tertiary amines, those with no hydrogen The –R group, also called a lateral
bound to the nitrogen and with three – chain, is the variable part of the amino
R. acid molecule. The –R group can be a
complex carbonic chain, a substituting
methyl group (forming then the amino
acid alanine) or even only a hydrogen
8. What is the structural (forming glycine, the simplest amino
representation of a carboxyl acid). So the –R group is important
group? because it is the differentiation factor of
amino acids.
Carboxyl groups have a carbon attached
to one hydroxyl group by a simple bond
and to one oxygen by a double bond.
The other site of binding in the carbon is 11. How can the binding of
available to other chemical entities. two amino acids for the
peptide formation be
described?
9. What is the structural flat
A peptide is formed when a carbon from
representation of an amino the carboxyl group of one amino acid is
acid molecule? connected to the nitrogen of the amine
group of another amino acid. During
23
that binding the hydroxyl of the 15. Do the amine and the
carboxyl and one hydrogen of the amine carboxyl groups attached to
is lost resulting in the liberation of one
central carbons participate in
water molecule.
the union between amino
acids?
12. What is the binding Yes. The nitrogen of the amine group of
between two amino acids one amino acid binds to the carbon of
called? the carboxyl group of the other amino
acid. The water molecule liberated from
the formation of the peptide bond thus
The chemical bond between two amino
has a hydrogen from the amine and an
acids is called a peptide bond.
oxygen and another hydrogen from the
carboxyl.
13. Do the –R groups bound to

the central carbons participate 16. Does the chemical reaction
in the union between amino to unite amino acids
acids? incorporate or liberate atoms?
What are the chemical entities
The peptide bond attaches the nitrogen incorporated or liberated in
of the amine group of one amino acid to
the carbon of the carboxyl group of
this reaction?
another amino acid liberating one
molecule of water. So the –R groups do The union of amino acids by peptide
not participate in that bond. bond liberates atoms. They are liberated
as constituents of one molecule of
water.
14. Do the –H groups bound to

the central carbons participate
17. Are there different
in the peptide bond?
proteins made by the same
The central carbons themselves, the –R
total number of amino acids?
groups and the hydrogens attached to
the central carbons do not participate in Different proteins with the same total
the peptide bond. number of amino acids may exist. In
such cases the differentiation is given
by the types of amino acids or by the
sequence in which they form the
protein.
24
18. Are proteins with the 21. What is the secondary
same number of each different structure of a protein?
amino acid that form them
necessarily identical proteins? The secondary protein structure is
generated by the manner its amino
Even if many proteins have the same acids interact through the
number of each different amino acid intermolecular bond. These interactions
that form them, for example, 50 create a spatial conformation of the
alanines, 70 glycines and 20 histidines, polypeptide filament. The two most
the sequences in which these amino studied secondary conformations of
acids are connected may be very proteins are the alpha-helix and the
different. So if two or more proteins are beta-sheet.
in such condition of numeric similarity
for each type of their constituent amino
acids, they are not necessarily identical.
between the alpha-helix and
the beta-sheet protein
19. What is the essential conformations?
condition for a protein to be
identical to another protein? Alpha-helix and beta-sheet
conformations are the two main types of
For a protein to be identical to another secondary structure of a protein
protein it is necessary for the sequence molecule. According to the primary
of amino acids that form them to be protein structure its secondary structure
identical. can be of one type or the other.
In the alpha-helix structure the

polypeptide curls longitudinally by the
20. What is the primary action of hydrogen bonds forming a
spiral, or helix. In the beta-sheet
structure of a protein? What is
conformation the protein is more
the importance of the primary distended and the hydrogen bonds form
structure? a zig-zag-shaped protein structure
called B-strand. Many assembled beta-
The primary protein structure is the strands make a beta-sheet.
linear sequence of amino acids that
form the molecule.
The primary structure is the basis of the

protein identity. Modification of only one 23. What is the tertiary
amino acid of the primary structure structure of a protein? What
creates a different protein. This different are the main types of tertiary
protein can be inactive or can even have
other biological functions.
structure?
25
The tertiary protein structure is a spatial structures. Denaturation is modification
conformation additional to the in any of these spatial structures that
secondary structure in which the alpha- makes the protein deficient or
helix or the beta-sheet folds itself up. biologically inactive.
The forces that keep the tertiary
structure generally are interactions After denaturation the primary protein
between the –R groups of the amino structure is not affected.
acids and between other parts of the
protein and water molecules of the
solution.
26. How can denaturation be
The main types of tertiary structure of classified regarding its
proteins are the globular proteins and
reversibility?
the fibrous proteins.
Protein denaturation can be a reversible

or an irreversible process, i.e., it may
24. What is the quaternary be possible or impossible to make the
protein regain its original spatial
structure of a protein? Do all conformation.
proteins have quaternary
structure?
The quaternary protein structure is the 27. What are some factors
spatial conformation due to interactions that can lead to protein
among polypeptide chains that form the denaturation?
protein.
Protein denaturation can be caused by
Only those proteins made of two or
temperature variation, pH change,
more polypeptide chains have
changes in the concentration of
quaternary structure. Insulin (two
surrounding solutes and by other
chains), hemoglobin (four chains) and
processes. Most proteins denature after
the immunoglobulins (antibodies, four
certain elevation of temperature or
chains) are some examples of protein
when in very acid or very basic
having quaternary structure.
solutions. This is one of the main
reasons that it is necessary for the
organisms to keep stable temperature
and pH.
25. What is protein
denaturation? Is there any
change in the primary
structure when a protein is
denatured?
Secondary, tertiary and quaternary

structures of proteins are spatial
26
28. Is it expected that a 30. What is the difference
change in the primary, in the between essential and natural
secondary or in the tertiary amino acids?
structure of a protein will
produce more functional Essential amino acids are those that the
consequences? organism is not able to synthesize and
that need to be ingested by the
individual. Natural amino acids are
Any change of the protein structure is
those that are produced by the
relevant if it alters its biological activity.
organism.
Changes in the primary protein
structure are more important because
There are living species that produce
they are modifications in the
every amino acid they need, for
composition of the molecule and such
example, the bacteria Escherichia coli,
composition determines all other
that does not have essential amino
structures of the protein.
acids. Other species, like humans, need
to obtain essential amino acids from the
diet. Among the twenty different known
amino acids that form proteins humans
29. In sickle cell anemia, a can make twelve of them and the
hereditary disease, there is remaining eight need to be taken from
substitution of one amino acid the proteins they ingest with food.
by another in one of the four
polypeptide chains of The essential amino acids for humans
are phenylalanine, histidine, isoleucine,
hemoglobin. In this case are lysine, methionine, threonine,
all of the structural levels of tryptophane and valine.
the protein modified?
In sickle cell disease there is a change

in the primary protein structure of one
of the polypeptide chains that form 31. What are respectively
hemoglobin: the amino acid glutamic some remarkable functions of
acid is substituted by the amino acid myosin, CD4, albumin, keratin,
valine in the β chain. The spatial
immunoglobulin, reverse
conformation of the molecule in addition
is also affected and modified by this transcriptase, hemoglobin and
primary “mistake” and the modification insulin?
also creates a different (sickle) shape to
the red blood cells. Myosin is a protein that when associated
with actin produces a muscular
Modified, sickled, red blood cells contraction. CD4 is a membrane protein
sometimes aggregate and obstruct the of some lymphocytes, the cells that are
peripheral circulation causing tissue infected by HIV. Albumin is an energy
hypoxia and the pain crisis typical of storage protein and also an important
sickle cell anemia. regulator of the blood osmolarity.
27
Keratin is a protein with structural
function present in the epidermis and
skin appendages of vertebrates.
Immunoglobulins are the antibodies,
specific proteins that attack and
inactivate strange agents that enter the
body. Reverse transcriptase is the
enzyme responsible for the transcription
of RNA and formation of DNA in the life
cycle of retroviruses. Hemoglobin is the
protein that carries oxygen from the
lungs to the cells. Insulin is a hormone
secreted by the pancreas that
participates in the metabolism of
glucose.
28
Enzymes are proteins that are catalysts
Enzymes of chemical reactions. From Chemistry it
is known that catalysts are non-
consumable substances that reduce the
activation energy necessary for a
1. What are catalysts? chemical reaction to occur.
Catalysts are substances that reduce Enzymes are highly specific to the
the activation energy of a chemical reactions they catalyze. They are of vital
reaction, facilitating it or making it importance for life because most
energetically viable. The catalyst chemical reactions of the cells and
increases the speed of the chemical tissues are catalyzed by enzymes.
reaction. Without enzymatic action those
reactions would not occur or would not
happen in the required speed for the
biological processes in which they
2. What amount of catalyst is participate.
consumed in the reaction it
catalyzes?
5. What is meant by
Catalysts are not consumed in the substrates of enzymatic
reactions they catalyze. reactions?
Substrates are reagent molecules upon

3. Is there a difference which enzymes act.
between the initial and the The enzyme has spatial binding sites for
final energy levels in the attachment of its substrate. These
catalyzed and non-catalyzed sites are called activation centers of the
reactions? enzyme. Substrates bind to theses
centers forming the enzyme-substrate
The catalysis does not alter the complex.
energetic state of reagents and products
of a chemical reaction. Only the energy
necessary for the reaction to occur, i.e.,
the activation energy, is altered. 6. What are the main
theoretical models that try to
explain the formation of the
enzyme-substrate complex?
4. What are enzymes? What is
the importance of enzymes for There are two main models that explain
living beings? the formation of the enzyme-substrate
complex: the lock and key model and
the induced fit model.
29
In the lock and key model the enzyme 9. What is the activation
has a region with specific spatial center of an enzyme? Is it the
conformation for the binding of the
key or the lock of the lock and
substrate. In the induced fit model the
binding of the substrate induces a key model?
change in the spatial configuration of
the enzyme for the substrate to fit. The activation center is a region of the
enzyme produced by its spatial
conformation to which the substrate
binds. In the lock and key model the
activation center is the lock and the
7. How does the formation of substrate is the key.
the enzyme-substrate
complex explain the reduction
of the activation energy of 10. Why can it be said that the
chemical reactions? enzymatic action is highly
specific?
The enzyme possibly works as a test
tube within which reagents meet to
The enzymatic action is highly specific
form products. With the facilitation of
the meeting provided by enzymes it is because only specific substrates of one
enzyme bind to the activation center of
easier for collisions between reagents to
occur and thus the activation energy of that enzyme. Each enzyme generally
catalyzes only a specific chemical
the chemical reaction is reduced. This is
one of the possible hypotheses. reaction.
8. On what structural level of 11. What happens to a

the enzyme (primary, denatured enzyme regarding
secondary, tertiary or its functionality? How can that
quaternary) does the enzyme- result be explained with the
substrate interaction depend? help of the lock and key
model?
The substrate binds to the enzyme in
the activation centers. These are According to the lock and key model the
specific three-dimensional sites and enzyme functionality depends entirely
thus they depend on the protein tertiary on the integrity of the activation center,
and quaternary structures. The primary a molecular region with specific spatial
and secondary structures, however, characteristics. After the denaturation
condition the other structures and so the spatial conformation of the protein
they are equally important. is modified, the activation center is
destroyed and the enzyme loses its
catalytic activity.
30
12. What are the main factors 15. Concerning enzymatic
that alter the speed of reactions, how different are
enzymatic reactions? the graphic curve of the
variation of the speed of a
The main factors that change the speed reaction as function of
of enzymatic reactions are temperature, substrate concentration and
pH and substrate concentration
the curve of variation of the
(quantity).
speed of a reaction as function
of temperature?
13. How does the substrate The curve of variation of speed of the
concentration affect the speed enzymatic reaction as a function of
of enzymatic reactions? growing substrate concentration is a
growing curve until the point where it
stabilizes due to the saturation of the
Initially as substrate concentration
activation centers of the enzymes.
increases, the speed of the reaction
increases; this happens because free
The curve of variation of speed of the
activation centers of the enzyme bind to
enzymatic reaction as a function of
free substrates. Once all activation
growing temperature has a crescent
centers of the available enzymes
portion and reaches a peak (the
become bound to their substrates new
optimum temperature) then it decreases
increments of the substrate
and reaches zero in the point of
concentration will have no effect on the
inactivity of the enzymes by
speed of the reaction.
denaturation.
14. How does temperature 16. How is the cooling of

affect the action of enzymes organs and tissues for medical
upon their substrates? transplants associated with
the effect of temperature
There are defined temperature ranges
under which enzymes operate and there
upon enzymatic reactions?
is a specific temperature level (optimum
temperature) in which enzymes have The molecular degradation during the
maximum efficiency. Therefore decomposition of organs and tissues is
temperature variations affect enzymatic catalyzed by enzymes. The cooling to
activity and the speed of the reactions adequate temperatures of some organs
they catalyze. and tissues destined for transplantation
reduces that enzyme activity and thus
In addition, as proteins, enzymes can be lessens the natural decomposition
denatured under extreme temperatures. process. By the same rationale, the
cooling reduces the metabolic work of
cells and prevents degradation of their
31
own structures to obtain energy. 19. Since pepsin is a gastric
Elevation of temperature later reverts enzyme does it have an acid
denaturation of enzymes and the organs
or basic optimum pH? What
and tissues also preserved by other
specific techniques may be grafted into happens to pepsin when it
the receptors. passes into the duodenum?
Pepsin acts within the stomach so its

optimum pH is around 2, an acid pH.
17. Does pH affect the enzyme When the enzyme passes into the
activity? duodenum it meets a higher pH and its
enzyme activity ends.
The concentration of hydrogen ions in
solution affects the enzyme activity.
Each enzyme has maximal efficiency
under an optimum pH. 20. What are enzyme
cofactors?
Since pH is one of the factors for the
denaturation of proteins, if an enzyme is Some enzymes need other associated
submitted to a pH level under which it is molecules to work. These molecules are
denatured there will be no enzymatic called enzyme cofactors and they can
activity. be, for example, organic ions like
mineral salts, or organic molecules.
Inactive enzymes which are not bound

18. Do enzymes act better to their cofactors are called
under acid or basic pH? apoenzymes. Active enzymes bound to
their cofactors are called holoenzymes.
Most enzymes act in pH between 6 and
8, a range that corresponds to the
general acidic level of cells and blood.
There are enzymes, however, that act 21. What is the relationship
only under very acid or very basic pH. between vitamins and enzyme
So enzyme activity depends on pH cofactors?
interval.
Many vitamins are enzyme cofactors
In the stomach, for example, the gastric that cannot be synthesized by the
juice has a very low pH, around 2, and organism and must be obtained from
there the enzyme pepsin acts to the diet.
intensively digest proteins. In the
duodenum, pancreatic secretions
increase the pH of the enteric juice for
the action of other digestive enzymes,
for example, trypsin.
32
22. For the enzymatic reaction 24. What is the action
what is the effect of a mechanism of the
substance with the same antiretroviral drugs called
spatial conformation as an protease inhibitors which are
enzymatic substrate? How is used against HIV infection?
this type of substance known?
Protease inhibitors are some of the
Substances that “simulate” substrates antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV
can bind to the activation center of infection. Protease is an enzyme
enzymes thus blocking the true necessary for the assembling of HIV
substrates to bind to these enzymes and after the synthesis of its proteins within
paralyzing the enzymatic reaction. Such the host cell. The protease inhibitor
“fake substrates” are called enzyme binds to the activation center of the
inhibitors. enzyme blocking the formation of the
enzyme-substrate complex and the
The binding of enzyme inhibitors to enzyme activity thus impairing the viral
enzymes can be reversible or replication.
irreversible.
Many medical drugs, for example, some

antibiotics, antivirals, antineoplastics, 25. What are allosteric
antihypertensives and even sildenafil enzymes?
(trade name Viagra), are enzyme
inhibitors that block enzyme activity. Allosteric enzymes are those that have
more than one activation center and to
which other substances, called allosteric
regulators, bind.
23. What is the action
mechanism of the antibiotic Allosteric regulators can be allosteric
penicillin? inhibitors or allosteric activators. The
interaction between an allosteric
Penicillin, discovered by the Scottish enzyme and the allosteric inhibitor
doctor Alexander Fleming in 1928, is a disallows the binding of the substrate to
drug that inhibits enzymes necessary the enzyme. The interaction between
for the synthesis of peptidoglycans, a the allosteric enzyme and the allosteric
constituent of the bacterial cell wall. activator allows the binding of the
With the inhibition the bacterial substrate to the enzyme and sometimes
population stops growing because there increases the affinity of the enzyme for
is no new cell wall formation. the substrate. This regulatory
phenomenon of the enzyme activity is
Fleming won the Nobel prize in Medicine called allosterism.
for the discovery of penicillin.
33
26. What are zymogens?
Zymogens, or proenzymes, are

enzymes secreted in inactive form.
Under certain conditions a zymogen
shifts to the active form of the enzyme.
Zymogen secretions in general happen
because the enzyme activity can harm
the secretory tissue.
For example, the pepsinogen secreted

by the stomach becomes active under
acid pH turning into the enzyme pepsin.
Other well-known zymogens are
trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen,
enzymes that are secreted by the
exocrine pancreas and which become
trypsin and chymotrypsin respectively.
34
3. What are pentoses? To
Nucleic Acids what organic group do
pentoses belong? Are
nucleotides formed of only
1. What are nucleic acids? one type of pentose?
What is the historic origin of
this name? Pentoses are carbohydrates made of
five carbons. Deoxyribose is the pentose
that constitutes DNA nucleotides and
DNA and RNA, the nucleic acids, are the
ribose is the pentose that is part of RNA
molecules responsible for the hereditary
nucleotides.
information that commands the protein
synthesis in living beings. The name
“nucleic” derives from the fact that they
were discovered (by the Swiss
4. Into which two groups can
biochemist Friedrich Miescher, in 1869)
within the cell nucleus. In that time it the nitrogen-containing bases
was not known that those substances that form DNA and RNA be
contained the hereditary information. classified? What is the
criterion used in that
classification?
2. Of what units are nucleic
The nitrogen-containing bases that form
acids constituted? What are DNA and RNA are classified as
the chemical entities that pyrimidine and purine bases.
compose that unit?
By the analysis of the structural
Nucleic acids are formed by sequences formulae of those nitrogen-containing
of nucleotides. bases it is possible to realize that three
of them, cytosine, thymine and uracil,
Nucleotides are constituted by one have only one nitrogenized carbon ring.
molecule of sugar (deoxyribose in DNA The others, adenine and guanine, have
and ribose in RNA) bound to one two nitrogenized associated carbon
molecule of phosphate and to one rings.
nitrogen-containing base (adenine,
uracil, cytosine or guanine, in RNA, and
adenine, thymine, cytosine and
guanine, in DNA). 5. Concerning the nitrogen-
containing bases that
participate in nucleotides,
what is the difference
between DNA and RNA?
35
In DNA nucleotides can be formed of In eukaryotic cells DNA is found within
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) the cell nucleus. In prokaryotic cells
or guanine (G). In RNA nucleotides can DNA is found dispersed in the cytosol,
also contain adenine (A), cytosine (C) or the fluid space inside the cell.
guanine (G), however, instead of
thymine (T) there is uracil (U). Other DNA molecules can also be found
within mitochondria and chloroplasts,
specialized organelles of eukaryotic
cells.
6. Which are the nucleotides

“portions” that bind in the
formation of nucleic acids? 8. Who were James Watson,
What is meant by the 5’ and 3’ Francis Crick and Maurice
extremities of nucleic acids? Wilkins?
The phosphate group of one nucleotide Watson (North American), Crick

binds to the pentose of the other (British) and Wilkins (New Zealander)
nucleotide and so on to make the were the discoverers of the molecular
polynucleotide chain. structure of DNA, the double helix made
of two polynucleotide chains paired by
Each extremity of a DNA or RNA chain their nitrogen-containing bases. They
can be distinguished from the other won the Nobel prize in Medicine in 1962
extremity according to their terminal for the discovery.
chemical entity. The phosphate-ended
extremity is called 5’-extremity and the
pentose-ended extremity is called
3’-extremity. So DNA or RNA chains can 9. According to the Watson-
be run along the 5’-3’ way or along the Crick model how many
3’-5’ way. These ways are important in polynucleotide chains does a
several biological functions of DNA and DNA molecule have?
RNA since some reactions specifically
occur following one way or the other
The DNA molecule is formed by two
way.
polynucleotide chains bound in
antiparallel mode (5’-3’ to 3’-5’) and
forming a helical structure.
7. Bacteria are prokaryotic
10. What is the rule for the
cells, i.e., they do not have a
pairing of nitrogen-containing
membrane-delimited nucleus.
bases in the DNA molecule?
Eukaryotes have cells with a
And in the RNA? Is this last
delimited nucleus. Where in
question appropriate?
these types of cells can DNA
be found?
36
The rule for the pairing of nitrogen- and there is no necessary
containing bases of the polynucleotide proportionality of nitrogen-containing
chains that form the DNA molecule is bases to form it.
pyrimidine base binds to purine base,
under the condition that thymine (T)
binds to adenine (A) and cytosine (C)
binds to guanine (G). 12. Which type of chemical
bond maintains the pairing of
In RNA there is no binding between
each chain in the DNA
nitrogen-containing bases. That is
because RNA is formed of only one molecule?
polynucleotide chain; differently, DNA is
formed of two chains. It is therefore not To form the DNA molecule, purine bases
correct to question base pairing in RNA. bind to pyrimidine bases by
intermolecular bonds called hydrogen
bonds. Hydrogen bonds occur when
there is hydrogen near one of these
11. What is the numeric electronegative elements: fluorine,
relation between pyrimidine oxygen or nitrogen.
and purine bases in the DNA In such conditions hydrogen looks like
molecule? Is that relation having lost electrons for those elements
valid in RNA molecules? and a very strong polarization is
created. The highly positive hydrogen
The DNA molecule is made of two bound attracts pairs of electrons of other
polynucleotide chains that form a helical molecules making a hydrogen bond.
structure (the double helix). The binding
of the two chains is between their
nitrogen-containing bases and it always
obeys the following rules: adenine (A), 13. What is the completing
a purine base, binds with thymine (T), a sequence of nitrogen-
pyrimidine base, and guanine (G), a containing bases for a
purine base, binds to cytosine (C), a AGCCGTTAAC fragment of a
pyrimidine base. Therefore in one
molecule of DNA there will be the same DNA chain?
number of adenine (A) and thymine (T)
and same number of cytosine (C) and TCGGCAATTG.
guanine (G). The quantities of purine
and of pyrimidine bases then will also
be the same in a 50% proportion for
each type. The relation A = T and C = 14. What is the name of the
G, or A/T = C/G = 1, is called Chargaff’s DNA duplication process?
relation and the pairing rules described What is the main enzyme that
above are known as Chargaff’s rules.
participates in it?
In RNA there are not two nucleotide
chains. RNA is a simple chain molecule
37
The process of copying, or duplication, of a new synthesized polynucleotide
of the DNA molecule is called chain.
replication. The enzyme that
participates in the formation of a new
DNA chain is the DNA polymerase.
There are also other important enzymes 17. What are the chemical
in the replication process, the helicase, bonds of the DNA molecule
the gyrase and the ligase. that are broken for the
replication process to occur?
15. Why is it not correct to During the DNA replication process,

assert that DNA self- hydrogen bonds between nitrogen-
containing bases of the polynucleotide
replicates? chains are broken.
DNA is not completely autonomous in its

duplication process because the
replication does not occur without 18. As a result of DNA
enzymatic activity. So it is not entirely
replication two DNA molecules
correct to assert that DNA self-
replicates. come into existence. Why is it
not correct to assert that two
“new” DNA molecules are
created? What is the name
16. How do the two given to the process
complementary nucleotide concerning that fact?
chains of the DNA facilitate
the replication process of the During replication each chain of the DNA
molecule? molecule acts by pairing new
nucleotides and after the process two
The fact that the DNA molecule is made newly formed chains made with the
of two polynucleotide chains whose union of these nucleotides appear. Then
nitrogen-containing bases form two DNA molecules are created, each
hydrogen bonds facilitates the with one chain from the original
duplication of the molecule. During the molecule and one new chain formed by
DNA replication, the binding of the two new nucleotides. Thus it is not entirely
chains is broken and each of them correct to assert that the replication
serves as a template for the formation produces two new molecules of DNA. It
of a new nucleotide sequence along it, is better to affirm that two new half-
with the help of the enzyme DNA molecules are created.
polymerase and obeying the pairing rule For this phenomenon DNA replication is
A-T, C-G. At the end of the process two called semiconservative replication.
double helix of DNA are produced, each
made of an original template chain and
38
19. Does DNA replication 21. Mistakes may happen
occur in cell division? during every copying process.
The same is true for DNA
Yes. DNA replication occurs in mitosis as replication. Are there
well in meiosis. correction systems in cells
that try to fix those mistakes?
Under which situation are the
20. One characteristic of the mistakes carried only by the
DNA molecule is its replication individual owner of the cell
capability. What are the within which the mistake has
consequences of failures occurred and in which
during DNA replication? situation are they transmitted
to other individuals?
Ideally a DNA molecule should replicate
in a perfect way. Sometimes however The cell is equipped with an enzymatic
failures in the duplication occur, with system that tries to fix mistakes of the
alteration (deletion, addition or DNA replication process. This system
substitution) of one or more nucleotides however is not completely efficient.
in the molecule.
DNA replication mistakes are kept in the
Those mistakes, or mutations, therefore original individual where the failure
make changes in the protein synthesis occurred when the phenomenon affects
process too. For example, the somatic cells. If a replication mistake
production of an important protein for occurs in the formation of a germline
cells or tissues may be suppressed, new cell (e.g., in gametes) the DNA
utile or inutile proteins can be created, alteration may be transmitted to the
etc. The mistake in the DNA duplication offspring of the individual.
and the resulting production of altered
genetic material are some of the main
creative forces for the biological
evolution and the diversity of species. 22. Where can RNA be found
within cells?
In the eukaryote cell nucleus RNA can

be found dispersed in the nuclear fluid,
along with DNA, and as the main
constituent of the nucleolus. In cytosol
(in eukaryotes or in bacteria) RNA
molecules can be found free, as
structural constituent of ribosomes
(organelles specialized in protein
synthesis) or even associated to them in
the process of making proteins.
39
Mitochondria and chloroplasts also have In replication the enzyme DNA
their own DNA and RNA. polymerase catalyzes the formation of a
new polynucleotide chain using free
nucleotides in solution and putting them
in the new chain according to the DNA
23. Does RNA molecule have template exposed and to the rule A-T,
two polynucleotide chains like C-G. In transcription the enzyme RNA
polymerase makes a new polynucletide
DNA?
chain according to the DNA template
exposed obeying, however, the rule A-
Only DNA has two polynucleotide U, C-G.
chains. RNA is formed by just one
polynucleotide chain. In replication the original template DNA
chain is kept bound by hydrogen bonds
to the newly formed DNA chain and a
new DNA molecule is then created. In
24. What is the production of transcription the association between
RNA called and what is the the template DNA chain and the newly
enzyme that catalyzes the formed RNA is undone and RNA
process? constituted of only one polynucleotide
chain is liberated.
The making of RNA from information
contained in DNA is called transcription.
The enzyme that catalyzes the process
is the RNA polymerase.
26. What are the three main
types of RNA? What is meant
by heterogeneous RNA?
25. What are similarities and Messenger RNA, or mRNA, transfer

differences between the RNA, or tRNA, and ribosomal RNA, or
transcription process and the rRNA, are the three main types of RNA.
replication processes?
The newly formed RNA molecule, a
precursor of mRNA, is called
A DNA polynucleotide chain serves as a heterogeneous RNA (hnRNA). The
template in replication (DNA heterogenous RNA bears portions called
duplication) as well as in transcription introns and portions called exons. The
(RNA formation). In both processes the hnRNA is processed in many chemical
pairing of the two polynucleotide chains steps, introns are removed and mRNA is
of the original DNA molecule is broken created formed only of exons, the
by the breaking of hydrogen bonds for biologically active nucleotide sequences.
the chains to be exposed as templates.
The reaction is catalyzed by specific
enzymes in transcription and in
replication.
40
27. Concerning their biological 29. Do the phosphate and the
function what is the difference pentose groups give
between DNA and RNA? homogeneity or heterogeneity
to the nucleic acid chains?
DNA is the source of information for What about the nitrogen-
RNA production (transcription) and thus containing groups? Supported
for protein synthesis. DNA is still the
by that, which of those groups
basis of heredity due to its replication
capability. is expected to directly
participate in the highly
The messenger RNA is the template for diverse and heterogeneous
protein synthesis (translation). In this genetic coding, i.e., which of
process tRNA and rRNA also participate those groups is the basis of
since the first carries amino acids for
the polypeptide chain formation and the
the information for protein
second is a structural constituent of production?
ribosomes (the organelles where
proteins are made). The phosphate and the pentose groups
are the same in every nucleotide that
forms the nucleic acid and so they give
homogeneity to the molecule. The
28. Is there any situation in nitrogen-containing bases however can
which DNA is made based on a vary among adenine, thymine, cytosine,
RNA template? What is the guanine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA).
These variations provide the
enzyme involved? heterogeneity of the nucleic acid
molecule.
The process in which DNA is synthesized
having as template a RNA chain is called Homogeneous portions of a molecule
reverse transcription. In cells infected seldom would store any information, by
by retroviruses (RNA viruses, like the the same reason that a sequence of the
AIDS or SARS viruses) reverse same letter of the alphabet cannot
transcription occurs and DNA is made make many words with different
from information contained in the viral meanings. The nitrogen-containing
RNA. bases, on the other hand, because they
are different (four different types for
Viral RNA within the host cell produces RNA or DNA), can make different
DNA with the help of an enzyme called sequences and combinations that allow
reverse transcriptase. Based on that the diversity of the genetic code.
DNA the host cell then makes viral
proteins, new viruses are assembled
and viral replication occurs.
41
42
Cell Biology
43
44
3. In 1665 Robert Hooke, an
Cell Structure English scientist, published his
book Micrographia, in which
he described that pieces of
1. What is cell theory? cork viewed under the
microscope presented small
Cell theory asserts that the cell is the cavities similar to pores which
constituent unit of living beings. were filled with air. Based on
later knowledge, of what were
Before the discovery of the cell, it was
the walls of those cavities
not recognized that living beings were
made of building blocks like cells. constituted? What is the
historical importance of that
The cell theory is one of the basic observation?
theories of Biology.
The walls of the cavities observed by
Hooke were the walls of the plant cells
that form the tissue. The observation
2. Are there living beings led to the discovery of the cells, a fact
without cells? only possible after the invention of the
microscope. In that work, Hooke
Viruses are considered the only living established the term “cell”, now widely
beings that do not have cells. Viruses used in Biology, to designate those
are constituted by genetic material cavities seen under the microscope.
(DNA or RNA) enwrapped by a protein
capsule. They do not have membranes
and cell organelles nor do they have
self-metabolism. 4. What are the two big
groups into which cells are
classified?
Cells can be classified as eukaryotic or

prokaryotic.
Prokaryotic cell is that without a

delimited nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are
those with nucleus delimited by
membrane.
45
5. Do bacteria cells have a pointing to the exterior of the layer and
nucleus? the non-polar phospholipid chains in the
interior. Proteins can be found
embedded in the lipid bilayer and there
In bacteria the genetic material is are also some carbohydrates bound to
dispersed in the cytosol and there is no proteins and to phospholipids in the
internal membrane that delimits a outer face of the membrane.
nucleus.

6. Are there any bacteria
between plasma membrane
made of more than one cell?
and cell wall?
There are no pluricellular bacteria. All
Plasma membrane and cell wall are not
bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic.
the same thing. Plasma membrane, also
called cell membrane, is the outer
membrane common to all living cells
and it is made of a phospholipid bilayer,
7. What is the plasma
embedded proteins and some appended
membrane of the cell? What carbohydrates.
are its main functions?
Because cell membranes are fragile, in
The plasma membrane is the outer some types of cells there are even outer
membrane of the cell, it delimits the cell structures that support and protect the
itself and a cell interior with specific membrane, like the cellulose wall of
conditions for the cellular function. plant cells and the chitin wall of some
Since it is selectively permeable, the fungi cells. Most bacteria also present
plasma membrane has an important an outer cell wall made of
role for the passage of substances peptidoglycans and other organic
inwards or outwards. substances.
8. What are the chemical 10. What are the main

substances that compose the respective constituents of cell
plasma membrane? walls in bacteria, protists,
fungi and plants?
The main constituents of the plasma
membrane are phospholipids, proteins In bacteria the cell wall is made of
and carbohydrates. The phospholipds, peptidoglycans; among protists algae
amphipathic molecules, are regularly have cell walls made of cellulose; in
organized in the membrane according to fungi, the cell wall is made of chitin (the
their polarity: two layers of same substance that makes the
phospholipids form the lipid bilayer with
the polar part of the phospholipids
46
exoskeleton of arthropods); in plants, and thus they are eukaryotic cells; in
the cell wall is made of cellulose too. these cells the genetic material is
located within the nucleus. Bacterial
cells (cells of living beings of the
kingdom Monera) do not have organized
11. Do membranes form only cellular nuclei and so they are
the outer wrapping of cells? prokaryotic cells and their genetic
material is found dispersed in the
cytosol.
Lipid membranes do not form only the
outer cover of cells. Cell organelles,
such as the Golgi complex,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
the endoplasmic reticula and the
nucleus, are delimited by membranes parts of a eukaryotic cell?
too.
The eukaryotic cell can be divided into
two main portions: the cell membrane
that separates the intracellular space
12. Which type of cell came from the outer space physically
first in evolution - the delimiting the cell; the cytoplasm, the
interior portion filled with cytosol (the
eukaryotic cell or the
aqueous fluid inside the cell); and the
prokaryotic cell? nucleus, the membrane-delimited
internal region that contains the genetic
This is an interesting problem of material.
biological evolution. The most accepted
hypothesis asserts that the more simple
cell, the prokaryotic cell, appeared
earlier in evolution than the more 15. What are the main
complex eukaryotic cell. The structures within the cell
endosymbiotic hypothesis, for example,
affirms that aerobic eukaryotic cells
nucleus?
appeared from the mutualist ecological
interaction between aerobic prokaryotes Within the cell nucleus the main
and primitive anaerobic eukaryotes. structures are: the nucleolus, an
optically dense region, spherical shaped,
where there are concentrated ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) associated to proteins
13. Concerning the presence (there may be more than one nucleolus
in a nucleus); the chromatin, made of
of the nucleus what is the
DNA molecules dispersed in the nuclear
difference between animal matrix during the cell interphase; the
and bacterial cells? karyotecha, or nuclear membrane, the
membrane that delimits the nucleus.
Animal cells (cells of living beings of the
kingdom Animalia) have an interior
membrane that delimits a cell nucleus
47
16. What are the substances 19. What is the name of the
that constitute the chromatin? membrane that delimits the
What is the difference nucleus? To which component
between chromatin and of the cell structure is that
chromosome? membrane contiguous?
The chromatin, dispersed in the The nuclear membrane is also called

nucleus, is a set of filamentous DNA karyotheca. The nuclear membrane is
molecules associated to nuclear proteins continuous to the endoplasmic reticulum
called histones. Each DNA filament is a membrane.
double helix of DNA and thus a
chromosome.

cytoplasmic structures
17. What is the fluid that fills present in animal cells?
the nucleus called?
The main cytoplasmic structures of the
The aqueous fluid that fills the nuclear cell are the centrioles, the cytoskeleton,
region is called karyolymph, or lysosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes,
nucleoplasm. In the fluid there are the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic
proteins, enzymes and other important reticula and ribosomes.
substances for the nuclear metabolism.
21. What are cytoplasmic

18. Of what substances is the inclusions?
nucleolus made? Is there a
membrane around the Cytoplasmic inclusions are cytoplasmic
nucleolus? molecular aggregates, such as
pigments, organic polymers and
Nucleolus is a region within the nucleus crystals. They are not considered cell
made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and organelles.
proteins. It is not delimited by
membrane. Fat droplets and glycogen granules are
examples of cytoplasmic inclusions.
48
22. Where in the cell can 24. A netlike membranous
ribosomes be found? What is complex of superposed flat
the main biological function of saccules with vesicles
ribosomes? detaching from the
extremities seen in electronic
Ribosomes can be found free in the microscopy. What is the
cytoplasm, adhered to the outer side of observed structure? What is
the nuclear membrane or associated to
its biological function?
the endoplasmic reticulum membrane
defining the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Ribosomes are the structures What is being observed is the Golgi
where protein synthesis takes place. complex, or Golgi apparatus. This
cytoplasmic organelle is associated with
chemical processing and modification of
proteins made by the cell and with
23. What is the difference storage and branding of these proteins
for posterior use or secretion. Vesicles
between smooth and rough
seen under the electronic microscope
endoplasmic reticulum? contain material already processed,
ready to be exported (secreted) by the
The endoplasmic reticulum is a delicate cell. The vesicles detach from the Golgi
membranous structure contiguous to apparatus, travel across the cytoplasm
the nuclear membrane and present in and fuse with the plasma membrane
the cytoplasm. It forms an extensive then secreting their substances to the
net of channels throughout the cell and exterior.
is classified into rough or smooth types.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has a

great number of ribosomes attached to 25. On which organelle of the
the external side of its membrane. The cell structure does
smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not
intracellular digestion
have ribosomes attached to its
membrane. depend? What is the chemical
content of those organelles?
The main functions of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum are synthesis Intracellular digestion occurs by the
and storage of proteins made in the action of lysosomes. Lysosomes have
ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic digestive enzymes (hydrolases) that are
reticulum plays a role in the lipid made in the rough endoplasmic
synthesis and, in muscle cells, it is reticulum and stored in the Golgi
important in the conduction of the apparatus. Lysosomes are hydrolase-
contraction stimulus. containing vesicles that detach from the
Golgi apparatus.
49
26. Why are lysosomes known 28. What are the
as “the cleaners” of the cell morphological, chemical and
waste? functional similarities and
differences between
Lysosomes carry out autophagic and lysosomes and peroxisomes?
heterophagic digestion: autophagic
digestion by digesting residual Similarities: lysosomes and peroxisomes
substances from the cellular are small membranous vesicles that
metabolism; heterophagic digestion by contain enzymes and enclose residual
digesting substances that enter the cell. substances from internal or external
Lysosomes enfold the substances to be origin degrading them. Differences:
degraded forming digestive vacuoles, or lysosomes have digestive enzymes
residual vacuoles, that later migrate (hydrolases) that break substances to
toward the plasma membrane fusing be digested into small molecules;
with it and liberating (exocytosis) the peroxisomes contain enzymes that
digested material to the exterior. degrade mainly long-chained fatty acids
and amino acids and that inactivate
Cell Structure Review - Image Diversity: toxic agents including ethanol; within
lysosomes peroxisomes there is the enzyme
catalase, responsible for the oxidation of
organic compounds by hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and, when this
27. Which are the cell substance is in excess, by the
organelles that participate in degradation of the peroxide into water
cell division and in the and molecular oxygen.
formation of cillia and flagella
of some eukaryotic cells?
29. What are mitochondria?
The organelles that participate in the
cell division and in the formation of cilia
What is the basic morphology
and flagella of some eukaryotic cells are of these organelles and in
the centrioles. Some cells have cillia which cells can they be found?
(paramecium, the bronchial ciliated
epithelium, etc.) or flagella (flagellate Mitochondria are the organelles in which
protists, sperm cells, etc.); these cell the most important part of the cellular
structures are composed of respiration occurs: the ATP production.
microtubules originated from the
centrioles. Centrioles also make the Mitochondria are organelles delimited by
aster microtubules that are very two lipid membranes. The inner
important for cell division. membrane invaginates to the interior of
the organelle forming cristae that
delimitate the internal space known as
mitochondrial matrix and where
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA),
mitochondrial RNA (mt RNA),
50
mitochondrial ribosomes and respiratory offering energy to them. This hypothesis
enzymes can be found. Mitochondria are is called the endosymbiotic hypothesis
numerous in eukaryotic cells and they on the origin of mitochondria.
are even more abundant in those cells
that use more energy, like muscle cells. The hypothesis is strengthened by some
Because they have their own DNA, RNA molecular evidence such as the fact that
and ribosomes, mitochondria can self- mitochondria have their own
replicate. independent DNA and protein synthesis
machinery, with their own RNA and
ribosomes, and that they can self-
replicate.
30. Why can mitochondria be
considered the power plants The endosymbiotic theory can be
applied to chloroplasts too. It is
of the aerobic cells?
supposed that these organelles were
primitive photosynthetic prokaryotes
Mitochondria are the “power plants” of because they have their own DNA, RNA
aerobic cells because within them the and ribosomes and they can self-
final stages of the cellular respiration replicate too.
process occurs. Cellular respiration is
the process of using organic molecule
(mainly glucose) and oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and energy. The energy 32. What are the main
is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) molecules and later used
components of the
in other cellular metabolic reactions. In cytoskeleton?
mitochondria the two last steps of the
cellular respiration take place: the Krebs The cytoskeleton is a network of very
cycle and the respiratory chain. small tubules and filaments distributed
throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. It is made of microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate
31. What is the endosymbiotic filaments.
hypothesis about the origin of
Microtubules are formed by molecules of
mitochondria? What are the
a protein called tubulin. Microfilaments
molecular facts that support are made of actin, the same protein that
the hypothesis? To which participates in the contraction of muscle
other cellular organelles can cells. Intermediate filaments are made
the hypothesis also be of protein too.
applied?
It is presumed that mitochondria were

33. What are the functions of
primitive aerobic prokaryotes that were
engulfed in mutualism by primitive the cytoskeleton?
anaerobic eukaryotes, receiving
protection from these beings and
51
As the name indicates, the cytoskeleton 35. What is the molecule
is responsible for the support of the responsible for the absorption
normal shape of the cell; it also acts as
of photic energy for
a facilitator for substance transport
across the cell and for the movement of photosynthesis? Where is that
cellular organelles. For example, the molecule located in
sliding between actin-containing photosynthetic cells?
filaments and the protein myosin
creates pseudopods. In cells of the The chlorophyll molecules are
phagocytic defense system, like responsible for the absorption of light
macrophages, cytoskeleton is energy for photosynthesis. These
responsible for the plasma membrane molecules are found in the internal
projections that engulf the external membranes of chloroplasts.
material to be interiorized and attacked
by the cell.
36. What are the colors (of the

electromagnetic spectrum)
34. What are chloroplasts?
absorbed by plants? What
What are the main function of
would happen to
chloroplasts?
photosynthesis if the green
Chloroplasts are organelles present in light waves that reach a
the cytoplasm of plant and algae cells. vegetable were blocked?
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have
two boundary membranes and many Chlorophyll absorbs all other colors of
internal membranous sacs. Within the the electromagnetic spectrum but it
organelle there are DNA, RNA and practically does not absorb the green.
ribosomes and also the pigment The green color is reflected and such
chlorophyll, responsible for absorption reflection provides the characteristic
of photic energy that is used in color of plants. If the green light that
photosynthesis. reaches a plant is blocked and exposure
of the plant to other colors is
The main function of chloroplasts is maintained there would be no harm to
photosynthesis: the production of highly the photosynthesis process. Apparent
energetic organic molecules (glucose) paradox: the green light is not
from carbon dioxide, water and light. important for photosynthesis.
There is a difference between the

optimum color frequency for the two
main types of chlorophyll, the
chlorophyll A and the chlorophyll B.
Chlorophyll A has an absorption peak at
approximately 420 nm wavelength
(anil) and chlorophyll B has its major
52
absorption in 450 nm wavelength cell size, preventing the cell to break
(blue). when it absorbs a lot of water.
37. What is the path followed 40. What are plant cell
by the energy absorbed by vacuoles? What are their
plants to be used in functions? What is the
photosynthesis? covering membrane of the
vacuoles called?
The energy source of photosynthesis is
the sun, the unique and central star of Plant cell vacuoles are cell structures
our planetary system. In photosynthesis delimited by membranes within which
the solar energy is transformed into there is an aqueous solution made of
chemical energy, the energy of the various substances like carbohydrates
chemical bonds of the produced glucose and proteins. In young plant cells many
molecules (and of the released small vacuoles can be seen; within adult
molecular oxygen). The energy of cells the most part of the internal area
glucose is then stored as starch (a of the cell is occupied by a central
glucose polymer) or it is used in the vacuole.
cellular respiration process and
transferred to ATP molecules. ATP is The main function of the vacuoles is the
consumed in metabolic processes that osmotic balance of the intracellular
spend energy (for example, in active space. They act as “an external space”
transport across membranes). inside the cell. Vacuoles absorb or
release water in response to the cellular
metabolic necessities by increasing or
lowering the concentration of osmotic
38. Of what substance is the particles dissolved in the cytosol.
plant cell wall made? Of which Vacuoles also serve as a storage place
monomer is it made? for some substances.
The membrane that delimits the

The plant cell wall is made of cellulose.
vacuoles is called tonoplast, named
Cellulose is a polymer whose monomer
after the osmotic function of the
is glucose. There are other polymers of
structure.
glucose, like glycogen and starch.
39. What is the function of the

plant cell wall?
The plant cell wall has structural and

protective functions. It plays an
important role in the constraint of the
53
3. What is diffusion?
Cell Membrane
Diffusion is the spreading of substance
molecules from a region where the
substance is more concentrated to
1. What is a membrane? another region where it is less
concentrated. For example, during the
Membrane is any delicate sheet that boiling of water in a kitchen gaseous
separates one region from another water particles tend to uniformly spread
blocking or permitting (selectively or in the air by diffusion.
completely) the passage of substances.
The skin, for example, can be
considered a membrane that separates
the exterior from the interior of the 4. What is meant by
body; cellophane, used in chemical concentration gradient? Is it
laboratories to separate solutions, acts
correct to refer to
as a membrane too.
“concentration gradient of
water”?
2. Concerning their Concentration gradient is the difference

permeability how are of concentration of a substance between
membranes classified? two regions.
Concentration is a term used to

Membranes can be classified as
designate the quantity of a solute
impermeable, permeable,
divided by the total quantity of the
semipermeable or selectively
solution. Since water in general is the
permeable.
solvent in this situation it is not correct
to refer to “concentration of water” in a
An impermeable membrane is that
given solution.
through which no substance can pass.
Semipermeable membranes are those
that let only solvents, like water, to
pass through it. Permeable membranes
are those that let solvent and solutes,
like ions and molecules, to pass across between osmosis and
it. There are also selectively permeable diffusion?
membranes, i.e., membranes that
besides allowing the passage of solvent, Osmosis is the phenomenon of
let only some specific solutes to pass movement of solvent particles (in
while blocking others. general, water) from a region of lower
solute concentration to a region of
higher solute concentration. Diffusion,
on the other hand, is the movement of
solutes from a region of higher solute
54
concentration to a region of lower solute 7. Can solutions with the same
concentration. concentration of different
solutes have different osmotic
One can consider osmosis as movement
of water (solvent) and diffusion as pressures?
movement of solutes, both
concentration gradient-driven. The osmotic pressure of a solution does
not depend on the nature of the solute,
it depends only on the quantity of
molecules (particles) in relation to the
6. What is osmotic pressure? total solution volume. Solutions with
same concentration of particles even
Osmotic pressure is the pressure containing different solutes exert the
created in an aqueous solution by a same osmotic pressure.
region of lower solute concentration
upon a region of higher solute Even when the solution contains a
concentration forcing the passage of mixture of different solutes its osmotic
water from that to this more pressure depends only on its total
concentrated region. The intensity of particle concentration regardless of the
the osmotic pressure (in units of nature of the solutes.
pressure) is equal to the pressure that
is necessary to apply in the solution to
prevent its dilution by the entering of
water by osmosis. 8. How are solutions classified
according to their comparative
It is possible to apply in the solution tonicity?
another pressure in the contrary way to
the osmotic pressure, like the Comparative to another, a solution can
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid or the be hypotonic (or hyposmotic), isotonic
atmospheric pressure. In plant cells, for (or isosmotic) or hypertonic (or
example, the rigid cell wall makes hyperosmotic).
opposite pressure against the tendency
of water to enter when the cell is put When a solution is less concentrated
under a hypotonic environment. than another the adjective hypotonic is
Microscopically, the pressure contrary to given and the more concentrated is
the osmotic pressure does not forbid called hypertonic. When two compared
water to pass through a semipermeable solutions have the same concentration
membrane but it creates a both receive the adjective isotonic. So
compensatory flux of water in the this classification makes sense only for
opposite way. comparison of solutions.
55
9. Concerning permeability carbohydrates form the glycocalix of the
what type of membrane is the membrane.
cell membrane? This description (with further
explanations) is known as the fluid
The cell membrane is a selectively mosaic model about the structure of the
permeable membrane, i.e., it allows the cell membrane.
passage of water and some selected
solutes.
11. What are the respective

functions of phospholipids,
10. What are the basic
proteins and carbohydrates of
constituents of the cell
the cell membrane?
membrane?
Membrane phospholipids have a
The cell membrane is formed of lipids, structural function, they form the bilipid
proteins and carbohydrates. membrane that constitutes the cell
membrane itself.
The membrane lipids are phospholipids,
a special type of lipid to which one Membrane proteins have several
extremity a phosphate group is bound specialized functions. Some of them are
thus assigning electrical charge to this channels for substances to pass through
region of the molecule. Since the membrane, others are receptors
phospholipids have one electrically and signalers of information, others are
charged extremity and a long neutral enzymes, others are cell identifiers
organic chain they can organize (cellular labels) and there are still those
themselves in two layers of associated that participate in the adhesion
molecules: the hydrophilic portion complexes between cells or between the
(polar) of each layer faces outwards in internal surface of the membrane and
contact with water (a polar molecule the cytosketeleton.
too) of the extracellular and the
intracellular space and the hydrophobic Membrane carbohydrates, associated to
chains (non polar) face inwards isolated proteins or to lipids, are found in the
from the water. Because this type of outer surface of the cell membrane and
membrane is made of two phospolipid they have in general labeling functions
layers it is also called a bilipid for recognition of the cell by other cells
membrane. and substances (for example, they
differentiate red blood cells in relation to
Membrane proteins are embedded and the ABO blood group system), immune
dispersed in the compact bilipid modulation functions, pathogen
structure. Carbohydrates appear in the sensitization functions, etc.
outer surface of the membrane
associated to some of those proteins
under the form of glycoproteins or
bound to phospholipids forming
glycolipids. The membrane
56
12. What are differentiations membranes against their concentration
of the cell membrane? gradient, from a less concentrated to a
more concentrated region. In passive
transport, because it is spontaneous,
In some types of cells, the cell there is no energy spent; the active
membrane presents differentiations that transport however requires energy
are necessary for the specific functions (work) to occur.
of the cells. The main differentiations
are the microvilli and the structures for Active transport works to maintain or
reinforcement of adhesion or union increase the concentration gradient of a
between cells (cell junctions). substance between two regions while
passive transport acts in a manner to
Microvilli are multiple external reduce the concentration gradient.
projections of the membrane resembling
glove fingers. This differentiation is
found in cells of tissues where it is
advantageous to increase the size of the
surface area in contact with the
exterior, for example, in the enteric types of passive transport?
(intestinal) epithelium for absorption of
nutrients. The three main types of passive
transport are simple diffusion, osmosis
Membrane differentiations for and facilitated diffusion.
reinforcement of adhesion between cells
occur mainly in epithelial tissues where
the need for coverage and
impermeability requires cells to be 15. What is the energy source
“glued” to neighboring cells. These used in active transport
differentiations can be interdigitations, through biological
desmosomes, tight junctions (zonula
membranes?
occludens), zonula adherens (adherens
junctions) and gap junctions.
The energy necessary for active
transport (against the concentration
gradient of the transported substance)
13. What is the relationship to occur comes from ATP molecules. The
active transportation uses chemical
between concentration
energy from ATP.
gradient and active and
passive transport?
Passive transport is the movement of 16. What is the difference

substances across membranes in favor between simple and facilitated
of their concentration gradient, i.e., diffusion? Facilitated by which
from a more concentrated region to a
type of molecule does the
less concentrated region. Active
transport, on the other hand, is the term “facilitated” mean?
transport of substances across
57
Simple diffusion is the direct passage of there will be no increase in the intensity
substances across the membrane in of the diffusion. This situation is called
favor of their concentration gradient. In saturation of the transport proteins and
facilitated diffusion the movement of it represents the point at which the
substances is also in favor of their maximum transport capacity of the
concentration gradient but the substance across the membrane is
substances move bound to specific achieved.
molecules that act as “permeabilizers”,
i.e., facilitators of their passage through
the membrane.
19. Without saturation of
transport proteins and under
the same concentration
17. How does the intensity of
gradient how can the speed of
simple diffusion vary in
simple diffusion be compared
relation to the concentration
to the speed of facilitated
gradient of the moved
diffusion?
substance?
The action of facilitator proteins in
The higher the concentration gradient of facilitated diffusion makes this type of
a substance the more intense its simple diffusion faster than simple diffusion
diffusion will be. If the concentration under equal concentration gradients of
gradient diminishes the intensity of the moved substance.
simple diffusion diminishes too.
20. How does facilitated

18. How does the intensity of
diffusion present similarities
facilitated diffusion vary in
with enzymatic chemical
relation to the concentration
reactions?
of the moved substance? What
is the limiting factor? One of the main examples of facilitated
transport is the entrance of glucose
Like simple diffusion facilitated diffusion from the blood into cells. Glucose from
is more intense when the concentration blood binds to specific permeases
gradient of the substance increases and (hexose-transporting permeases)
less intense when the gradient lessens. present in the cell membrane and by
In facilitated diffusion however there is diffusion facilitated by these proteins it
a limiting factor: the quantity of the enters the cell to play its metabolic
permeases that facilitate the transport functions.
through the membrane. Even in a
situation in which the concentration Facilitated diffusion resembles chemical
gradient of the diffusing substance catalysis because the transported
increases, if there are not enough substances bind to permeases like
permeases to perform the transport substrates bind to enzymes and in
58
addition, after one transport job is In active transport however the
concluded, the permease is not transported substance moves against its
consumed and can perform other concentration gradient and with energy
successive transports. spent. Facilitated diffusion is a passive
transport in favor of the concentration
gradient and it does not require energy.
21. What are some examples

of biological activities in which
osmosis plays an important 23. Which are the molecules
role? that make possible active
transport through
Hemolysis (destruction of red blood membranes?
cells) by entrance of water, the hydric
regulation in plants and the entrance of Active transport is made by specific
water in the xylem of vascular plants membrane proteins. These proteins are
are all examples of biological called “pumps” because they “pump”
phenomena caused by osmosis. the moving substance through the
membrane using energy from ATP
Excessive dilution of the blood plasma molecules.
causes, by osmosis, the entrance of too
much water into red blood cells and
then the destruction of these cells
(hemolysis). Osmosis is also the main 24. How does the sodium-
process for maintenance of the flaccid, potassium pump present in
turgid or plasmolytic states of plant
the cell membrane work?
cells. Osmosis is one of the forces
responsible for the entrance of water What is the importance of this
into plant roots since root cells are protein for the cell?
hypertonic in comparison to the soil.
The sodium-potassium pump is the
transport protein that maintains the
concentration gradient of these ions
22. What do facilitated between the intra and the extracellular
diffusion and active transport spaces. This protein is phosphorylated
have in common? What are in each pumping cycle and then it
pumps three sodium ions outside the
the differences between cell and puts two potassium ions
them? inwards. The phosphorylation is made
by the binding of a phosphate donated
Facilitated diffusion can be confused by one ATP molecule that then is
with active transport because in both converted into ADP (adenosine
processes there is participation of diphosphate).
membrane proteins.
The job of the sodium-potassium pump,
also known as sodium-potassium
59
ATPase, is fundamental to keep the vesicle then detaches from the
characteristic negative electrical charge membrane and enters the cytoplasm
in the intracellular side of the receiving the name phagosome.
membrane of the resting cell and to
create adequate conditions of sodium
and potassium concentrations inside
and outside the cell to maintain the 27. How does the plant cell
cellular metabolism. wall react when it is placed
under hypotonic medium?
25. What is mass The plant cell wall (the covering of the
cell external to the cell membrane) is
transportation across the cell made of cellulose, a polymer of glucose.
membrane?
When the cell is put under hypotonic
Mass transportation is the entrance or medium it absorbs too much water
the exiting of substances in or from the through osmosis. In that situation the
cell engulfed by portions of membrane. cell wall pressure acts to compensate
The fusion of internal substance- the osmotic pressure thus forbidding
containing membranous vesicles with excessive increase of the cellular
the cell membrane is called exocytosis. volume and the cell lysis.
The entrance of substances into the cell
after they have been engulfed by
projections of the membrane is called
endocytosis. 28. What is meant by suction
force of the plant cell? Does
the suction force facilitate or
26. What are the two main make difficult the entrance of
types of endocytosis? water into the cell?
The suction force (SF) is the osmotic

Endocytosis is the entrance of material
pressure of the plant cell vacuole, i.e.,
in the cell engulfed by portions of the
of the vacuolar internal solution.
cell membrane.
Since the vacuolar solution is hypertonic
Endocytosis can be classified as
in comparison to cytosol it attracts
pinocytosis or phagocytosis. In
water thus increasing the cytosol
pinocytosis small particles on the
concentration. With the osmotic action
external surface of the membrane
of the vacuole the cytosol becomes
stimulate the invagination of the
hypertonic in relation to the exterior and
membrane inwards and vesicles full of
more water enters the cell.
that particles then detach from the
membrane and enter the cytoplasm. In
phagocytosis bigger particles on the
external surface of the membrane
induce the projection of pseudopods
outwards enclosing the particles; the
60
29. What is the wall resistance DPD = SF. These cells are called
of plant cells? Does this plasmolysed cells, situation
characterized by the retraction of the
resistance facilitate or make cell membrane that detach from the cell
difficult the entrance of water wall.
into the cell?
In plant cells under isotonic medium
Wall resistance, or turgor pressure (TP), there is no increase of the internal
is the pressure made by the distension water volume, SF > 0 and TP = 0 (since
of the plant cell wall in opposition to the the cell wall is not distended). The cell
increase of the cell volume. The wall membrane slightly touches the cell wall
resistance works against the entrance of and in this situation the cell is called a
water in the cell, i.e., it acts forcing the flaccid cell.
exiting of water and compensating the
entrance of the solvent by osmosis. In plant cells under hypotonic medium
there is tendency of water to enter, SF
= TP (since the osmotic pressure is
totally compensated by the distension of
30. What does the formula the cell wall) and DPD = 0. The cell that
DPD = SF – TP mean? has expanded itself to this point is
called a turgid cell.
DPD is the abbreviation of diffusion
pressure deficit, SF (suction force) is the
vacuolar osmotic pressure and TP is the
32. What is the formula of the
turgor pressure.
DPD for withered (shrunken)
The difference between SF and TP plant cells? How is that
determines whether water tends or not situation possible?
to enter the cell. If SF > TP, DPD > 0
and water tends to enter the cell by Withered plant cells are those that have
osmosis. If TP > SF, DPD < 0 and water shrunk due to loss of water by
cannot enter the cell by osmosis. evaporation without enough
replacement. In this situation the cell
membrane retracts and detaches from
the cell wall. The cell wall moreover
31. What are the values of expands in length to stimulate the
DPD for plant cells under entrance of water making TP < 0. Since
hypertonic, isotonic and DPD = SF – TP and TP is negative (< 0)
hypotonic media? its formula becomes DPD = SF + |TP|.
In plant cells under hypertonic medium

there is loss of water for the exterior, SF 33. What is deplasmolysis of
> 0 (the vacuolar pressure is high
because it is concentrated) and TP = 0 plant cells?
(there is no distension of the cell wall
since the cellular volume is reduced) so
61
The plant cell when placed under
hypertonic medium loses a great
amount of water and its cell membrane
detaches from the cell wall. In that
situation the cell is called a plasmolysed
cell. When the plasmolysed cell is placed
under hypertonic medium it absorbs
water and becomes a turgid cell. This
phenomenon is called deplasmolysis.
34. Why are salt and sugar

used in the production of dried
meat and dried fruits?
Substances that maintain a highly

hypertonic environment, like sugar and
salt, are used in the production of dried
meat, fruits or fish (for example, cod)
because the material to be conserved is
then dehydrated and the resulting
dryness prevents the growth of
populations of decomposer beings (since
these beings also lose water and die).
62
3. Of which substance are
Cytoskeleton and microfilaments made? What
Cell Movement are the properties of these
elements that give motility to
cells?
1. What is a cytoskeleton? Microfilaments are made of actin (a

What are its main constituents protein). The contractile association of
in animal cells? actin with myosin and other cytoplasmic
proteins give to microfilaments the
Cytoskeleton is the cytoplasmic ability to promote cell movement.
structure that supports the cell, keeps
its shape and fixates and moves the cell
organelles. It is made of an extensive
network of fibers dispersed in the 4. What are cell movements?
cytoplasm and anchored in the plasma How are these movements
membrane. Its components are created?
microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments. Cell movements are movements
performed by cell structures, like the
movements of cilia and flagella, the
pseudopod movements (in amoeba,
2. Of which substance are macrophages, etc.), the cyclosis of the
microtubules made? In which cytoplasm and the sarcomere
structures and cellular contraction in muscle cells.
processes do microtubules
Cell movements can be created by the
participate?
cytoskeleton action, by differences of
viscosity among cytoplasmic regions
Microtubules are made of consecutive and by intracellular contraction systems.
dimers of the protein tubulin (each
dimer has an alpha and a beta tubulin
associated). Microtubules participate in
cell division, they are constituents of 5. What are cilia and flagella?
cilia and flagella and they also form the
How do these structures
centrioles.
acquire movement? What are
some examples of ciliated and
flagellated cells in humans?
Cilia and flagella are structures found in

some prokaryotes as well in some
eukaryotic cells. They play defense,
nutrition and movement roles for the
63
cell. In eukaryotic cells of protists and move along a substratum. Pseudopods
animals they originate from centrioles appear from differences of viscosity
that migrate towards the plasma among neighboring regions of
membrane and differentiate into cytoplasm near the plasma membrane
structures projected outside the cell. and from the contractile action of
Each cilium or flagellum is made of nine microfilaments.
peripheral pairs of microtubules and one
central pair all covered by membrane. Amoeboid movements occur, for
(In bacteria, flagella are made of a example, in amoebas (a protozoan),
protein named flagellin and there can organisms that use their movement to
also be fimbria made of pilin.) find food. The leukocytes, cells of the
immune system, when attracted by
In the fixation base of each cilium or chemical substances (immune
flagellum in the plasma membrane mediators) use amoeboid movements to
there are proteins that work as get out from capillaries in regions of
molecular motors providing movement tissue damage to participate in the
for these structures with energy inflammatory process.
spending. Due to this energy spending
ciliated or flagellated eukaryotic cells
have a large number of mitochondria.
7. What are some examples of
In humans ciliated cells can be found, movement created by the
for example, in the bronchial and
contraction of sarcomeres of
tracheal epithelium. In these tissues the
cilia have the defensive function of the muscle cells?
sweeping mucous and foreign
substances that enter the airways. The handling of a cup of coffee, the
Sperm cells are a typical example of peristaltic movements of the bowels,
flagellated cells, their flagellum is the the cardiac beats and even a smile are
propulsion equipment for the movement examples of movement created by
towards the ovule. contraction of the sarcomeres of the
muscle cells. This contraction is a type
of cell movement.
6. How does the amoeboid

movement occur? What are
8. What is cyclosis?
examples of beings and cells
that use such movements for
Cyclosis is a type of internal cell
locomotion? movement in which an oriented flow of
circulating material is created and
Amoeboid movements are created by maintained in the cytoplasm by the
cytoplasmic movements and plasma action of microfilaments. Cyclosis is
membrane projections called more easily observed in plant cells.
pseudopods. Their formation actively
changes the external shape of some
portions of the cell surface making it
64
of messenger RNA and protein synthesis
Cell Secretion occur. These proteins are stored in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and later
they go to the Golgi apparatus. Within
the Golgi apparatus proteins are
1. What is meant by cellular chemically transformed and when ready
secretion? they are put inside vesicles that detach
from the organelle. These vesicles fuse
with the plasma membrane (exocytosis)
Cell secretion is the elimination to the
in the right place and its content is
exterior of substances produced by the
liberated outside the cell.
cell (for example, hormones, mucus,
sweat, etc.)

2. Which cell organelles are secretory cells?
well-developed in secretory
Endocrine and exocrine pancreatic cells,
cells?
thyroid and parathyroid endocrine cells,
adenohypophysis, adrenal and pineal
In secretory cells, like the secretory endocrine cells, the many types of
cells of endocrine glands, organelles gastric exocrine and endocrine cells, the
related to production, processing and mucus secretory cells of the lungs and
“exportation” of substances are widely of the bowels, the salivary gland cells,
present and well-developed. These the lacrimal gland cells, the sebaceous
organelles are the rough endoplasmic gland cells, the secretory cells of the
reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. ovaries and testicles, etc., are all
examples of secretory cells.
The nuclear membrane of the secretory
cells generally has more pores to allow
the intense traffic of molecules related
to protein synthesis between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus.
3. How do the rough

endoplasmic reticulum and the
Golgi apparatus act in the
production and releasing of
proteins?
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has in

its outer membrane numerous
ribosomes, structures where translation
65
3. What is the main cell
Cell Digestion organelle involved in cell
digestion? What are the
properties of that organelle
1. What is extracellular that enable it to do the task?
digestion?
The organelles responsible for
Extracellular digestion is that in which intracellular digestion are the
food breaking into utile molecules that lysosomes. Lysosomes are vesicles that
can be internalized by the cell is done in contain digestive enzymes capable of
the extracellular space, i.e., outside the breaking big molecules into smaller
cell. In extracellular digestion, the cells ones. These vesicles fuse with others
secret substances that break big that carry the material to be digested
molecules into smaller ones in the and then digestion takes place.
external environment. Later the cell can
benefit from these products of
digestion.
4. What is heterophagic
intracellular digestion? How is
this process accomplished?
2. What is intracellular
digestion? Heterophagic intracellular digestion is
the breaking into smaller substances of
Intracellular digestion, or cellular external substances engulfed in the cell
digestion, is the breaking in the interior by pinocytosis or phagocytosis.
of the cell of big molecules coming from Phagosomes or pinosomes fuse with
outside or even from its own cell lysosomes making the digestive
metabolism into smaller molecules. vacuoles. Within the digestive vacuoles
Products and residues of the the molecules to be digested are
intracellular digestion are used by the hydrolyzed and the products of the
cell or excreted. digestion cross through the membrane
and reach the cytoplasm or they are
Intracellular digestion is classified into kept inside the vacuoles. The vacuole
two types: heterophagic intracellular with residues from digestion is called
digestion and autophagic intracellular residual body and by exocytosis it fuses
digestion. with the plasma membrane and
liberates its “waste” in the exterior
space.
66
5. What is autophagic for the perfuration of the egg cell
intracellular digestion? Why is membrane in the fertilization process.
The acrosome, located in the anterior
this type of intracellular end of the sperm cell, is a specialized
digestion intensified in an region of the Golgi apparatus that
organism undergoing accumulates a great amount of
starvation? digestive enzymes.
Autophagic intracellular digestion is the In tadpoles the tail regresses while the
cellular internal digestion of waste and organism develops into an adult frog.
residual materials. In general it is done This tissue destruction is a digestion of
by lysosomes. the tail's own cells and extracellular
materials and it is made by lysosomes
Autophagic intracellular digestion is and their enzymes. The complete
intensified in situations of starvation digestion of a cell by its own
because in such condition the cell tries mechanisms is called autolysis, a type
to obtain from its own constituent of apoptosis (cell suicide).
materials the nutrients necessary to
stay alive.
6. What are some biological

examples in which lysosomic
enzymes play a fundamental
role?
The remodelation of the osseous tissue,

the function of acrosomes in sperm cells
and the elimination of the tadpole tail
are examples of biological processes in
which lysosomic enzymes are key
factors.
The bone is a tissue made of osteoblast-

containing matrix (osteoblasts are the
secretory cells of the osseous matrix),
osteocytes (mature bone cells) and
osteoclasts (the remodeling cells).
Osteoclasts are responsible for the
continual renovation of the osseous
tissue since their lysosomic enzymes
digest the osseous matrix.
The sperm acrosome, for carrying

digestive enzymes within, is responsible
67
4. What are heterochromatin
Cell Nucleus and euchromatin?
Chromatin is uncondensed nuclear DNA,

the typical DNA morphology in
1. What are cells with a
interphase (the phase of the cell cycle in
delimited nucleus called ? which the cells is not dividing itself). In
What are the main elements this phase of the cell cycle chromatin
of the nucleus? can be found as heterochromatin, more
condensed and dark (in electronic
Cells with delimited nucleus are called microscopy) portions of DNA molecules,
eukaryotic cells. Organisms composed and as euchromatin, less condensed and
of one or more eukaryotic cells are lighter portions of DNA molecules.
called eukaryotes.
Since it is uncondensed the euchromatin
The mains elements of the nucleus are is the biologically active portion of the
the chromatin (made of DNA DNA, i.e., the region that has active
molecules), the nucleolus, the genes to be transcripted into RNA. The
karyolymph, or nucleoplasm, and the heterochromatin represents the inactive
nuclear membrane (or karyotheca). portions of the DNA molecule.
2. Do all eukaryotic cells have 5. What is the relation

nucleus and only one nucleus? between the concepts of
chromatin and chromosome?
There are eukaryotic cells without a Are euchromatin and
nucleus and others with more than one heterochromatin part of
nucleus. Osteoclasts, the cells chromosomes?
responsible for resorption of the
osseous matrix, for example, are
Every filament of chromatin is a
multinucleate cells; striated muscle
complete DNA molecule (a complete
fibers are multinucleate too. Red blood
double helix), i.e., a complete
cells are an example of enucleated
chromosome. A DNA molecule may form
specialized cells.
euchromatin and heterochromatin
portions thus both are part of
chromosomes.
3. Of which substances is
chromatin made?
Chromatin is made of DNA molecules

associated to proteins called histones.
68
6. In the phase when the cell Some Biology textbooks call the
is not dividing (interphase) is chromosome a unique filament of
chromatin as well as the condensed
there activity within the cell structure made of two identical
nucleus? chromatids after the DNA duplication.
Rigorously the pair of identical
In the interphase there is intense chromatids bound in the centromere are
metabolic activity in the cell nucleus: two copies of the same chromosome
DNA is duplicating, euchromatin is being and therefore they are two identical
transcripted and RNA is produced. chromosomes (and not only one).
7. How are the concepts of 8. What is the structure that

chromosome, chromatin and maintains identical chromatids
chromatids related? In which bound?
phase of the cell cycle does
DNA duplicate? The structure that maintains identical
chromatids bound is the centromere.
Chromatin is a set of filamentous DNA
molecules dispersed in the karyoplasm
forming euchromatin and
heterochromatin portions. Each 9. How is the chromosome
chromatin filament is a complete region where the centromere
chromosome (a DNA molecule, or is located called? How are
double helix). The chromatin of the chromosomes classified in
human somatic cell is formed by 46
relation to the position of their
DNA molecules (22 homologous
chromosomes and 1 pair of sex centromere?
chromosomes).
The chromosome region where the
In interphase the cell prepares itself for centromere is located is called primary
division and duplication of DNA constriction. In microscopic view this
molecules occurs. The duplication of region is narrower (a stricture) than
every DNA molecule forms two identical most part of the chromosome.
DNA double helix bound by a structure
called centromere. In this phase each According to the position of the primary
identical chromosome of these pairs is constriction the chromosomes are
called chromatid. It is also during the classified as telocentric, acrocentric,
interphase that the chromatids begin to submetacentric or metacentric.
condensate assuming the thicker and
shorter shape typical of chromosome
illustrations. So the phase of the cell
cycle in which DNA duplicates is the
interphase.
69
10. What are the primary and humans, there are 22 pairs of
the secondary constrictions of homologous chromosomes plus the pair
of sex chromosomes (the sex
a chromosome? What is the chromosomes are partially
other name given to the homologous).
secondary constriction?
The only human cells that do not have
Primary constriction is the narrower homologous chromosomes are the
region of a condensed chromosome gametes since during meiosis the
where the centromere, the structure homologous chromosomes are
that unites identical chromatids, is separated.
located. Secondary constriction is a
region similar to the primary
constriction, narrower than the normal
thickness of the chromosome too, and 12. What is the difference
in general it is related to genes that between the concepts of
coordinate the formation of the karyotype and genome?
nucleolus and control the ribosomic RNA
(rRNA) synthesis. For this reason the
Genome is the set of DNA molecules
secondary contrictions (that can be one
that characterizes each living being or
or more in chromosome) is called
each species. The concept then includes
nucleolus organizer region (NOR).
the specific nucleotide sequence of the
DNA molecules of each individual or
species. Karyotype is the set of
chromosomes of individuals of a given
11. What are homologous individual or species concerning
chromosomes? Which are the morphology and number of each
human cells that do not have chromosome or pair of homologous.
homologous chromosomes?
Chromosomes contain genes (genetic

information in the form of nucleotide 13. Can two normal
sequences) that command the protein individuals of the same
synthesis thus regulating and controlling species with sexual
the activities of the cell. In the nucleus reproduction have identical
of somatic cells of diploid beings every
genomes and identical
chromosome has its correspondent
homologous chromosome, both karyotypes? How is the human
containing alleles of the same genes karyotype usually
related to same functions. This occurs represented?
because one chromosome of one pair
comes from the father and the other Except for clones (individuals created
comes from the mother of the from nucleus transplantation, like the
individual. The chromosomes that form Dolly sheep) and monozygotic twins, it
a pair with alleles of the same genes are is very improbable the genomes of two
called homologous chromosomes. In individuals of the same species and
70
generated by sexual reproduction to be Gametes have one sex chromosome and
identical. Nevertheless the karyotypes somatic cells have two sex
of two normal individuals of the same chromosomes.
species and of the same sex are always
identical. The human normal karyotype
is represented by the formula 44+XX for
women and 44+XY for men. 16. Do phylogenetically
proximal species have cells
with proximal chromosome
14. What is the other name counts?
given to sex chromosomes?
The number of chromosomes typical of
What is the function of sex each species is proximal for
chromosomes? phylogenetically proximal species (for
example, orangutan, gorilla,
Sex chromosomes are also called chimpanzee and human). But it is not
allosomes (the other chromosomes that impossible that evolutionary distant
are not sex chromosomes are called species, like rat and oat, bears similar
autosomes). karyotypes and the same total number
of chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes get such name
because they have genes that Even presenting equal number of
determine the sex (male or female) of chromosomes evolutionary distant
an individual. Sex chromosomes also species have radically different
have genes related to other biological characteristics since the quantity and
functions. the sequence of nucleotides that
compose their respective DNA molecules
are quite different.
15. How many chromosomes

does a human normal haploid
cell have? How many 17. What is the nucleolus?
chromosomes does a human
The nucleolus is a small and optically
normal diploid cell have? How
dense region in the interior of the cell
many are the sex nucleus. It is made of ribosomic RNA
chromosomes within each of (rRNA) and proteins. One nucleus can
them? have one or more nucleolus.
The human haploid cell is the gamete

(egg cell and sperm cell). The human
gamete has 22 autosomes and 1 18. Of which structures is the
allosome, i.e., 23 chromosomes. The nuclear membrane composed?
diploid cell is the somatic cell and it has
44 autosomes and 2 allosomes, i.e., 46
chromosomes.
71
Eukaryotic cells have nucleus delimited
by two juxtaposed membranes that
continue with the membrane of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear
membrane, or karyotheca, presents
pores through which substances pass.
There are also ribosomes adhered to its
external surface.
72
3. What is the importance of
Cell Division mitosis for the embryonic
development?
1. What is mitosis? What is Every embryo grows from a single cell

that suffers mitosis and generates other
the importance of mitosis?
cells that also divide themselves by
mitosis forming tissues and complete
Mitosis is the process in which one organs. The perfect regulation and
eukaryotic cell divides into two cells control of each of those cell divisions
identical to the parent cell (generally are fundamental for the creation of a
identical, since alterations in genetic normal individual. Without mitosis the
material can occur, more or less embryonic development would be
organelles may be distributed between impossible.
the daughter cells, etc.)
Mitosis is fundamental for asexual

reproduction of eukaryotes, for the 4. What are some examples of
embryonic development, for the growth
organs and tissues where
of pluricellular beings and for tissue
renewal. mitosis is more frequent, less
frequent or practically absent?
Generally in vertebrates mitosis is more

2. Why in some cases is frequent in tissues that require intense
mitosis a synonym of renewing due to their functions, like
reproduction? epithelial tissues and the bone marrow.
In plants the meristem tissue has
numerous cells undergoing mitosis.
In some living beings asexual
reproduction occurs by many means:
Mitosis take place with low frequency in
binary division, schizogony, budding,
tissues of slow renovation, like the
grafting, etc. In asexual reproduction of
bones in adults and the connective
eukaryotes mitosis is the mechanism by
tissues.
which the constituent cells of the new
beings are made.
In some adult tissues mitosis is almost
absent, like the nervous tissue and the
The term mitosis does not apply to
striated muscle tissue (skeletal and
prokaryotes since it involves nuclear
cardiac). The nervous tissue develops
division and eukaryotic structures.
from stimulus by development of new
electrical networks between cells and
the striated muscle tissue grows by
cellular hypertrophy.
73
5. How does mitosis the consequent tissue damage requires
participate in the growth of incessant epithelial renovation through
cell division. The tissue renovation is
pluricellular organisms? completed in two to three days and is
made by mitosis.
All pluricellular beings grow with the
increase in quantity of their cells. This
increase is produced by mitosis
(although some types of growth occur 8. What is cellular
by cellular hypertrophy or by deposition
regeneration? How is mitosis
of substances in interstitial spaces).
related to this process?
Some tissues are able to regenerate

6. What is the uncontrolled when injured. The liver, for example,
mitotic process that occurs as regenerates when small pieces of
hepatic tissue are removed, bones make
disease in pluricellular beings new tissues in fracture regions, etc.
called? Some animals, like planarias, are
capable of regenerating their bodies
Uncontrolled mitotic cell division is when sectioned. In tissue regeneration
called neoplasia. Neoplasia (the cellular proliferation happens by mitosis.
formation of new strange tissues)
occurs when a cell suffers mutation in
its genetic material, loses the ability to
control its own division and the failure is 9. What is cell cycle?
transmitted to its descendants.
Cell cycle, or mitotic cycle, is the time
Cancers are malignant neoplasias. The period that begins when the cell is
term malignant means that neoplastic created and finishes when it is divided
cells can disseminate to distant sites by mitosis creating two daughter cells.
invading other organs and tissues. The cell cycle is divided into interphase
Neoplasias whose cells cannot and the mitotic phase.
disseminate to distant sites are called
benign neoplasias.
10. Is cell division happening

7. Is the internal epithelium of during the entire cell cycle?
the bowel the same as it was What is interphase?
one month ago?
Cell division properly occurs during the
mitotic phase of the cell cycle. During
The internal epithelial covering of the interphase processes that are a
intestine acts as protective barrier and preparation to cell division take place,
also as means of nutrient absorption. like the duplication of DNA and
The traffic of ingested material inside centrioles. Interphase is the preceding
the intestinal lumen is very intense and
74
phase and the mitotic is the following new cell and it ends with the beginning
phase. of DNA replication. In the G1 period the
cell is growing.
11. What are the three periods

into which interphase is 14. What are the events that
divided? mark the beginning and the
end of the second interphase
Interphase is the preceding phase to the period? What happens in the
mitotic division. It is divided into three cell in this period?
periods, G1, S and G2 (the letter G
comes from “gap”, meaning interval or The second interphase period is the S.
breach, and the letter S comes from It starts with the beginning of DNA
“synthesis”, indicating the period in replication and finishes with the end of
which DNA replicates). that process. The main event in this
period is the synthesis of new
In fact, “gap” is not totally appropriate polynucleotide chains, each bound to
for the periods immediately before and each DNA chain that served as a
after the DNA synthesis. The idea of template, i.e., the duplication of the
“growth” would be more adequate since original set of DNA molecules.
in those periods (G1 and G2) the cell is
growing to divide later in mitosis.
15. What are the events that

12. In general which phase of mark the beginning and the
the cell cycle has longer end of the third interphase
duration? period? What happens in the
cell in this period?
The interphase comprises approximately
4/5 of the cell cycle and the mitotic The third interphase period is the G2. It
phase has quite a shorter length. begins with the end of DNA replication
and ends with the beginning of the first
period of the mitotic phase. On G2 the
cell is growing too and the duplication of
13. What are the events that centrioles occurs (only in cells that have
these structures).
mark the beginning and the
end of the first interphase
period? What happens within
the cell in this period?
The first interphase period is the G1. It

begins with the end of the preceding cell
division, i.e., with the formation of the
75
16. Does mitosis properly 19. What are the main events
occur before or after the of the first mitotic period?
interphase? Is it a mere “point
of view” issue? The first mitotic period is prophase.
During prophase the following events
Mitosis must be considered a succeeding occur: migration of each centriole pair
phase after interphase since this is a (centrioles were duplicated in
preparation step to mitosis. Thus it is interphase) to opposite cell poles; aster
not merely a point of view issue. formation around the centriole pairs;
formation of the spindle fibers between
the two centriole pairs; end of
chromosome condensation;
disintegration of the nucleolus; breaking
17. Into which periods is
of the karyotheca; dispersion of
mitosis divided? condensed chromosomes in the
cytoplasm; binding of chromosomes to
Mitosis is divided into four periods: the spindle fibers.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
20. What is the mitotic

apparatus?
18. What are centrioles? In
which type of cell are they Mitotic apparatus is the set of aster
present? fibers, radial structures around each
centriole pair, plus the spindle fibers,
Centrioles are tiny cylindrical structures fibers that extend across the cell
made of nine microtubule triplets. They between the two centriole pairs located
appear in pairs in the cell. Centrioles in opposite cell poles. The mitotic
participate in the making of apparatus appears in prophase and has
cytoskeleton and of cilia and flagella. In important role in the orientation and
cell division they play a role in the gripping of chromosomes and other
formation of the aster fibers. cellular elements causing them to
separate and migrate to opposite cell
Centrioles are structures present in poles.
animal cells, in most protists and in
some primitive fungi. There are no Substances that disallow the formation
centrioles in cells of superior plants and of the mitotic apparatus, like colchicine,
in general it is considered that plant a molecule that binds to tubulin
cells do not have centrioles (although molecules and prevents the synthesis of
this is not entirely correct since some microtubules, interrupt cell division.
plants have centriole-containing cells). Colchicine is used to study
chromosomes since it paralyzes mitosis
The region where the centrioles are when chromosomes are condensed and
located is called the centrosome of the so are more easily viewed under the
cell. microscope.
76
21. What are the main events 24. What are the main events
of the second mitotic period? of the final mitotic period?
The second mitotic period is metaphase. The final mitotic phase is telophase. In
In metaphase the following events telophase the following events occur:
occur: condensed chromosomes bind (in decondensation of chromosomes, each
their centromere region) to the spindle set located in opposite cell poles;
fibers and get concentrated in the karyotecha formation around each set of
middle of the cell; the formation of the chromosomes forming two nuclei;
mitotic apparatus is completed. destruction of the mitotic apparatus;
Metaphase ends with the breaking of reappearing of the nucleoli; beginning of
the binding of identical chromatids and cytokinesis (the division of cytoplasm to
then anaphase begins. ultimately separate the new cells).
22. What are the main events 25. What is the name of the
of the third mitotic period? cytoplasm division in the end
of mitosis? What are the
The third mitotic period is anaphase. In differences in this process
anaphase the following events occur: between animal and plant
duplication and breaking of centromeres
cells?
with separation of identical chromatids;
traction (by the spindle fibers) of
identical chromatids each to opposite Cytoplasm division occurs after
cell poles; beginning of chromosome telophase and it is called cytokinesis. In
decondensation. animal cells an invagination of the
plasma membrane toward the cell
center appears in the equator of the
parent cell and then the cell is
23. During mitotic anaphase is strangulated in that region and divided
into two daughter cells. This type of
there separation of
division is called centripetal cytokinesis
homologous chromosomes or (from outside).
separation of identical
chromatids? In plant cells the cytokinesis is not
centripetal since the division happens
In the anaphase of mitosis the identical from the inside. Membranous sacs full of
chromatids separate and complete pairs pectin concentrate in the internal central
of homologous chromosomes continue region of the cell and propagate to the
to exist in each daughter cell. The periphery toward the plasma
separation of the homologous membrane. The pectin-containing sacs
chromosomes occurs in the anaphase of fuse themselves and form a central
the cell division by meiosis. structure called phragmoplast. On the
phragmoplast cellulose deposition
occurs and a true cell wall is created to
77
separate the daughter cells. Plant cells 27. How does the quantity of
thus present centrifugal cytokinesis. genetic material vary within
the cell during the sequential
The phragmoplast has “failures”, or
pores, to permit cytoplasmic phases of the cell cycle?
communications between the daughter
cells. These openings are called The first period of the first phase
plasmodesms. (interphase) of the cell cycle is the G1,
followed by S and G2 and then by the
mitotic phase.
26. Why is it important for In G1 the ploidy (the quantity of DNA

chromosomes to be molecules in the cell) can be
represented by the formula 2n (n is the
condensed during mitosis and
number of DNA molecules in a gamete
decondensed during cell of a given species). In S DNA
interphase? duplicates and the quantity of genetic
material increases from 2n to 4n. In G2
During mitosis the main problem to be that quantity is constant: 4n. After the
solved is the correct separation of mitotic phase the quantity of genetic
chromosome sets between daughter material decreases to 2n in each
cells. If chromosomes were daughter cell.
decondensed long tiny fibers of DNA
would be dispersed in cytoplasm after
the karyotheca breaking and
chromosomes could not be easily 28. What are the differences
organized and pulled by the spindle between astral and anastral
fibers. mitosis?
During interphase the function of
Astral mitosis is that in which there is
chromosomes, i.e, of DNA molecules, is
the synthesis of RNA and thus of formation of the aster, a structure made
by the centrioles. Anastral mitosis is
proteins. For this task it is necessary for
functional molecular regions to be that in which there is no formation of
the aster; it occurs in cells without
decondensed (these regions form the
euchromatin). During interphase in centrioles, like plant cells (superior
plants).
addition DNA replication occurs as a
preparatory step for cell division. In this
process it is fundamental for the
exposition of DNA molecules to serve as
templates to new DNA chains under 29. Can mitosis occur in
production. haploid (n) cells? And in
triploid cells?
The mitotic cell division can occur in

haploid (n) cells, diploid (2n) cells,
triploid (3n) cells, etc. Mitosis is a
78
copying process that does not interfere will be formed from the zygote. In
with cell ploidy. species with zygotic meiosis the adult
individuals are haploid and they form
gametes by mitosis. These gametes
fuse in pairs with others and generate a
30. Concerning their final diploid zygote that, then, undergoes
products (daughter cells and meiosis to restitute the normal ploidy of
adult individuals.
their ploidies) what are the
differences between mitosis
and meiosis?
32. For the biological diversity
In mitosis one cell, for example, with 2n is mitosis or meiosis the more
chromosomes, duplicates its important process?
chromosomal set and divides generating
two other cells, each with 2n
chromosomes too. In meiosis, one Meiosis is the cell division process that
diploid cell (2n) duplicates its allows the formation of gametes to
chromosomes too, but four cells with n sexual reproduction, with aleatory
chromosomes are generated. separation of each chromosome of the
individual homologous pairs. These
gametes can fecundate gametes from
other individuals promoting combination
of homologous chromosomes from
31. Concerning their biological
different individuals. In that manner the
function what is the difference chromosomal recombination provided
between mitosis and meiosis? by meiosis and sexual reproduction
creates individuals with dissimilar
The main biological function of mitosis is genetic patrimony from their fathers
cellular multiplication, a fundamental and thus promotes biological diversity.
process for the growth and development
of multicellular organisms, tissue Some fungi species and plants, for
renewing, asexual reproduction, etc. example, present sporic meiosis, i.e., a
The biological function of meiosis is structure where half of the
gamete formation (in gametic meiosis) chromosomes of the species is
or spore formation (in sporic meiosis), generated from meiosis. This structure,
i.e., the production of cells qualified for by mitosis, forms gametes. Even in this
sexual reproduction with half the case diversity comes from meiosis.
quantity of chromosomes compared to Meiosis then is the cell division process
the original cell. that in conjunction with genetic
mutations is responsible for the
There is a special type of meiosis that biological diversity.
happens in zygotes of some algae,
protozoans and fungi. This meiosis, Even in species having zygotic meiosis
called zygotic meiosis, has the function the aleatory separation of homologous
of reducing to a half the number of chromosomes in meiosis creates
chromosomes of adult individuals that biological diversity.
79
33. What are the respective meiosis; it is, for example, the type of
ploidies of gamete, zygote and meiosis that occurs in plants.
somatic cells in a species with Gametes are also cells with half the
gametic meiosis? number of chromosomes of the normal
cell of the species, but they are
Adopting as pattern an “x” quantity of specialized in fecundation, the fusion
chromosomes for gametes, zygotes will with another gamete that generates the
have 2x chromosomes and somatic cells zygote, a cell with double the number of
will have 2x too. chromosomes than gametic cells.
Gametes can appear from gametic
meiosis or by mitosis in gametophytes
originated from sexual spores.
34. Why is meiosis important
for the maintenance of the In humans as well in most animals the
normal quantity of meiosis is gametic. There are no spores
nor alternation of generations. The male
chromosomes of a species gamete is the sperm cell, and the
with sexual reproduction? female gamete is the egg cell.
A reduction to a half of the maximum

normal quantity of chromosomes is
mandatory in some phase of the life 36. Is the interphase of
cycle of a species that reproduces meiosis different from the
sexually. If that could not happen in
interphase of mitosis?
each generation, whenever a zygote is
formed by fusion of gametes there
would be duplication in the quantity of The interphase that precedes meiosis is
chromosomes in a geometric similar to the interphase that precedes
progression. mitosis. In them the main event is DNA
replication (chromosome duplication).

37. What are the two divisions
between sexual spores and
of meiosis? What are the main
gametes? Do humans present
events that occur in those
sexual spores or gametes?
divisions?
Sexual spores are structures generated
from meiosis with ploidy (number of Meiosis is divided into first meiotic
chromosomes) reduction to a half division, or meiosis I, and second
compared to the spore mother cell. meiotic division, or meiosis II. During
Spores germinate and give existence to meiosis I the separation of homologous
gametophytes, individuals that by chromosomes occurs, with formation of
mitosis form gametes. The meiosis that two haploid cells. In meiosis II there is
generates sexual spores is called sporic separation of identical chromatids of
80
each of the two haploid cells created in 40. How many cells are made
meiosis I, giving birth to four haploid after meiosis I and meiosis II?
cells.
Meiosis II is a process identical to After meiosis I two cells with already

separated homologous are created.
mitosis.
After meiosis II four cells are created.
38. In which meiotic division

41. What are the periods of
does the separation of the
the first meiotic division?
homologous occur? What are
the ploidies of the generated Meiosis I is divided into prophase I,
cells after the end of that metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase
process? I.
The separation of the homologous

chromosomes occurs in the first division
of meiosis, or meiosis I. After the end of 42. In which period of meiosis
this cell division two haploid cells are does the pairing of
made, each having different homologous chromosomes
chromosomes (with no set of
occur?
homologous). Note that in the cells
generated after meiosis I each
chromosome is still duplicated since the The pairing of homologous
homologous chromosomes and not the chromosomes is a vital step for meiosis
identical chromatids were separated. because the rightness of the
homologous separation depends on the
process. This event occurs in prophase I
of the cell division.
39. In which meiotic division
does the separation of
identical chromatids occur?
After the end of this process 43. What is crossing over? In
what are the ploidies of the which period of meiosis does
new cells? this event occur?
The separation of identical chromatids Crossing over is the eventual exchange

occurs in the second meiotic division, or of chromosomal fragments between
meiosis II. After this cell division homologous chromosomes. The
(similar to mitosis and that does not phenomenon occurs in prophase I when
alter ploidy) the cells are still haploid homologous chromosomes are paired.
(they have become haploid after Crossing over is of great importance for
meiosis I). evolution and biodiversity since it
81
provides recombination of alleles (of 47. What are the respective
different genes) linked in the same functions of the separation of
chromosome during cell divison by
homologous chromosomes
meiosis.
and of the separation of
identical chromatids in
meiosis?
44. What are the “chiasms” of
homologous chromosomes The separation of homologous
seen in prophase I? chromosomes in meiosis I has two main
functions: to reduce to a half the total
Chiasms are intersections of two tracts number of chromosomes, generating
in the form of X. haploid daughter cells at the end of the
process, and to make possible genetic
The chiasms seen in prophase I are recombination since the separation is
chromosome arms crossing over same aleatory, i.e., each pair of daughter cells
arms of their homologous. In fact when can be different from the other pair
chiasms are seen under the microscope relating chromosomal combination from
chromatids are exchanging paternal and maternal origins. (And if
chromosomal segments with other crossing over is considered each of the
chromatids of its homologous. four resulting cells can be different from
the others.)
The separation of identical chromatids in

45. Is there interphase again meiosis II has the same function it has
in mitosis: to separate the
between meiosis I and chromosomes already duplicated to the
meiosis II? daughter cells.
There is no interphase nor DNA

duplication between the divisions of
meiosis. Only a short interval called 48. During which meiosis
diakinesis occurs. division does ploidy reduction
occur? Does ploidy reduction
occur in mitosis?
46. What are the periods of
the second meiotic division? In the cell division by meiosis ploidy
reduction occurs in meiosis II. Initially,
taking as example a 2n somatic cell,
Meiosis II is divided into prophase II, ploidy increases to 4n (duplication of
metaphase II, anaphase II and telofase DNA) during interphase. During meiosis
II. I, since homologous chromosomes are
separated, ploidy falls to 2n (the original
number) and then during meiosis II
ploidy finally falls to n in the resulting
daughter cells.
82
Ploidy reduction does not occur in
mitosis. This fact shows that, although
in meiosis ploidy is decreased from its
original number, in meiosis II, a process
similar to mitosis, the cause of that
reduction is what happens in meiosis I,
i.e., the separation of the homologous
chromosomes.
83
4. Which are the living beings
Photosynthesis that carry out photosynthesis?
Which is the cell organelle
responsible for the absorption
1. What is the primary source of light for the photosynthesis
of energy for living beings on process in plants and algae?
earth?
There are many beings (including all
The sun, center of our planetary system animals) that do not carry out
and star of the milky way galaxy (our photosynthesis. There are also
galaxy), is the source of the energy that autotrophic beings that do not perform
is processed and consumed by living photosynthesis but they perform
beings. Intense nuclear reactions in the chemosynthesis. Plants, algae and
sun liberate light and other energetic cyanobacteria are photosynthetic
radiations into the surrounding space. beings.
Some of this energy reaches our planet.
In plants and algae, light is absorbed by
chlorophyll, a molecule present in
cytoplasmic organelles called
chloroplasts.
2. How is light from the sun
transformed into chemical
energy to be used by the
living beings on earth? 5. Are there chloroplasts in
cyanobacteria?
Light from the sun is transformed into
chemical energy contained in organic In cyanobacteria there are no
material by the photosynthesis process. chloroplasts and the chlorophyll layers
In photosynthesis light, water and are dispersed in cytosol.
carbon dioxide react and highly
energetic glucose molecules and
molecular oxygen are made.
6. Which chemical element is
central in the chlorophyll
3. What is the chemical molecule?
equation of photosynthesis?
The chemical element that is central in
the chlorophyll molecule is magnesium.
The chemical equation of photosynthesis
One atom of magnesium is present in
is the following:
the center of an amalgam of eight
nitrogen-containing carbon rings.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6
O2
84
7. How do chloroplasts chloroplast and an intergrana
multiply? membrane permeates the interior of the
organelle.
Like mitochondria chloroplasts have
their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes and
they self-replicate through binary
10. In which chloroplast
division.
structure are chlorophyll
molecules found?
8. How can the hypothesis Chlorophyll molecules are placed in an

that asserts that chloroplasts organized manner in order to enhance
as well as mitochondria were the exposure to light on the thylakoid
surfaces.
primitive prokaryotes that
associated in mutualism with
primitive anaerobic eukaryotic
cells be corroborated? 11. What do ATP and ADP
mean? What are the roles of
The described hypothesis is known as these molecules for the
the endosymbiotic hypothesis about the cellular energetic metabolism?
evolutionary origin of mitochondria and
choloroplasts.
ATP is an abbreviation of adenosine
triphosphate, a molecule made of
Mutualism is explained as: mitochondria
adenosine bound to three inorganic
and chloroplasts can offer energy and
phosphates. ADP is an abbreviation of
nutrients to the cell in exchange for
adenosine diphosphate, two molecules
protection. The hypothesis is
of phosphate bound to adenosine. ATP
strengthened since those organelles
is a molecule that stores energy for the
have their own DNA, RNA and protein
cell. When ATP hydrolyzes and becomes
synthesis machinery and they divide
ADP energy is liberated and then
themselves through binary division like
consumed by several metabolic
bacteria do.
reactions of the organism.

structures of chloroplasts?
12. What is ADP
Chloroplasts are involved by two phosphorylation? What
membrane layers, the outer and the
respectively are
inner membranes. Inside the organelle
the formative unit is called the granum, photophosphorylation and
a coin-shaped structure that, piled with oxidative phosphorylation?
others grana, forms several structures
called thylakoids. The thylakoids fill the
85
ADP phosphorylation is the addition of 15. How is the photic energy
one inorganic phosphate in the molecule absorbed by chlorophyll
of adenosine diphosphate thus creating
transfered to ATP molecules in
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
incorporating energy. The photophosphorylation? How
phosphorylation is oxidative when the will be the resulting ATP
energy incorporated comes from the used?
breaking of organic molecules having
oxygen as reagent, as in aerobic cellular Light excites chlorophyll and energizes
respiration. The reaction is called electrons that jump off the molecule.
photophosphorylation when the energy The energy liberated when these
source is light, as in photosynthesis. electrons escape is used in the
phosphorylation of ADP, forming ATP.
The energy incorporated into ATP is The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction
disposable (liberated) to other cellular is the ATP synthase.
reactions when ATP hydrolyzes and ADP
is formed again. The resulting ATP is then consumed in
the next chemical stage of
photosynthesis to energetically enrich
carbon dioxide for the formation of
13. What are the stages into glucose.
which photosynthesis is
divided?
Photosynthesis is divided into the 16. Is it correct to consider

photochemical stage, or light reactions, water decomposition by the
and the chemical stage. action of light the basis of the
photosynthesis process?
Besides ADP photophosphorylation,

14. What are the processes of photic energy is also responsible for the
the photochemical stage of breaking of water molecules during
the photosynthesis process? photosynthesis in a process known as
water photolysis. In this reaction water
Photolysis of water, with liberation of molecules are exposed to photic energy
molecular oxygen, and and liberate protons (hydrogen ions),
photophosphorylation of ADP, with highly energetic electrons and molecular
production of ATP and NADPH, are the oxygen (O2). Later the hydrogen atoms
processes that occur during the will be incorporated into carbon dioxide
photochemical stage of photosynthesis. molecules to form glucose. Since water
is the hydrogen donor for
photosynthesis it is correct to say that
the water photolysis is the basis of the
process.
86
17. What are the chemical is the hydrogen donor of the reaction.
substances produced by water Glucose is made of carbon and oxygen
atoms obtained from carbon dioxide and
photolysis? What is the of hydrogen atoms obtained from water.
destination of each of those
substances?
Free electrons, hydrogen ions and 20. What is the complete

molecular oxygen are liberated, after chemical equation of
the water photolysis. photosynthesis?
The electrons will replace those
The complete chemical equation of
electrons lost by chlorophyll molecules
photosynthesis is the following:
in photophosphorylation. The hydrogen
ions will be incorporated into hydrogen
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
acceptor molecules (NADP) and later
6 H2O + 6 O2
will be used in the synthesis of glucose
during the chemical stage. Molecular
oxygen is liberated to the atmosphere.
21. What is an example of a
lab experiment that shows the
18. In sulfur photosynthetic variation of the
bacteria what is the molecule photosynthesis efficiency in
that donates hydrogen for relation to different photic
photosynthesis? energy frequencies to which
the reaction is exposed? Was
In sulfur photosynthetic bacteria the it expected that green light
substance that donates hydrogen is frequency favored the
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and not water. reaction?
Therefore there is no liberation of
molecular oxygen but there is
production of molecular sulfur (S2). The experiment: Plants of same species
(Oxygen and sulfur have same number and ages are placed each under
of valence electrons.) (respecting their photoperiods) light
sources emitting only one of the colors
of the light spectrum (violet, anil, blue,
green, yellow and red). The experiment
is executed with each of the colors and
19. Why is it said that during
after days each plant's development is
photosynthesis carbon dioxide compared. Those plants whose
is enriched to form glucose? development was normal performed
satisfactory photosynthesis while those
During photosynthesis carbon dioxide is with abnormal development underused
energetically enriched with hydrogen the offered light.
from water. Water broken by photolysis
87
Chlorophyll is green because it reflects 24. Photosynthesis is the most
the green light frequency, i.e., it does important producer of
not “use” the green range of the
molecular oxygen (O2) on our
electromagnetic spectrum. Thus green
light does not favor photosynthesis planet. From which molecule
(curiously green is the light that plants do oxygen atoms liberated by
“dislike”). photosynthesis come? From
which other molecule could
one suspect they have come?
22. What are the divisions of What are the destinations of
white light according to the those oxygen atoms?
electromagnetic spectrum?
The oxygen atoms liberated as
Which are the two most molecular oxygen by the photosynthesis
efficient colors for process come from water.
photosynthesis?
One indeed could suspect that those
The color divisions of the oxygen atoms would have come from
electromagnetic spectrum in decreasing carbon dioxide. Oxygen atoms from
order of frequency are: red, orange, carbon dioxide however are
yellow, green, blue, anil and violet. incorporated into glucose molecules and
When mixed together these colors into water molecules liberated in the
generate white. chemical stage of photosynthesis.
Experimentally it is verified that the

most useful colors for photosynthesis
are blue and red. 25. Where do the
photochemical and the
chemical stages of
photosynthesis occur?
23. What is NADP and NADPH?
The photochemical stage of the
NADP is the abbreviation of the photosynthesis process occurs mainly
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide on the thylakoids (the green part) and
phosphate cation, a hydrogen acceptor. the chemical stage occurs in the stroma
NADPH is made when NADP binds to (the colorless framework) of the
one hydrogen atom and it is the form chloroplasts.
that actually transports hydrogen.
88
26. Which are the subproducts 29. What is the general
of the photochemical stage chemical equation of
that are essential for the photosynthesis? Why doesn't
chemical stage of that equation clearly show the
photosynthesis? real origin of the molecular
oxygen liberated?
The chemical stage of photosynthesis
depends on NADPH and ATP produced in The general equation of photosynthesis
the “light reactions” (photochemical is:
stage).
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
6 O2.
27. What are the roles of Water molecules are also produced in
NADPH and ATP in the the chemical stage of photosynthesis as
chemical stage of the following complete equation reveals:
photosynthesis?
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
6 H2O + 6 O2
NADPH acts as reductant of carbon
dioxide, it delivers highly energetic Water molecules are present in the
hydrogens to precursor molecules reagent side as well in the product side
during the glucose formation process. of the equation. Pure mathematical
ATP is an energy source for the simplification of stoichiometric
reactions of chemical stage. coefficients however leads to elimination
of water from the product side and it
then seems that 6 molecules of
molecular oxygen (O2), i.e., 12 atoms of
28. Why is the nickname “dark oxygen, are made for each 6 molecules
reactions” not entirely correct of water, i.e., 6 oxygen atoms, in the
for the chemical stage of reagent side. Thus a false impression
photosynthesis? that 6 other oxygens come from carbon
dioxide is created.
“Dark reactions” is not a correct name
for the chemical stage of photosynthesis
since the reactions of the chemical
stage also occur in the presence of light.
limiting factors of
photosynthesis?
The three main limiting factors of

photosynthesis process are light
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration
and temperature.
89
31. Photosynthesis rate varies there is no incorporation of material into
according to the photic energy the plant and thus the plant growth
discontinues.
intensity. Does the same occur
in aerobic respiration? What
happens to the glucose
balance as a result of these 33. Why is the carbon dioxide
variations? concentration a limiting factor
of the photosynthesis
In a photosynthetic being the aerobic process? When the carbon
respiration rate can be superior, inferior dioxide concentration is
or equal to the photosynthesis rate.
increased indefinitely is
Respiration rate depends on the
energetic needs of the plant while the photosynthesis also increased
photosynthesis rate varies, as other indefinitely?
conditions are maintained, with the
variation of light energy. The availability of carbon dioxide is a
limiting factor for the photosynthesis
In a situation in which the respiration process because this gas is a reagent of
rate is greater than the photosynthesis the reaction.
rate glucose consumption is higher than
glucose production. In a situation in Since enzymes catalyze the building of
which the respiration rate is lower than organic molecules with carbon atoms
photosynthesis rate there is from carbon dioxide photosynthesis
accumulation of glucose (positive stops as soon as these enzymes become
balance). In a situation in which the saturated, i.e., when all their activation
rates are equal all molecular oxygen centers are bound to their substrates. In
produced by the photosynthesis process that situation an increase of the carbon
is used in respiration and all carbon dioxide concentration will not increase
dioxide liberated by respiration is the photosynthesis rate.
consumed in photosynthesis and so
there is no positive balance of glucose
nor depletion of carbohydrate stores. 34. Why do some trees lose
their green color in the
autumn?
32. What is the compensation
In autumn days become shorter and
point? What is the implication
nights longer thus there is a reduction
of the compensation point for of the photosynthesis rate and some
the plant growth? plants prepare themselves for the
winter making nutrient stores. In this
The (photic) compensation point is the process, nutrients from the leaves travel
photic energy intensity under which towards storage sites: limbs, trunk and
aerobic respiration rate equals roots. With less chlorophyll produced in
photosynthesis rate. In this situation all leaves the typical green color of the
produced glucose is consumed and plant fades.
90
since adenosine has a local vasodilator
Cell Respiration effect thus providing faster vasodilation
than other physiological methods.
1. How do cells obtain energy

for their functioning? 3. What are the types of cell
respiration?
Cells obtain energy for their metabolic
reactions from the breaking of organic There are two types of cell respiration:
molecules with high energetic content. aerobic cell respiration, a reaction with
This energy is mostly stored as ATP participation of molecular oxygen (O2),
molecules. and anaerobic cell respiration, without
participation of molecular oxygen but
The process of obtaining energy in order with other inorganic molecules as
to produce ATP molecules is named oxidant. There are several varieties of
cellular respiration. anaerobic cell respiration, the main one
is fermentation.
2. What is the compound that

is phosphorylated for ATP 4. Under which conditions do
formation? What is the aerobic cells carry out
resulting compound when ATP fermentation?
liberates energy?
Some cells that usually obtain energy
from aerobic cellular respiration can
ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is
carry out fermentation when oxygen is
formed after the binding of one
not available.
phosphate (phosphorylation) to one ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) molecule. This
There are bacteria and fungi that under
is a process that stores energy into the
absence of oxygen use their anaerobic
produced ATP molecule.
metabolic capability for energetic
supply. Muscle cells carry out
When ATP gives energy to the cellular
fermentation too when oxygen is scarce.
metabolism it loses one of its
phosphates and ADP reappears.
ADP can also lose more phosphates and

generate AMP (adenosine 5. What is the difference
monophosphate) or even non- between aerobic and
phosphorylated adenosine. Adenosine anaerobic beings?
production from ATP is a solution used
in tissues that need urgent oxygen Aerobic organisms are those whose cells
supply, for example, in the heart during do not survive without oxygen since
myocardial infarction (heart attack),
91
they depend on aerobic cell respiration C6H12O6 + 2 ADP + P --> 2 C2H5OH +
to obtain energy for ATP production. 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
Anaerobic organisms are those that live
or can live under oxygen-lacking In lactic fermentation pyruvic acid is
environments. transformed into lactic acid and there is
no production of carbon dioxide. The
lactic fermentation equation is:
6. What is the difference C6H12O6 + 2 ADP + P --> 2 C3H5OOH + 2

between facultative anaerobic ATP
beings and obligate anaerobic
beings?
8. In general what are the
Facultative anaerobic beings, like the reagents and products of
fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a
brewing yeast, can survive under
fermentation?
oxygen-poor environments carrying out
fermentation. However when oxygen is In fermentation glucose (sugar) is
available these beings carry out aerobic degraded into pyruvic acid (each
respiration. glucose molecule forms two pyruvic acid
molecules). In this process two
Obligate anaerobic beings are those that molecules of ATP are produced.
cannot survive when oxygen is present.
Some fungi, some bacteria (like the According to the type of fermentation,
agent of botulism Clostridium pyruvic acid can produce ethanol and
botulinum, and the agent of tetanus, carbon dioxide (in alcoholic
Clostridium tetani) and some fermentation) or lactic acid (in lactic
protozoans are examples of obligate fermentation). There are other varieties
anaerobes. of fermentation in which pyruvic acid
can generate acetic acid (acetic
fermentation), propionic acid,
isopropanol (an alcohol too), etc. The
7. What are the two types of type of fermentation depends on the
species of the involved organisms.
fermentation? What are their
chemical equations?
The two main types of fermentation are 9. Why in cake and bread
alcoholic fermentation and lactic manufacture are alcoholic
fermentation.
fermenting organisms used
In alcoholic fermentation pyruvic acid, and not lactic fermenting
an intermediate molecule, is converted organisms?
into ethanol with liberation of carbon
dioxide. The alcoholic fermentation Fermentation has the function of
equation is as follows: making cakes and breads grow. This is
92
accomplished by liberation of carbon 12. How many ATP molecules
dioxide in alcoholic fermentation as the are produced for each glucose
gas passes through the dough and
molecule used in
makes it grow. In lactic fermentation
there is no liberation of carbon dioxide fermentation? How many ATP
and the desired result would not be molecules are produced for
obtained. each glucose molecule used in
aerobic respiration?
In fermentation from one glucose

10. To what substance is the molecule two ATP molecules are
acidic flavor of fermented milk produced. In aerobic respiration, a
due? much more productive process, from
one glucose molecule 36 ATP molecules
Some bacteria ferment milk lactose by are made.
lactic fermentation producing lactic acid.
This product is responsible for the acidic
flavor of yogurts, curd and milk.
13. Which is the cell organelle
that is specialized in aerobic
respiration?
11. How can the knowledge
about fermentation explain The cell organelles that are specialized
the origin of muscle cramps in aerobic respiration are the
and pains after intense mitochondria.
physical exertion?
A typical fermentation process due to

oxygen scarcity happens in the muscle
14. Of which main compounds
tissue. Under intense use muscles
demand too much energy (ATP) and is the mitochondrion structure
consume much more oxygen to produce made?
that energy. High consumption leads to
oxygen scarcity and the muscle cells Mitochondria are organelles delimited by
begin to make lactic fermentation trying two lipid membranes. The inner
to satisfy their energetic needs. In this membrane invaginates to the interior of
situation muscle pain, cramps and the organelle forming cristae and
fatigue are due to the lactic acid delimiting an internal space known as
released by fermentation. the mitochondrial matrix.
93
15. What are the three phases to participate in the next phase of the
into which the cell respiration aerobic cell respiration.
is divided?
The three phases of aerobic cell 18. How many ATP molecules
respiration are glycolysis, Krebs cycle
are made after glycolysis?
and respiratory chain (also known as
the electron transport chain).
Glycolysis is a process similar to glucose
degradation in fermentation. It produces
(final balance) two molecules of ATP for
16. What is glycolysis? What each broken glucose.
are the products of this
process?
19. What is NAD? What is the
Glycolysis, the first stage of the aerobic role of the NAD molecule in
cell respiration, is a process in which
glycolysis?
glucose is degraded (broken) to form
two pyruvic acid molecules along with
the formation of two ATP and two NAD (nicotinamide adenine
NADH. dinucleotide) is a hydrogen acceptor
necessary as reductant (to receive
Glycolysis is a complex reaction hydrogen) in some reactions in which it
implying the formation of several is reduced and converted into NADH2.
intermediate molecules until pyruvic During glycolysis two NAD molecules
acid molecules are made. Although two retrieve hydrogens liberated after an
ATP molecules are consumed in the intermediate reaction thus forming
reaction, there is also production of four NADH2.
molecules of ATP, thus a positive
balance of two ATP molecules is
obtained. Two NADH molecules are also
produced. In glycolysis the 6-carbon 20. What happens during
structure of glucose is broken and two aerobic respiration to the
organic chains of three carbons each are pyruvic acid molecules made
made; these chains give birth to two by glycolysis? What is the
pyruvic acid molecules.
sequence of reactions that
then follows?
17. Does glycolysis occur The pyruvic acid molecules made in

within the mitochondria? cytosol by glycolysis enter into the
mitochondria.
Glycolysis happens in the cytosol and
Within the mitochondria each pyruvic
not within the mitochondria. Pyruvic
acid molecule is converted into one
acid molecules later enter mitochondria
molecule of acetyl-CoA (acetyl
94
coenzyme A) with liberation of one Since acetyl CoA is the substrate that
carbon dioxide. The Krebs cycle (also triggers the Krebs cycle, this process is
known as citric acid cycle), the second called the final common pathway for
stage of aerobic respiration, then being activated by other organic
begins. molecules (lipids and proteins) and not
only by glucose.
The organism uses energetic reserves of

21. What is the official name fat and proteins to cycle the Krebs cycle
of pyruvic acid? when undergoing malnutrition or when
there is no glucose available for the
cells.
Pyruvic acid is 2-oxopropanoic acid. It is
thus a molecule made of three linearly
bound carbons with one extremity
forming the organic acid function
(COOH) and the middle carbon binding
24. What are the final
to an oxygen atom by double bond. energetic products of each
round of the Krebs cycle?
Where is most part of the utile
energy at the end of Krebs
22. Why can it be said that cycle found?
each glucose molecule runs
the Krebs cycle twice? After each round of the Krebs cycle two
carbon dioxide molecules, eight protons
Each glucose molecule “cycles” the (hydrogen ions) captured by NAD and
Krebs cycle twice because after FAD (a hydrogen acceptor too) and one
glycolysis each used glucose has ATP molecule are produced.
generated two pyruvic acid molecules
and each pyruvic acid is converted in a During the Krebs cycle acetyl CoA is
1:1 proportion into acetyl CoA. Each degraded. At the end the utile energy is
acetyl CoA then cycles the Krebs cycle incorporated into hydrogens transported
once. by FADH2 and NADH2 molecules.
23. Why is the Krebs cycle 25. How many carbon dioxide
also called the final common molecules are liberated after
pathway of the degradation of each cycle of the Krebs cycle?
organic compounds? For a single glucose how many
carbon dioxide molecules
The Krebs cycle is called the final were already liberated by the
common pathway of the degradation of aerobic respiration at that
organic compounds because it is also
possible to generate acetyl CoA from
point?
the degradation of lipids and proteins.
95
Each round of the Krebs cycle liberates 27. What are cytochromes?
two carbon dioxide molecules.
Cytochromes are proteins of the internal
At the end of the cycle all carbon atoms mitochondrial membrane that are
from the original glucose molecule specialized in electron transfer and
degraded in glycolysis are already participate in the respiratory chain.
liberated incorporated into carbon Energized electrons liberated by the
dioxide molecules. That occurs because hydrogen donors NADH2 and FADH2
for each glucose two pyruvic acid (then reconverted into NAD and FAD)
molecules were made by glycolysis. pass through a sequence of
Each of these two pyruvic acids then is cytochromes losing energy in each
converted into acetyl CoA with liberation passage. The energy is then used in the
of one carbon dioxide molecule (two in synthesis of ATP.
total). Since each of the two produced
acetyl CoA cycles the Krebs cycle once,
from the initial glucose two rounds of
the Krebs cycle is generated and so four
28. How in the respiratory
other carbon dioxide molecules are
made. chain do electrons from FADH2
and NADH2 passing through
All of the six carbons of the glucose cytochromes liberate energy
molecule are then incorporated into six for the ATP synthesis? What is
carbon dioxide molecules (two made this ATP synthesis called?
during acetyl CoA formation and four
during the two cycles of the Krebs
cycle). FADH2 and NADH2 oxidate into FAD and
NAD and liberate hydrogen ions and
highly energized electrons in the
beginning of the respiratory chain.
26. Where in mitochondria
The energy lost by electrons that pass
does the process called through the cytochromes is used to
respiratory chain occur? pump protons (hydrogen ions) out of
Which are the products of the the inner mitochondrial membrane (to
Krebs cycle used in that final the region between the inner and the
phase of the aerobic outer membranes of the
mitochondrion). Hydrogen concentration
respiration? gradient between the inner and the
outer spaces delimited by the inner
Respiratory chain, or the electron membrane forces protons (hydrogen
transport chain, is performed by protein ions) to return to the mitochondrial
systems located in the inner membrane matrix (the region inside the inner
of the mitochondria. Energized electrons membrane) however that return is only
of hydrogen atoms transported by possible if hydrogen ions pass through
NADH2 and FADH2 are the products of an enzymatic complex called ATP
the preceding phases used in the synthetase embedded in the inner
respiratory chain. membrane. In that passage the ATP
96
synthetase phosphorylates ADP and 30. How does the poison
then ATP molecules are produced. cyanide act upon the aerobic
respiration?
Hydrogen liberated in the mitochondrion
then combines with oxygen to form
water. As a reaction that depends on Cyanide is a poison that inhibits the last
oxygen this type of ATP synthesis is cytochrome of the respiratory chain,
called oxidative phosphorylation. interrupting the ATP formation and thus
leading the cell to death.
29. Until the Krebs cycle,

aerobic respiration can be 31. What is anoxia?
described without mentioning
Anoxia is a situation in which there is no
oxygen, the chemical element available oxygen in the cell. Whitout
after which the reaction gets oxygen the respiratory chain stops,
its name. Where in the there is no ATP production, the cell does
process does this chemical not obtain energy and dies.
element take part? What is its
Anoxia can be caused, for example, by
importance?
pulmonary insufficiency (drowning,
extensive pulmonary injuries, etc.), by
Oxygen enters the aerobic respiration in obstructions, halts and deficiencies in
its final phase, the respiratory chain. It tissue circulation (atherosclerosis of the
is of fundamental importance because it coronary arteries that irrigate the
is responsible for the maintenance of myocardium, tourniquets, heart arrest),
the hydrogen concentration gradient by hemolysis (lysis of red blood cell) or
between the spaces separated by the hemoglobin diseases (anemias, fetal
inner mitochondrial membrane. This erythroblastosis), etc.
gradient promotes the functioning of the
ATP synthetase and thus the
phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP. In
the space inside the inner membrane 32. How many ATP molecules
oxygen binds to free hydrogens to form
water and this hydrogen consumption
are made after the aerobic
keeps the hydrogen gradient and the respiration and what is the net
proton traffic through the ATP energetic gain of the process?
synthetase.
After aerobic respiration 38 ATP
The entire aerobic respiration process molecules are made with the
has the intent to make the ATP consumption of one glucose molecule
synthetase work. Aerobic beings, for (but two of these ATP are consumed by
example, we humans, need to breathe glycolysis). The net gain of the process
oxygen to maintain that hydrogen is then 36 ATP molecules per glucose
concentration gradient and keep the molecule.
ATP synthetase working.
97
33. What is the general
equation of the aerobic
respiration (also representing
ADP and phosphate)?
The general equation of the aerobic

respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 36 ADP + 36 P -->

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
34. Why can the consumption

of molecular oxygen indicate
the metabolic rate of aerobic
organisms?
Molecular oxygen (O2) consumption has

direct relation to the cell metabolic rate
in aerobic cells and so to the metabolic
rate of the organisms. Cells having
higher metabolic activity demand more
energy and such energy comes from
ATP molecules. As there is need for ATP
production, the intensity of aerobic cell
respiration is also higher and then more
oxygen is consumed.
98
A gene is a DNA polynucleotide
Protein Synthesis sequence that contains information for
the production of a protein.
1. What is the genetic code?

4. What is the role of
Genetic code is the key for the messenger RNA and
conversion of DNA nucleotide sequences ribosomes for the protein
(and thus RNA nucleotide sequences) synthesis?
into amino acids sequences that will
compose proteins.
The mRNA is produced within the
cellular nucleus and migrates to the
cytoplasm where associated to
ribosomes it guides the building of
2. Which is the biological amino acid sequences that will compose
molecule that contains the proteins. Ribosomes are sites for the
genetic information that is meeting and binding of mRNA and
transmitted hereditarily and transfer RNA (tRNA), they are the
controls the cellular structures where amino acids
transported by tRNA are united by
functioning?
peptide bonds forming polypeptide
chains (proteins).
The hereditary molecule that controls
the cellular functioning is the DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid). The DNA
contains information for protein 5. Of what subunits are
synthesis in cells.
ribosomes are made?
Ribosomes are made of two subunits,

3. How are the concepts of the small subunit and the large subunit.
These subunits are made of ribosomic
DNA, gene, proteins and
RNA (rRNA) and proteins. Ribosomes
characteristics of living beings have three binding sites, one for mRNA
related? and two for tRNA.
Characteristics of organisms depend on

chemical reactions that occur in them.
These reactions are catalyzed by
enzymes, highly specific proteins. Every
protein of an organism is made from
information contained in RNA molecules
that are made according to a template
sequence of nucleotides of a DNA chain.
99
6. How different are the cells specialized in secretion, the
location of ribosomes in endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus are well-developed since they
eukaryotic and in prokaryotic participate in the storage and
cells? processing of proteins for exportation.
In prokaryotes ribosomes are found free

in cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells they 9. Which are the more
can also be found free in cytoplasm and abundant ribosomes in
mainly adhered to the external
secretory cells - the free
membrane of the karyotheca and of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. cytoplasmic ribosomes or
those associated with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum?
7. How is the finding of Free cytoplasmic ribosomes are more

ribosomes inside mitochondria related to protein production for internal
and chloroplasts explained? cellular consumption while those
adhered to the rough endoplasmic
It is a strong hypothesis that reticulum are more important in protein
synthesis for exportation. Proteins made
mitochondria and chloroplasts were
prokaryotes that associated to primitive by adhered ribosomes enter the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and are later
eukaryotic cells under mutualism
(gaining protection and offering transferred to the Golgi apparatus. So in
secretory cells ribosomes adhered to the
energy). This explains why within those
organelles there are DNA and protein endoplasmic reticulum are more
notable.
synthesis machinery, including
ribosomes. This hypothesis is known as
the endosymbiotic hypothesis on the
origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
10. Where in eukaryotic cells
does mRNA synthesis occur?
To where do these molecules
8. What are some examples of migrate?
human cells that produce
proteins for exportation? Messenger RNA molecules are
Which cytoplasmic organelle synthesized within the nucleus, pass
is expected to be well- through pores of the nuclear membrane
and gain the cytoplasm to reach the
developed and abundant in ribosomes where protein synthesis
those cells? occurs.
Specialized cells of the glands, like the

Langerhans cells of the pancreas (that
produce insulin) or the saliva-producing
cells, are examples of secretory cells. In
100
11. After the fact that it is Considering two nucleotides there would
based on information from be an arrangement of 4 elements, 2 x
2, resulting in a total of only 16 possible
mRNA what is the process of codifier units (4 x 4). Nature may know
protein synthesis called? combinatory analysis since it makes a
genetic code by arrangement of the 4
Protein synthesis is called translation (of RNA bases, 3 x 3, providing 64 different
genetic information into proteins). triplets (4 x 4 x 4).
So each triplet of nitrogen-containing

bases of RNA codifies one amino acid of
12. What is the difference a protein. As these triplets appear in
between transcription and sequence in the RNA molecule,
translation? sequential amino acids codified by them
are bound together to make polypeptide
chains. For example, a UUU sequence
Transcription is the name given to the codifies the amino acid phenylalanine,
formation of DNA molecules from an as well the UUC sequence; the ACU,
open DNA chain used as a template. ACC, ACA and ACG sequences codify the
Translation is the making of amino acid threonine; and so on for all
polypeptides (amino acids bound in possible triplet sequences and all other
sequence) and thus of proteins based amino acids.
on information encoded in the mRNA
molecule.
In eukaryotic cells transcription occurs 14. What is the name of an

in the nucleus and translation occurs in
ribosomes. Transcription precedes RNA sequence that codifies
translation. one amino acid?
Each sequence of three nitrogen-

containing bases of RNA that codifies
13. How do nucleotides of one amino acid is called a codon. The
mRNA chains encode codon is the codifier unit of the genetic
information for the formation code.
of the amino acids sequences
of a protein?
There are only four types of nitrogen-

containing bases that can compose RNA
nucleotides: adenine (A), uracil (U),
guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Amino
acids however are 20 different ones.
Considering only one nucleotide (a 1:1
coding) it would be impossible to codify
all amino acids.
101
15. Since among the 64 binding of two neighboring mRNA
codons of mRNA 61 codify codons and where anticodons of tRNA
bind by hydrogen bond. Thus ribosomes
amino acids that form are the structure responsible for the
polypeptide chains what are positioning and exposure of mRNA
the functions of the three codons to be translated. In ribosomes
remaining codons? the peptide bond between two amino
acids brought by tRNA molecules also
Since there are 20 amino acids and 64 occurs. The peptide bond happens when
possibilities of mRNA codons, it is tRNAs carrying amino acids are bound
expected some amino acids to be to exposed mRNA codons.
codified by more than one codon. And
that really happens.
Not all 64 codons however codify amino 17. How are amino acids
acids. Three of them, UAA, UGA and brought to the cellular site
UAG, work on information that the last where translation takes place?
amino acid of a polypeptide chain under What is an anticodon?
productions was already bound, i.e.,
they signal the end of the polypeptide
Amino acids are brought to ribosomes
synthesis. These codons are called
by RNA molecules known as transfer
terminal codons. The codon AUG
RNA, or tRNA. One tRNA associated to
codifies the amino acid methionine and
its specific amino acid binds by a special
at the same time it signals the
sequence of three nucleotides to a
beginning of the synthesis of a
mRNA codon exposed in the ribosome.
polypeptide chain (it is an initialization
This sequence in the tRNA is known as
codon).
anticodon. The tRNA anticodon must be
complementary to the mRNA codon to
In prokaryotic cells there is a sequence
which it binds, according to the rule A-
called Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in
U, CG. The ribosome then slides along
general AGGAGG) in the position that
the mRNA molecule (a process called
antecedes the initialization codon AUG.
translocation) to expose the following
The function of this sequence is
codon to the binding of other tRNA.
distinctness between the initialization
When amino acids corresponding to
AUG and other AUG codons of the RNA.
neighboring codons bind by peptide
bond the first tRNa is liberated.
16. What is the cellular

structure to which mRNA
molecules bind to start the
protein synthesis?
To make proteins mRNA molecules

necessarily associate to ribosomes.
Ribosomes have two sites for the
102
18. Why is the proximity 20. How many of the same
between ribosomes and amino proteins are made at the same
acids important for the protein time by each ribosome in the
formation? What is the translation of one mRNA
enzyme that catalyzes that molecule? How does
reaction? consecutive protein
production occur in
The proximity between ribosomes and translation?
amino acids is important because the
enzyme that catalyzes the peptide bond Ribosomes do not make several
resides in ribosomes. As substrates of different proteins simultaneously. They
these enzymes, amino acids need to make them one after another.
bind to the enzyme activation centers.
Along one single mRNA molecule
The enzyme that catalyzes the peptide however many ribosomes may move in
bond is the peptidyl transferase. a real mass manufacturing of the same
protein. The unit made of many
ribosomes working upon the same
mRNA molecule is called polysome.
19. Why do ribosomes move
along mRNA during
translation?
21. An mRNA molecule
During translation the ribosome always codifies only one type of
exposes two mRNA codons to be protein?
translated by moving along the mRNA.
When a peptide bond is made the Eukaryotic cells have monocistronic
ribosome moves to expose the next mRNA, i.e., each mRNA codifies only
codon. This moving is called ribosomal one polypeptide chain. Prokaryotes can
translocation. (In the rough present polycistronic mRNA.
endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes are
attached outside the membrane and At the end of the assembling of amino
mRNA molecules rather moving through acids into a polypeptide chain, the
them). mRNA, by one of its terminal codons,
signals to the ribosome that the
polypeptide is complete. The ribosome
then liberates the produced protein. In
prokaryotes after this conclusion the
information for the beginning of the
synthesis of another different protein
may follow in the same mRNA.
103
22. If a tRNA anticodon is CAA For example, the amino acid arginine is
what is its corresponding codified by six codons: CGU, CGC, CGA,
CGG, AGA and AGG.
mRNA codon? For the genetic
code which amino acid does
this codon codify?
25. What is the concept of
According to the A-U , C-G rule, the universality of the genetic
corresponding codon to the CAA code? What are the exceptions
anticodon is GUU.
to this universality?
The genetic code table for translation is
related to codons and not to anticodons. The genetic code is universal because
The amino acid codified by GUU, the rules of protein codification based
according to the genetic code, is valine. on mRNA codons are practically the
same for all known living beings. For
example, the genetic code is the same
for humans, for bacteria and for
23. If a fragment of nucleic invertebrates.
acid has a nucleotide The protein synthesis in mitochondria,
sequence TAC can one assert chloroplasts and some protozoans
that it is a codon or an however are accomplished by different
anticodon? genetic codification.
A nucleic acid having a TAC sequence

surely is not tRNA, it is DNA since RNA
does not present the nitrogen- 26. How does the universality
containing base thymine. Since it is not of the genetic code make the
RNA it cannot be a codon or an recombinant DNA technology
anticodon. possible?
The universality of the genetic code

refers to the fact that all living beings
24. Why can the genetic code have their protein synthesis machinery
be qualified as a “degenerate functioning according to the same
code”? principles of storage, transmission and
recognition of information, including
The genetic code is a degenerate code translation of mRNA codons. This fact
because there are amino acids codified makes possible the exchanging of genes
by more than one type of codon. It is or gene fragments between different
not a system in which each element is organisms and secures that these genes
codified by only one codifying unit. continue to command protein synthesis.
This universality, for example, makes

feasible the insertion of a fragment of
104
human DNA containing a gene for the
production of a given protein into the
genetic material of bacteria. Since the
bacterial transcription and translation
systems work in the same manner as
the correspondent human systems do,
the bacteria will begin to synthesize the
human protein related to the inserted
DNA fragment. There are industries that
produce human insulin (for use by
diabetic patients) in this way,
synthesized by bacteria with modified
DNA. If the genetic code was not
universal this kind of genetic
manipulation would be impossible or
very difficult to accomplish without new
technological progresses.
105
106
Microbiology
107
108
living under high temperatures and low
Bacteria pH. The methanogen archaebacteria are
those that liberate methane gas (CH4),
they are found in swamps.
1. What are bacteria?
Bacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular 4. What are the main

beings. Bacteria have simple ecological roles of bacteria?
organization, they present an external
cell wall, plasma membrane, circular Bacteria are responsible for the
DNA within the cytoplasm and decomposition process at the end of
ribosomes for protein synthesis. Some food chains and food webs; in this
bacteria are encapsulated, i.e., they process, they also liberate utile gases
have a polysaccharide capsule outside and nutrients for other living beings.
the cell wall. Bacteria that live within the digestive
tube of ruminants and of some insects
digest cellulose for these animals. Some
bacteria also participate in the nitrogen
2. Are bacteria the only cycle, making fixation of nitrogen,
prokaryotic beings? nitrification and denitrification, almost
always in mutualist ecological
Prokaryotic beings are classified into interaction with plants. Bacteria present
two big groups: archaebacteria and within living beings, for example, some
bacteria (this last also known as that live inside the bowels, compete
eubacteria). with other pathogenic bacteria so
controlling the population of noxious
Compared to bacteria, archaebacteria agents. There are also bacteria that
have basic differences, like the chemical cause diseases and bacteria used in the
compositions of their plasma membrane production of medical drugs.
and cell wall and different enzymes
related to DNA and RNA metabolism. Excessive proliferation or mass
destruction of bacteria can impact entire
ecosystems. For example, when a river
is polluted by organic material the
3. What are halophile, population of aerobic bacteria increases
since the organic material is food for
thermoacidophile and them; the great number of bacteria
methanogen archaebacteria? then exhausts the oxygen dissolved in
water and other aerobic beings (like
There are three peculiar types of fishes) undergo mass death.
archaebacteria. The halophile
archaebacteria only survive in salt-rich
environments (even salinity of the sea is
not enough for them). Thermoacidophile
archaebacteria are characterized by
109
5. What are examples of them to parasite their host. Some
human diseases caused by bacteria have fimbriae, cilium-like
structures that attach the bacterial cell
bacteria? to the host tissue. There are bacteria
specialized in intracellular parasitism.
Some human diseases caused by Other bacteria secrete toxins, molecules
bacteria are tuberculosis, pertussis, that cause disease; in some cases, the
diphtheria, bacterial meningitis, bacterial population growth causes food
gonorrhea, syphilis, bubonic plague, contamination by toxins. Generally,
leptospirosis, cholera, typhoid fever, bacterial disease is caused by bacterial
Hansen’s disease, trachoma, tetanus, population growth with invasion and
anthrax. destruction of tissues or by bacterial
toxins that contaminate the organism.
6. What are some industrial

processes that use bacteria? 8. In which environments do
bacteria live?
Bacteria are used by industry in various
ways. There are vaccines made of Bacteria can be found in various
attenuated pathogenic bacteria or of environments throughout the planet.
antigens present in bacteria. One of the There are bacteria in the air, in fresh
most ancient uses of bacteria is the water, on the surface, in the
fermentation of milk to produce yogurt, intermediate depth and on the bottom
cheese and curd (even before the of the sea, in soils, in our skin and
knowledge of the existence of bacteria practically in all terrestrial environments
these microorganisms were already through which air circulates freely.
used in the making of those products). Some bacteria can be found in volcanic
Some methods of antibiotic production craters under extremely high
involve bacteria. The recombinant DNA temperatures.
technology (genetic engineering) allows
the industrial production and
commercialization of human proteins,
like insulin for diabetics, synthesized by 9. How are bacteria classified
mutant bacteria. Some bacteria can
according to the production of
produce fuel, like methane gas.
organic material for the
energetic metabolism?
7. What are some mechanisms Most bacteria are heterotroph, they do

by which pathogenic bacteria not produce their own food. There are
cause diseases? Why is this also autotroph bacteria: chemosynthetic
bacteria or photosynthetic bacteria.
knowledge important?
Some photosynthetic bacteria, like
Pathogenic bacteria have characteristics cyanobacteria, make photosynthesis like
known as virulence factors that help plants do, using water. Others, the
110
sulfur photosynthetic bacteria, use 13. What is the main
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) instead of water. constituent of the cell wall of
bacteria?
10. How are bacteria classified The bacterial cell wall is made of
peptidoglycans.
according to their need for
oxygen?
According to their necessity of oxygen 14. Which are the intracellular

bacteria are classified into anaerobic organelles present in
(those that survive without oxygen) and
aerobic (those that do not survive
bacteria?
without oxygen).
Considering typical eukaryotic cell
organelles, heterotrophic bacteria have
ribosomes, essential for protein
11. What is meant when it is synthesis.
said that a bacteria is an
obligate anaerobe?
15. What are plasmids? What
Obligate anaerobes are those living is the importance of plasmids
beings that do not survive in the
for the recombinant DNA
presence of oxygen. For example, the
bacteria Clostridium tetani, agent of technology?
tetanus, is an obligate anaerobe.
Plasmids are circular fragments of DNA
In superficial wounds, it is commom to that are accessories to the main
use hydrogen peroxide to expose bacterial DNA. Plasmids are important
anaerobic microorganisms to oxygen for genetic engineering because genes
and kill them. from other organisms are inserted into
them to produce recombinant beings,
for example, mutant bacteria. These
bacteria are made, for example, to
12. According to their produce utile proteins for humans on an
morphology how are bacteria industrial scale.
classified?
Bacteria present different morphological 16. How do bacteria

patterns. A bacterium can be classified
into coccus, bacillus, vibrion or
reproduce?
spirochete.
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission
(scissiparity). Some bacteria however
present a kind of sexual reproduction
111
(transformation, transduction or
conjugation) with a combination of
genetic material from different
individuals.
17. How does sexual

reproduction occur in
bacteria? How different are
the modalities of bacterial
sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction occurs when

bacteria incorporate genetic material
into other bacteria of the same species;
the inserted genetic fragment then
becomes part of the genetic material of
the second bacteria. This kind of
reproduction can happen by means of
transformation, transduction or
conjugation.
112
In comparison to pluricellular organisms
Protists protozoans are more proximal to the
animal kingdom than to plants: they are
heterotrophs, they have a rudimentary
locomotion system (amoeboid
1. Which are the groups of movements, cilia, flagella), they do not
living beings that form the have cell wall, some species present
structures that resemble structures of a
protist kingdom?
primitive digestive system, with
cytostome (mouth) and cytopyge
The protist kingdom includes protozoans (anus), specialized in digestion and
and algae. (Two groups of fungi with excretion.
similar characteristics to protozoans,
myxomycetes and oomycetes, have The evolutionary hypothesis that animal
been classified as protists.) cells have come from differentiation of
protozoans is strong.
Unicellular protozoans and algae are
unicellular eukaryotes. The pluricellular
algae are eukaryotes of simple structure
too. It is believed that protists are 4. What is the basic
phylogenetic ancestors of living beings
morphology of a protozoan
of the other eukariotic kingdoms (fungi,
animals and plants). cell?
Protozoans are eukaryotic cells so they

have organelles and structures common
2. What is the fundamental to this kind of cell: endoplasmic reticula,
difference between Golgi apparatus, digestive vesicles,
ribosomes, mitochondria, nucleus with
protozoans and algae?
genetic material, karyotheca, etc. All
these elements are found dispersed
The basic difference between throughout the cytoplasm. Protozoans
protozoans and algae is the fact that do not have cell walls.
protozoans are heterotrophs while algae
are photosynthetic autotrophs. Protozoans from the mastigophora
group (like trichomonas) have flagella
and others, others from the ciliated
group (like paramecium) have cilia.
3. What are the characteristics
of protozoans that make them
resemble animals?
5. Do protozoans have a
Protozoans are unicellular beings with cellular nucleus?
some similar characteristics to animal
cells. All protozoans, as eukaryotes, have
nucleus. Some species, like the
113
paramecium, have two nuclei: the move. Trichomonas are flagellated
macronucleus and the micronucleus. protozoans, i.e., they have relatively
long filaments outside the cell that beat
and make possible active swimming in
fluid environments.
6. What are the respective
functions of the macronucleus
and of the micronucleus in the
9. How is digestion performed
paramecium?
in protozoans?
The macronucleus is properly the cell
nucleus, it has DNA and RNA and acts Digestion in protozoans is intracellular
as the center of the cellular control and digestion: organic material is
regulation. The micronucleus has internalized and degraded inside the
reproductive functions and it is related cell.
to the conjugation process (sexual
reproduction). Protozoans get food by phagocytosis
and then the food is digested when
phagosomes fuse with lisosomes within
the cell, forming digestive vacuoles. The
digestive vacuoles give origin to residual
7. What do protozoans “eat”?
bodies that are eliminated from the cell
Do they move in search for by exocytosis.
food?
In the paramecium the entrance of food
Protozoans are heterotroph beings, i.e., into the cell and the excretion of
they do not make their own food and digestive residuals occur at specialized
thus they need to search for it in the regions of the plasma membrane, the
environment. Protozans have developed cytostom and the cytopyge,
several locomotion mechanisms and respectively.
they actively move towards food.
10. Are protozoans presenting

8. How do amoebae, contractile, or pulsatile,
paramecia and trichomonas vacuoles easily found in fresh
respectively move? or in salt water?
Amoebae move by amoeboid Fresh water is the less concentrated of

movements, small projections and solutes than sea water and it (fresh
invaginations of their plasma membrane water) tends to be less concentrated
(pseudopods) that alter the external than the intracellular environment
morphology of the cell making it move making cells to swell. Sea water, on the
on surfaces. Paramecia have the outer other hand, since it is very concentrated
face of their plasma membrane covered tends to dehydrate the cell.
by cilia that flap helping the cell to
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The vacuoles of protozoans are internal 12. Which is the form of
structures specialized in water storage protozoan reproduction that
that when necessary liberate water to
generates more variability?
the cytoplasm. Vacuoles thus can dilute
the cytoplasm for it to enter into
osmotic equilibrium with the Sexual reproduction always generates
environment. Protozoans of fresh water more genetic variability than asexual
then need vacuoles more since their reproduction. That is because in sexual
intracellular is hypertonic in relation to reproduction the fusion of genetic
the exterior. Without the dilution material from different individuals
mechanism provided by the vacuoles, occurs and so the offspring is not
protozoans of fresh water would absorb genetically identical to the parent cell.
too much water and would die.
If the hypothesis that protozoans
originated multicellular animals is
strong, other hypotheses may be even
11. Do protozoans have sexual stronger: that these protozoans were
able to reproduce sexually, since only
or asexual reproduction?
genetic variation can produce biological
differentiation to the point of creating
In protozoans reproduction is sexual or new types of living beings.
asexual. The most frequent form of
sexual reproduction is binary division, or
scissiparity, in which the cell divides
itself by mitosis originating two 13. What are the four groups
daughter cells. Some species, like the
plasmodium, agent of malaria,
of protozoans?
reproduce asexually by schizogony
(multiple fission); in this form of The four main groups of protozoans are
reproduction the cell becomes the sarcodines (that form pseudopods,
multinucleated, generally inside a host like amoebae), the mastigophores
cell, and each nucleus is expelled out (flagellated, like the trypanosome that
together with cytoplasm portions giving causes Chagas’ disease), the ciliated
rise to new protozoans. (like paramecia) and the sporozoans
(spore-forming, like plasmodia).
The sexual reproduction in protozoans
can happen by conjugation, with
incorporation of genetic material from
one cell into another, or by gametes 14. Why are euglenas involved
that fecundate others and form zygotes. in polemics related to their
In the plasmodium sexual reproduction taxonomic classification?
happens in the mosquito, the definitive
host, and the zygote undergoes mitosis
Euglenas are involved in taxonomic
(sporogony) creating many sporozoites.
polemics because they tend to be
classified sometimes as protozoans and
sometimes as algae. Although they have
chloroplasts and they are photosynthetic
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autotrophic beings, euglenas do not food in the oriental world. Jelly
have a cell wall and they can survive by compounds are extracted from some
“eating” substances from the algae, like glues and pastes for
environment when light is not available industrial and commercial use.
for photosynthesis. Curiously euglenas
also have a photosensitive structure The agar-agar, used as a medium for
called stigma that orients the movement biological culture in laboratories and in
of the cell towards light. Nowadays medicines, and the substance known as
euglenas are classified as algae, but it is carrageenin, a component of tooth
suspected that they are common pastes, cosmetics, paint and hygienic
ancestors of algae and protozoans. products, are extracted from
rhodophyte algae. Diatom algae
deposited on the bottom of the sea form
diatomites, used in the production of
15. Do algae reproduce filters, refractories, thermal isolation
sexually or asexually? and cement. Some algae are used as
agricultural fertilizers.
There are algae that reproduce sexually
and there are algae that reproduce
asexually.
17. What is the phenomenon
In unicellular algae reproduction is known as “red tide”? Which
generally asexual by binary division. ambiental harms can it cause?
In pluricellular algae asexual Red tide is a phenomenon that occurs

reproduction can occur by when dinoflagellates (algae from the
fragmentation or by sporulation. pyrrophyte group) proliferate
excessively in the ocean. These algae
In sexual reproduction of algae, uni or liberate toxins that affect the nervous
pluricellular, there is fusion of gametes system and can cause death when
(syngamy). There are algae in which all ingested by marine animals and by
cells can become gametes and there are humans that eat contaminated animals.
algae in which only some cells can play
that role. Some species may present
alternation of generations, forming
gametophytes and sporophytes with
different ploidies.
16. What is the commercial

importance of algae?
Many algae have high nutritional value

and are commercialized and consumed
as human food, they are very popular
116
4. What are the hyphae and
Fungi the mycelium of pluricellular
fungi?
1. What are the main cellular The main structures of pluricellular fungi
are the hyphae (threadlike filaments
features of fungi?
made of contiguous uni or
multinucleated cells) and the mycelium
There are unicellular and pluricellular (a set of hyphae).
fungi. All fungi are eukaryotes and
heterotrophs.
Fungi have cells with cell wall made of 5. What are the types of
chitin, the same substance that
reproduction that occur in
constitutes the exoskeleton of
arthropods. Fungi, likewise animals, fungi?
characterize for storing glucose in the
form of its polymer glycogen. In fungi there are asexual and sexual
reproduction. Fungi reproduce asexually
by fragmentation, gemmation and
sporulation. Some species can
2. Are there photosynthetic reproduce sexually by fusion of hyphae
fungi? How do fungi nourish from different individuals, even with
metagenesis (alternation of
themselves?
generations).
All fungi are heterotrophs (so, they do

not perform photosynthesis). Fungi are
typical decomposers, they eat and 6. What are the fruiting bodies
degrade organic material.
present in some fungi?
Fruiting bodies are structures made of

3. Fungi are classified in their hyphae that project radially from the
superior portion of the peduncle of some
own kingdom. Into which
fungi. These structures contain the
phyla is the fungi kingdom reproductive cells of the individual. They
divided? Into which of those form the umbrella-like cap in
phyla are mushrooms mushrooms (basidiocarp) or the
classified? ascocarp in ascomycetes.
The kingdom fungi is divided into four

phyla: ascomycetes, basidiomycetes,
zygomycetes and deuteromycetes.
7. What is the ecological
importance of fungi?
Mushrooms are basidiomycetes.
117
Fungi are heterotrophs and 10. What are mycorrhizas?
decomposers (they break down dead How does each participant
beings) and they actively participate in
benefit in this ecological
the recycling of organic material in
ecosystems. Some fungi keep mutualist interaction?
ecological interaction with algae or
cyanobacteria, forming lichen, and with Mycorrhizas are mutualist ecological
plant roots, forming mycorrhizas. interactions between fungi and some
plants roots. Fungi provide to the plant
more water and mineral salts and obtain
organic material from the vegetable.
8. What is the utility of fungi
for some industries?
11. What are the main human
Fungi are industrially used in the
production of fermented beverage, diseases caused by fungi?
bread, cheese, etc. Some fungi are very
important for the production of medical The main human diseases caused by
drugs. There are fungi processed to fungi are coccidioidomycosis,
serve as food for humans, like eatable histoplasmosis, blastomycosis,
mushrooms. paracoccidioidomycosis, or South
American blastomycosis, sporotrichosis,
aspergillosis and systemic candidiasis.
9. What are lichens? How do Fungi are also responsible for many
fungi participate in this dermatologic diseases
(dermatomycosis) that affect the skin,
ecological interaction?
the nails, the scalp, etc.
Lichens are formed by mutualist On the other hand, many fungi are able
ecological interaction between fungi and to produce antibacterial substances that
algae or between fungi and combat diseases. In the second world
cyanobacteria. In this ecological war, in German jails, Russian prisoners
interaction, the fungi absorb water that that accepted to eat moldy bread had
is then used by algae (or less skin infection than those that
cyanobacteria), and algae (or refused the food. In China, moldy soy
cyanobacteria), as autotrophs, produce sauce has millennial past use against
organic material in excess to serve as infections. Penicillin, a potent antibiotic,
food for the fungi. was discovered in 1928 by Alexander
Fleming when he observed the
antibacterial activity of fungi from the
genus Penicillium.
118
12. What is cyclosporin? How
are fungi related to this
substance?
Cyclosporin is a drug discovered in the

1970’s that revolutionized organ
transplantation in Medicine. It is a
powerful immunosuppressor and so it
lessens the immune activity of the
receptor and reduces the risk of
rejection of the transplanted organ.
119
4. Why is it a strong
Viruses evolutionary hypothesis that
although viruses are the
structurally simplest beings
1. Are viruses cellular beings? they were not the first living
beings?
Viruses are considered living beings but
they do not have cellular structure. The fact that viruses are obligate
intracellular parasites makes very weak
There is some controversy regarding the hypothesis that virus appeared
their classification as living beings. Their before cellular beings in the evolution of
characteristics of self-reproduction and life.
of having genetic material however
reinforce that classification.
5. What is the genetic material

of a virus? How does that
2. What is the basic structure material act in viral
of a virus? reproduction?
Viruses are constituted of genetic There are DNA viruses (double strand or
material (DNA or RNA) covered by a single strand DNA) and RNA viruses
protein capsule also known as a capsid. (double strand or single strand RNA
Some viruses, like HIV, have in addition too). Viruses inoculate their DNA or RNA
an external envelope derived from the molecules into cells and these cells (by
plasma membrane of the host cell from means of transcription or reverse
which it came. transcription and translation) synthesize
proteins for the assembling of a new
virus. This synthesis is commanded by
the viral DNA or RNA molecules.
3. Are there non-parasitic
viruses?
All viruses are obligate intracellular 6. What is the typical

parasites, i.e., they depend on the host reproduction cycle of a DNA
cell to complete their life cycle. A virus virus?
does not have its own metabolism.
A typical virus has proteins on its capsid
that bind to the outer membrane of the
host cell. In the place where the virus
adhered viral proteins act to break the
cell membrane and then the virus
120
injects its DNA molecules into the host 8. What is the basic structure
cell. of the HIV virus? What is the
function of the glycoproteins
Within the host cell the viral DNA is
transcripted and thus messenger RNA is of its envelope?
produced. Viral mRNA then is translated
and viral proteins are made. HIV is an RNA virus. In its core there
are two strands of RNA and reverse
Viral polypeptides made within the host transcriptase molecules. The core is
cell are cut by enzymes called proteases covered by a capsid, a layer of proteins.
and then copies of the virus are The capsid then is covered by an
assembled with the newly formed envelope having glycoproteins and
proteins. When the assemblage of new lipids.
viruses is completed the cell membrane
breaks and the viruses are released to The glycoproteins of the HIV envelope
the outside. One sole infected cell can are located on the outer surface of the
produce hundreds of viruses. virus and they are responsible for the
recognition of the cells to be infected
(the HIV host cell is the CD4
lymphocyte) and for the adhesion of the
7. What are retroviruses? How virus to the cell membrane. (CD4 is a
do they reproduce and what is receptor glycoprotein of the outer
membrane of some lymphocytes).
the role of the enzyme reverse
transcriptase?
Retroviruses are viruses whose genetic 9. What are bacteriophages?

material is RNA. HIV and the virus of
SARS (severe acute respiratory Bacteriophages are viruses specialized
syndrome) are examples of retrovirus. in parasitism of bacteria. They are used
in genetic engineering as molecular
These viruses inoculate their RNA into cloning vehicles to insert recombinant
the host cell and within the cell the viral DNA into bacteria. They were also used
RNA is reversely transcripted into DNA. in the former Soviet Union to treat
DNA made from the viral RNA then bacterial infections.
commands the synthesis of viral
proteins for the assemblage of new Bacteriophages have a polyhedron-like
viruses and the breaking of the host cell capsid and DNA as genetic material. The
to liberate them outside. “head” of the virus is connected to a tail
that ends in small fibers that help the
The enzyme reverse transcriptase is the virus to attach to the bacterial cell wall
catalyst of the reverse transcription of and to inject its genetic material into
RNA into DNA. The enzyme is part of the host.
the virus and it is also inoculated into
the host cell.
121
10. What is meant when it is 12. SARS is a disease that
said that a virus is in an appeared in 2003 with
inactive state? epidemic features in the
province of Guangdong, in
Viruses considered in inactive state are east China. What type of agent
those whose genetic material is within causes SARS?
host cells without synthesis of viral
proteins and assemblage of new virus.
SARS is caused by a virus from the
The life cycle of these viruses can be
coronavirus group, a RNA virus
activated under certain conditions and
(retrovirus). SARS can be fatal.
then synthesis of viral proteins begins
and new copies are made.
The virus that causes herpes (herpes

virus) is an example of a virus that 13. What is crystallization of a
stays in an inactive state and is virus? What is the importance
sometimes activated. of this process?
Crystallization is the process of

transformation of viral components into
11. What are the main human organized solid particles.
diseases caused by virus?
Crystallization of biological
Among diseases caused by virus are macromolecules, including viral
common cold, mumps, variola components, is used to study structural
(considered eradicated nowadays), characteristics, for example, through X-
rubella, measles, AIDS, the viral rays, laser beams, etc.
hepatitis, human papillomatosis (HPV
infection), rabies, dengue fever, yellow
fever, poliomyelitis (an almost
eradicated disease in developed
countries), hemorrhagic fever from
Ebola virus, SARS (severe acute
respiratory syndrome).
Viruses also cause many other diseases

in animals and plants.
122
Zoology
123
124
For example, the scientific name of the
Life Kingdoms human species is "Homo sapiens",
indicating that it belongs to the genus
Homo.
1. What is the Biology field Scientific nomenclature of species is

that studies the classification important because it universalizes the
way to refer to a species making it
of living beings?
easier for people of different languages
and cultures to understand each other.
The Biology field that studies the Same species that have very different
classification of living beings is called names in different regions of the planet
Taxonomy. can be identified easily by their scientific
binomial name.
2. Into which categories are

living beings classified? 4. What are the five kingdoms
into which living beings are
Living beings are classified, from the divided? Which group of living
broader to the more particular category, being is out of this
into kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species (KPCOFGS
classification?
can be used as mnemonic). Kingdom is
the broadest category and the others in The five kingdoms of living beings are
sequence are encompassed by the the kingdom Monera, the kingdom
previous one. Protista, the kingdom Fungi, the
kingdom Plantae and the kingdom
Animalia.
3. What is meant by binomial Viruses are out of this classification and

nomenclature and what are its sometimes they are said to belong to
their own kingdom, the kingdom Virus.
basic rules?
Scientific nomenclature of a species

must have, at least, two names: one 5. According to cellular
that classifies it as genus and the other organization how are living
that identifies it as species. The name
related to genus is the first and must
beings divided into two
begin in uppercase, the other following groups?
names must be written in lowercase.
Besides this rule, scientific names of Cellular beings are divided into two
species must stand out and be written groups: the prokaryotes, unicellular
either in italics or underlined or still beings whose sole cell does not have a
bolded or between quotation marks. delimited nucleus, and eukaryotes, uni
125
or multicellular beings with cells having 10. Which are the beings that
delimited nucleus. form the kingdom Animalia?
What are the two big groups
into which this kingdom is
6. Which are the beings that divided?
constitute the kingdom
Monera? The kingdom Animalia is the animal
kingdom. Commonly the kingdom
Animalia is subdivided into invertebrates
The kingdom Monera is the kingdom of
and vertebrates.
the prokaryotes, composed of bacteria
and archaebacteria.
11. What are the nine phyla of

7. Which are the beings that the kingdom Animalia?
form the kingdom Protista?
The nine phyla of the animal kingdom
are: Porifera (poriferans), Cnidaria
The kingdom Protista comprises
(cnidarians), Platyhelminthes
protozoans and algae.
(flatworms), Nematoda (roundworms),
Annelida (annelids), Mollusca
(molluscs), Arthropoda (arthropods),
Echinodermata (echinoderms) and
8. Which are the beings that Chordata (chordates).
form the kingdom Fungi?
The kingdom Fungi is formed by fungi.

12. What are the two mains
divisions of the chordate
phylum?
9. Which are the beings that
form the kingdom Plantae? Chordates are divided into
Are algae part of this protochordates (cephalochordates and
kingdom? urochordates) and vertebrates.
The kingdom Plantae is composed of

plants.
13. What are the differences
Algae are classified into the kingdom between vertebrates and the
Protista and not into the kingdom other chordates?
Plantae (they are not plants).
Vertebrates are different because they
have a spinal column (vertebral
column). In these animals the
126
notochord of the embryonic stage is promising methods to study phylogeny
substituted by the vertebral column in is the comparison of DNA molecules
adults. from different groups of living beings
researching similarities and differences
in nucleotide sequences that may
indicate more or less relatedness among
14. What are the five classes species.
of vertebrates? To which of
these do human beings
belong?
The five classes of vertebrates are:

fishes (osteichthyes and
chondrichthyes), amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals. Humans classify as
mammals.
15. What is an evolutionary

tree? Is there a precise
evolutionary tree known by
science that explains the
emergence and origin of every
type of living being?
Evolutionary tree is the pictorial and

schematic representation of
evolutionary relations among species of
living beings in which the trunk (or a
preceding branch) represents common
ascendants of species and groups of
living beings that are distributed along
its branches according to hypothesis on
their origin. For example, today it is
admitted that birds and mammals are
two distinct branches of the same
preceding reptile branch.
Biology cannot assures a definite

evolutionary tree (phylogeny) on the
species of living beings that live or have
lived in our planet. There are many data
to be discovered and many knowledge
gaps to be filled. One of the most
127
4. How does water move
Poriferans inside sponges? What is the
function of the pores in these
animals?
1. What are poriferans?
Sponges are filtering beings. They make
The phylum Porifera contains the water enter their bodies by their lateral
simplest creatures of the animal pores. Water then circulates inside the
kingdom. Sponges are aquatic sessile central cavity and exits through the
beings (they are not able to move by osculum.
themselves and they keep themselves
attached to substrates), they do not
have tissue diversity and their bodies
have pores (feature after which their 5. How do sponges try to
name comes). protect themselves against
harm from the environment?
They are multicellular, like all beings of Is that method efficient or
the animal kingdom. rudimentary?
Sponges can close their pores to avoid

2. What is the way of life of the entrance of water into their bodies
in the presence of stimulus that may
sponges? mean danger. This method however is
rudimentary but it is actually a
Sponges live exclusively in an aquatic protection attempt against nocent
environment and they are attached by agents.
their base to a substrate (fixation
ground). Sponges are filtering animals,
they nourish themselves from nutrients
that enter their atrium brought in with 6. What are the main cells of
water. which poriferans are made?
Sponges have their outer wall covered

3. What is the typical shape of by flat cells called pinacocytes and
having pores well-delimited by special
poriferans? cells called porocytes. The internal wall
is filled with choanocytes, flagellate cells
Sponges have bodies in the form of specialized in phagocytosis of food
tubular vases or globes open in the brought to the central cavity; the
upper extremity. They have an internal choanocyte flagella also maintains the
central cavity and porous walls. The water flux inside the sponge.
central cavity is called spongocoel and
the opening in the upper extremity is Between the outer and the inner
called osculum. coverage of the poriferan body there are
128
cells with amoeboid movement (by cells that absorb molecular oxygen and
pseudopods), the amoebocytes; since liberate carbon dioxide.
they are embedded in connective
matrix, amoebocytes move and
distribute nutrients to other cells and
they also produce spicules that like a 10. Do sponges have nervous,
primitive skeleton fill the tissue and circulatory and excretory
support the body structure. (Some systems?
poriferans have an internal skeleton, an
endoskeleton, made of spicules and
organic fibers.) Sponges do not have a nervous system
neither circulatory system nor excretory
system.
7. Concerning digestion how

are poriferans characterized? 11. Is reproduction in sponges
sexual or asexual?
Sponges are different from other
animals since they present only
intracellular digestion. They do not have Reproduction in sponges can be asexual
a digestive system nor do they release by budding, gemmation or
digestive enzymes in the spongocoel to fragmentation (regeneration) or sexual
cause extracellular break down of with larval stage (a ciliated
nutrients. amphiblastula larva).
8. How are animals divided 12. What is the evolutionary

according to their type of advantage of the occurrence
digestive process? of sperm cells and larval stage
in the life cycle of sponges?
Apart from sponges, that do not have a
digestive cavity where extracellular The sexual reproduction in sponges, in
digestion takes place, all other animals addition to contributing to genetic
have a digestive system with an internal variability, also facilitates the
cavity in which extracellular digestion colonization of farther environments by
occurs. these beings, since sperm cells and
larvae are mobile and can swim in the
exterior to compensate the immobility
of the adult individual.
9. How are gases exchanged
in sponges?
The gas exchange in sponges happens

by diffusion from the exterior to the
129
13. What is the economic
importance of sponges?
Some chemical substances secreted by

sponges have anti-inflammatory,
antibiotic and anti-tumoral activities and
they are used in the production of
medicines. Since ancient times the
endoskeleton of some sponges has had
commercial value, they are used as
cleansing implements for baths (bath
sponges), to wash animals, objects and
so on.
14. Sponge identity card. How

are sponges characterized
according to example of
representing beings, basic
morphology, type of
symmetry, embryonic (germ)
layers and coelom, digestive
system, respiratory system,
circulatory system, excretory
system, nervous system and
types of reproduction?
Example of representing beings:

sponges. Basic morphology: tubular or
globular body with spongocoel, sessile;
choanocytes, pinacocytes and
amoebocytes. Type of symmetry: not
established. Germ layers and coelom:
do not apply since poriferans do not
have true tissue organization. Digestive
system: nonexistent. Respiratory
system: nonexistent. Circulatory
system: nonexistent. Excretory system:
nonexistent. Nervous system:
nonexistent. Types of reproduction:
asexual and sexual with larval stage.
130
3. Concerning tissue
Cnidarians complexity how different are
cnidarians from poriferans?
1. What are some examples of Cnidarians have true tissue

differentiation, they present distinct
cnidarians? In which
organized tissues in the body. Poriferans
environments can these present only some dispersed specialized
animals be found? cells with no tissue differentiation.
Jellyfish, hydra, corals and sea

anemones are good examples. All of
them are aquatic and most live in the 4. Which are the germ layers
sea. present in cnidarians? Which
tissues of the animal do they
originate?
2. What are the two main
These beings present ectoderm and
morphological patterns of
endoderm, two germ layers. Animals
cnidarians? Concerning with only two germ layers are called
locomotion how do these diploblastic animals.
forms differentiate from each
other? The ectoderm gives birth to the
epidermis and the endoderm originates
the covering of the digestive cavity.
Morphologically, cnidarians classify as
polyps or medusae. Polyps are
cylindrical and medusae are circular
convex, like an umbrella. Both shapes
have tentacles.
5. Why is the digestive system
of these animals called
In general polyps are sessile but some incomplete?
species, like hydra, can move by
alternating contact points on the Incomplete digestive system is that in
substrate and performing somersaults. which the digestive cavity has only one
Medusae can move expelling water jets opening.
by contraction of the body.
Some cnidarians alternate polypoid and

medusoid forms in their life cycle.
131
6. What is the type of 9. What are the types of
digestion that occurs in reproduction presented by
cnidarians? cnidarians?
These animals have a digestive cavity They present asexual and sexual
and they make extracellular and reproduction.
intracellular digestion. The extracellular
digestion takes place within the
digestive cavity.
10. What is the type of
asexual reproduction that
occurs in hydras?
7. What are cnidocytes? What
is the name of the capsule Hydras reproduce asexually by budding.
inside the cnidocyte? What are
the biological functions of this
structure?
11. What is metagenesis?
Cnidocytes are specialized cells present What are the other names of
in coelenterates. They are found in the this process?
epidermis and contain toxic substances
that can hurt, paralyze or even kill other Metagenesis is the type of life cycle in
animals. which there are two different forms of
individuals of the same species, one
Each cnidocyte has an internal capsule haploid and the other diploid. In one of
know as nematocyst where the actual these stages gametogenesis occurs and
urticating substance is stored. When a fecundated gametes give birth to the
cnidocyte is excited it causes the zygote that then develops into the other
nematocyst to expose a filament form. Metagenesis is also known as
containing the toxic chemical. alternation of generations or as
diplobiont life cycle. (All plants, for
Cnidocytes and their nematocysts have example, present metagenesis.)
the biological functions of defending the
individual from external aggression and
of helping to capture their prey.
12. In the metagenesis of

Aurelia and Obelia what is the
8. How is the nervous tissue
form that produces gametes?
distributed in cnidarians?
What is the form that
Their nervous system is diffuse, there reproduces asexually?
are no brain or ganglia.
In the metagenesis of some
coelenterates, like Aurelia and Obelia,
132
there is alternation between polypoid examples are hydras, by-the-wind-
and medusoid forms. The polyps sailors and Obelia. In scyphozoans the
reproduce asexually originating main phase is the medusoid and the
medusae that then liberate gametes. best known example is the common
The male and female gametes unite jellyfish (Aurelia). In anthozoans there
under water to form the zygote that is only the polypoid form and corals and
then develops into larva and later sea anemones are notable in this group.
originates another polyp.
The form that reproduces asexually is

the polyp. Polyps give birth to medusae 15. What does radial
by budding in Obelia and by symmetry means? What is the
strobilization in Aurelia.
type of symmetry found in
chordates? Which are other
phyla of the animal kingdom
13. What is the name of the that present species with
larva of corals and sea radial symmetry?
anemones? What is the
biological importance of that Radial symmetry means (biologically)
larval stage? that the animal structures are situated
in a radial or circular pattern around a
center point with nonexistence of sides,
Sexual reproduction in corals and sea like right or left. An alternative type of
anemones have a larval stage and the symmetry in which structures are
larva is called planula. placed equally in the sides of a
longitudinal axis is the lateral symmetry
Many marine animals are sessile or (the symmetry present in human
practically sessile, like sponges, corals beings, for example).
and sea anemones. The mobile larval
stage of their life cycle provides better Chordates present lateral symmetry.
spatial distribution of these species.
Besides cnidarians another animal
phylum with species presenting
secondary radial symmetry is the
14. What are the main classes phylum Echinodermata. (It is considered
into which the phylum is that the simplicity of poriferans does not
divided? What are some characterize any symmetry.)
examples of each and in which
form (polyp or medusae) are
they found? 16. What are corals?
Coelenterates are divided into three
Corals are characterized by their
main classes: hydrozoans, scyphozoans
polypoid shape, sessility and slow
and anthozoans. In hydrozoans the
growth and secretion of a solid skeleton
polypoid form predominates and
133
made of calcium carbonate. Numerous
coral individuals associate in
intraspecific harmonic ecological
interaction forming colonies with
hundreds, thousands and even millions
of beings. Water-permeated solid
structures of these colonies, known as
reefs, work as true ecosystems for other
living beings. The biggest known coral
colony is the Great Barrier Reef in the
northeast coast of Australia. There are
however many coral species whose
individuals live alone and do not form
colonies.
17. Cnidarian identity card.

How are they characterized
according to examples of
morphology, type of
symmetry, germ layers and
coelom, digestive system,
respiratory system, circulatory
system, excretory system,
nervous system and types of
reproduction?
Examples of representing beings:

jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydra.
Basic morphology: polyp or medusa.
Type of symmetry: radial. Germ layers
and coelom: diploblastics, acoelomate.
Digestive system: incomplete.
Respiratory system: nonexistent.
Circulatory system: nonexistent.
Excretory system: nonexistent. Nervous
system: diffuse. Types of reproduction:
asexual and sexual with larval stage and
metagenesis.
134
4. What are the types of
Platyhelminthes digestion and of digestive
system of platyhelminthes?
1. What are the best known Flatworms have incomplete digestive

systems and they present extracellular
representatives of the
and intracellular complementary
platyhelminth phylum? digestions.
The most popular representatives of the

platyhelminthes are worms that cause
human diseases, like taenia and 5. How are nutrients
schistosome. The planaria, since it is distributed by the digestive
been extensively studied in Biology, is
system in planarias?
also well known.
Planarias have single opening digestive

system (incomplete) with ramifications
2. What is the main external that transport nutrients to all areas of
the body.
morphological feature that
differentiates platyhelminthes
from other worms
(nematodes)? 6. How is gas exchange done
in flatworms?
Platyhelminthes are also known as
flatworms because they are worms with Platyhelminthes exchange gases
a flat body. This is the main external exclusively by diffusion through their
morphological feature that differentiates body surface. This is only possible
them from nematodes (roundworms). because all cells are localized relatively
near to the exterior since gases diffuse
cell by cell (the flat shape of these
worms is a feature that allows this type
3. How many germ layers of respiration).
originate the body of
platyhelminthes? In relation
to this characteristic how are
7. Poriferans and cnidarians
these animals classified?
do not have excretory
Platyhelminthes are the first triploblastic
systems. Do platyhelminthes
animals (remember that cnidarians are have an excretory system?
diploblastic), i.e., they present three
germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and Platyhelminthes have a primitive
endoderm. excretory system made of flame cells
135
(also called solenocytes), excretory appear, a characteristic of the
ducts and excretory pores. evolutionary process of increased
nervous complexity. In platyhelminthes
one can note the beginning of the
cephalization process, with a
8. What is an example of concentration of neurons (nervous cells)
freshwater flatworm? Due to in the anterior portion of the body and
the appearance of photoreceptor cells in
that habitat what is the
the ocelli.
physiological problem that
these animals must solve? With the increased capacity of these
animals to perceive and to interact with
Platyhelminthes of freshwater, like the surrounds due to the increased
planarias, have an internal environment complexity of their neural complexity, it
much more concentrated in solutes than is possible to find platyhelminthes in a
the exterior and so they present a variety of environments, including the
tendency to gain water. These terrestrial, and with diverse ways of life,
organisms then need a drainage system like those that are parasites and those
to avoid cell death caused by excessive that are free-living.
water.
The problem is solved by the presence

of protonephridia located along 10. What is cephalization?
longitudinal channels in the animal How does lateral symmetry
body. Protonephridia have ciliated cells, favor cephalization?
the flame cells, that push water outside
the body through excretory pores.
Cephalization is the evolutionary
tendency of concentration of the
nervous command in central structures
in which there are grouping of neurons
9. Is the nervous system in
(i.e, brain and ganglia formation).
platyhelminthes more or less Evolutionarily the cephalization process
sophisticated than in begins with the appearance of ganglia
cnidarians? What are the main (group of neurons) in platyhelminthes
neural structures found in and reaches an apex in vertebrates,
flatworms? How is this neural animals with a cranial box to protect the
well-developed brain.
organization important for the
diversity of biological niches With lateral symmetry the body can be
explored by species of the divided into lateral portions, superior,
phylum? inferior, anterior and posterior. These
portions must be integrated and
Platyhelminthes present a more controlled in some manner and this
sophisticated nervous system than need stimulated the appearance of
cnidarians, as the first neural chords ganglial complexity and of beings with a
with ganglia (grouping of neurons) head, a privileged extremity of the
136
bilateral body where the nervous central 14. Is it possible for a
command and important sensory organs hermaphrodite species to
are located.
present cross-fecundation?
There are hermaphrodite species of

11. What is the type of animals and plants that present cross-
fecundation mainly due to the
reproduction, sexual or
maturation of female and male
asexual, that occurs in structures at different periods.
platyhelminthes?
Cross fecundation occurs in planarias,
Platyhelminthes may present sexual or hermaphrodites in which sexual
asexual reproduction. fecundation takes place with male and
female gametes from different
individuals. These individuals approach
their copulating structures and
12. How can asexual exchange gametes.
reproduction in planarias be
described?
15. What is direct
Planarias can divide themselves
development? Is there a larval
asexually by transversal bipartition due
to the great regeneration capability of stage in planarias?
their tissues. When they attach to a
substrate they can induce a constriction Sexual reproduction with direct
in their middle region and the body is development is that in which there is
then separated into two parts and each not a larval stage in the embryonic
of these parts gives birth to a new development. When a larval stage exists
individual as tissue regenerates. it is said to be indirect development.
In the sexual reproduction of planarias

there is no larval stage.
13. Are flatworms monoecious
or dioecious?
16. Into which classes are
There are monoecious hermaphrodite
flatworms, like planarias and taenias, platyhelminthes divided? How
and there are dioecious (having male are these classes
and female individuals) species too, like characterized and what are
schistosomes. some representative beings of
each of them?
Platyhelminthes are divided into three

classes: turbellarians (or Turbellaria),
137
trematodes (or Trematoda) and 18. Platyhelminth identity
cestodes (or Cestoda). card. How are platyhelminthes
characterized according to
Turbellarians are free-living
platyhelminthes and their main examples of representing
representative is the planaria (Dugesia beings, basic morphology,
tigrina). Trematodes are parasites, they type of symmetry, germ layers
live inside a host and the schistosome and coelom, digestive system,
(Schistosoma mansoni) that causes
schistosomiasis is an example. Cestodes
are parasites too, they do not have system, excretory system,
digestive tubes and their cells are nervous system and types of
nourished by absorption of nutrients reproduction?
from the host; their most popular
representative are the beef and pork Examples of representing beings:
taenias (Taenia saginata and Taenia planarias, schistosomes, taenias. Basic
solium) that parasite humans. morphology: flat worm. Type of
symmetry: bilateral. Germ layers and
coelom: triploblastics, acoelomates.
Digestive system: incomplete.
17. What are the main human Respiratory system: nonexistent,
diseases caused by respiration by diffusion. Circulatory
platyhelminthes? system: nonexistent. Excretory system:
protonephridia with flame cells. Nervous
system: ganglial, beginning of
The main human diseases caused by
cephalization. Types of reproduction:
platyhelminthes are schistosomiasis,
asexual and sexual.
tapeworm disease (cestodiasis) and
cysticercosis.
(Note:Diseases are studied in the

“Diseases” division of this e-book.)
138
4. What are the morphological
Nematodes similarities and differences
between nematodes and
annelids?
1. What are examples of
nematodes? Nematodes, like annelids, have a
cylindrical elongated body. Annelids
differentiate from nematodes by
Ascaris, hookworm and filaria, all
presenting a segmented body (body
parasites of humans, are examples of
divided into metameres) and so they
nematodes (also known as
are called segmented worms.
roundworms).
5. Are nematodes diploblastic

2. Are nematodes exclusively
or triploblastic animals?
parasites?
Just like platyhelminthes, nematodes
There are parasitic roundworms,
are triploblastics, i.e., they present
including parasites of plants, but there
three germ layers (ectoderm,
are also free-living nematodes.
mesoderm and endoderm).
3. What is the typical 6. What is the main

morphological feature of evolutionary innovation
nematodes that differentiates presented by nematodes?
them from platyhelminthes? What is the advantage of that
innovation?
Nematodes are also known as
roundworms. As the name indicates
they are not flat like platyhelminthes. In The main evolutionary innovation of
evolutionary grounds with the nematodes is the complete digestive
nematodes the first complete digestive system, with two openings (mouth and
system appears, with mouth and anus, anus).
and the pseudocoelom is also a novelty.
Since the ingestion and the defecation
processes can occur in different
extremities of the digestive tube, beings
with a complete digestive system have
the advantage of ingesting new food
while residuals of already eaten food are
still inside the body and not yet
eliminated.
139
7. Compared to 9. How is the nervous system
platyhelminthes which of nematodes organized?
physiological problem have Where are the neural chords
the cylindrical body of located in their body?
nematodes brought? How was
that problem solved? Roundworms have a ganglial nervous
system with an anterior neural ring
The cylindrical shape of nematodes representing (evolutionarily) a primitive
made impossible the respiration cephalization.
exclusively by simple diffusion among
cells since there are tissues far from the Nematodes have two main longitudinal
exterior. This problem was solved by ganglial chords that extend one dorsally
the presence of an inner cavity in the and the other ventrally under the
body filled with fluid, the pseudocoelom. epidermis. There may also be nerves
The pseudocoelom has the function of lateral to these main chords. The
distributing gases and nutrients to the nervous system of a free-living
body and to collect residuals, besides nematode, “Caenorhabditis elegans”,
serving as a hydrostatic base to keep has been well-studied in
the worm shape. neurophysiological research and
presents 302 neurons.
(For the fact that the pseudocoelom
fluid and the pseudocoelom do not The nematode “C. Elegans” was the
characterize a true circulatory system organism used in the research on the
with blood and heart it is not said that genetic regulation of organogenesis and
in nematodes the respiration is apoptosis whose researchers won the
cutaneous; it is considered that these Nobel prize of Medicine in 2002
animals still make respiration by (Brenner, Horvitz and Sulston).
diffusion).

8. How does the excretory reproduction that occurs in
system of nematodes work? roundworms? What typical
feature do nematode sperm
The metabolic residuals of nematodes cells have?
are collected by two longitudinal lateral
excretory channels that open in one Nematodes reproduce sexually. The
single excretory pore near the mouth. nematode sperm cell does not have cilia
nor flagella and they move by amoeboid
movement forming pseudopods.
140
diseases caused by
roundworms?
The main human diseases caused by

nematodes are ascariasis,
ancylostomiasis (hookworm infection)
and filariasis (commonly known by its
consequence, elephantiasis).
12. Nematode identity card.

How are nematodes
examples of representing
beings, basic morphology,
type of symmetry, germ layers
and coelom, digestive system,
reproduction?

ascaris, hookworms, filaria, pinworms.
Basic morphology: cylindric (round)
body, not segmented. Type of
coelom: triploblastics,
pseudocoelomates. Digestive system:
complete. Respiratory system:
respiration by diffusion. Circulatory
system: circulating fluid within the
pseudocoelom. Excretory system:
excretory channels and excretory pore.
Nervous system: ventral and dorsal
ganglial chord, primitive cephalization.
Types of reproduction: sexual.
141
Another important evolutionary novelty
Annelids of the annelids is the closed circulatory
system.

annelids? 4. What is the morphological
characteristic that
Earthworms, leeches and lugworms. evolutionarily approximates
the beings of the phylum
Annelida to arthropods?
2. Which are the The metameric feature, i.e., the body
morphological features that segmentation in metameres,
differentiate the beings of the approximates annelids to arthropods
phylum Annelida from since these animals are segmented
nematodes and beings too. (Bristles present in
oligochaete and polychaete annelids are
platyhelminthes?
also covered with chitin, the same
substance of the arthropod
Platyhelminthes are worms with flat exoskeleton.)
bodies (flatworms), nematodes are
worms with cylindrical but not
segmented bodies (roundworms).
Annelids are cylindrical worms with 5. How does digestion in
segmented bodies (they are
beings of the phylum Annelida
metameric).
work and which type of
digestive system do they
have?
3. What is the main
evolutionary novelty Digestion in beings of the phylum
presented by annelids? Annelida is extracellular. These animals
have a complete digestive system, with
The main evolutionary novelty mouth and anus.
presented by the beings of the phylum
Annelida is the coelom, the internal
body cavity totally covered by
mesoderm, a feature also present in 6. Which are the
arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms and characteristics and organs of
chordates. Platyhelminthes are the digestive system of
acoelomate and nematodes are earthworms related to the
pseudocoelomate (their internal cavity
type of diet of these animals?
is partially covered by mesoderm).
142
Earthworms eat decomposing organic 8. How is the respiratory
material and small organisms ingested system of beings of the
together with soil particles. The
phylum Annelida
digestive tubes of earthworms have
special structures, like a muscular wall characterized?
and a gizzard, that triturate the food
and scratch it against the ingested soil Respiration in annelids can be
particles. Since annelid digestion is cutaneous or branchial. Cutaneous
exclusively extracellular earthworms respiration occurs due to the rich
also present in the posterior part of vascularity under the epidermis. The
their digestive system structures like gills, present in aquatic annelids, are
the cecum and the typhlosole that have located in the parapodia (false claws)
the function of increasing the absorption that have an extensive capillary net.
surface of the intestine.
9. What is meant when it is

7. The vascular lesions caused said that beings of the phylum
by leeches upon the blood Annelida are vascular beings?
vessels of their host cause From which other phyla of the
blood naturally to coagulate. animal kingdom does this
How does the leech solve this feature differentiate them?
problem since it could be
expected that the ingested The classification of these beings as
blood would coagulate inside vascular beings means that they have a
its body? circulatory system, with vessels that
distribute substances throughout the
body.
Ingested blood does not coagulate
inside the leech (Hirudo medicinalis) Poriferans, cnidarians and flatworms do
because in its saliva there is a potent not have a circulatory system. In
anticoagulant substance, a protein nematodes there is circulation of gases
called hirudin. and nutrients through the pseudocoelom
fluid.
In the past leeches were largely used as
medical treatment. Nowadays
hirudotherapy is being used in patients
with extensive and chronic inflammation
of the skin, in prevention against tissue
10. How are the circulatory
necrosis after some surgeries and in
several others fields of Medicine. systems of animals classified?
A circulatory system is classified as

open or closed. In open circulatory
systems blood gets out of vessels and
flows also to large cavities that perfuse
143
the tissues to be irrigated. In closed 14. How can the excretory
circulatory systems blood circulates only system of annelids be
within blood vessels and through the
described?
heart.
In each segment (metamere) of the

being a pair of complete excretory
11. What is the type of structures called metanephridium exists.
The metanephridium has an extremity,
circulatory system present in
the nephrostoma, which collects
annelids? residuals from the coelom, filtering
them and causing reabsorption along its
In beings of the phylum Annelida the extension (similar to human nephron
circulatory system is closed, i.e., blood tubules). The material to be excreted
circulation takes place only within goes out through a pore, the
specialized vessels. nephridiopore, which opens in the body
surface.
12. Is there a respiratory

pigment in the annelid blood? 15. How is the nervous system
characterized in beings of the
The blood in beings of the phylum phylum Annelida? How can
Annelida contains the respiratory one compare cephalization in
pigment hemoglobin (the same found in annelids to cephalization in
chordates) and other pigments too.
nematodes and
platyhelminthes?
13. How can the presence, Annelids have a nervous system made
localization and function of of two ventral chords and one relatively
muscular tissue in beings of big nervous cell concentration in its
anterior portion resembling a primitive
the phylum Annelida be brain.
explained?
Nematodes have an anterior neural ring
In these beings there are a longitudinal connected to two neural chords, a
muscular layer under the epidermis and, ventral and a dorsal one, while in
internally juxtaposed and perpendicular planarias (platyhelminthes) there are
to it, another circular (radial to the axis) only two small anterior “cerebral”
muscular layer. The circular muscle ganglia from which neural chords split.
layer has the function of elongating the Cephalization in annelids thus is more
body while the longitudinal shortens it. outstanding than in nematodes or in
By alternating actions both promote flatworms.
movement.
144
16. What is the clitellum of 20. What is the ecological role
earthtworms and where it is of earthworms?
located?
Earthworms have an important
The clitellum is a special region of the ecological role as they eat decomposing
annelid constituted by rings organic material. They also dig tunnels
(metameres) with reproductive function. in the subsoil allowing the entrance of
It can be found in the anterior portion of gases and nutrients that are useful for
the animal and it is characterized by a plant roots and other living beings. So
lighter color in comparison to the they act as decomposers and as
normal color of the other segments. fertilizers too.
17. Concerning the occurrence 21. Into which classes is the

of separated sexes how are phylum Annelida divided?
the beings of the phylum
Annelida classified? The phylum is divided into three
classes: oligochaetes (for example,
earthworms), hirudineans (e.g.,
These beings may be dioecious (the
leeches) and polychaetes (these are
majority of polychaetes) or
mostly marine aquatic with parapodia,
hermaphrodite monoecious
like nereis).
(oligochaetes and hirudineans).
22. Annelid Identity card. How

18. Is the embryonic
are they characterized
development in earthworms
direct or indirect?
In earthworms there is no larval stage,
morphology, type of
so the embryonic development is direct. symmetry, germ layers and
coelom, digestive system,
19. What is the name of the nervous system and types of
larval stage of polychaetes? reproduction?
Among the annelid classes only
polychaetes present a larval stage. Their
earthworms, leeches, lugworms. Basic
larva is called trocophore.
morphology: cylindrical body,
segmented (metameric). Type of
coelom: triploblastics, coelomates.
145
Digestive system: complete. Respiratory
system: cutaneous or branchial.
Circulatory system: closed, with
hemoglobin. Excretory system: a pair of
metanephridia in each metamere.
Nervous system: neural chords, a pair
of ganglia per metamere, anterior
concentration of neurons (primitive
brain). Types of reproduction: sexual,
with dioecious and monoecious beings.
146
4. Concerning germ layers and
Arthropods the presence of coelom how
are arthropods characterized?
1. What are some examples of Arthropods are triploblastic (they have

three germ layers) and coelomate
arthropods?
beings.
Ants, flies, cockroaches, shrimps, crabs,

spiders and scorpions are examples of
arthropods. 5. Considering the presence of
segmentation (metameres) in
their body to which other
2. What are the classes into already studied phylum are
which the phylum Arthropoda arthropods proximal?
is divided? What are the three
main ones and some of their Considering their metameric feature
arthropods are proximal to annelids that
representative species?
also have segmented bodies. In the
embryonic development of some
The three main classes of arthropods arthropods there are fusions of
are: insects (cockroachs, ants, flies, metameres forming structures like, for
bees, beetles, butterflies), crustaceans example, the cephalothorax of
(crabs, lobsters, shrimps, barnacles) arachnids.
and arachnids (scorpions, spiders,
mites). Other classes are
onychophorans (velvet worms),
diplopods (millipedes) and chilopods 6. What is the external rigid
(centipedes).
carapace of arthropods called?
Of which substance is it
made? Which type of organic
3. What are the main molecule is that substance?
morphological features of
arthropods? The external carapace of arthropods is
called exoskeleton. The arthropod
Arthropods present three distinguishing exoskeleton is made of chitin, a
features: they are metameric beings nitrogen-containing polysaccharide.
(segmented body), they have an
exoskeleton made of chitin and they
present articulated limbs.
147
7. How do arthropods grow? 10. What is the type of
digestive system present in
Due to the presence of exoskeleton the beings of the phylum
growth of an arthropod is periodical. Arthropoda? Are these
During the growth period the animal
animals protostomes or
loses the exoskeleton, grows and
develops a new exoskeleton. This deuterostomes?
process is named ecdysis, or molting.
The digestive tube of arthropods is
complete, containing mouth and anus.
Arthropods are protostome animals, i.e.,
8. How does the presence of in their embryonic development the
exoskeleton explain the blastopore originates the mouth.
general small size of
arthropods?
11. How is the extracorporeal
Since they have exoskeleton and digestion associated to
periodic ecdysis, the growth of
predation in arachnids?
arthropods is limited to avoid the animal
becoming vulnerable to environmental
harm. There are however some Arachnids can inoculate poison to
arthropod species with relatively large- paralyze or kill their preys using
sized individuals, like “giant” structures called chelicerae. The prey is
cockroaches, crabs and spiders. partially digested outside the body of
the arachnid by digestive enzymes
inoculated together with the venom or
injected posteriorly. After this
9. How can the features of the extracorporeal digestion the food is
ingested and gains the digestive tube of
arthropod exoskeleton explain
the predator where the extracellular
the terrestrial adaptation of digestion continues.
some species of the phylum?
In the arthropod exoskeleton there is a

layer of wax which is impermeable. This 12. Which organs or
feature was fundamental for primitive respiratory adaptations do
arthropods from the sea to survive on aquatic and terrestrial
dry land without losing excessive water
arthropods respectively
to the environment.
present?
In crustaceans, typical aquatic beings,

there are richly vascularized gills that
make contact with water and permit gas
exchange. In terrestrial insects the
respiration is tracheal and gases flow
148
inside small tubes that connect the 15. What are respiratory
animal external surface and ramify to pigments? What is the
tissues and cells without the
respiratory pigment present in
participation of blood. In arachnids,
besides the tracheal respiration, book some arthropods? Which is
lungs (thin folds resembling leaves in a the analogous molecule in
book) may also exist. humans?
Respiratory pigments are molecules able

to carry oxygen and other respiratory
13. In arthropods why isn't gases present in circulatory fluids.
gas exchange done through
cutaneous diffusion? In crustaceans and in arachnids
hemocyanin is the respiratory pigment.
In arthropods the impermeability of the In humans the analogous pigment is
exoskeleton makes the passage of hemoglobin.
gases difficult. In addition the new
methods of respiration present in
arthropods were preserved by evolution
because they were more efficient for 16. How is the respiratory
those animals. system of insects (with its
independence between
circulation and respiration)
related to the motor agility of
some species of this arthropod
circulatory system present in
class?
arthropods? Do these animals
have heart and respiratory Even having low speed and low pressure
pigments? circulatory system, since it is a lacunar
(open) circulatory system, insects
In arthropods the respiratory system is perform extremely fast and exhaustive
open (lacunar). Blood, also known as movements with their muscle fibers, like
hemolymph, is pumped by a heart and wing beating. This is possible because in
falls into cavities (lacunas) irrigating these animals the respiration is
and draining tissues. independent from the open circulation.
Gas exchange is done with great speed
All arthropods have a heart. and efficiency by the tracheal system
Crustaceans and arachnids have that puts cells in direct contact with air.
respiratory pigments. Insects do not Muscles can then work fast and hard.
have respiratory pigments since their
blood does not carry gases (in them
gases reach tissues and cells through
tracheal structures).
149
17. How are the excretory 19. What are compound eyes?
systems of the three main
arthropod classes constituted? Arthropods have compound eyes made
of several visual units called ommatidia.
In crustaceans a pair of excretory Each ommatidium transmits visual
organs called green glands exists. The information through the optic nerve to
green glands collect residuals from the the brain, which interprets the image.
blood and other parts of the body. They Because they are round and numerous,
are connected by ducts to excretory these ommatidia, whose external
pores located under the base of the surfaces point in different directions
antennae and these pores release the creating independent images, cause
excretions outside. arthropod eyes have a large visual field,
larger than the visual field of
In insects small structures called vertebrates. Some insects have one or
malpighian tubules gather wastes from more simple eye besides their pair of
the blood and throw them into excretory compound eyes.
ducts that open in the intestine. In
these animals excretions are eliminated
together with feces.
20. How is arthropod
In arachnids, besides malpighian reproduction characterized?
tubules, there are coxal glands located
in the cephalothorax near the limbs that Reproduction in beings of the phylum
also participate in excretion. Arthropoda is sexual, with larval stage
in some insects and crustaceans
(arachnids present only direct
development).
18. What are the noteworthy
features of the nervous
system of arthropods?
In arthropods the nervous system has fecundation that occur in
more sophisticated sensory receptors arthropods? What is the
with well-advanced cephalization. In the predominant type?
anterior region of the body there is a
fusion of ganglia forming a brain In arthropods there are species having
connected to two ventral ganglial chains external fecundation and other species
having motor and sensory nerves. having internal fecundation. Internal
fecundation is predominant.
The boosted development of the
sensory system of arthropods provides
more adaptive possibilities for these
animals to explore many different
environments.
150
22. How is fecundation done emerging into the adult form. Imago is
in insects (external or the name given to the adult form of
insects with indirect development.
internal)? Is there copulation
between insects?
Fecundation in insects is internal, with 25. Is the stage when an

copulation. insect larva is within a cocoon
a stage of total biological
inactivity?
23. How are the main classes
of arthropods classified The period when the larva is within its
cocoon is a time of intense biological
according to the presence of activity since the larva is being
larval stage in their embryonic transformed into an adult animal.
development?
In crustaceans there are species with

direct and others with indirect 26. How are the three main
development. In insects there are arthropod classes
species without larval stage (ametabolic characterized according to the
insects), others undergoing indirect
presence of wings?
development beginning with an egg
stage followed by a nymph stage
(hemimetabolic insects) and others with Crustaceans and arachnids do not have
indirect development beginning with the wings. Most insects have wings.
larval stage (holometabolic insects).
The transformation of a larva into an

adult individual is called metamorphosis. 27. Most insects have wings.
Hemimetabolic insects undergo Which is the other animal
incomplete metamorphosis while phylum that contains
holometabolic insects undergo complete creatures with analogous
metamorphosis.
organs?
Besides the phylum Arthropoda another

24. What are nymph and animal phylum with flying creatures is
the chordate phylum, birds and
imago?
chiropterans mammals (bats) have
wings. In the past some reptiles that
Nymphs are larvae of hemimetabolic possibly originated the aves had wings
insects (like grasshoppers). They are too. There are also amphibians and
very similar to the adult insect although fishes that jump high exploring the
smaller. In holometabolic insects (like aerial environment.
butterflies) the larva makes a cocoon
(chrysalis, pupa) where it lives until
151
28. How are the three main 31. Which arthropod class is
arthropod classes the most diversified animal
characterized according to the group of the planet? How can
presence of antennae? this evolutionary success be
explained?
Crustaceans have two pairs of
antennae; insects have one pair; The insects are the animal group with
arachnids do not have antennae. most diversity of species. Almost
750000 insect species are known, about
55% of the total already cataloged
species of living beings (compare with
29. How are the three main mammals, with no more than 4000
arthropod classes known species). It is calculated however
characterized according to the that the number of unknown species of
insects may be over 2 million. The
body division?
insect population on the planet is
estimated to be more than 10 quintillion
In crustaceans and arachnids the head (1000000000000000000) individuals.
is fused with the thorax forming the
cephalothorax. Their body thus is The great evolutionary success of
divided into cephalothorax and insects is due to factors such as: small
abdomen. size and alimentary diversity, making
possible the exploration of numerous
In insects there are head, thorax and different ecological niches; wings that
abdomen. provided more geographic spread; the
tracheal respiration that gave them
motor agility; high reproductive rates
with production of great numbers of
30. How are the three main descendants.
arthropod classes
characterized according to the
number of limbs?
Most crustaceans have five pairs of of beings of the phylum
limbs. Insects have three pairs and Arthropoda that present a
arachnids present four pairs of limbs. high level of behavioral
sophistication?
Insects like some species of bees,

wasps, ants and termites form societies
that include hierarchy and job division
among members. Spiders build
sophisticated external structures, webs,
mainly to serve as a trap for capturing
prey. Another example is the
152
communication mechanism in some
bees known as the bee dance by which
an individual signal to others
information about the spatial position of
flower fields and other nectar sources.
33. Arthropod identity card.

How are arthropods
type of symmetry, germ layers
and coelom, digestive system,
reproduction?

cockroaches, flies, crabs, lobsters,
shrimps, spiders, scorpions, mites. Basic
morphology: segmented body
(metameric), articulated limbs,
chitinous exoskeleton, periodic ecdysis.
Type of symmetry: bilateral. Germ
layers and coelom: triploblastics,
coelomates. Digestive system:
complete. Respiratory system: tracheal
in insects, branchial in crustaceans,
tracheal and book lungs in arachnids.
Circulatory system: open, hemocyanin
in crustaceans and arachnids. Excretory
system: malpighian tubules in insects,
green glands in crustaceans, malpighian
tubules and coxal glands in arachnids.
Nervous system: ganglial. Types of
reproduction: sexual, with or without
larval stage in insects and crustaceans,
metamorphosis in some insects, no
larval stage in arachnids.
153
secreting a calcareous carapace, or
Molluscs shell, an exoskeleton to support and
protect them and to prevent
dehydration.
1. What are some

representatives of the phylum
Mollusca? 5. Are mollusc metameric
beings? Exclusively analyzing
Snails, octopuses, squids and oysters this feature could it be said
are examples of molluscs. that molluscs are
evolutionarily proximal to
nematodes or to annelids?
2. In which habitats do In molluscs there is not a body divided
molluscs live? into segments. Considering just this
feature it could be said that
Molluscs can be found in the sea, evolutionarily they are more proximal to
freshwater and in terrestrial nematodes than to annelids.
environments.
6. Into which classes are

3. What is the morphological mollusc divided? What are
feature of molluscs after some representing beings of
which the phylum is named? each class?
The word “mollusc” means “soft thing”. The phylum Mollusca is divided into five
Molluscs have soft bodies and this main classes: pelecypods, or bivalves
feature explains the name of the (Pelecypoda, or Bivalvia), includes
phylum. oysters, clams, mussels; gastropods
(Gastropoda), snails, sea slugs;
cephalopods (Cephalopoda), squids,
octopuses; scaphopods (Scaphopoda),
4. What are the biological tooth shells; Polyplacophora, chitons.
troubles that molluscs face There are a few other mollusc classes.
due to their soft body?
Because molluscs have a soft body they

are more fragile. They also have more
difficulty to support their bodies in
terrestrial environments or to fixate to
7. How is the body of
substrates in aquatic habitats. Many gastropods divided?
species solve these problems by
154
The body of gastropods is divided into 11. Which type of circulatory
three main portions: head, the visceral system do molluscs have?
mass and foot.
How can it be compared to the
respiratory system of
annelids?
digestive system in molluscs? Molluscs, with the exception of
cephalopods, have an open circulatory
Molluscs present extracellular digestion system, i.e., the blood circulates within
and a complete digestive system, with vessels, from the heart, but it also fills
mouth and anus. open lacunas or cavities. In annelids the
circulatory system is closed, i.e., the
blood circulates only inside blood
vessels.
9. What is the radula? What is
the function of this organ?
12. How is the large size of
Some molluscs have a tongue-like some cephalopods related to
structure with harsh saliences similar to
small teeth. This structure is called
the type of circulatory system
radula. The radula projects outside and they present?
helps to scrape food.
In cephalopods the circulatory system is
closed and this provides more speed
and pressure for the blood circulation
10. How is the respiratory allowing the existence of species with
system in aquatic molluscs large bodies, like octopuses and giant
characterized? What adaptive squids.
respiratory structure do
terrestrial molluscs present?
13. How is the excretory
Aquatic molluscs oxygenate their blood system of molluscs
through gills in direct contact with characterized?
water. In terrestrial molluscs the rich
vascularity under the mantle cavity
absorbs air doing the role of a primitive Molluscs have one or two pair of
lung. spongelike nephridia, similar to kidneys.
155
14. What type of exoskeleton 17. What is the function of the
do some molluscs present? feet in molluscs? How is the
mollusc foot related to the
Some molluscs, like bivalves and name given to the classes of
gastropods, secrete an external the phylum?
calcareous carapace (the shell). Calcium
carbonate is secreted by the mantle, a
The mollusc foot has the function of
fold in the epidermis, forming the shell.
locomotion, support, fixation, digging in
the environment and sometimes of
In pelecypods, the shell is made of two
holding prey.
valves that articulate and contain the
individual body within. In gastropods
The terminations of the names given to
the shell contains only part of the body,
the main mollusc classes come from the
the visceral mass.
Greek word “podos” that means foot.
Gastropods have feet in their ventral
region (as the name indicates);
pelecypods have ax-shaped feet (ax in
15. Do octopus and squids
Greek is “pelekys”); in cephalopods the
have exoskeleton? feet are near the head.
Octopus and squids generally do not

produce external shell (some squid
species can have an internal shell). One 18. How is the nervous system
cephalopod group, the nautiluses, of molluscs organized?
produces an external spiral shell.
Molluscs have well-developed sensory
structures. It is accepted that
cephalopods, like octopus and squid,
16. Which other phylum of the
have eyes with image formation. Snails
animal kingdom present have antennae and a pair of well-
species with exoskeleton? defined eyes. Bivalves do not present
eyes but they have photosensitive and
Arthropods present exoskeleton made of tactile cells.
chitin. Echinoderms do not have
exoskeleton but they present a Cephalization is evident in molluscs and
calcareous endoskeleton. Some neurons concentrate in a ganglial
chordates also have an external pattern.
carapace.
19. What are examples of the

ecological and economic
importance of molluscs?
156
Molluscs are important players in 21. Mollusc identity card. How
several food chains in ecosystems. Many are molluscs characterized
marine molluscs are part of a common
human diet, like octopus and squid,
very appreciated in the East, and representing beings, basic
oysters and mussels, consumed all morphology, type of
around the world. Besides molluscs that symmetry, germ layers and
are part of the food industry, pearls coelom, digestive system,
made by oysters have high commercial
value.
reproduction?
20. How are natural and
artificial pearls created? Examples of representing beings: snails,
sea slugs, octopuses, squids, mussels,
Pearls are made from small strange oysters. Basic morphology: soft body,
particles that deposit between the shell with or without calcareous shell. Type of
and the mantle of the oyster. These symmetry: bilateral. Germ layers and
particles trigger a defense process by coelom: triploblastics, coelomates.
the organism and they are gradually Digestive system: complete. Respiratory
covered by calcium carbonate layers system: branchial or, in terrestrial
secreted by the oyster thus giving birth gastropods, lungs. Circulatory system:
to pearls. open or, in cephalopods, closed.
Excretory system: nephridia. Nervous
In the artificial production of pearls a system: ganglial, advanced
small fragment of shell covered with cephalization in cephalopods. Types of
mantle pieces is inserted between the reproduction: sexual.
shell and the mantle of an oyster and a
pearl is formed around the graft.
157
4. How can the endoskeleton
Echinoderms of echinoderms be
characterized in comparison
to analogous structures
1. What are some present in vertebrates,
representatives of the arthropods and molluscs?
echinoderm phylum?
The echinoderm skeleton is internal,
Starfishes, sea cucumbers i.e., it is an endoskeleton. It is made of
(holothurians), sea urchins and brittle calcium carbonate (calcareous).
stars are examples of echinoderms.
Vertebrates also have internal skeleton
made of bones and cartilages.
Arthropods have an external carapace
made of chitin, a chitinous exoskeleton.
2. Under which environments
Some molluscs present a calcareous
do echinoderms live? shell that works as exoskeleton.
Echinoderms are marine animals, they

live in salt water.
5. What is the system that
permits movement and
fixation to echinoderms?
3. What are the basic
morphological features of
The system that permits movement and
echinoderms? fixation to substrates in echinoderms is
called the ambulacral system. In these
Echinoderms, as the name indicates animals water enters through a
(echino = spiny, derma = skin), are structure called madreporite, passes
creatures with spines originated from an through channels and reaches the
endoskeleton. Their endoskeleton is ambulacral feet in the undersurface of
made of calcareous plaques that besides the body. In the ambulacral region in
spines contain pedicellaria, small pincers contact with the substrate, there are
used to clean the body and to help the tube feet filled and emptied by water
capturing of prey. They also present a thus acting as suckers.
hydrovascular system known as the
ambulacral system. Adult echinoderms
have pentaradial symmetry; the radial
symmetry in these animals is
secondary, present only in adults.
158
6. What is the type of In echinoderms there are not well-
digestive system of defined respiratory (with the exception
of the holothurian group) and
echinoderms? circulatory systems. The ambulacral
hydrovascular system plays the function
Echinoderms present a complete of these systems.
digestive system, with mouth and anus.
10. Do echinoderms have an

7. Do sea urchins have teeth? excretory system? How is
excretion done in these
Sea urchins have a teeth-like structure
animals?
juxtaposed to the mouth and made of
five teeth connected to ossicles and
muscle fibers. This structure, known as Echinoderms do not have an excretory
Aristotle’s lantern, is use to scratch system. Their excretions are eliminated
food, mainly algae, from marine rocks. by diffusion.
8. What is the embryonic 11. How are the symmetry and

characteristic that the nervous system
evolutionarily makes characterized in echinoderms?
echinoderms proximal to
chordates? Adult echinoderms, along with
cnidarians, are the animals that present
radial symmetry, i.e., their body
Echinoderms and chordates are structures are distributed around a
deuterostomes, i.e., in their embryonic center. The radial symmetry in
development the blastopore turns into echinoderms however is a secondary
the anus. All other animals with radial symmetry, since their larval stage
complete digestive system are has bilateral symmetry and the radial
protostomes, i.e., their blastopore pattern appears only in adult individuals
originates the mouth. (there are some few adult echinoderms
with lateral symmetry). All other
The blastopore is the first opening of animals have lateral symmetry with
the digestive tube that appears in the exception of poriferans (no symmetry is
embryonic development. defined for them).
Echinoderms do not present

cephalization and they have a diffuse
9. Do echinoderms have network of nerves and neurons made of
respiratory and circulatory a neural ring around the mouth and of
systems? radial nerves that ramify to follow the
pentaradial structure of the body.
159
12. Do echinoderms present 15. Echinoderm identity card.
internal or external How are echinoderms
fecundation? Is there sex characterized according to
division among individuals? examples of representing
The fecundation in echinoderms is type of symmetry, germ layers
external, gametes are liberated in water and coelom, digestive system,
where fecundation occurs.
The majority of echinoderms are system, excretory system,
dioecious with male and female nervous system and types of
individuals. reproduction?
Examples of representing beings: sea

cucumber, sea urchin, starfishes. Basic
13. Is there a larval stage in morphology: calcareous endoskeleton
echinoderms? with spines, ambulacral system. Type of
symmetry: secondary radial. Germ
In echinoderms embryonic development layers and coelom: triploblastics,
is indirect, with ciliated larvae. coelomates. Digestive system:
complete, deuterostomes. Respiratory
system: nonexistent. Circulatory
system: nonexistent. Excretory system:
14. What are the classes into nonexistent. Nervous system: simple,
nerve network without ganglia or
which the phylum
cephalization. Types of reproduction:
Echinodermata is divided? sexual, with larval stage.
The five echinoderm classes are:

asteroids (starfishes), ophiuroids,
crinoids, holothuroids (sea cucumbers)
and echinoids (sea urchins and sand
dollars).
160
4. What is the destination of
Chordates the notochord in vertebrates
and in protochordates?
1. What are the two main In vertebrates the notochord disappears

and gives birth to the spinal column
subdivisions of the phylum
(vertebral column). In protochordates
Chordata? the notochord remains for the rest of
the life.
The phylum Chordata is divided into
protochordates (urochordates and
cephalochordates) and vertebrates
(cyclostomes, fishes, amphibians, 5. Is the tubular-dorsal
reptiles, birds and mammals). nervous system of chordates
associated to radial or lateral
symmetry? How does that
2. What are the three explain the complexity level of
structures shared by every the nervous system reached
chordate that characterize the by the vertebrate evolutionary
group? branch?
All beings of the phylum Chordata have The tubular and dorsal nervous system
branchial clefts in the pharynx (in some of chordates is related to the
species present only in the embryo), cephalization in these animals and to
notochord (substituted by the spinal bilateral symmetry.
column in vertebrates) and dorsal
neural tube. The presence of neural integrating
centers with concentration of neurons in
the brains and the spinal cord (central
nervous system, CNS) allowed the
3. What is the destination of increase of the interaction complexity
between these animals and the
the branchial clefts in
environment. Receptor (afferent
humans? conduction) and efferent (motor,
regulatory and behavioral reactions)
In humans the branchial clefts located functions come out more sophisticated
in the anterior region of the pharynx in chordates due to the presence of
(also known as pharyngeal clefts) are more well-developed neural networks.
present only in the embryonic stage and These features have been preserved by
disappear later. evolution as they provide adaptive
advantage to their owners.
161
6. How can the tubular-dorsal develop inside the mother’s body,
nervous system in chordates feeding from her).
be compared to the nervous
pattern present in
invertebrates? 9. Into which subphyla are the
protochordates divided? What
In chordates the nervous system is are some representatives of
dorsal and highly cephalized while in
each protochordate
most invertebrates the nervous system
is ganglial and ventral. subphylum?
Urochordates (or tunicates) and

cephalochordates are the two subphyla
7. What is the group of the into which protochordates are divided.
phylum Chordata that first
Ascidians, sessile animals similar to
colonized the terrestrial sponges, are examples of tunicates. The
environment? From which amphioxus, well-studied in Embryology,
habitat did they come? is an example of cephalochordate.
Amphibians, partially aquatic partially

terrestrial animals, were the first
chordates that colonized the dry land. 10. What are the six criteria
They came from the aquatic habitat and used to build a complete
were originated from fishes. evolutionary branch of
(Nevertheless the first completely
vertebrates?
terrestrial chordates were the reptiles).
Dichotomy in each of the six following

criteria builds the vertebrate
8. How do chordates evolutionary branch: absence of
mandibles separates cyclostomes from
reproduce? others; absence of limbs separates
fishes from the remaining; absence of
Reproduction in beings of the phylum osseous skeleton separates
Chordata is sexual, with the exception chondrichthian (cartilaginous) fishes
of urochordates that can also reproduce from osteichthyes; absence of
asexually. In some classes impermeable skin separates amphibians
(cyclostomes, osteichthyes fishes and from the terrestrial vertebrates;
amphibians) there is larval stage. With absence of warm blood (homeothermic
rare exceptions, fishes, amphibians, body) separates reptiles from birds and
reptiles and monotreme mammals are mammals; absence of mammary glands
oviparous, egg-laying (embryos develop and hair separates birds from
within eggs and outside the mother’s mammals.
body) and marsupial and placental
mammals are viviparous (embryos
162
11. Evolutionarily 12. Chordate identity card.
protochordates may be How are they characterized
intermediate animals between according to examples of
invertebrates and vertebrates. representing beings, basic
Imagine a scientist is testing morphology, type of
the hypothesis that symmetry, germ layers and
vertebrates evolved from coelom, digestive system,
echinoderms. Having as respiratory system, circulatory
research object a newly found system, excretory system,
protochordate species, what is nervous system and types of
an example of a discovery that reproduction?
would weaken the hypothesis?
What is an example of a Examples of representing beings:
discovery that would protochordates (ascidians, amphioxus),
vertebrates. Basic morphology:
strengthen it?
branchial clefts, notochord, neural tube.
Type of symmetry: bilateral. Germ
Hypothesis to be tested: Vertebrates layers and coelom: triploblastics,
evolved from echinoderms. Testing coelomates. Digestive system:
material: A newly found protochordate complete, deuterostomes. Respiratory
species (i.e., a vertebrate forerunner). system: branchial (in aquatic),
cutaneous (in adult amphibians),
Example of weakening observation (that pulmonary (others). Circulatory system:
puts the new protochordate species open in protochordates, closed in
evolutionarily far from echinoderms): vertebrates. Excretory system: diffusion
“The new species is protostome”, as and flame cells in protochordates,
opposed to echinoderms, that are kidneys in vertebrates. Nervous system:
deuterostomes. This observation brings neural tube in embryos, cerebral vesicle
the suspicion that deuterostomy in and single ganglion in protochordates,
vertebrates is independent in origin brain within the cranium and spinal cord
from echinoderms. within the spinal column in vertebrates.
Types of reproduction: sexual, with or
Example of strengthening observation without larval stage.
(that nears the new protochordate
species to echinoderms): “The new
species has secondary radial
symmetry”, similar to echinoderms. This
observation makes stronger the
hypothesis that echinoderms and
vertebrates are relatives.
(This item shows how science works,

beginning with the placement of
hypothesis and further observational
testing.)
163
4. Comparing to cyclostomes
Fishes (primitive vertebrates) what
are the main novelties
presented by fishes?
classes into which fishes are Compared to cyclostomes, evolutionary
novelties presented by fishes are:
divided?
pectoral and pelvic fins, symmetric and
paired; the presence of mandibles.
Fishes are divided into two main
classes: chondrichthyes, fishes with
cartilaginous skeletons (sharks, rays,
dog-fishes), and osteichthyes, bony 5. How different are the
fishes (tuna, sardines, salmons).
swimming strategies in
osteichthyes and in
chondrichthyes? Why do
2. From which features do sharks need to agitate their
condrichthyes and body to swim while bony
osteichthyes get these names? fishes do not?
“Chondros” means cartilage, “ictis” Bony fishes have a specialized organ

means fish (both from the Greek); the called a gas bladder, or swim bladder,
name chondrichtians is for fishes with whose interior can be filled with gas
cartilaginous endoskeleton. The name liberated from gas glands. The swim
osteichthyes comes from the existence bladder works as a hydrostatic organ
of a bony endoskeleton in these fishes since it varies the relative density of the
(“osteo” means bone, from the Greek body regulating buoyancy and the depth
too). of the animal in water.
Chondrichthyes do not have swim

bladders and thus they must
3. What are the main features continuously agitate their body to keep
of fishes associated to the swimming and maintain their depth in
water. As an additional swimming aid, in
habitat where they live?
chondrichthyes the liver is big and oily;
this feature helps to reduce their body
Fishes are all aquatic animals and thus density relative to water.
they have a hydrodynamic elongated
body suitable to move under water,
without limbs and with fins. The habitat
conditions the branchial respiration too.
164
6. How does the swim bladder 8. Do fishes present an open
of fishes work allowing fishes or closed circulatory system?
to control their depth under How many chambers does a
water? fish heart have? How does
blood flow throughout the fish
From Hydrostatics it is known that an body?
object does not sink if its density is
equal or less than the density of the As in every vertebrate the circulatory
fluid in which it is immersed. system of fishes is closed, i.e., blood
flows only within blood vessels.
When the swim bladder is filled by gas it
reduces the density of the fish body and The fish heart has only two consecutive
when it is emptied this density is chambers: a thin-walled atrium and a
increased. So this mechanism controls muscular ventricle. The arterial
the fish depth under water. (oxygenated) blood comes from the gills
and gains arteries towards tissues, then
venous blood is collected by veins and
reaches the atrium of the heart passing
7. How do fishes do gas to the ventricle that pumps the venous
exchange? blood towards the gills to be again
oxygenated.
Fishes “breath” through gills. Gills, or
branchiae, are highly vascularized
organs specialized in gas exchange
under water and present in aquatic 9. How is excretion done in
animals (marine annelids, crustaceans, fishes?
fishes and tadpoles). Gills are a
respiratory organ (analogous, for Fishes have a pair of kidneys that
example, to lungs) containing very thin filtrate the blood. Bony fishes excrete
lamellae with many apparent blood nitrogen as ammonia, NH3, (they are
vessels in direct contact with water. ammoniotelic) and cartilaginous fishes
excrete urea as nitrogen waste (they
In osteichthyes the gills are covered by are ureotelic, like adult amphibians and
a bony flap that protects them called mammals).
operculum. In chondrichthyes there are
no opercula.
10. What are the lateral lines

of fishes?
The lateral lines of bony fishes are

sense organs that extend along both
sides of the animal body. They make
contact with the environment by a
series of specialized scales that transmit
165
information about pressure variation
and vibrations in the surrounding water.
11. How different are

fecundation in osteichthyes
and in chondrichthyes?
In chondrichthyes fecundation is
internal by means of copulation. In
osteichthyes fecundation generally is
external and the gametes are released
in the water, where they can fecundate
their counterpart and form the zygote.
12. Fish identity card. How are

fishes characterized according
to examples of representing
skin, respiration, circulation,
nitrogen waste, thermal
control and types of
reproduction?

sharks, rays, sardines, tuna, salmons.
Basic morphology: hydrodynamic body,
fins; cartilaginous skeleton in
chondrichthyes, bony skeleton in
osteichthyes. Skin: with scales in
osteichthyes and placoid scales in
chondrichthyes. Respiration: branchial.
Circulation: closed, incomplete, heart
with two chambers. Nitrogen waste:
urea in chondrichthyes, ammonia in
osteichthyes. Thermal control:
heterothermic. Types of reproduction:
sexual, internal fecundation in
chondrichthyes, external in
osteichthyes.
166
In amphibians the embryonic
Amphibians development is indirect (there is a larval
stage).
1. Which is the chordate class

considered an evidence of the 4. How different are the
transition of the vertebrates respiration in fishes and the
from the aquatic to the dry respiration in adult
land environment? amphibians?
The amphibians are totally aquatic in In fishes gas exchange is done by direct
the larval stage and partially terrestrial contact of water with the branchiae
animals as adults and for these facts (gills). Gases gain and exit the
they are considered intermediate beings circulation through the gills.
in the evolutionary passage of
vertebrates from the aquatic to the dry In adult amphibians gas exchange is
land habitat. Amphibians are also the done through the moist and permeable
first tetrapod animals, i.e., the first with skin (cutaneous respiration) and also
two pair of limbs, a typical feature of through the lungs, a set of tiny airway
terrestrial vertebrates. The name terminations associated to a highly
“amphibian” comes from the double life vascularized tissue specialized in gas
(aquatic as larvae and partially exchange.
terrestrial as adults) of these animals.
The axolotl is an exotic amphibian found
in Mexico that lives in water and
“breathes” through gills even as an
2. What are the amphibian adult.
features that make them
dependent on water to
survive? 5. How is respiration
performed by the larva of
Permeable skin, body subject to amphibians?
dehydration, external fecundation, eggs
without shells and larval stage with
The larva of amphibians has exclusively
branchial respiration are features that
branchial respiration. This is one of the
make amphibians dependent on water
reasons why it depends on water to
to survive.
survive.
3. Do amphibians have direct

development?
167
6. How different is the embryonic development of amphibians
amphibian heart from the fish are a heritage from osteichthyes.
heart? Curiously although having external
fecundation amphibian male and female
The fish heart has only two chambers, copulate to stimulate the liberation of
an atrium and a ventricle, and the blood sperm and egg cells. This phenomenon
that comes to it is purely venous. does not characterize internal
fecundation since the gametes unite in
In amphibians there are three heart water.
chambers (a second atrium is present)
and there is arterial blood coming from
the lungs; in these animals the heart
has two atria (one that gets blood from 9. Why is the occurrence of
the body and other that gets blood from
eyelids in amphibians in
the lungs) and one ventricle; arterial
blood mixes with venous blood within comparison to their absence in
the ventricle which in turn pumps the fishes an adaptation to
blood to the lungs and to the systemic terrestrial life?
circulation.
Eyelids associated to lacrimal glands
protect and keep eyes lubricated against
damage from the great luminosity of
7. How is excretion done in terrestrial environments. Fishes do not
amphibians? have eyelids since their eyes are in
constant contact with the fluid medium.
Adult amphibians have kidneys that
filter blood. Nitrogen waste is excreted
as urea (so amphibians are ureotelic
beings). The larvae, aquatic, excrete 10. What are the problems
ammonia. that vertebrates needed to
solve to adapt to the
terrestrial environment since
they came from the aquatic
8. Is fecundation in
habitat? How does evolution
amphibians external or
solved those problems?
internal? In this aspect are
amphibians evolutionarily
The main problems vertebrates coming
proximal to fishes or to from water needed to solve to adapt to
reptiles? the terrestrial environment were the
following: the problem to avoid
In the majority of the amphibian species dehydration; the problem of elimination
fecundation is external. This feature is of wastes in a medium where water is
common to bony fishes too and it shows less available; the problem of protection
that the reproductive system and the against nocent solar radiation; the
problem of gamete locomotion in the
168
environment for fecundation; the larval stage. Circulation: closed,
problem of gas exchange, earlier done incomplete, heart with three chambers
by direct contact of water with gills; the without interventricular septum.
problem of body support, since it was Nitrogen waste: urea. Thermal control:
water that played this role in fishes. heterothermic. Types of reproduction:
sexual, water dependant, external
Solutions for the dehydration problem: fecundation and aquatic larval stage.
thicker and impermeable skin, to lose
less water, or moist and permeable
skin, like in amphibians. Solution for the
excretion problem: excretion of urea
(also excreted by chondrichthyes) or
uric acid, substances that need less
water to be dissolved. Solutions for the
problem of protection against radiation:
skin pigments that filter harmful
radiation, feathers, hair or carapaces.
Solution for the gamete movement
problem: internal fecundation (except
for most amphibians, that have external
fecundation). Solution for the gas
exchange problem: appearing of
airways and lungs. Solution for the body
support problem: further development
of muscular and bony structures, like
limbs and claws.
11. Amphibian identity card.

How are amphibians
reproduction?
Examples of representing beings: frogs,

toads, salamanders. Basic morphology:
two pairs of limbs, eyelids,
hydrodynamic larvae. Skin: moist and
permeable, mucous glands. Respiration:
cutaneous and pulmonary, branchial in
169
4. Do beings of the class
Reptiles Reptilia perform gas exchange
in the same way amphibians
do?
1. Which is the vertebrate
class that is considered the These beings do not have permeable
skin so they do not make cutaneous
first entirely terrestrial?
respiration like amphibians do. Just like
in birds and in mammals, their
The first entirely terrrestrial vertebrate respiration is pulmonary.
class, totally independent from the
aquatic habitat, is the class Reptilia.
5. How is the circulatory

system of reptiles
2. Compared to amphibians
characterized? What is the
what is an example of
basic difference between the
evolutionary novelty present
reptile and the amphibian
in beings of the class Reptilia
heart?
against the loss of water
through the skin?
The circulatory system of beings of the
class Reptilia is similar to the
The reptile skin is keratinized and amphibian, closed and incomplete.
impermeable to water while the Although the heart presents three
amphibian skin is permeable. The skin chambers (two atria and one ventricle)
impermeability made impossible the in reptiles there is a beginning of
cutaneous gas exchange performed by ventricular septation and the mixture of
amphibians and respiration became arterial with venous blood is lessened.
dependent on internal organs like
airways and lungs.
6. Which is the type of

nitrogen waste eliminated by
3. What are examples of a
beings of the class Reptilia?
carnivorous and a herbivorous
reptile?
These beings excrete mainly uric acid.
This substance is less toxic than
Snakes are carnivorous. Iguanas are ammonia and it can be kept stored for a
herbivorous. longer time inside the individual,
including within eggs. In addition uric
acid is practically insoluble and it
depends less on water to be eliminated.
170
7. How has the importance of 10. Compared to amphibians
the brain evolved from fishes what are the two reproductive
to reptiles? novelties of beings of the class
Reptilia for the survival in dry
From the least to the most complex environments?
brain structure, it is evident that the
brain, from fishes to beings of the class Compared to amphibians the two main
Reptilia, became larger and reproductive innovations of beings of
predominant in the central nervous the class Reptilia for the terrestrial
system. habitat are internal fecundation and
shelled eggs.
8. How is reproduction done in

beings of the class Reptilia? 11. Concerning the
maintenance of body
These beings reproduce sexually temperature how do beings of
through internal fecundation by means
the class Reptilia classify?
of copulation between male and female
individuals. They lay eggs with shell and
extraembryonic membranes. The Like fishes and amphibians, beings of
embryo thus develops within the egg the class Reptilia are heterothermic
and outside the mother’s body (there animals (also known as poikilothermic,
are also ovoviviparous reptiles that or ectothermic), i.e., they are not able
retain the egg within the body until to control by themselves their body
hatching). temperature and thus they depend on
external warm sources (mainly the
sun).
9. Do beings of the class

Reptilia have direct or indirect
development?
hypothesis which may explain
why there is not a big
In beings of the class Reptilia the
embryonic development is direct. So representation of the class
there is no larval stage. Reptilia found in polar
regions?
Beings of the class Reptilia are

abundant and more diverse in hot
climate regions and they are rare in
intensely cold regions like close to the
earth poles. This is explained because
these animals are heterothermic, i.e.,
they have “cold blood” and they need an
171
external heat source to warm their
bodies.
The heterothermic feature also explains

why reptiles are more active during the
day, a period when they can use the
sun heat to warm their bodies.
13. Class Reptilia identity

card. How are they
reproduction?

snakes, turtles, crocodiles, lizards,
dinosaurs (extinct). Basic morphology:
tetrapods, some with carapaces (like
turtles). Skin: impermeable keratinized,
corneous plates (known as scales).
Respiration: pulmonary. Circulation:
closed, incomplete, heart with three
chambers and partial interventricular
septation. Nitrogen waste: uric acid.
Thermal control: heterothermic. Types
of reproduction: sexual, internal
fecundation, shelled eggs with
extraembryonic membranes.
172
bones are called pneumatic bones. This
Birds feature reduces the corporal density of
the animal facilitating the flight.

morphological features of 5. How is the respiratory
birds? system of birds characterized?
Birds are animals that present Like reptiles and mammals, they make
aerodynamic bodies covered with gas exchange through lungs.
feathers, anterior limbs transformed
into wings, pneumatic bones and horny
(corneous) beaks.
6. How is the circulatory
system of birds characterized?
2. In which habitat do birds Birds, like every vertebrate, have a

live? closed circulatory system. The heart is
similar to the mammalian heart, having
Birds are terrestrial animals but the four chambers (two atria and two
majority of species also explore the ventricles) and with no mixture of
aerial environment by flying. venous and arterial blood. (In
mammals, however, the aorta curves
down to the left and in birds it curves
down to the right).
3. What are flight adaptations
present by birds?
Wings associated to a well-developed
nitrogen waste birds produce?
pectoral musculature, pneumatic bones,
less accumulation of feces in the bowels Why does this feature, besides
due to the absence of the colon, being an adaptation to the
absence of the bladder (no urine terrestrial environment, also
storage), aerodynamic body and lungs mean an adaptation to flight?
with specialized air sacs are all
adaptations which enable birds to fly.
Birds are uricotelic, i.e., like reptiles,
they excrete uric acid. This substance
needs less water to be eliminated and
so it helps to reduce the body weight
4. What are pneumatic bones? thus aiding in flight.
Birds have lightweighted bones with

internal spaces filled with air. These
173
8. What similarities do birds 11. What are the
and reptiles share regarding predominating chemical
external coverage, compounds respectively in
reproduction and excretion? eggshell, white and yolk?
Regarding external coverage, birds are The eggshell is basically made of

similar to reptiles as they present calcium carbonate. The white, or
impermeable keratinized coverages. albumen, is composed by albumin, a
Concerning reproduction, in both protein. The yolk is predominantly
fecundation is internal and the embryo constituted of lipids but it also contains
develops within a shelled egg. proteins and vitamins.
Regarding excretion, both excrete uric
acid.
12. How different are reptiles

and birds concerning the
9. How do birds reproduce? maintenance of body
temperature? Are birds rare in
Birds, like every vertebrate, have sexual
polar regions?
reproduction. Their embryos develop
within shelled eggs containing
extraembryonic membranes and outside Reptiles are heterothermic, i.e., they do
the mother’s body. not control their body temperature.
Birds however are the first
Birds copulate. Fecundation is internal homeothermic animals, they are able to
and it occurs only before the female maintain their body temperature
gamete is involved by the calcareous constant.
eggshell.
There are many birds that live in intense
cold regions. Penguins are examples of
birds that live in polar region.
10. Is the embryonic
development in birds direct or
indirect? 13. What are zoonoses? What
are some examples of
The embryonic development is direct,
zoonoses transmitted by
there is no larval stage.
birds?
Zoonoses are human diseases

transmitted by animals. Psittacosis, a
bacterial disease, hystoplasmosis and
cryptococcosis, fungal diseases, are
examples of zoonoses transmitted by
birds.
174
14. Bird identity card. How are
birds characterized according
to examples of representing
reproduction?

chickens, sparrows, parrots, ostriches,
penguins. Basic morphology:
aerodynamic body, feathers, pneumatic
bones, horny beaks. Skin: impermeable
keratinized, feathers, uropygial gland.
closed and complete, heart with four
chambers. Nitrogen waste: uric acid.
Thermal control: homeothermic. Types
fecundation, shelled eggs with
extraembryonic membranes.
175
the mother’s pouch. Placenta only forms
Mammals in female placental mammals.
1. What are the typical 4. What are the main orders of

features of mammals? placental mammals? What are
some representative species
The typical features of mammals are: and distinguishing features of
body (more or less) covered with hair; each of those orders?
presence of the diaphragm muscle (that
separates the thorax from the
The orders into which placental
abdomen); mammary glands that
mammals are divided are the following:
produce milk (in females); enucleated
blood red cells; middle ear with three
Artiodactyls, mammals with an even
ossicles.
number of fingers in claws or paws like,
e.g., cows, sheep, giraffes. Carnivorous,
predators with canine teeth like dogs,
lions, tigers. Cetaceans, aquatic animals
2. What are the three main without posterior limbs and similar to
groups into which mammals fishes, like whales and dolphins.
are divided? Edentates, creatures with rare or absent
teeth, like sloths, armadillos, anteaters.
The three groups into which mammals Lagomorphs, small-sized mammals
are divided are: monotremes (or having three pairs of continuously
prototherian, e.g., platypus), marsupials growing incisive teeth specialized in
(or metatherian, for example, gnawing, like rabbits and hares.
kangaroos) and placental (or eutherian, Perissodactyls, also known as ungulates
such as humans). (hooved), big-sized animals with an odd
number of fingers in each paw, e.g.,
horses and rhinos. Primates,
characterized by the big cranium and
3. Do all mammals have a well-developed brain, like humans and
placenta? apes. Proboscideans, big-sized animals
whose nose and superior lip form the
trunk (snout), e.g., elephants.
Mammals of the monotreme group Chiropterans, flying nocturnal mammals
(platypus, echidnas) are oviparous, egg- (bats). Rodents, animals with two pairs
laying, and they do not have a placenta. of continuously growing incisive teeth,
Mammals of the marsupial group e.g., mice, rats, castors, squirrels.
(kangaroos, koalas, opossums) do not Sirenians, aquatic mammals of
have a placenta either; females of this freshwater, deprived of posterior limbs,
group give birth to embryonic young like dugongs and manatees.
that then continue development within
176
5. How is gas exchange done 9. Is fecundation in mammals
in mammals? internal or external?
Mammals breathe through lungs, their Fecundation in mammals is internal,

respiration is pulmonary. with copulation. In the contemporary
world human technology is able to
promote artificial external fecundation
of human gametes and of gametes of
6. How is circulation other animals.
characterized in mammals?
Mammals present a closed and complete

circulatory system. The heart has four
10. Is the mammalian
chambers and the arterial blood does embryonic development direct
not mix with venous blood. or indirect?
In mammals the embryonic

development is direct, without larval
7. What is the type of nitrogen stage.
waste that mammals
eliminate?
Like chondrichtian fishes and adult

11. Are there aquatic and
amphibians, mammals are ureotelic, flying mammals?
i.e., they excrete urea.
Cetaceans (whales, dolphins) and
sirenians (dugongs, manatees) are
aquatic mammals. Chiropterans (bats)
8. How do placental mammals are flying mammals.
reproduce?
Placental mammals reproduce sexually,

they have internal fecundation and they
12. Are the limbs modified
are viviparous, i.e., their embryo into wings of bats and the
develops within the mother’s body and wings of birds examples of
from her it gets the nutrients through evolutionary analogy or
the placenta. homology? What about whale
fins compared to fish fins?
Bat and bird wings have the same

function and the same origin (they are
modified limbs) so they are analogous
and homologous organs. Whale fins are
a modification of the posterior limbs
177
while fish fins although having the same
function do not come from modified
limbs; so they are analogous but not
homologous structures.
Evolutionary homology suggests

common ancestry while biological
analogy relates to the concept of
evolutionary convergence, the
appearance of similar features in
evolutionarily distant species that
explore the same type of environment
(in the mentioned case, the aquatic
habitat).
13. Mammal identity card.

How are mammals
reproduction?
Examples of representing beings: dogs,

cats, horses, giraffes, elephants, apes,
humans, bats, whales, dolphins,
opossums, kangaroos, platypus. Basic
morphology: hair, diaphragm muscle,
mammary glands, enucleated red blood
cells. Skin: impermeable, hairy.
closed and complete, heart with four
chambers. Nitrogen waste: urea.
Thermal control: homeothermic. Types
fecundation, oviparous monotremes
(prototherians), marsupials
(metatherians), placental (eutherians).
178
Physiology
179
180
well-known by science, different and
Basic Histology specialized cell lineages gave birth to
different tissues, organs and systems
that, as a whole, form the pluricellular
organisms.
1. What is the logical order in
which the concepts of atoms, Cellular differentiation probably is a
very intricate process that activates and
molecules, cells... up to
inactivates some genes within the cell in
biosphere are associated? response to some stimulus.
Atoms form molecules that form cells

that form tissues that form organs that
form systems. Systems, in their turn, 3. What are the main types of
constitute individuals that form animal tissue?
populations that compound (biological)
communities that form the biotic
The main animal cell tissues are the
components of ecosystems. All
epithelial tissue, the nervous tissue, the
ecosystems of earth form the biosphere.
muscle tissue and the connective tissue.
2. From the zygote,

4. What are epithelial tissues?
pluricellular organisms are
What are their general
formed by serial mitosis.
function and how is that
Would this formation be
function associated to the
possible if each cell made by
features of the tissue?
mitosis had an identical life in
relation to its antecedent Epithelial tissues, also called epithelia,
cells? How did evolution solve are tissues specialized in the covering of
that problem? external and internal surfaces of the
body.
The formation of complex and distinct
pluricellular organisms would not be The general function of the epithelium is
possible if mitosis in embryos produced to provide protection and
only daughter cells with an identical life impermeability (or selective
history as the mother cell, since there permeability) to the covered structure.
would not be differentiation and This justifies the epithelium's typical
structural or functional specialization features: the cellular juxtaposition
among cells. forming layers of very proximate cells
with diminished or none intercellular
Evolution solved the problem creating space between each two neighbor cells.
the cellular differentiation process by
which, motivated by stimulus not yet
181
5. Of which cells is the 7. What is the typical
nervous tissue constituted? biological function of the
How is the generic function of connective tissues? How is
this tissue related to the this function associated to the
characteristics of the main cell main features of its cells?
type that forms it?
The typical function of the connective
The nervous tissue is formed of neurons tissues is to fill empty spaces among
and glial cells. other body tissues.
The function of the nervous tissue is to This function is related to the great
receive and to transmit neural impulses capability of the cells of the connective
(reception and transmission of tissue to secrete substances that
information). This function justifies the constitute extracellular material, like
characteristic morphology of neurons, collagen and elastic fibers, creating a
with membrane projections (dendrites) significant spacing between these cells.
to get information and an elongated
membrane projection (axon, or nerve (There are other important biological
fiber) to transmit information at features of the connective tissues, such
distance. In their turn, the glial cells as substance transportation, defense of
support the neurons and facilitate their the organism, etc.)
work (sometimes acting as insulators).
8. Of which type of tissue are

6. What are muscle tissues? cartilages and bones made?
How is the function of this
tissue related to the typical Bones and cartilages, tissues with great
characteristics of its cells? amount of intercellular material, are
formed of connective tissue.
Muscle tissues are tissues made of cells
able to perform contractions and thus to
generate movement.
9. Are the cells of the
The function of the muscle tissue is to connective tissue far or near
pull bones (skeletal striated muscle), to to the others?
contract and move viscera and vessels
(smooth muscle) and to make the heart The relative great spacing between cells
to beat (cardiac striated muscle). The is a typical feature of the connective
muscle cells have internal structures tissue. There are much intercellular
called sarcomeres where there are material generally secreted by the
myosin and actin molecules disposed to tissue cells.
create contraction and distension
(movement).
182
10. What are the general 13. What are the three types
functions of the connective of protein fibers of the
tissues? connective tissue proper?
The main functions of the connective The matrix of the connective tissue
tissues are: supporting and filling of proper is made of collagen fibers, elastic
spaces; cellular nutrition; energetic fibers and reticular fibers.
storage (fats); hematopoiesis
(formation of blood, blood cells and
blood components); immune defense
(specialized cells). 14. What is the function of the
collagen fibers of the
connective tissue?
11. What is connective tissue
There are different collagen types. The
proper? main function of these proteins is to
keep the shape and the structural
The name connective tissue proper is rigidity of the tissue. (Collagen is the
used to designate the connective tissue most abundant protein of the human
that fills interstitial spaces as opposed body.)
to the specialized connective tissues
(blood, bones, cartilage, adipose tissue,
etc.). The connective tissue proper
secretes collagen, elastin and reticular 15. Of which substance do
fibers.
elastic fibers of the connective
tissue are made? What are
some functions of these
12. What are the main cells of fibers?
the connective tissue proper?
What is the name given to the The elastic fibers are made of a protein
intercellular material that called elastin.
surround these cells? Elastic fibers abound in artery walls,
helping the maintenance of the arterial
The main cells of the connective tissue blood pressure in these vessels. They
proper are the fibroblasts, cells that are also present in the lungs, providing
secrete the intercellular material. These them with elasticity (some respiratory
cells are the majority of cells of the diseases are caused by destruction of
tissue. Fibroblasts later are transformed these fibers). In many other organs and
into fibrocytes, mature cells with tissues the elastic fibers are found in the
restricted secretory role. interstitial matrix.
The intercellular substance that fills the

interstice is called interstitial matrix, or
just matrix.
183
16. What are the reticular
fibers of the connective tissue
and where can they be found?
The reticular fibers are very delicate

interstitial fibers made of a special type
of collagen known as collagen type III.
They can be found in many organs and
tissues such as in lymphnodes, in the
spleen, in the liver, in blood vessels and
also covering muscle fibers.
17. What are diseases of the

connective tissue? What are
some of them?
Diseases of the connective tissue are

hereditary or acquired diseases(many of
autoimmune cause) characterized by
deficiency in structure or function of
components of the connective tissue, for
example, deficiencies of collagen,
elastin, etc. Some of such diseases are
lupus, dermatomyositis, cheloid,
scleroderma, mixed connective tissue
disease, mucinosis and Marfan's
syndrome.
184
Hematopoiesis occurs in the bone
Blood marrow (mainly within flat bones),
where erythrocytes, leukocytes and
platelets are made, and in the lymphoid
tissue, responsible for the maturation of
1. What are the main leukocytes and found in the thymus,
functions of the blood? spleen and lymphnodes.
The blood is a means of substance

transportation throughout the body. The
5. In which bones can bone
blood distributes nutrients, oxygen,
hormones, antibodies and cells marrow chiefly be found? Is
specialized in defense to the tissues and the bone marrow made of
collects residuals like nitrogen wastes osseous tissue?
and carbon dioxide from them.
Bone marrow can mainly be found in the
internal cavities of flat bones, like the
vertebrae, the ribs, the scapulae, the
2. What are the constituent sternum and the hips.
elements of the blood?
The bone marrow is not made of
The blood is made of a liquid and a osseous tissue, although it is a
cellular part. The fluid part is called connective tissue as bone tissue is.
plasma and in it there are several
substances, like proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates and mineral salts. The
cellular constituents of the blood are 6. What are blood stem cells?
also known as blood corpuscles and
they comprise the erythrocytes (red Stem cells are undifferentiated cells able
blood cells), leukocytes and platelets. to differentiate into other types of
specialized cells.
The stem cells of the bone marrow

3. What is hematopoiesis? originate the differentiated blood cells.
According to stimulus from specific
Hematopoiesis is the formation of blood growth factors the stem cells are turned
cells and other constituent elements of into red blood cells, leukocytes and
the blood. megakaryocytes (cells that form
platelets). Research shows that stem
cells of the bone marrow can also
differentiate into muscle, nervous and
4. Where does hematopoiesis hepatic cells.
occur?
185
7. What are the other names 10. On average what is the life
by which erythrocytes are duration of the red blood
known? What is the function cells? Where are they
of these cells? destroyed? What is the
destination of the heme
Erythrocytes are also known as red groups after the destruction of
blood cells (RBCs), or red corpuscles. hemoglobin molecules?
Red blood cells are responsible for
oxygen transport from the lungs to the
On average red blood cells live around
tissues.
120 days. The spleen is the main organ
where old red blood cells are destroyed.
During the red blood cell destruction the

8. What is the name of the
heme groups turn into bilirubin and this
molecule that transports substance is then captured by the liver
oxygen in red blood cells? and later excreted in the bowels as part
of the bile.
The respiratory pigment of the red blood
cells is hemoglobin.

the spleen? Why is a total
9. What is the molecular splenectomy (surgical removal
composition of hemoglobin? of the spleen) compatible with
Does the functionality of life?
hemoglobin as a protein
depend upon its tertiary or The spleen has many functions: it
upon its quaternary structure? participates in the destruction of old red
blood cells; in it specialized leukocytes
Hemoglobin is a molecule made of four are matured; it helps the renewal of the
polypeptide chains, each bound to a hematopoietic tissue of the bone
iron-containing molecular group called a marrow when necessary; it can act as a
heme group. So the molecule contains spongelike organ to retain or liberate
four polypeptide chains and four heme blood from or for the circulation.
groups.
Total splenectomy is not incompatible
As a protein composed of association of with life as none of the functions of the
polypeptide chains, the functionality of spleen are vital and at the same time
hemoglobin depends upon the integrity exclusive of this organ.
of its quaternary structure.
186
12. What is anemia? What are 13. What is the difference
the four main types of between white and red blood
anemia? cells? What are leukocytes?
Anemia is low concentration of Red blood cells are erythrocytes and

hemoglobin in the blood. white blood cells are the leukocytes.
The four main types of anemia are the Leukocytes are cells specialized in the
nutrient-deficiency anemia, anemia defense of the body against strange
caused by blood loss, hemolytic anemia agents and they are part of the immune
and aplastic anemia. system.
Nutrient-deficiency anemia is caused by

dietary deficiency of fundamental
nutrients for the production or 14. What are the types of
functioning of the red blood cells, like leukocytes and how are they
iron (iron deficiency anemia), vitamin classified into granulocytes
B12 and folic acid.
and agranulocytes?
Anemia caused by blood loss occurs in
hemorrhagic conditions or in diseases The types of leukocytes are
like peptic ulcerations and hookworm lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils,
disease. eosinophils and basophils. Granulocytes
are those in whose cytoplasm there are
Hemolytic anemia is caused by granules (when viewed under electronic
excessive destruction of red blood cells, microscopy): neutrophils, eosinophils
for example, in diseases like malaria or and basophils are granulocytes.
in hypervolemic conditions (excessive Agranulocytes are the other leukocytes:
water in blood that causes lysis of red lymphocytes and monocytes.
blood cells).
Aplastic anemia occurs from deficiencies

of the hematopoiesis and it happens 15. What is the generic
when the bone marrow is injured by function of leukocytes? What
cancers from other tissues (metastasis), are leukocytosis and
by autoimmune diseases and by
leukopenia?
intoxication from drugs (like sulfas and
anticonvulsants) or by chemical
substances (like benzene, insecticides, The generic function of leukocytes is to
paints, herbicides and solvents in participate in the defense of the body
general). Some genetic diseases also against strange agents that penetrate it
affect the bone marrow causing aplastic or are made inside the body.
anemia.
Leukocytosis and leukopenia are clinical
conditions in which the count of
leukocytes in a blood sample is
abnormal. When the leukocyte count in
187
a blood sample is above the normal Platelets, also known as thrombocytes,
level for the individual leukocytosis is are fragments of giant cells of the bone
defined. When the leukocyte count is marrow called megakaryocytes. With
lower than the expected normal level their properties of aggregation and
leukopenia is defined. The multiplication adhesiveness they play a direct role in
of these defense cells, leukocytosis, blood clotting and they also liberate
generally takes place when the body is substances that activate other
suffering infections or in cancers of hemostatic processes.
these cells. The lowering of these
defense cells, or leukopenia, occurs Thrombocytopenia is a clinical condition
when some diseases attack the cells, in which the platelet count of the blood
like in AIDS, or when is lower than normal. In this situation
immunosuppressor drugs are used. the person becomes susceptible to
hemorrhages.
In general the body creates leukocytosis
as a defense reaction when it is facing
infectious or pathogenic agents. The
clinical condition of leukocytosis is thus 18. How does the organism
a sign of infection. Leukopenia occurs understand that a clotting
when there is a deficiency in the process must begin?
production (for example, in bone
marrow diseases) or excessive
destruction of leukocytes (for example, When there is some tissue wound with
in case of HIV infection). injury of blood vessel the platelets and
endothelial cells of the wall of the
damaged vessel liberate substances
(respectively platelet factors and tissue
16. What are the mechanisms factors) that trigger the clotting
process.
of hemorrhage contention
called?
The physiological mechanisms of 19. How can the blood

hemorrhage contention (one of them is coagulation (clotting) process
blood clotting) are generically named be described?
hemostasis, or hemostatic processes.
Blood clotting encompasses a sequence

of chemical reactions whose respective
17. How are platelets formed? products are enzymes that catalyze the
following reactions (that is why the
What is the function of clotting reactions are called cascade
platelets? What consequences reactions). In the plasma
does the clinical condition thromboplastinogen transforms into
known as thrombocytopenia thromboplastin, a reaction triggered by
yield? tissue and platelet factors liberated after
injury of the blood vessel.
Thromboplastin then catalyzes along
188
with calcium ions the transformation of 22. What is factor VIII? What
prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin is the genetic disease in which
then catalyzes a reaction that produces
this factor is absent?
fibrin from fibrinogen. Fibrin, as an
insoluble substance, precipitates to form
a network that traps red blood cells and Factor VIII has the function of activating
platelets forming the blood clot and factor X that in its turn is necessary for
containing the hemorrhage. the transformation of prothrombin into
thrombin in the clotting cascade.
Hemophilia A is the X-linked genetic
disease in which the individual does not
20. What are clotting factors? produce factor VIII and so is more
susceptible to severe hemorrhages.
Clotting factors are substances
(enzymes, coenzymes, reagents)
necessary for the clotting stages to
happen. Besides those triggering factors
23. How is hemophilia
and reagents already described (tissue treated? Why is hemophilia
and platelet factors, thromplastinogen, rare in females?
prothrombin, fibrinogen, calcium ions),
other substances participate in the Hemophilia is medically treated with
blood clotting process as clotting administration of factor VIII, in case of
factors, like factor VIII, whose hemophilia A, or of factor IX, in case of
deficiency causes hemophilia A, or the hemophilia B, by means of blood or
factor IX, whose deficiency causes fresh frozen plasma transfusions.
hemophilia B.
Hemophilia, A or B, is an X-linked
recessive inheritance and for a girl to be
hemophilic it is necessary for both of
21. What is the organ where her X chromosomes to be affected while
most of the clotting factors boys, that have only one X
are produced? What is the role chromosome, are more easily affected.
A girl with only one affected
of vitamin K in the blood
chromosome does not present the
coagulation? disease since the normal gene of the
unaffected other X chromosome
Most of the clotting factors are produced produces the clotting factor.
in the liver.
Vitamin K participates in the activation

of several clotting factors and it is 24. What is the
fundamental for the well-functioning of epidemiological association
the blood coagulation.
between hemophilia and HIV
infection?
189
Since hemophilic patients need frequent formation of clotting factors and
transfusions of clotting factors (VIII or interrupting the making of prothrombin.
IX) they are more susceptible to Dicoumarol is found in some vegetables
contamination by infectious agents undergoing decomposition, and it can
present in the blood from which the cause severe internal hemorrhages
transfused elements come. In the past when those vegetables are accidentally
the blood banks did not usually perform ingested. Coumarinic anticoagulants
HIV detection tests and many cannot be administered during
hemophilic patients have become pregnancy since they pass the placental
infected with the virus. barrier and can cause fetal
hemorrhages.
25. What are anticoagulants?

What are the practical 27. Streptokinase is a
applications of anticoagulants, substance used in the
like heparin, in Medicine? treatment of acute myocardial
infarction. How does this
Anticoagulants are substances that substance act?
block the clotting reactions and thus
stop the coagulation process. Ordinarily Substances known as fibrinolytics, like
there are anticoagulants circulating in streptokinase and urokinase, can
the plasma since under normal destroy thrombi (clots formed inside
conditions the blood must be kept fluid. blood vessels, capillaries or within the
heart chambers) and are used in the
In Medicine anticoagulants like heparin treatment of obstructions of the
are used in surgeries in which tissue coronary arteries or other blood vessels.
injuries made by the surgical act could
trigger undesirable systemic blood Streptokinase destroys the fibrin
clotting. They are also used to avoid the network and so it dissolves the
formation of thrombus inside blood thrombotic clot. Its name comes after
vessels of patients facing increased the bacteria that produce it, the
thrombotic risk. streptococci.
26. What is dicoumarol? How

does this substance act in the
clotting process and what are
some examples of its toxicity?
Dicoumarol is an anticoagulant drug.

Due to its molecular structure
dicoumarol competes with vitamin K for
the binding to substrates blocking the
190
Homeostatic sensors are structures that
Metabolism and detect information from the inner and
Homeostasis outer environment of the body. These
sensors may be nervous receptor cells,
cytoplasmic or membrane proteins and
other specialized molecules. Controllers
are structures responsible for processing
1. What is metabolism? and interpreting information received
from the sensors. Controllers in general
Metabolism is the set of physical and are specialized regions of the central
chemical processes upon which the life nervous system but on the molecular
of the cells of a living being depends. level there are also some of them, like
DNA, a molecule that can get
information from proteins to inhibit or
stimulate the expression of some genes.
2. What is the difference Effectors are elements commanded by
between anabolism and the controllers that have the function of
bringing about actions that in fact
catabolism? regulate and maintain the equilibrium of
the organism, like muscles, glands,
Metabolism comprises two opposing cellular organelles, etc., and in the
processes: anabolism and catabolism. molecular level structures that
Anabolism is a set of synthesis reactions participate in the genetic translation,
that transform simpler compounds into the produced proteins, etc.
organic molecules in general with
energy spending. Catabolism is a set of
reactions that break organic molecules
into simpler and less complex 4. How do antagonistic
substances in general with liberation of mechanisms manage
energy. The energy liberated in
catabolism may be used in vital
homeostatic regulation?
processes of the organism, including
anabolism. The homeostatic maintenance of the
body mostly occurs by means of
alternating antagonistic compensatory
mechanisms. There are regulators that
3. What is homeostasis? What lower the pH and others that increase it,
are the sensors, controllers there are effectors whose function is to
increase the body temperature and
and effectors of homeostasis? others that lower it, hormones exist
that, e.g., reduce the level of glucose in
Homeostasis comprises the processes the blood and others that increase the
by which the organism maintains glycemic level. The use of antagonistic
adequate intra and extracellular mechanisms is a strategy found by
conditions to keep possible the normal evolution to solve the problem of the
reactions of the metabolism. maintenance of the body equilibrium.
191
5. What is an example of
negative feeback of the
Negative feedback happens when the

response to a given action generates an
effect that inhibits that action. For
example, when the carbon dioxide
concentration in blood is high the
pulmonary respiration is stimulated for
the CO2 excess to be expelled through
expiration. Hyperventilation, however,
lowers the carbon dioxide concentration
in blood too much generating a negative
feedback that commands the reduction
of the respiratory frequency.
Negative feedback is the main

mechanism of homeostasis and it occurs
in a variety of processes, such as in
blood pressure control, glycemic control,
muscle contraction, etc.
6. What is an example of
positive feedback of the
In positive feedback the effect caused

by an action stimulates the action even
more. This is a rarer mechanism of the
homeostatic regulation.
An example of positive feedback is the

blood clotting process in which each
chemical reaction produces enzymes
that catalyze the following reaction until
the formation of fibrin. Therefore the
products of the antecedent chemical
reactions are consumed and the
equilibrium of each reaction is
dislocated towards the production of
more enzymes (a positive feedback).
192
cycle). Structural nutrients are those
Nutrition and used in the support and structure of
Vitamins cells and tissues; they are the amino
acids that form structural proteins, like
collagen, the membrane proteins, the
cytoskeleton proteins, the contractile
proteins of the muscle tissue, etc.
1. What is a nutrient? Regulatory nutrients are those that
constitute enzymes and coenzymes of
A nutrient is every substance used in the homeostasis, metabolites of the
the metabolism and which is acquired osmotic and electrolytic equilibrium of
from the diet. For example, vitamins cells and hormones; some amino acids,
and essential amino acids are nutrients. vitamins and mineral salts are part of
this group.

between macro and 4. What are vitamins? What
micronutrients? are the main vitamins needed
by humans?
The classification criterion of nutrients
into macro and micronutrients has no Most vitamins are coenzymes
relation to the size of the molecule. (fundamental substances for the
Macronutrients are those needed in enzyme functioning) that are not
great amount, for example, proteins produced by the organism and must be
and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are obtained from the diet.
those needed in small quantities, like
vitamins. The main vitamins needed by humans
are vitamins A, C, D, E, K, the vitamins
of the B complex (including folic acid),
biotin and pantothenic acid.
3. According to their functions
how can nutrients be
classified? 5. What is the difference
between water-soluble and
One possible and utile functional
classification for nutrients is the one
fat-soluble vitamins? Why can
that separates them into energetic, fat-soluble vitamins cause
structural and regulatory. harm when ingested in
excess?
Energetic nutrients are those used as
energy source for the metabolism; Water-soluble vitamins are those
mainly they are the carbohydrates (but soluble in water. Fat-soluble vitamins
fats and proteins can also be converted are those soluble in oil (lipids, fat).
into acetyl-CoA and “cycle” the Krebs
193
Vitamin C and the vitamins of the B cell division. If there are not enough
complex are examples of water-soluble folic acid in cells with great turnover,
vitamins. Vitamins A, D, E and K are like red blood cells, they have their
examples of fat-soluble vitamins. production reduced.
Fat-soluble vitamins, since they are not In folic acid deficiency precursor cells
soluble in water, cannot easily be (reticulocytes) that would originate
excreted by the body. So they tend to erythrocytes (red blood cells) begin cell
accumulate in tissues with toxic effect division but the process is very slow
when they are ingested in amounts over while the cytoplasm growth is normal.
what is necessary. So the cells became abnormally large, a
typical feature of this kind of anemia
called megaloblastic anemia.
6. What are the main harms Megaloblastic anemia can be caused

caused by vitamin A also by vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)
deficiency since this vitamin is
deficiency? How does this
important for cell division too. Both
vitamin act in the physiology types of anemia are nutrient deficiency
of vision? anemias.
Deficiency of vitamin A (retinol) may Nutrition Vitamins - Image Diversity:

cause night blindness, corneal dryness megaloblastic red blood cell
(xerophthalmia) and predisposition to
skin injuries.
In the physiology of vision, vitamin A 8. What are the vitamins

participates in the formation of which make up the B
rhodopsin, a pigment responsible for the complex? Which problems
visual perception in less illuminated
places.
does the lack of these
vitamins cause?
Nutrition Vitamins - Image Diversity:
vitamin A deficiency Vitamins of the B complex are: thiamin,
or vitamin B1; riboflavin, or vitamin B2,
and niacin (B3), essential for the
constitution of the hydrogen acceptors
7. What is folic acid? Why is FAD, NAD and NADP of the energetic
the anemia caused by metabolism; pyridoxine, or B6; and
cyanocobalamin, or vitamin B12.
deficiency of folic acid known
as megaloblastic anemia? Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes beriberi,
loss of appetite and fatigue. The lack of
The folic acid (when ionized it is called vitamin B2 causes mucosal injuries in
folate) is a coenzyme that participates the mouth, tongue and lips. Deficiency
in the synthesis and duplication of DNA of niacin causes nervousness, digestive
and for this reason it is fundamental for disturbances, loss of energy and
194
pellagra. Lack of vitamin B6 causes skin containing food cannot be submitted to
lesions, irritation and convulsions. high temperatures (cooking) since
Vitamin B12 acts together with folic acid vitamin C is thermolabile, i.e., it is
and its deficiency causes cell division inactivated by heat.
disruptions leading to pernicious anemia
(a type of megaloblastic and nutrient
deficiency anemia).
11. What is the association
The absorption of vitamin B12 depends between vitamin D and
on another substance called the intrinsic sunrays?
factor secreted by the gastric mucosa.
Vitamin D, or calciferol, is synthesized

in the skin by the action of the
9. How does vitamin C act in ultraviolet range of sunrays upon
precursor molecules. Later it is
the body? What is the harm transformed into its active form in the
caused by insufficiency of liver and the kidneys.
vitamin C? Why was this
deficiency also known as
“sailors' disease”?
12. What is the disease
Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, participates
in the metabolism of collagen and it is caused by vitamin D
fundamental for the integrity of blood deficiency? Which tissue does
capillaries. it affect?
Scurvy is the disease caused by a lack The lack of vitamin D causes the disease
of vitamin C. It is characterized by known as rickets (rachitis),
tissue lesions in the skin, lips, nose and characterized by decalcification of bones
joints. Scurvy, or scorbutus, was also and bone deformities. Vitamin D is
known as sailors' disease because in fundamental for absorption of calcium
maritime voyages of the past it was not and thus it is related to the osseous
common to get on board food that tissue health.
contained vitamin C, like citric fruits. So
the sailors became ill with scurvy.
13. What is the function of

vitamin E? In which foods can
10. Why isn't the cooking of
it be found?
vitamin C-containing foods
appropriate for vitamin C
Vitamin E, or tocopherol, is a fat-soluble
supply? vitamin that participates as coenzyme in
the respiratory chain, the final stage of
To obtain vitamin C, for example, from the aerobic cellular respiration. Its
an orange dessert, the vitamin- deficiency may cause sterility,
195
spontaneous abortions and muscle 16. What are the main mineral
dystrophy. salts responsible for the
cellular osmotic regulation?
Vitamin E is mainly found in corn oil and
peanut oil, wheat germ, milk, eggs and
leafy vegetables. The main ions that act in the regulation
of the osmotic pressure in cells and
tissues are the chlorine anion, the
sodium cation and the potassium cation.
14. Why are some types of
hemorrhagic diseases caused
by genetic or acquired 17. What are the main cellular
deficiency of the vitamin K functions of potassium?
metabolism?
Besides being important for the osmotic
Deficiency of vitamin K predisposes to regulation and for the acid-base
hemorrhages since this vitamin is equilibrium (pH) potassium is
fundamental for the formation of fundamental for the excitatory
prothrombin in the blood clotting mechanisms of nerves and in muscle
process. contraction.
15. What are the functions of 18. What are some examples
biotin and pantothenic acid for of mineral salts from the diet
the body? How are these that act as coenzymes?
vitamins obtained?
Magnesium, zinc and copper are
Biotin (also know as vitamin B8) is a examples of biological coenzymes.
vitamin that acts in the metabolism of
amino acids and other acids.
Pantothenic acid (also known as vitamin
B5) is important for the aerobic cellular 19. What is the disease
respiration since it acts in the transport caused by dietary iodine
of acetyl and acyl radicals.
deficiency?
Biotin is made by bacteria that live in
the human digestive tube (under
interspecific harmonious ecological Iodine deficiency causes
interaction) and this supply in general is hypothyroidism, an abnormally lower
enough for the body. Biotin and production of thyroid hormones that
pantothenic acid are found in need iodine to be synthesized.
vegetables, cereals, eggs, fish, milk and
lean meat.
196
iron in diet? What is the
disease caused by iron
deficiency?
Iron acts as a constituent of the

hemoglobin molecule and of enzymes of
the digestion and energetic metabolism.
Dietary iron deficiency causes iron
deficiency anemia, abnormal lowering of
hemoglobin concentration in blood due
to lack of iron. (In pregnancy there is a
high consumption of iron by the fetus
and this fact can lead to anemia.)
197
3. How is extracellular
Digestive System digestion related to cellular
and tissue specialization?
1. What is digestion? A variety of specialized cells and tissues

appeared with extracellular digestion to
provide enzymes and special structures
Digestion is the breaking down of larger
for the breaking down of dietary
organic molecules obtained from the
macromolecules.
diet, e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
into smaller ones, like glucose, fatty
This phenomenon allowed other cells to
acids, glycerol and amino acids.
be liberated for other tasks and
differentiations while benefiting from
nutrients distributed through the
circulation.
2. How different are
intracellular and extracellular
digestion? What is the
evolutionary advantage of 4. What is the difference
extracellular digestion? between a complete digestive
system and an incomplete
Intracellular digestion is that in which digestive system? How are
the breaking down of macromolecules these types of digestive tubes
takes place within the cell. Extracellular associated or not to
digestion is that in which
macromolecules are broken down in
extracellular digestion?
places outside the cell (in the
extracellular space, in the surrounds, in Animals with an incomplete digestive
the lumen of digestive tubes, etc.) system are those in which the digestive
tube has only one opening (cnidarians,
The advent of extracellular digestion in platyhelminthes). Animals with a
evolution allowed organisms to benefit complete digestive system are those in
from a greater variety of food. The which the digestive tube has two
breaking down of larger molecules into openings, mouth and anus (all other
smaller ones outside the cell permitted animal phyla, with the exception of
the use of other foods than those that, poriferans, that do not have any
due the size of their molecules, could digestive tube).
not be interiorized by diffusion,
phagocytosis or pinocytosis. In animals with incomplete digestive
tubes the digestion is mixed, it begins in
the extracellular space and finishes in
the intracellular space. In animals with
complete digestive systems extracellular
digestion within the digestive tube
predominates.
198
5. What are some evolutionary digestion of food. In earthworms and
advantages of animals with birds, the mechanical digestion is made
by an internal muscular organ. In
complete digestive tube? mandibulate vertebrates there are
mandibles and chewing muscles to
The complete digestive tube allows triturate food previous to the chemical
animals to continuously feed themselves digestion.
without waiting for residuals to be
eliminated before beginning the
digestion of new foods. In this way the
absorption of larger amount of nutrients 7. Concerning extracellular
is possible and therefore bigger and
digestion what is meant by
more complex species can develop.
Digestive tubes with two openings also chemical digestion?
make digestion more efficient since they
provide different sites with different Chemical digestion is the series of
physical and chemical conditions enzymatic reactions to break
(mouth, stomach, bowels) for the action macromolecules into smaller ones.
of different complementary digestive
enzymatic systems.
8. Which type of chemical

reaction is the breaking of
6. What is mechanical macromolecules into smaller
digestion? In molluscs, ones that occurs in digestion?
arthropods, earthworms, birds What are the enzymes that
and vertebrates, in general, participate in this process
which organs respectively called?
participate in this type of
digestion? The reactions of the extracellular
digestion are hydrolysis reactions, i.e.,
Mechanical digestion is the breaking of molecules with the help of
fragmentation of food aided by water. The enzymes that participate in
specialized physical structures, such as digestion are hydrolytic enzymes.
teeth, previous to extracellullar
digestion. The mechanical
fragmentation of food helps digestive
enzymatic reactions because it provides 9. Which organs of the body
a larger total area for the contact are part of the human
between enzymes and their substrates. digestive system?
In some molluscs, the mechanical
The digestive system, also known as
fragmentation is done by the radula (a
“systema digestorium”, or
teeth-like structure). Some arthropods,
gastrointestinal system, is composed of
like lobsters and dragonflies, have
the digestive tube organs plus the
mouthparts that make mechanical
199
digestive adnexal glands. The digestive for the intestinal absorption),
tube is composed of mouth, pharynx, submucosa (connective tissue beneath
esophagus, stomach, small intestine the mucous membrane and where blood
(duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large and lymphatic vessels and neural fibers
intestine (caecum, colon, rectum) and are located), muscle layers (smooth
anus. muscle tissue, two layers, one interior
circular and other exterior longitudinal,
structures responsible for the peristaltic
movement), serous membrane
10. What are peristaltic (associated epithelial and connective
movements? What is their role tissue forming the external surface of
the organ). In the bowels the serous
in human digestion?
membrane prolongs to form the
mesentery, a serosa that encloses blood
Peristalsis is the process of vessels and supports the bowels within
synchronized contractions of the the abdominal cavity.
muscular wall of the digestive tube.
Peristaltic movements may occur from
the esophagus until and including the
bowels. 12. What is the location of the
The peristaltic movements are
salivary glands in humans?
involuntary and they have the function
of moving and mixing food along the There are 6 major salivary glands and
digestive tube. Peristaltic movement they are located one in each parotid
deficiency, for example, in case of gland, two beneath the mandibles
injuries of the innervation of the (submandibular) and two in the base of
muscular wall of the digestive tube the tongue (sublingual). More than 700
caused by Chagas’ disease, can lead to other minor salivary glands exist
the interruption of the food traffic inside dispersed on the lip mucosa, gingiva,
the bowels and to severe clinical palate and pharynx.
consequences like megacolon (abnormal
enlargement of the colon) and
megaesophagus (enlargement of the
esophagus). 13. What is the approximate
pH of the salivary secretion?
Is it an acid or basic fluid?
What are the main functions
11. From the lumen to the
of saliva?
external surface what are the
tissues that form the digestive The saliva pH is approximately 6.8. It is
tube wall? thus a slightly acid pH.
From the internal surface to the external Saliva lubricates the food bolus and
surface, the digestive tube wall is made initiates the enzymatic extracellular
of mucosa (epithelial tissue responsible digestion of food. It also works as a
200
buffer for the mouth pH and it has an The esophagus is a predominantly
important role of having IgA antibodies muscular organ so the assertion is
(also present in tears, colostrum, correct. The esophagus is a muscular
mother’s milk and in the mucosae of the tube formed in its superior third of
intestine and airways) that protect the striated muscle tissue, in its middle
organism against pathogens. third of mixed muscle tissue (striated
and smooth) and in its lower third of
smooth muscle tissue. The peristalsis of
the esophagus provides the movement
14. What is the salivary of the food towards the stomach even
digestive enzyme? Which type without gravitational help.
of food does it digest and into
which smaller molecules does
it transform the food? 17. What is the route of the
ingested food from swallowing
The salivary hydrolase is known as until the duodenum?
salivary amylase, or ptyalin. Ptyalin
digests carbohydrates breaking starch
and glycogen, glucose polymers, into Until reaching the duodenum the food
maltose (a glucose disaccharide) and enters the mouth, passes the pharynx,
dextrin. goes down the esophagus and passes
the stomach.
15. Why doesn't the food

18. what is the valve that
enter the trachea instead of
separates the stomach from
going to the esophagus?
the esophagus called? What is
When food is swallowed the swallow
its function?
reflex is activated and the larynx
elevates and closes to avoid portions of The valve that separates the stomach
the food bolus entering the trachea from the esophagus is the cardia. It has
causing aspiration of strange material to the function of preventing acid gastric
the bronchi. content from entering back into the
esophagus. Insufficiency of this valve
causes gastroesophageal reflux, a
disease in which patients complain of
16. Is the esophagus a bloating and heartburn (retrosternal
burning).
muscular organ? Why even in
a patient lying totally flat on a
hospital bed can the
swallowed food reach the
stomach?
201
19. What is the valve that With its corrosive effect, HCl also helps
separates the duodenum from the rupture of the adhesion between
food particles, facilitating the digestive
the stomach called? What is process.
its function?
The valve that separates the stomach

from the duodenum is the pylorus. It 22. How is the gastric mucosa
has the function of keeping the food protected from the acid pH of
bolus within the gastric cavity for
the stomach?
enough time to allow the gastric
digestion to take place. It also has the
function of preventing the intestinal The gastric epithelium is mucus
content from going back into the secretory, i.e., it produces mucus. The
stomach. mucus covers the stomach wall
preventing corrosion by the gastric
juice.
20. What is the pH inside the

stomach? Why is there a need
23. What is the digestive
to keep that pH level? How is
enzyme that acts within the
it maintained? Which are the
stomach? Which type of food
cells that produce that pH?
does it digest? What are the
cells that produce that
The normal pH of the gastric juice is
around 2. So it is an acid pH. enzyme?
It is necessary for the gastric pH to be The digestive enzyme that acts in the
kept acid for the activation of stomach is pepsin. Pepsin has the
pepsinogen (a proenzyme secreted by function of breaking proteins into
the gastric chief cells) into pepsin, the smaller peptides. The gastric cells that
digestive enzyme that acts only under produce pepsinogen (the zymogen
low pH. This pH level is attained by the precursor of pepsin) are the chief cells.
secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by
the parietal cells.
24. What name does the food

bolus that passes from the
21. Besides being fundamental stomach to the duodenum
for the activation of the main get?
gastric digestive enzyme how
does HCl also directly The partially digested and semifluid food
participate in digestion? bolus that leaves the stomach and
enters the duodenum is called chyme.
202
25. Which are the three parts gallbladder and released in the
of the small intestine? duodenum.
Bile is composed of bile salts,

The small intestine is divided into three cholesterol and bile pigments. Bile salts
portions: duodenum, jejunum and are detergents, amphiphilic molecules,
ileum. i.e., molecules with a polar water-
soluble portion and a non-polar fat-
soluble portion. This feature allows bile
salts to enclose fats inside water-soluble
26. By generally dividing food micelles in a process called
into carbohydrates, fats and emulsification for them to be in contact
proteins and considering the with intestinal lipases, enzymes that
digestive process until the break fats into simpler fatty acids and
pylorus (exit of stomach), glycerol.
which of these mentioned
types of food have already
undergone chemical 28. What is the adnexal organ
digestion? of the digestive system in
which bile is stored? How
Until the exit of the stomach, does this organ react to the
carbohydrates, in the mouth, and
ingestion of fat rich food?
proteins, in the stomach, have already
undergone chemical breaking by
digestive enzymes. Carbohydrates have Bile is concentrated and stored in the
suffered action of the salivary amylase gallbladder.
(ptyalin) and proteins have suffered
action of the enzyme pepsin of the When fat rich foods are ingested the
gastric juice. Fats, until reaching the gallbladder contracts to release bile
duodenum, do not undergo chemical inside the duodenum. (This is the
digestion. reason why patients with gallstones
must not ingest fatty food, the reactive
contraction of the gallbladder may move
some of the stones to the point of
27. What is the substance blocking the duct that drains bile into
the duodenum, causing pain and
produced in the liver that acts possible severe complications.)
in the small intestine during
digestion? How does that
substance act in the digestive
process? 29. What are the digestive
functions of the liver?
Bile, an emulsifier liquid, is made by the
liver and later stored within the
203
Besides making bile for release in the 31. How does the pancreatic
duodenum, the liver has other digestive juice participate in the
functions.
digestion of proteins? What
The venous network that absorbs are the involved enzymes?
nutrients from the guts, called
mesenteric circulation, drains its blood The pancreas secretes trypsinogen that,
content almost entirely to the hepatic undergoing action of the enzyme
portal vein. This vein irrigates the liver enterokinase secreted by the
with absorbed material from the duodenum, is transformed into trypsin.
digestion. So the liver has the functions Trypsin in its turn catalyzes the
of storing, processing and inactivating activation of pancreatic
nutrients. chymotrypsinogen into chymotrypsin.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are proteases
Glucose is polymerized into glycogen in that break proteins into smaller
the liver; this organ also stores many peptides. The smaller peptides are then
vitamins and the iron absorbed in the broken into amino acids by the enzyme
intestine. Some important metabolic carboxipeptidase (also secreted by the
molecules, like albumin and clotting pancreas in a zymogen form and
factors, are made in the liver from activated by trypsin) helped by the
amino acids of the diet. In the liver enzyme aminopeptidase made in the
ingested toxic substances, like alcohol intestinal mucous membrane.
and drugs, are inactivated too.
32. How does the pancreatic

30. Besides the liver which is juice resume the digestion of
the other adnexal gland of the carbohydrates? What is the
digestive system that releases involved enzyme?
substances in the duodenum
participating in extracellular Carbohydrate digestion begins with the
digestion? action of the salivary amylase (ptyalin)
in the mouth and it continues in the
The other adnexal gland of the digestive duodenum by the action of the
pancreatic juice. This juice contains the
system is the pancreas. This organ
makes digestive enzymes that digest enzyme pancreatic amylase, or
amylopsin, that breaks starch (amylum)
proteins (proteases), lipids (lipases) and
carbohydrates (pancreatic amylases). into maltose (a disaccharide made of
two glucose molecules).
Other digestive enzymes, like
gelatinase, elastase, carboxipeptidase,
ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease are
also secreted by the pancreas.
204
33. How does the pancreatic 35. Coming from the acid pH
juice help the digestion of of the stomach which pH level
lipids? What is the involved does the chyme find when it
enzyme? enters the duodenum? Why is
it necessary to maintain that
The enzyme pancreatic lipase is present pH level in the small intestine?
in the pancreatic juice. This enzyme What are the organs
breaks triacylglycerol (triglyceride) into
responsible for that pH level
fatty acids and glycerol.
and how is it kept?
Entering the duodenum the chyme

34. Besides the pancreatic meets the pancreatic juice under a pH
juice in the intestine there is of approximately 8.5. The neutralization
of the chyme acidity is necessary to
the releasing of the enteric
keep adequate pH level for the
juice that contains digestive functioning of the digestive enzymes
enzymes too. What are these that act in the duodenum. Without the
enzymes and which type of neutralization of the chyme acidity the
molecule do each of these mucous membrane of the intestine
would be injured.
enzymes break?
When stimulated by the chyme acidity
The enteric juice is secreted by the the duodenum makes a hormone called
small intestine mucosa. The enzymes of secretin. Secretin stimulates the
the enteric juice and their respective pancreas to release the pancreatic juice
functions are described as follows: and also the gallbladder to expel bile in
the duodenum. The pancreatic
Enterokinase: enzyme that activates secretion, rich in bicarbonate ions, is
trypsinogen into trypsin. Saccharase: released in the duodenum and
enzyme that breaks sucrose neutralizes the chyme acidity; this
(saccharose) into glucose and fructose. acidity is also neutralized by the
Maltase: enzyme that breaks maltose secretion of bile in the duodenal lumen.
into two glucose molecules. Lactase:
enzyme that breaks lactose into glucose
and galactose. Peptidases: enzymes
that break oligopeptides into amino 36. What are the five human
acids. Nucleotidases: Enzymes that
break nucleotides into its components
digestive secretions? Which of
(nitrogen-containing bases, phosphates them is the only pne that does
and pentoses). not contain digestive
enzymes?
The human digestive secretions are:

saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic
juice and enteric juice. Among these
205
secretions only the bile does not contain intestinal villi and the microvilli of the
digestive enzymes. mucosal membrane cells.
The intestinal wall is not smooth. The

mucous membrane, together with its
37. Why do protease- submucosa, projects inside the gut
supplying cells of the stomach lumen like glove fingers forming
invaginations and villi that multiply the
and of the pancreas make only
available surface for absorption. In
precursors of the active addition the epithelial cells that cover
proteolytic enzymes? these villi have themselves numerous
hairlike projections called microvilli on
The stomach and the pancreas make the external face (lumen face) of their
zymogens of the proteases pepsin, plasma membrane. The absorptive area
chymotrypsin and trypsin and these of the intestines is thus increased
zymogens are released into the gastric hundreds of times with these solutions.
or duodenal lumen for activation. This
happens to prevent the digestion of In the jejunum and ileum there are
these organs' (stomach and pancreas) folds that have the function of
own cells and tissues by the active form increasing the absorption surface too.
of the enzymes. So the production of
zymogens is a protective strategy
against the natural effects of the
proteolytic enzymes. 39. In which part of the
digestive tube is water is
chiefly absorbed? What about
the mineral ions and vitamins?
38. After digestion the next
step is absorption done by
Most part of water, vitamins and
cells of the mucous membrane mineral ions are absorbed by the small
of the intestine. For this task a intestine. The large intestine, however,
large absorption surface is an is responsible for the reabsorption of
advantage. How is it possible nearly 10% of the ingested water, an
in the small internal space of important amount that gives
consistency to feces (colon diseases can
the body of a pluricellular cause diarrhea).
organism to present a large
intestinal surface?
Evolution tried to solve this problem in 40. From the intestinal lumen
two ways. The simplest is the long and through to the tissues - what
tubular shape of the bowels is the route of nutrients after
(approximately eight meters in
digestion?
extension), making possible that
numerous small intestine loops fold
closely. More efficient solutions are the
206
Monosaccharides, amino acids, mineral The lymphatic circulation drains its
salts and water are absorbed by the content to the venous blood circulation.
intestinal epithelium and collected by In that manner chylomicrons reach the
capillary vessels of the intestinal villi. liver where their lipid content is
From the capillaries, nutrients go to the processed and released in the blood
mesenteric circulation, a system of under the form of protein-containing
vessels that drains the intestinal loops. complexes called lipoproteins, like HDL,
The blood of the mesenteric circulation VLDL and LDL.
is drained to the portal hepatic vein and
some nutrients are processed by the
liver. From the liver, nutrients are
gathered by the hepatic veins that 42. What are the so-called
discharge its blood content into the “good” and “bad” cholesterol?
inferior vena cava. Blood from the
inferior vena cava then gains the right
Lipoproteins are complexes made of
chambers of the heart and is pumped to
lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol) and
the lungs for oxygenation. From the
proteins. The lipoproteins present
lungs the blood then returns to the
different densities according to the
heart where it is pumped to the tissues
relationship between their protein and
distributing nutrients and oxygen.
lipid quantities since lipids are less
dense than proteins. Low-density
lipoproteins (LDL) are those with a low
protein/lipid relation; high-density
41. What is the special route lipoproteins (HDL) have a high
that lipids follow during protein/lipid relation; another group is
digestion? What are the very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)
chylomicrons? with very low protein/lipid relation.
Triglycerides emulsified by the bile LDL is known as “bad cholesterol”

within micelles suffer the action of because it transports cholesterol from
lipases that break them into fatty acids the liver to the tissues and so induces
and glycerol. Fatty acids, glycerol and the formation of atheroma plaques
cholesterol are absorbed by the inside blood vessels, a condition called
intestinal mucosa. In the interior of the atherosclerosis (do not confuse with
mucosal cells fatty acids and glycerol arteriosclerosis) that can lead to severe
form again triglycerides that together circulatory obstructions like acute
with cholesterol and phospholipids are myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular
packed in small vesicles covered by accidents and thrombosis. HDL is known
proteins and called chylomicrons. The as “good cholesterol” since it transports
chylomicrons are released in minuscule cholesterol from the tissues to the liver
lymphatic vessels not in blood vessels (to be eliminated with the bile) and
and they gain the lymphatic circulation. elevation of the HDL blood level reduces
So the lymphatic system plays an the risk of atherosclerosis. (VLDL
important role in the absorption of transforms into LDL after losing
lipids. triglycerides in the blood).
207
43. Why does the ingestion of compete with other species preventing
vegetable fibers improve the excessive proliferation of these bacteria.
bowel habit in people that
suffer from hard stools?
45. The releasing of digestive
Some types of plant fibers are not secretions is controlled by
absorbed by the intestine but play an
hormones. What are the
important role in the functioning of the
organ. They retain water inside the hormones that participate in
bowels and thus contribute to the this regulation?
softening of the fecal bolus. A softer
fecal bolus is easier to be eliminated The hormones that participate in the
during defecation. People that eat less regulation of digestion are gastrin,
dietary fiber may suffer from hard stools secretin, cholecystokin and
and constipation. enterogastrone.
44. What are the main 46. How is it produced and

functions of the bacterial flora what is the function of gastrin
within the human gut? in the digestive process?
Bacteria that live inside the gut have The presence of food in the stomach
great importance in digestion. Some stimulates the secretion of gastrin that
polysaccharides like cellulose, in its turn triggers the releasing of the
hemicellulose and pectin are not gastric juice.
digested by the digestive enzymes
secreted by the body, instead, they are
broken by enzymes released by bacteria
of the gastrointestinal tract. The 47. Where is it produced and
intestinal bacterial flora also make vital what is the function of
substances for the functioning of the
secretin in the digestive
bowels facilitating or blocking the
absorption of nutrients and stimulating process?
or reducing peristalsis. Some gut
bacteria are the main source of vitamin Secretin is made in the duodenum. The
K for the body and so they are essential chyme acidity causes the duodenum to
for the blood clotting process. release this hormone that in its turn
stimulates the secretion of the
In the intestinal flora there are utile but pancreatic juice.
also potentially harmful bacteria. It is
estimated that more than 100 trillion
bacteria live in a human gut. Some
bacteria are useful too because they
208
48. How is it produced and gizzard is a muscular pouch that serves
what is the function of as a mechanical stomach where the
food is ground to increase the exposure
cholecystokin in the digestive area of the food particles for the
process? digestive enzymes to act.
The fat level of the chyme detected in

the duodenum stimulates the secretion
of cholecystokin (CCK). CCK acts by 51. Compared to mammals do
stimulating the secretion of the birds absorb more or less
pancreatic juice also, and the releasing
water in their digestive
of bile by the gallbladder.
system? Why is this
phenomenon an adaptation to
flight?
49. Where is it produced and
what is the function of Bird feces are more liquid than mammal
enterogastrone in the feces, i.e., less water is absorbed in the
digestive process? avian digestive system. The more
frequent elimination of feces in birds
due to their less solid feces is an
When the chyme is too fatty there is a adaptation to flight since their body
secretion of enterogastrone by the weight is kept lower.
duodenum. This hormone reduces the
peristalsis of the stomach thus slowing
the entrance of food into the duodenum
(as the digestion of fats takes more
52. What is meant by
time).
“mutualist exploration of
cellulose digestion”, a
phenomenon that occurs in
50. What are the special some mammals and insects?
structures of the avian
digestive tube and their Herbivorous animals eat great amounts
respective functions? of cellulose, a substance not digested by
their digestive enzymes. In these
The digestive tube of birds has special animals regions of the digestive tube
are colonized by microorganisms that
structures, in this sequential order: the
crop, the proventriculus and the gizzard. digest cellulose. This mutualist
ecological interaction between animals
The crop has the function of temporary and microorganisms occurs, e.g., in
horses, cows, rabbits and in some
storage of ingested food and it is a more
dilated area of the avian esophagus. insects such as termites.
The proventriculus is the chemical
stomach of the birds where food is
mixed with digestive enzymes. The
209
53. Cows swallow their food
once and then this food goes
back to the mouth to be
chewed again. How can this
phenomenon be explained?
The food ingested by cows and other

ruminant animals passes first within two
compartments of the digestive tube
called the rumen and the reticulum.
Within them the food suffers the action
of digestive enzymes released by
microorganisms that live there in
mutualist ecological interaction. In the
reticulum the food is divided in some
food bolus too. After passing the
reticulum the food (cud) is regurgitated
to the mouth to be again chewed and
swallowed in a process called
rumination. The digesting food then
enters the omasum where it is
mechanically mixed. After that the food
goes to the abomasum, the organ
where the chemical digestion takes
place. After leaving the abomasum (the
true stomach) the food bolus gains the
intestine.
210
3. Considering the chemical
Respiratory System equation of the aerobic
cellular respiration which
molecules does the cell need
1. What is the difference and which molecules does it
between respiration meaning liberate in the process?
gas exchange and cellular
respiration? Considering the chemical equation of
the aerobic cellular respiration it is
observed that glucose and molecular
Respiration meaning gas exchange is
oxygen are needed as reagents and
the process in which an organism
carbon dioxide and water are released.
absorbs from the environment gases
The process also spends ADP and
necessary for its cellular metabolism
phosphate that turn into ATP.
and expels gases that are products of
this metabolism. Cellular respiration
(aerobic or anaerobic) is the chemical
reaction in which organic molecules are
4. What are the different types
degraded to make ATP molecules, the
main energy source for the metabolism. of gas exchange that occur in
animals?
Gas exchange is fundamental for
cellular respiration since the supplying In beings from the kingdom Animalia
of some reagents (oxygen, in aerobic the gas exchange may occur either by
cellular respiration) and the expelling of diffusion, tracheal respiration,
some products (e.g., carbon dioxide) of cutaneous respiration, branchial
this chemical reaction depends on gas respiration or pulmonary respiration.
exchange.
5. Oxygen comes from the

2. What is the chemical environment and carbon
equation of the aerobic dioxide in the end returns to
cellular respiration? the environment. How do
small animals solve the
The chemical equation of the aerobic problem of taking away and
cellular respiration is the following:
bringing these molecules
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 36 ADP + 36 P --> from/to their cells? Why isn't
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP that solution possible for
larger animals?
Small animals whose tissues make

direct contact or are very close to the
211
environment, like cnidarians and expelled. The tracheae ramify into
poriferans, make gas exchange by tracheoles that reach all tissues of the
diffusion. animal.
Larger animals with cells without direct In the circulatory system of insects the
contact with the environment or far blood only transports nutrients; gases
from it need special gas transportation are independently transported by the
systems. In these animals the tracheal system.
respiratory and the circulatory systems
play this role.

between respiration by
6. Beings from four phyla of diffusion and cutaneous
the animal kingdom “breath” respiration? Does blood
(do gas exchange) by participate in cutaneous
diffusion. Which are those respiration?
phyla? How is this type of
respiration associated to Cutaneous respiration is not as simple
features present in those as diffusion. In diffusion the gases
animals? diffuse directly between the external
environment and the cells. In cutaneous
The phyla of the animal kingdom whose respiration molecular oxygen penetrates
beings do gas exchange by diffusion are through the skin and it is collected by
the poriferans, the cnidarians, the the blood circulation that then
platyelminthes (flatworms) and the distributes the gas to the tissues.
nematodes (roundworms). This type of Carbon dioxide is also collected from the
respiration in these beings is possible tissues by the blood and taken to the
because their tissues and cells are skin to be eliminated to the
relatively close to the exterior. environment. So there is important
participation of blood in cutaneous
respiration.
7. Which animals make

tracheal respiration? Is there 9. Which animals make
a blood-like fluid that cutaneous respiration?
participates in this process?
Terrestrial annelids and adult
Insects and arachnids are the arthropod amphibians make cutaneous respiration
animals that make tracheal respiration. (in amphibians there is also pulmonary
In the body surface of these animals respiration).
there are many orifices called spiracles
that communicate with small tubules,
the tracheae, through which air
penetrates and carbon dioxide is
212
The thin skin and the need for living in 12. Besides vertebrates two
moist surrounds are typical features of invertebrate phyla contain
these animals are.
species that make pulmonary
respiration. Which are these
phyla?
10. What are branchiae? What
are examples of animals that Terrestrial molluscs and the arachnid
“breath” through branchiae? arthropods are the invertebrates that
present pulmonary-like respiration.
Some terrestrial molluscs have a mantle
Branchiae, also known as gills, are small
cavity filled with air that makes contact
portions of richly vascularized tissues
with richly vascularized tissues that
internal or external to the body and in
work as rudimentary lungs. Besides
direct contact with the surrounding
their tracheal respiration some
water. The gills are organs that make
arachnids have book lungs (thin folds
gas exchange in aquatic annelids,
resembling leaves of a book) that make
crustaceans, fishes and amphibian
gas exchange.
larvae (e.g., tadpoles).
13. What are the three types

of respiration in which the
between gills and lungs?
circulatory system transports
Gills and lungs are richly vascularized
gases?
organs that serve for gas exchange
between the environment and the The circulatory system has an important
circulatory system. role in cutaneous respiration, branchial
respiration and pulmonary respiration.
The lungs differentiate from gills in that The respiratory function of the blood is
they are saclike structures always tailored for transportation of gases for
internal to the organism and specialized exchange between tissues and
in gas exchange in terrestrial respiratory surfaces in contact with the
environment. Branchiae, in their turn, exterior (skin, gills, lungs).
are internal or external laminar
structures in direct contact with water
and specialized in gas exchange in
aquatic environment. 14. What are respiratory
pigments? What are some
respiratory pigments and in
which animal groups can each
of them be found?
213
Respiratory pigments are molecules 16. What is the anatomical
present in the blood that bind to oxygen reason for the left bronchus to
transporting it to the tissues.
be more elevated than the
In vertebrates the respiratory pigment right bronchus? Why in most
is hemoglobin, reddish due to the iron cases of aspiration of foreign
of its composition. In crustacean and material by children is the
arachnid arthropods and in some object found in the right
molluscs the respiratory pigment is
bronchus?
hemocyanin, blue due to the copper of
its composition. Annelids have
hemoglobin, hemerythrin and The left bronchus is more elevated than
chlorocruorin as respiratory pigments. the right bronchus because of the
position of the heart in the left side of
the chest, anterior and inferior to the
left bronchus.
15. What are the organs that
Accidentally aspired objects are
form the human respiratory frequently found in the right bronchus
system? because the inferior angle between the
trachea and this bronchus is lower than
The organs that are part of the human the inferior angle between the trachea
respiratory system can be divided into and the left bronchus since the left
three groups: lungs, airway and bronchus is more horizontalized.
respiratory muscles. Therefore aspired objects tend to fall in
the right side (bronchus) and not in the
The lungs are the right and the left left.
lungs made of alveoli where gas
exchange (entrance of oxygen and exit
of carbon dioxide) takes place; the
lungs are covered by the pleura (a 17. How does the body defend
serous membrane). The airway itself from microorganisms
comprehends the nose, the pharynx,
and other harmful substances
the larynx (including the vocal cords),
the trachea, the bronchi and the that enter the airway during
bronchioles. The muscles upon which the breathing process?
the breathing process depends are
mainly the diaphragm and the The epithelium of the airway is a ciliated
intercostal muscles (muscles between epithelium and has mucus-secreting
the ribs). specialized cells. The secreted mucus
covers the internal wall of the airway
retaining organisms and foreign
particles that then are swept by the cilia
of the epithelium.
In the mucous ciliated epithelium of the

airway there is also intense activity of
214
the immune system with antibodies and 20. What is the difference
leukocytes inactivating and destroying between arterial and venous
foreign agents.
blood?
Other defense mechanisms of the
airway are the sneeze and the cough. Arterial blood is the oxygen-rich and
They help the elimination of solid and carbon dioxide-poor blood that irrigates
semifluid particles like pathologic the tissues. Venous blood is the oxygen-
residuals (sputum) and accidentally poor and carbon dioxide-rich blood
aspired objects. collected from the tissues.
18. Which are the respiratory 21. What is hematosis? In

muscles in mammals? humans where does
hematosis occur?
In mammals the muscles that
participate in the breathing process are Hematosis is the oxygenation of the
the diaphragm and the intercostal blood. Venous blood (oxygen-poor)
muscles. In respiratory insufficiency after hematosis is transformed into
other muscles can help the respiration, arterial blood (oxygen-rich).
the muscles of the shoulders, neck,
thorax and abdomen. In humans hematosis takes place in the
lungs.
19. How are inhalation and

expiration carried out? 22. What are the blood vessels
that carry venous blood to the
The diaphragm (exclusive of mammals) heart? What is the blood
and the intercostal muscles can contract vessel that collects arterial
or relax varying the volume of the blood from the heart?
thorax (the compartment where the
lungs are located). The changing of the
The blood vessels that debouch in the
thorax volume forces inhalation or
heart carrying venous blood are the
expiration.
inferior and the superior vena cava. The
blood vessel that carries arterial blood
When the thorax volume is increased an
from the heart is the aorta.
internal pressure lower than the
atmospheric pressure (external) is
created and gases naturally enter the
lungs. When the thorax volume is
lowered the internal pressure rises
23. What is the gas exchange
above the external pressure and the air unit of the mammalian lungs?
is expelled from the lungs.
215
The gas exchange units of the 26. What is the chemical
mammalian lungs are the alveoli. equation of the formation of
bicarbonate from carbon
dioxide and water? What is
24. What is the physical the enzyme that catalyzes this
process through which gas reaction?
exchange is accomplished in
the pulmonary alveoli? The chemical equation of the chemical
equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate having as reagents carbon
The gas exchange (entry of oxygen and
dioxide and water is as follows:
exit of carbon dioxide) in the pulmonary
alveoli occurs by simple diffusion in
CO2 + H20 --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3-
favor of the partial pressure gradient.
The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme
When the oxygen partial pressure in the
carbonic anhydrase present in red blood
inhaled air is higher than the oxygen
cells.
partial pressure of the capillaries of the
alveoli the air diffuses to the circulatory
system. If the oxygen partial pressure
in the air is lower (a rare situation since
the blood that reaches the alveoli is
27. What are the
venous blood) the oxygen exits the consequences of shifting the
circulatory system. The same is true for chemical equilibrium of the
carbon dioxide. formation of bicarbonate from
carbon dioxide and water
towards the increase of
25. What is the structure of product (bicarbonate)
the central nervous system formation?
that regulates pulmonary
The increase in product formation in the
respiration? chemical equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and
The pulmonary respiration is controlled water heightens the concentration of
by the neural respiratory center located hydrogen ions and thus lowers the pH of
within the medulla (the lower part of the the solution.
brain continuous to the spinal cord).
216
28. What are the of the solution is lowered; if the carbon
consequences of shifting the dioxide concentration is lowered the
equilibrium shifts reversely towards the
chemical equilibrium of the formation of water and carbon dioxide
formation of bicarbonate from and also of more hydrogen ions
carbon dioxide and water spending and the pH of the solution is
towards the consumption of raised.
products of the reverse
reaction?
30. What are acidosis and
The shifting of the chemical equilibrium
of the formation of bicarbonate from
alkalosis?
carbon dioxide and water into the
reverse reaction (production of water Acidosis is the condition in which the
and carbon dioxide) means spending of blood pH is abnormally low. Alkalosis is
hydrogen ions and thus it increases the the condition in which the blood pH is
solution pH. abnormally high. Normal pH levels for
the human blood are between 7.35 and
7.45 - slightly alkaline.
29. How does the pulmonary

ventilation affect the carbon
31. How does the breathing
dioxide concentration in
process correct acidosis?
blood? What happens to the
carbon dioxide concentration
If the body experiences acidosis the
and to the blood pH when the respiratory center located in the medulla
respiratory frequency is either gets the information and induces the
lowered or increased? increase of the respiratory frequency.
The increment of the respiratory
The pulmonary ventilation frequency frequency makes the body eliminate
(number of inhalations per time unit) more carbon dioxide and to shift the
rises or lowers the carbon dioxide equilibrium of the formation of
concentration in blood. If it is intense bicarbonate towards the spending of
the gas is more eliminated to the more hydrogen ions and thus the blood
exterior and if it is reduced the gas is pH raises.
retained inside the organism.
Applying the principles of chemical

equilibriums to the formation of 32. How does the breathing
bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and process correct alkalosis?
water one gets the following: if the
carbon dioxide concentration is If the body undergoes alkalosis the
increased the equilibrium shifts towards respiratory center located in the medulla
the formation of bicarbonate and gets the information and induces the
liberation of hydrogen ions and the pH lowering of the respiratory frequency.
217
The reduction of the respiratory 34. Where are the
frequency makes the body retain more chemoreceptors that detect
carbon dioxide and to shift the
the acidity of the blood and
equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate towards the production of trigger the respiratory
more hydrogen ions and thus the blood compensation located?
pH lowers.
The chemoreceptors that participate in
the ventilation control are structures
that collect information about the acidity
33. What is the difference and alkalinity of the blood. The
between respiratory acidosis information is then transmitted by
and metabolic acidosis and nervous fibers to the respiratory center
located within the medulla. The center
what is the difference
then commands the respiratory muscles
between respiratory alkalosis to compensate the abnormal pH.
and metabolic alkalosis?
There are central and peripheral
Respiratory acidosis is that in which the chemoreceptors. Peripheral
blood pH is low due to increased chemoreceptors of pH, carbon dioxide
retention of carbon dioxide caused by partial pressure and oxygen partial
the lowering of the respiratory pressure are located in the walls of the
frequency or by pulmonary diseases aorta and of the carotid arteries. Central
that impair the gas exchange. So the chemoreceptors that get pH information
cause of the respiratory acidosis is the are located within the medulla in the
pulmonary respiration. Metabolic respiratory center. (The pulmonary
acidosis is that in which the blood pH is ventilation is also controlled by
low not due to the pulmonary retention receptors that receive pH information
of carbon dioxide but due to metabolic from the cerebrospinal fluid.)
disturbances. Some metabolic
disturbances result in liberation in the
blood of nonvolatile acids that release
hydrogen ions lowering the blood pH
(e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis).
Respiratory alkalosis is that in which the

pH is high due to increased expelling of
carbon dioxide caused by elevated
respiratory frequency. Metabolic
alkalosis is the alkalosis caused by
metabolic disturbances that increase the
concentration of bases (alkalis) in the
blood.
218
environment thus making diffusion
Circulatory System impossible.
1. What is circulation? 4. What are the two types of

circulatory systems?
Circulation is the movement of
substances like nutrients and gases The circulatory systems can be classified
within blood vessels and cavities into open circulatory system and closed
throughout the organism. circulatory system.
2. Do all animals have a 5. What is an open circulatory

circulatory system? system?
Not all animals have a circulatory Open circulatory system is the one in
system. which blood does not circulate only
inside blood vessels but it also falls in
Poriferans, cnidarians, platyhelminthes cavities that irrigate tissues. In the open
and nematodes (in these there are the circulatory system the blood pressure is
pseudocoelom fluid but no vessels) are low and generally the blood (called
avascular animals. Echinoderms do not hemolymph) has low cellularity.
have true circulatory systems either.
Arthropods, molluscs (the cephalopods
are exception) and protochordates have
open circulatory system.
3. What is the alternative
means for transport of
substances in animals without
a circulatory system? Why is 6. What is a closed circulatory
blood important for larger system?
animals?
A closed circulatory system is one in
which blood circulates only inside blood
In animals that do not present the vessels. For this reason the blood
circulatory system the transport of pressure is higher in animals with closed
substances occurs by cell to cell circulatory system. The cellularity of the
diffusion. blood is also higher with many specific
blood cells.
The blood is a fundamental means of
substance transport for larger animals The closed circulatory system is a
since in these animals there are tissues feature of annelids, cephalopod molluscs
distant from each other and from the and vertebrates.
219
7. What are the advantages of are smaller, slow and some are
the closed circulatory system practically sessile.
over the open circulatory
system?
9. Why, even thoough they
The closed circulatory system is more have an open circulatory
efficient. Since blood circulates only
system, can flying insects like
inside blood vessels it can do it with
more pressure reaching farther flies beat their wings with
distances between the organs where great speed?
hematosis happens and the peripheral
tissues. In addition the circulatory speed In insects the circulatory system is open
also heightens making possible more but this system does not participate in
oxygen supply to great consuming the gas exchange process and in oxygen
tissues, like the muscle tissues that supply to the tissues. Gases go in and
then can perform faster movements. out through the independent tracheal
Animals with an open circulatory system system that allows direct contact of cells
(with the exception of insects that do with the ambient air. Therefore an
gas exchange independently from the insect can supply the great oxygen
circulation) are generally slower and demand of its fast-beating wing muscles
have a low metabolic rate. even having open circulatory system.
8. What is the difference 10. What are the typical

between octopuses and components of a closed
mussels regarding their circulatory system?
circulatory systems? How
does that difference influence The typical components of the closed
the mobility of these animals? circulatory system are the blood vessels
within which blood circulates (arteries,
veins and capillaries), a pumping organ
Cephalopod molluscs, like octopuses
(heart) and the blood or bloodlike fluid.
and squids, have a closed circulatory
system with blood pumped under
pressure flowing within vessels. Bivalve
molluscs, like mussels and oysters, have
an open circulatory system (also known
as lacunar circulatory system) where
11. How does the heart impel
blood flows under low pressure since it the blood?
falls in cavities of the body and does not
only circulate within blood vessels. The heart is a muscular organ that
Molluscs with closed circulatory systems contains chambers (right atrium and
are larger, agile and can actively move; right ventricle and left atrium and right
molluscs with open circulatory systems ventricle) through which blood passes.
The blood enters the heart in the atria,
220
goes to the ventricles and then leaves heart ventricle to the lungs, contain
the organ. venous blood.
The blood is pumped out of the heart by

the contraction of the muscle fibers that
form the ventricular walls. The 14. What are venous vessels,
contraction reduces the ventricle veins and venules?
volume thus increasing the internal
pressure and the blood then flows to the
Venous vessels are every blood vessel
exit vessels (pulmonary artery for the
that carries blood from the tissues to
right ventricle and aorta for the left
the heart. Veins and venules are venous
ventricle). When ventricular muscle
vessels. Venules are thin veins that are
fibers distend the ventricles regain their
continuous to capillaries.
original size and receive new blood flow
coming from the atria.
In general venous vessels carry venous
blood. The pulmonary veins that carry
blood from the lungs to the left atrium
of the heart however contain arterial
12. What is the difference blood.
between systole and diastole
Systole and diastole are the two stages

into which the cardiac cycle is divided. 15. What are the capillaries of
Systole is the stage when the the vascular system?
contraction of ventricular muscle fibers
occurs and the ventricles are emptied.
Capillaries are small blood vessels that
Diastole is the stage of the cardiac cycle
perform exchange of substances
when the ventricular muscle fibers
between the blood and the body tissues.
distend and the ventricles are filled with
Capillaries are neither arteries nor are
blood.
they veins since they have distinct
features. In capillaries the wall is made
of a single layer of endothelial cells
through which substances are
13. What are arterial vessels, exchanged. These vessels receive blood
arteries and arterioles? from the arterioles and drain to the
venules.
Arterial vessels are every blood vessel
that carries blood from the heart to the
tissues. Arteries and arterioles are 16. What is the part of the
arterial vessels. Arterioles are thin vascular system that performs
arteries that end in capillaries.
exchange of gases and other
Not all arteries however contain arterial
blood (highly oxygenated blood). The substances with the tissues?
pulmonary artery and its ramifications,
arteries that carry blood from the right
221
Only capillaries perform exchange of favor of gravity. The valves close when
gases and other substances with the the pressure of the fluid column above
tissues. (after, regarding normal flux) is higher
than the fluid pressure before them.
Valves are thus fundamental for the
returning of blood to the heart.
17. Are the arteries or the
veins constituted of more
muscle tissue? How different
19. How do the muscles of the
are the walls of these two
legs and of the feet contribute
types of blood vessels?
to the venous return?
The arterial system has thicker muscle
walls since within arteries the blood The muscles of the legs, mainly the
circulates under higher pressure. The muscles of the calves, contract and
veins are more flaccid than arteries. compress the deep veins of the legs
impelling the blood to the heart.
From the lumen to the external layer
both types of vessels are made of The plantar portion of the feet retains
endothelium, muscle tissue and blood and when it is compressed against
connective tissue. In both the the ground it impels its blood volume
endothelium is a single layer of cells. In and aids venous return.
arteries the muscle tissue portion is
thicker than in veins and in these
vessels the external connective tissue is
thicker than in arteries. 20. What are varices? Why are
they more common in the
Arteries are the pulsating blood vessels. inferior limbs?
The arterial pulse can be felt in a
medical examination, for example, by Varix means abnormal enlargement of
the palpation of the radial artery in the veins. Varices occur when excessive
internal and lateral face of the wrist pressure against the normal blood flux
near the base of the thumb. creates enlargement of the vein and
thus insufficient functioning of its valves
(venous insufficiency).
18. What are the valves of the Varices are more common in the veins
venous system? What is their of the inferior limbs since the fluid
function? column above these vessels is higher.
This is the reason why people that
The valves of the venous system are spend much time standing (e.g.,
structures inside the veins that permit surgeons) are more susceptible to
blood to flow only in the normal way varices.
(from the tissues to the heart) and
forbid it to return in the reverse way in In general varices are not the apparent
superficial veins that appear in the leg
222
of varix patients. These apparent the enlargement of lymph nodes of the
vessels are the consequences of internal lymphatic circuits that drain the affected
varices (venous insufficiency) in the region due to the reactive proliferation
deep internal veins of the legs and they of leukocytes is common. This
appear because the blood flux is enlargement is known as
diverted to superficial veins. (Popularly lymphadenomegaly and sometimes it is
however apparent superficial veins are accompanied by pain. The search for
called varices.) enlarged or painful lymph nodes is part
of the medical examination since these
findings may suggest inflammation,
infection or other diseases.
21. What is the lymphatic
system?
The lymphatic system is a network of

23. Which are the heart
specialized valved vessels that drain chambers respectively where
interstitial fluid (lymph). The lymphatic the entrance and the exit of
system is also responsible for the blood occur?
transport of chylomicrons (vesicles that
contain lipids) made after the The heart chambers through which
absorption of fats by the intestinal blood enters the heart are the atria.
epithelium. There are the right atrium and the left
atrium.
In the way of the lymphatic vessels
there are ganglial-like structures called The heart chambers through which the
lymph nodes that contain many cells of blood exits the heart are the ventricles.
the immune system. These cells filter There are the right ventricle and the left
impurities and destroy microorganisms ventricle.
and cellular wastes. The lymphatic
vessels drain to two major lymphatic
vessels, the thoracic duct and the right
lymphatic duct, that in their turns drain
24. Concerning the thickness
into tributary veins of the superior vena
cava. of their walls how different
are the heart chambers?
The ventricle walls are thicker than the

22. Why in inflammatory and atrium walls since ventricles are
infectious conditions may structures responsible for the pumping
clinical signs related to the of the blood to the lungs or tissues. The
muscular work of the ventricles is
lymphatic system occur? harder and their muscle fibers develop
more.
The lymph nodes, or lymph glands,
have lymphoid tissue that produces The left ventricle is more muscular than
lymphocytes (a type of leukocyte). In the right ventricle because pumping
inflammatory and infectious conditions
223
blood to the lungs (the right ventricle atrium during systole (contraction of
task) is easier (needs less pressure) ventricles).
than pumping blood to the other tissues
of the body (the left ventricle task).

right ventricle? To where does
25. What is vena cava? Which the right ventricle pump the
type of blood circulates within venous blood?
the vena cava?
The function of the right ventricle is to
The vena cava are either of two large get venous blood from the right atrium
veins that debouch into the right atrium. and pump the blood to be oxygenated in
The superior vena cava drains all blood the lungs.
that comes from the head, the superior
limbs, the neck and the superior portion The venous blood is carried from the
of the trunk. The inferior vena cava right ventricle to the lungs by the
carries blood drained from the inferior pulmonary artery and their
portion of the trunk and the inferior ramifications.
limbs.
Venous blood circulates within the vena

cava. 28. What is the valve that
separates the right ventricle
from the pulmonary artery?
26. Which is the first (human) Why is that valve important?
heart chamber into which
blood enters? Where does the The valve that separates the right
ventricle and the base of the pulmonary
blood go after passing that artery is the pulmonary valve. The
chamber? What is the name of pulmonary valve is important to prevent
the valve that separates the blood from the pulmonary circulation to
compartments? Why is that flow back to the heart during diastole.
valve necessary?
The venous blood that comes from the

29. Do the arteries that carry
tissues arrives in the right atrium of the
heart. From the right atrium the blood blood from the heart to the
goes to the right ventricle. The valve lungs contain arterial or
that separates the right ventricle from venous blood? What happens
the right atrium is the tricuspid valve (a to the blood when it passes
valvular system made of three leaflets).
through the lungs?
The tricuspid valve is necessary to
prevent returning of blood to the right
224
Arteries of the pulmonary circulation are atrium during systole (contraction of the
arteries that carry venous blood and not ventricles).
arterial blood.
When the blood passes within the

alveolar capillaries of the lungs 32. What is the function of the
hematosis (oxygenation) occurs and left ventricle? Where does the
carbon dioxide is released to the blood go after leaving the left
exterior.
ventricle?
The function of the left ventricle is to

30. What and how many are get blood from the left atrium and to
the pulmonary veins? pump the blood under high pressure to
the systemic circulation. After leaving
the left ventricle the blood enters the
The pulmonary veins are part of the aorta, the largest artery of the body.
pulmonary circulation. They are vessels
that carry oxygen-rich (arterial) blood
from the lungs to the heart. There are
four pulmonary veins, two that drain
33. What is the valve that
blood from the right lung and other two
that drain the left lung. The pulmonary separates the aorta from the
veins debouch into the left atrium heart? What is the importance
bringing arterial blood to the heart. of that valve?
Although they are veins they carry
arterial blood and not venous blood. The valve between the left ventricle and
the aorta is the aortic valve. The aortic
valve prevents the retrograde flux of
blood to the left ventricle during
31. To which heart chamber diastole. Besides, as the aortic valve
does the blood go after closes during diastole, part of the
leaving the left atrium? What retrograde blood flux is impelled
is the valve that separates through the coronary ostia (openings),
orifices located in the aorta wall just
these compartments? after the valvular insertion and
contiguous to the coronary circulation
The arterial blood that has come from responsible for the blood supply of the
the lungs to the left atrium passes then cardiac tissues.
to the left ventricle.
The valve between the left ventricle and

the left atrium is the mitral valve, a 34. Is the ventricle lumen
bicuspid (two leaflets) valve. The mitral
larger during systole or during
valve is important because it prevents
the regurgitation of blood to the left diastole?
225
Systole is the stage of the cardiac cycle The main metabolic gases transported
on which the ventricles contract. So the by the blood are molecular oxygen (O2)
lumen of these chambers is reduced and and carbon dioxide (CO2).
the pressure upon the blood within
them is heightened.
During diastole the opposite occurs. The 38. How do respiratory

muscle fibers of the ventricles relax and pigments act?
the lumen of these chambers enlarges
helping the entrance of blood.
Respiratory pigments are oxygen-
carrying molecules present in the blood.
When the oxygen concentration is high,
for example, in the pulmonary alveoli,
35. What is the stage of the the respiratory pigments bind to the
cardiac cycle during which the gas. In conditions of low oxygen
ventricles are filled? concentration, e.g., in tissues, the
respiratory pigments release the
The filling of the ventricles with blood molecule.
occurs during diastole.
In the human blood the respiratory
36. Of which type of tissue is pigment is hemoglobin, present within
the red blood cells.
the heart made? How is this
tissue oxygenated and 39. How different are
nutrified? oxyhemoglobin and
hemoglobin? Where is it
The heart is made of striated cardiac
muscle tissue. The heart muscle is
expected to find a higher
called the myocardium and it is concentration of
oxygenated and nutrified by the oxyhemoglobin, in peripheral
coronary arteries. The coronary arteries tissues or in the lungs?
come from the base of the aorta and
ramify around the heart penetrating the Oxygen-bound hemoglobin is called
myocardium. oxyhemoglobin. In the lungs the oxygen
concentration is higher and so there is a
Diseases of the coronary arteries are higher oxyhemoglobin concentration. In
severe conditions. the peripheral tissues the situation is
the reverse, the concentration of
oxygen is lower and there is more free
hemoglobin.
37. Which are the two main
metabolic gases transported
by the blood?
226
40. What is hemoglobin F? 42. What is the substance that
Why does the fetus need a stimulates the production of
different hemoglobin? red blood cells? Which is the
organ that secretes it? Under
Hemoglobin F is the hemoglobin found what conditions does this
in the mammalian fetus and hemoglobin secretion increase?
A is the normal hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin F has higher affinity for
The substance that stimulates the
oxygen.
production of red blood cells by the
bone marrow is erythropoietin.
The fetus needs hemoglobin capable of
Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by
extracting oxygen from the mother’s
the kidneys. Its secretion is increased
circulation. Therefore the fetus uses
when there is deficient tissue
hemoglobin F since it has higher affinity
oxygenation (tissue hypoxia) caused
for oxygen than the mother’s
either by reduced oxygen availability (as
hemoglobin.
it occurs in high altitudes) or by internal
diseases, as in pulmonary diseases.
41. In high altitudes is it

necessary for the blood to 43. Why is carbon monoxide
have more or less toxic for humans?
hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin “likes” carbon monoxide
In high altitudes the air is rarefied and (CO) much more than it likes oxygen.
oxygen concentration is lower than in When there is carbon monoxide in the
low altitudes. In this situation the inhaled air it binds to hemoglobin
efficiency of the respiratory system forming carboxyhemoglobin by
must be greater and thus the organism occupying the binding site where
synthesizes more hemoglobin (and oxygen would bind. Due to the higher
more red blood cells) trying to get more hemoglobin affinity for carbon monoxide
oxygen. This phenomenon is known as thus (e.g., in intoxication from car
compensatory hyperglobulinemia. exhausts) there is no oxygen transport
and the individual undergoes hypoxia,
The compensatory hyperglobulinemia is loses conscience, inhales more carbon
the reason why athletes that will monoxide and may even die.
compete in high altitudes need to arrive
in the place some days before the event Intoxication by carbon monoxide is an
so there is time for their body to make important cause of death in fires and in
more red blood cells and they will be closed garages.
less affected by the effects of the low
atmospheric oxygen concentration
(fatigue, reduced muscular strength).
227
44. What is the stage of (pulmonary circulation). Double
cellular respiration during circulation occurs in amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
which carbon dioxide is
liberated? Simple closed circulation, or simple
circulation, is the one in which the
In aerobic cellular respiration the tissues that perform gas exchange are
release of carbon dioxide happens in the associated in series with the systemic
transformation of pyruvic acid into circulation, as in fishes.
acetyl-CoA (two molecules) and in the
Krebs cycle (four molecules). For each
glucose molecule, six carbon dioxide
molecules are made. 47. How many chambers does
the fish heart have?
The fish heart is a tube made of two

45. How is carbon dioxide consecutive chambers: one atrium and
released by cellular one ventricle.
respiration transported from
the tissues to be eliminated
through the lungs?
48. Does the fish heart pump
In vertebrates almost 70% of the venous or arterial blood?
carbon dioxide is transported by the
blood in the form of bicarbonate, 25% The venous blood coming from the
bound to hemoglobin and 5% dissolved tissues enters the atrium and passes to
in the plasma. the ventricle that then pumps the blood
towards the gills. After oxygenation in
the gills the arterial blood goes to the
tissues. So the fish heart pumps venous
46. What is the difference blood.
between double closed
circulation and simple closed
circulation? 49. Why is the fish circulation
classified as a simple and
Double closed circulation, or closed
circulation, is that in which the blood
complete circulation?
circulates through two associated and
parallel vascular systems: one that Complete circulation is that in which
carries blood to and takes blood from there is no mixture of venous blood and
the peripheral tissues (the systemic arterial blood. Simple circulation is that
circulation) and the other that carries in which the blood circulates only in one
blood to and takes blood from the circuit (as opposed to the double
tissues that perform gas exchange with circulation that have two circuits, the
the environment, e.g, the lungs systemic circulation and the pulmonary
228
circulation). In fishes the circulatory The reptiles have double and incomplete
system is simple and complete. circulation too, three heart chambers
(two atria and one ventricle). The reptile
heart however presents the beginning of
a ventricular septation that partially
50. How many heart chambers separates a right and left region of the
does the amphibian heart chamber. With the partial ventricular
septation the mixture of arterial with
have?
venous blood in the reptile heart is less
than in amphibians.
The amphibian heart has three heart
chambers: two atria and one ventricle.
53. How many chambers do

the bird heart and the
51. Why can the amphibian
mammalian heart have?
circulation be classified as
Concerning temperature
double and incomplete?
maintenance what is the
The amphibian circulation is double advantage of the double and
because it is composed of systemic and complete circulation of these
pulmonary circulations: respectively, animals?
heart-tissues-heart and heart-lungs-
heart. Since amphibians have only one The bird and the mammalian hearts are
ventricle in the heart, venous blood divided into four chambers: right
taken from the tissues and arterial atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and
blood coming from the lungs are mixed left ventricle.
in the ventricle that then pumps the
mixture back to the systemic and to the Birds and mammals are homeothermic,
pulmonary circulations. The amphibian i.e., they control their body
circulation is classified as incomplete temperature. The four-chambered heart
because venous and arterial blood mix and the double circulation provide the
in the circuit. supply of more oxygenated blood to the
tissues making possible a higher
The blood oxygenation in amphibians metabolic rate (mainly cellular
occurs also in the systemic circulation respiration rate). Part of the energy
since their skin is a gas exchange produced by the cellular respiration is
organ. used to maintain the body temperature.

between the amphibian heart
and the reptile heart?
229
54. Concerning the mixture of electric impulse to the ventricles
arterial with venous blood through specialized conduction bundles
of the interventricular septum (the
what is the difference bundle of His) and then to the Purkinje
between the human fetal fibers of the ventricle walls causing
circulation and the adult ventricular contraction. (The atrial
circulation? contraction precedes the ventricular
contraction for blood to fill the ventricles
In the human fetal circulation there are before the ventricular contraction.)
two communications between arterial
and venous blood characterizing an The repolarization of the SA node makes
incomplete circulation. One of them is the atria relax and then the ventricles
the oval foramen, an opening between relax too.
the right and the left atria of the fetal
heart. The other is the arterial duct, a
short vessel connecting the pulmonary
artery to the aorta. These
communications close a few days after
birth and so they are not present in the
adult heart.
55. How is heart contraction

triggered?
Heart contraction is independent from

neuronal stimulus (although it can be
modulated by the autonomous nervous
system). In the heart there are
pacemaker cells that trigger by
themselves the action potentials that
begin the muscle contraction. These
cells are concentrated at two special
points of the heart: the sinoatrial node
(SA node) located in the superior
portion of the right atrium and the
atrioventricular node (AV node) located
near the interatrial septum.
The action potentials generated by

depolarization of the SA node cells
propagate cell to cell throughout the
atria producing the atrial contraction.
The atrial depolarization also propagates
to the AV node that then transmits the
230
membranes and it is more water-soluble
Excretory System than the other nitrogen wastes.
Ammonia is still the most energetically
economical nitrogen waste to be
synthesized.
1. What is excretion?
Excretion in Physiology is the process of

elimination of metabolic wastes and 5. Why after the passage of
other toxic substances from the body. animals from the aquatic to
the terrestrial habitat does the
abandonment of the
ammoniotelic excretion occur?
2. What are nitrogen wastes?
Ammonia is a highly toxic molecule if
Nitrogen wastes are residuals derived not diluted and quickly excreted out of
from the degradation of proteins. They the body. For this reason the
are made from chemical transformation ammoniotelic excretion was abandoned
of the amine group of amino acid in terrestrial habitats because the
molecules. availability of water for dilution is
reduced in this medium and wastes
cannot be excreted so promptly to the
exterior.
types of nitrogen wastes
excreted by living beings?
6. Comparing toxicity and the
The main nitrogen wastes excreted by need for dilution in water how
living beings are ammonia, uric acid and different are the ureotelic and
urea. Living beings that secrete the uricotelic excretions?
ammonia are known as ammoniotelic.
What are some examples of
Creatures that secrete uric acid are
known as uricotelic. Organisms that animals that present these
secrete urea are called ureotelic. respective types of excretion?
Urea is more water-soluble than uric

acid (an almost insoluble substance).
4. Why are most ammoniotelic Urea is also more toxic. Both however
beings aquatic animals? are less toxic than ammonia.
Aquatic animals, like crustaceans, bony Some invertebrates, chondrichthian

fishes and amphibian larvae, generally fishes, adult amphibians and mammals
are ammoniotelic since ammonia are ureotelic. Reptiles, birds and most
diffuses more easily through arthropods are uricotelic.
231
7. What is the nitrogen waste 11. How is urea formed in the
in amphibian larvae and in the human body?
adult animal?
Urea is a product of the degradation of
Since amphibian larvae are aquatic they amino acids. In the process amino acids
excrete ammonia. The terrestrial adult lose their amine group which is then
excretes urea. transformed into ammonia. In the liver
ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to
form urea and water, a process called
ureogenesis.
8. Why is the uricotelic
In the intermediary reactions of the
excretion essential for avian
ureogenesis a molecule of ornithine is
and reptile embryos? consumed and another is produced. For
this reason ureogenesis is also known
In reptiles and birds the excretory as the ornithine cycle.
system is uricotelic since uric acid is
insoluble, less toxic and suitable to be
stored within the eggs where their
embryos develop. 12. Which are the organs of
the excretory system?
The excretory system is formed of

9. How do embryos of
kidneys (two), ureters (two), bladder
placental mammals excrete and urethra.
nitrogen wastes?
Placental animals, including embryos,

excrete urea. In the adult placental 13. What are the vessels that
mammal urea is excreted through the carry blood to the kidneys? Is
urine. In embryos the molecule passes this blood arterial or venous?
to the mother’s blood through the
placenta and it is excreted in the
mother’s urine. The arterial vessels that carry blood to
be filtrated by the kidneys are the renal
arteries. The renal arteries are
ramifications of the aorta and so the
blood filtered by the kidneys is arterial
10. What is the main nitrogen
(oxygen-rich) blood.
waste of humans?
Human beings excrete mainly urea

eliminated with the urine. 14. Which are the vessels that
drain filtered blood from the
kidneys?
232
The venous vessels that collect the secrete other substances inside the
blood filtered by the kidneys are the tubules. The urine is formed of not
renal veins. The renal veins carry the resorbed filtered substances and of
blood that has been reabsorbed in the secreted (by the tubules) substances.
nephron tubules. Urine is drained by the collecting ducts
to the ureter of each kidney, then it
enters the bladder and later it is
discharged through the urethra.
15. What is the functional
unity of the kidneys? The nephron tubules are surrounded by
an extensive capillary network that
collects resorbed substances and
The functional (filtering) unity of the
provides others to be secreted.
kidneys is the nephron. A nephron is
made of afferent arteriole, efferent
arteriole, glomerulus, Bowman's
capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle,
distal tubule and collecting duct.
17. What is the main
transformation presented by
In each kidney there are about one the glomerular filtrate in
million nephrons. comparison to the blood?
Glomerular filtrate is the name given to

the plasma after it has passed the
16. What are the three main glomerulus and entered the Bowman’s
renal processes that combined capsule. The glomerular filtrate has a
produce urine? different composition compared to urine
since the fluid has not yet undergone
Urine is made by the occurrence of tubular resorption and secretion.
three processes in the nephron:
glomerular filtration, tubular resorption The main difference between the blood
and tubular secretion. and the glomerular filtrate is that in the
latter the amount of proteins is at a
In the nephron the blood carried by the minimum and there are no cells or blood
afferent arteriole enters the glomerular platelets.
capillary network where it is filtered.
The filtration implies that part of the
blood returns to the circulation through
the efferent arteriole and the other part, 18. What is proteinuria? Why
known as the glomerular filtrate, enters is proteinuria a sign of
the proximal tubule of the nephron. In glomerular renal injury?
the nephron tubules (also known as
convoluted tubules) substances of the Proteinuria means losing of proteins
glomerular filtrate like water, ions and through urine. Under normal conditions
small organic molecules are resorbed by proteins are too big to be filtered by the
the cells of the tubule wall and gain glomerulus and they are practically
again the circulation. These cells also
233
absent in the urine (the few filtered The cells of the tubule wall have high
proteins may also be resorbed in the number of mitochondria because many
nephron tubules). Proteinuria is an substances are resorbed or secreted
indication that a more than expected through them by means of active
amount of proteins is passing the transport (a process that spends
glomerulus suggesting glomerular energy). Therefore many mitochondria
disease, e.g., in diabetic nephropathy. are necessary for the energetic supply
(ATP supply) of this type of transport.
The glomerulus also blocks the passage
of blood cells and platelets (hematuria is
often a sign of urinary disease although
less specific of kidneys since the blood 21. What is tubular secretion?
may come from the lower parts of the What are some examples of
excretory tract). substances secreted through
the renal tubules?
19. Where does most of the Tubular secretion is the passage of

water resorbed after substances from the blood capillaries
that surround the nephron tubules to
glomerular filtration go? What the tubular lumen for these substances
are the other substances to be excreted with urine. Ammonia,
resorbed by the nephron uric acid, potassium, bicarbonate and
tubules? hydrogen ions, metabolic acids and
bases, various ingested drugs
Only 0.5 to 1% of the glomerular filtrate (medicines) and other substances are
is eliminated as urine. The remaining secreted by the nephron tubules.
volume, containing mainly metabolic
ions, glucose, amino acids and water, is
resorbed through the nephron tubules
(by means of active or passive 22. In which nephron portion
transport) and gains the blood does the regulation of acidity
circulation again. and alkalinity of the plasma
occur?
The convolute tubules of the nephron
are responsible for the resorption of
The regulation of the acid-basic
substances.
equilibrium of the body is done by the
kidneys and depends upon the tubular
resorption and secretion.
20. Why do cells of the
nephron tubules present a
great amount of
mitochondria?
234
23. How do kidneys excreted in urine the more the blood
participate in the regulation of volume lowers.
the acid-basic equilibrium of The blood volume in its turn has a direct
the body? How are alkalosis relation to blood pressure. The blood
and acidosis respectively pressure increases when the blood
corrected by the kidneys? volume increases and it lowers when
the blood volume lowers. That is the
Kidneys can regulate the acidity or reason why one of the main groups of
alkalinity of the plasma varying the antihypertensive drugs is the diuretics.
excretion of hydrogen and bicarbonate Doctors often prescribe diuretics for the
ions. hypertensive patients to excrete more
water and thus lower their blood
In alkalosis (abnormally high level of pressure.
the plasma pH) the kidneys excrete
more bicarbonate and the equilibrium of
formation of bicarbonate from water
and carbon dioxide shifts towards 25. Which are the three
formation of more hydrogen ions and hormones that participate in
bicarbonate and then the plasma pH is the regulation of the renal
lowered. When the body undergoes function?
acidosis (abnormal low level of the
plasma pH) the kidneys excrete more
Antidiuretic hormone (or ADH, or
hydrogen ions and retain more
vasopressin), aldosterone and atrial
bicarbonate thus the equilibrium of
natriuretic factor (or ANF) are hormones
formation of bicarbonate from water
that participate in the regulation of the
and carbon dioxide shifts towards more
excretory system.
hydrogen consumption and the plasma
pH is increased.

24. How do kidneys antidiuretic hormone? Where
participate in the blood is it made and which are the
volume control? How is the stimuli that increase or reduce
blood volume of the body its secretion?
related to the arterial
pressure? The antidiuretic hormone is secreted by
the hypophysis (also known as pituitary)
and it acts in the nephron tubules
The kidneys and the hormones that act increasing the resorption of water.
upon them are the main physiological When the body needs to retain water,
regulators of the total blood volume of for example, in cases of blood loss and
the body. As more water is resorbed in abrupt blood pressure lowering or in
the nephron tubules the more the blood cases of abnormally high blood
volume increases; as more water is
235
osmolarity, there is stimulus for ADH 29. What is an evolutionary
secretion. explanatory hypothesis for the
secretion by the heart of a
When the body has an excess of water,
as in cases of excessive ingestion or in hormone that regulates the
abnormally low blood osmolarity, the renal function? Which is that
secretion of ADH is blocked and the hormone?
diuresis increases. ADH is also known as
vasopressin since it increases the blood The renal regulator hormone secreted
volume and thus heightens the blood by the heart is the atrial natriuretic
pressure. factor (or ANF). The ANF increases the
excretion of sodium in the nephron
tubules causing less resorption of water,
more urinary volume, and thus lowering
27. Why does the ingestion of the blood pressure. The atrial natriuretic
alcohol increase diuresis? factor is secreted when there is an
increase of the length of the heart
Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH muscle fibers in response to high blood
(antidiuretic hormone) by the pituitary. pressure. The ANF is a natural
That is why when it is drunk to excess antihypertensive substance. Since the
the person urinates too much. health of the heart depends largely
upon the stability of the normal blood
pressure the evolution should have
preserved the atrial natriuretic factor to
28. How does aldosterone act allow information from the heart to be
and where is it produced? an additional mechanism for the renal
control of the blood pressure.
Aldosterone is a hormone that acts upon

the nephron tubules stimulating the
resorption of sodium. Therefore it 30. What is hemodialysis?
contributes to the increase of the blood
osmolarity and consequently to the
increase of the blood pressure. Hemodialysis is the artificial blood
filtration made by specific machines in
Aldosterone is made by the adrenals, substitution of the kidneys.
glands located over the superior portion Hemodialysis may be necessary in
of the kidneys. patients suffering from diseases that
cause renal failure, like diabetic renal
complications, lupic renal complications
and others. During hemodialysis the
blood of the patient is deviated to the
filtering machine and after the filtration
it returns to the body.
Hemodialysis is generally done two,

three or more times a week in a process
236
that takes several hours. Sometimes
kidney transplantation is an alternative
to hemodialysis.
237
urethra and the blood vessels. The
Epithelia glands and the serous membranes are
made of epithelial tissue too.

skin in humans? 4. What are some functions of
the epithelium?
The skin is the external covering of the
body. In humans its main functions are The epithelial tissues can perform
protection, perception of information covering, impermeability and protection
from the environment, control of the against the environment, for example,
body temperature and secretion of in the skin, resorption, as in the guts
substances. and renal tubules, gas exchange, for
example, the amphibian skin, thermal
regulation, like sweating, secretion of
substances, as in the epithelium of
2. What are the tissues that glands. In some animals the skin also
form the skin in vertebrates? has the important function of
camouflage and mimicry .
The skin of vertebrates is made of
epidermis, an external layer of epithelial
tissue, and dermis, a layer of connective
5. What is the typical feature
tissue under the epidermis. One can cite
also the hypodermis, a layer of adipose of the epithelia? How different
tissue under the dermis. is it from the connective
tissue?
Skin annexes may exist in some phyla
and classes, like hair, sweat glands and The typical feature of the epithelium is
sebaceous glands. the absence or almost absence of space
between cells. The epithelial cells are
compactly positioned side-by-side with
the help of specialized structures for cell
3. Besides the skin what are adhesion like desmosomes and
the other coverings of the interdigitations. This feature relates to
body? the fact that these tissues are generally
exposed to an exterior surround and so
Besides the skin there are other they need more resistance and
covering tissues made of epithelium impermeability against the entrance of
over other tissue layers. They are the strange material into the body.
tissues that cover the internal surfaces
of hollow organs, like the organs of the The connective tissue presents opposite
digestive tube, the airway, the renal features due to its filling function. It has
tubules, the ureters, the bladder, the much interstitial material (the matrix)
and relatively large space between cells.
238
6. What are the specialized cells are placed in the tissue (into
structures that help the simple or stratified).
adhesion between cells? The main types of epithelial tissues are
simple cuboidal, simple columnar,
The structures responsible for the union simple squamous, stratified squamous
of the epithelial cells are called cell and pseudostratified columnar
junctions. The main cell junctions are (resembling more than one layer but
interdigitations, desmosomes, zonula actually having only one). There are
adherens (adherens junction), tight also stratified cuboidal and stratified
junctions (zonula occludens) and gap columnar epithelia (rare).
junctions.
9. How different is the simple

7. Is the epithelium cuboidal epithelium from the
vascularized? How do columnar epithelium? Where
nutrients and oxygen reach can these epithelia be found in
the epithelium? Why is this the human body?
feature an important
evolutionary acquisition? The simple cuboidal epithelium is made
of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial
Epithelia are not vascularized cells. The simple columnar epithelium is
(capillaries do not directly reach their made of a single layer of prismatic cells.
cells). The epithelium exchanges
substances by diffusion with the The simple cuboidal epithelium can be
connective tissue situated under it. found, for example, in the renal tubules
and in the walls of the thyroid follicles.
Since the epithelia are not vascularized The simple columnar is the epithelium
minuscule skin injuries or scratches that that covers internally the intestines, the
happen all the time do not trigger stomach and the gallbladder, for
bleeding and do not expose the blood to example.
contamination from external agents.
This is an important protective strategy
discovered by evolution.
10. How different is the simple
squamous epithelium from the
stratified squamous
8. How are the epithelial
epithelium? Where can these
tissues classified?
epithelia be found in the
human body?
The epithelial tissues are classified
according to the shape of the cells that
form it (epithelial cells may be cuboidal, The simple squamous epithelium is
columnar, or squamous) and according made of a single layer of flat
to the number of layers in which those (squamous) cells. The stratified
239
squamous epithelium is made of the In amphibians there is already a slight
same type of flat cells placed in several keratinization of the skin, probably an
superimposed layers. additional adaptation to the terrestrial
environment. Amphibians have smooth
The simple squamous epithelium is and wet epidermis without scales. These
found in the pulmonary alveoli. The features facilitate their cutaneous
stratified squamous epithelium can be respiration.
found in the moist mucosae, like the
mucosae of the mouth, esophagus and
vagina, and it is the epithelium of the
skin. 13. Which are the glands
present in the epidermis of
mammals, birds and reptiles?
11. What is the function of
In the epidermis of birds and reptiles
keratin in the epidermis? there are practically no glands. In
mammals there are sweat glands and
The epidermis is the outer layer of the sebaceous glands.
skin made of epithelial tissue. In the
epidermis there are keratin-secreting
cells (keratinocytes). Keratin is an
insoluble protein that impregnates the 14. What are melanocytes?
surface of the skin providing protection
and impermeability. In mammals
Melanocytes are epithelial cells of the
keratin also forms the hairs.
skin specialized in secretion of melanin.
Melanin is a pigment that besides
The keratinized cells of the skin surface
coloring the skin, the iris of the eye and
form the corneal layer. These cells die
the hair, also works as a filter against
and are continuously replaced by
the ultraviolet radiation of the sun thus
others.
protecting the body against the harmful
effects of this radiation (mainly burns
and carcinogenic mutations).
12. How different is the fish Melanocytes are the cells affected in one
epidermis from the amphibian of the more deadly skin cancers:
epidermis? melanoma.
The fish epidermis is very thin and

contains mucus-secreting cells. The fish
skin does not present keratin. The
mucus has a protective function and it
also helps the sliding of the animal
under water. (The fish scales originate
from the dermis and not from the
epidermis.)
240
4. What are the cells that form
Musculoskeletal the cartilaginous tissue?
System
The main cells of the cartilages are the
chondrocytes, originated from the
chondroblasts that secrete the
1. Which are the organs that intersticial matrix. There are also
chondroclasts, cells with many
are part of the
lisosomes and responsible for the
musculoskeletal system? digestion and remodelation of the
cartilaginous matrix.
The main organs and tissues that are
part of the musculoskeletal system in
humans are the cartilages, the bones
and the muscles. 5. What is the constitution of
the cartilaginous matrix?
The cartilaginous matrix is made of

collagen fibers, mainly collagen type II,
the musculoskeletal system? and of proteoglycans, proteins
associated to glycosaminoglycans,
The musculoskeletal system has the chiefly hyaluronic acid. The
functions of supporting and protecting proteoglycans provide the typical
organs, maintenance of the body spatial rigidity of the cartilages.
conformation, motion of organs, limbs
and bodily portions and nutrient storage
(glycogen in muscles, calcium and
phosphorus in bones). 6. What are some functions of
the cartilages in the human
body?
3. Which type of tissue are the
Cartilages are responsible for the
cartilaginous and the osseous
structural support of the nose and ears.
tissue? The trachea and the bronchi are also
organs with cartilaginous structures that
The cartilaginous and the osseous prevent the closing of these tubes. In
tissues are considered connective joints there are cartilages that cover the
tissues since they are tissues in which bones providing a smooth surface to
the cells are relatively distant from reduce the friction of the joint
others with a great amount of movement. In the formation of bones
extracellular matrix in the interstitial the cartilages act as a mold and they
space. are gradually substituted by the osseous
tissue.
241
7. What are the three main 9. What are the Haversian
cell types that form the canals and the Volkmann’s
osseous tissue? What are their canals of the bones? Is the
functions? osseous tissue vascularized?
The three main cell types of the osseous The Haversian canals are longitudinal
tissue are the osteoblasts, the canals present in the osseous tissue
osteocytes and the osteoclasts. within which blood vessels and nerves
pass. The osseous tissue distributes
Osteoblasts are known as bone-forming itself in a concentric manner around
cells since they are the cells that secrete these canals. The Volkmann’s canals are
the proteinaceous part of the bone communications between the Harvesian
matrix (collagen, glycoproteins and canals.
proteoglycans). The bone matrix is the
intercellular space where the mineral The osseous tissue is highly
substances of the bones are deposited. vascularized in its interior.
Osteocytes are differentiated mature

osteoblasts formed after these cells are
completely surrounded by the bone 10. What are the functions of
matrix. Osteocytes have the function of the osseous tissue?
supporting the tissue.
The main functions of the osseous tissue
Osteoclasts are the giant multinucleate
are: to provide structural rigidity to the
cells that remodelate the osseous
body and to delineate the spatial
tissue. They are originated from
positioning of the other tissues and
monocytes and they contain many
organs; to support the body weight; to
lisosomes. Osteoblasts secrete enzymes
serve as a site for mineral storage,
that digest the osseous matrix creating
mainly of calcium and phosphorus; to
canals throughout the tissue.
form protective structures for important
organs like the brain, the spinal cord,
the heart and the lungs; to work as a
lever and support for the muscles,
8. What is the bone matrix? providing movement; to contain the
What are its main bone marrow where hematopoiesis
components? occurs.
Bone matrix is the content that fills the

intercellular space of the osseous tissue.
The bone matrix is made of mineral 11. What are the flat bones
substances (about 5%), mainly and the long bones?
phosphorus and calcium salts, and
organic substances (95%), mainly The main bones of the body may be
collagen, glycoproteins and classified as flat or long bones (there
proteoglycans. are bones not classified into these
242
categories). Examples of flat bones are 14. Which is the type of
the skull, the ribs, the hipbones, the muscle tissue that contracts
scapulae and the sternum. Examples of
and relaxes the heart
long bones are the humerus, the radius,
the ulna, the femur, the tibia and the chambers?
fibula.
The myocardium of the heart is made of
cardiac striated muscle tissue.

muscle tissues? What are the
morphological features that 15. Which is the type of
differentiate those types? muscle tissue that performs
the peristaltic movements of
There are three types of muscle tissue: the intestines?
the skeletal striated muscle tissue, the
cardiac striated muscle tissue and the The smooth muscle tissue is responsible
smooth muscle tissue. for the peristaltic movements of the
intestines. The smooth muscles are not
The striated muscles present under controlled by volition.
microscopic view transversal stripes and
their fibers (cells) are multinucleate (in
the skeletal) or may have more than
one nucleus (in the cardiac). The 16. Which is the type of
smooth muscle does not present muscle tissue that helps to
transversal stripes and it has spindle- push the food down through
shaped fibers each with only one
nucleus.
the esophagus?
The esophageal wall in its superior

portion is made of skeletal striated
13. Which is the type of muscle. The inferior portion is made of
smooth muscle. In the intermediate
muscle tissue that moves the
portion there are skeletal striated and
bones? smooth muscles. All of these muscles
are important to push the food down
The bones are moved by the skeletal towards the stomach.
striated muscles. These muscles are
voluntary (controlled by volition).
17. How is the striped pattern

of the striated muscle cells
formed?
The functional units of the muscle fibers

are the sarcomeres. Within the
243
sarcomeres blocks of actin and myosin molecules. This interaction between
molecules are posed in organized actin and myosin shortens the myofibrils
manner. The sarcomeres align in originating the phenomenon of muscle
sequence forming myofibrils that are contraction.
longitudinally placed in the cytoplasm of
the muscle fibers (cells). The grouping
of consecutive blocks of actin and
myosin in parallel filaments creates the 20. What are the positions of
striped pattern of the striated muscle actin and myosin molecules in
tissue seen under the microscope. the sarcomere before and
during the muscle
contraction?
18. What are sarcomeres?
Schematically actin filaments attached
Sarcomeres are the contractile units of perpendicularly to both sarcomere
the muscle tissue formed of alternating extremities (longitudinal sides) make
actin blocks (thin filaments) and myosin contact with myosin filaments
blocks (thick filaments). Several positioned in the middle of the
sarcomeres placed in linear sequence sarcomere and in parallel to the actin
form a myofibril. Therefore one muscle filaments.
fiber (cell) has many myofibrils made of
sacomeres. Before the contraction the sarcomeres
are extended (relaxed) since the contact
The compartments where myofibrils are between actin and myosin filaments is
inserted are delimited by an excitable only made by their extremities. During
membrane known as sarcolemma. The contraction actin filaments slide along
sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of the myosin filaments and the
the muscle cell. sarcomeres shorten.
19. What are the main 21. How do calcium ions

proteins that constitute the participate in muscle
sarcomere? What is the contraction? Why do both
function of those molecules in muscle contraction and
the muscle cells? muscle relaxation spend
energy?
In the sarcomere there are organized
actin and myosin blocks. Troponin and In the muscle cells calcium ions are
tropomyosin also appear associated to stored within the sarcoplasmic
actin. reticulum. When a motor neuron emits
stimulus for the muscle contraction
The actin molecules when activated by neurotransmitters called acetylcholine
calcium ions liberated in the proximities are released in the neuromuscular
of the sarcomere are pulled by myosin junction and the sarcolemma is excited.
244
The excitation is conduced to the Phosphocreatine is the main means of
sarcoplasmic reticulum that then energy storage of the muscle cells.
realeases calcium ions into the
sarcomeres. During relaxed periods ATP molecules
made by the aerobic cellular respiration
In the sarcomeres the calcium ions bind transfer highly energized phosphate
to troponin molecules associated to groups to creatine forming
actin activating myosin binding sites of phosphocreatine. In exercise periods
actin. The myosin, then able to bind to phosphocreatine and ADP resynthesize
actin, pulls this protein and the ATP to dispose energy for the muscle
sarcomere shortens. The summation of contraction.
simultaneous contraction of sarcomeres
and myofibrils constitutes the muscle
contraction. During muscle relaxation
the calcium ions return back to the 24. What happens when the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. oxygen supply is insufficient
to maintain aerobic cellular
For myosin to bind to actin, and thus for
the contraction to occur, hydrolysis of respiration during muscle
one ATP molecule is necessary. During exercise?
relaxation the return of calcium ions to
the sarcoplasmic reticulum is an active If oxygen from hemoglobin or
process that spends ATP too. So both myoglobin is not enough for the energy
muscle contraction and relaxation are supply of the muscle cell the cell then
energy-spending processes. begins to do lactic fermentation in an
attempt to compensate the deficiency.
The lactic fermentation releases lactic

22. What is myoglobin? What acid and this substance causes muscle
is the function of this fatigue and predisposes the muscles to
molecule in the muscle tissue? cramps.
Myoglobin is a pigment similar to

hemoglobin and present in muscle 25. What is the
fibers. Myoglobin has a great affinity for
oxygen. It keeps oxygen bound and neurotransmitter of the
releases the gas under strenuous neuromuscular junction? How
muscle work. So myoglobin acts as an does the nervous system
oxygen reserve for the muscle cell. trigger muscle contraction?
The nervous cells that trigger the

muscle contraction are the motor
23. How does phosphocreatine neurons. The neurotransmitter of the
act in the muscle contraction motor neurons is acetylcholine. When a
and relaxation? motor neuron is excited the depolarizing
current flows along the membrane of its
245
axon until reaching the synapse at the
neuromuscular junction (the neural
impulse passage zone between the axon 27. What is the difference
extremity and the sarcolemma). Near between spatial summation
the axonal extremity the depolarization
and temporal summation of
allows the entrance of calcium ions into
the axon (note that calcium also has a muscle fibers? What is tetany?
relevant role here). The calcium ions
stimulate the neuron to release Spatial summation is the recruiting of
acetylcholine in the synapse. new muscle fibers to increase the
muscle strength. Temporal summation
Acetylcholine then binds to special occurs when a muscle fiber is
receptors in the outer surface of the continuously stimulated to contract
sarcolemma, the permeability of this without being able to conclude
membrane is altered and an action relaxation.
potential is created. The depolarization
is then conduced along the sarcolemma The permanence of a muscle fiber under
to the sarcoplasmic reticulum that thus a continuous state of contraction by
releases calcium ions for the sarcomere temporal summation is known as tetany
contraction. (e.g., the clinical condition of patients
contaminated by the toxin of the
tetanus bacteria). Tetany ends when all
available energy for contraction is spent
26. To increase the strength of or when the stimulus ceases.
the muscle work is the muscle
contraction intensely
increased?
An increase in the strength of the

muscle work is not achieved by increase
in the intensity of the stimulation of
each muscle fiber. The muscle fiber
obeys an all-or-nothing rule, i.e., its
contraction strength is only one and
cannot be increased.
When the body needs to increase the

strength of the muscle work a
phenomenon known as spatial
summation occurs: new muscle fibers
are recruited in addition to the fibers
already in action. So the strength of the
muscle contraction increases only when
the number of active muscle cells
increases.
246
3. Which are the main cells of
Nervous System the nervous system?
The main cells of the nervous system

are the neurons. Besides the neurons
1. What are the physiological
the nervous system is also constituted
systems known as integrative of glial cells.
systems? Why is this
designation justified?
The integrative systems are the nervous 4. What are the functional
system and the endocrine system. The differences between neurons
designation is justified since both and glial cells?
systems control and regulate biological
functions and act at distance receiving Glial cells and neurons are the cells that
information from organs and tissues and form the nervous system. Neurons are
sending effector commands (nervous cells that have the function of receiving
impulses or hormones) to organs and and transmitting the neural impulses
tissues thus integrating the body. and glial cells (astrocytes,
microgliacytes, ependymal cells and
oligodendrocytes) are the cells that
support, feed and insulate (electrically)
2. Which are the structures the neurons. The Schwann cells that
that are part of the nervous produce the myelin sheath of the
system? peripheral nervous system can also be
considered glial cells.
The structures that form the nervous
system can be divided into the central
nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). 5. What are the three main
parts into which a neuron can
The organs of the CNS are the brain be divided? What are their
(cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum) respective functions?
and spinal cord. The PNS is made of
nerves and neural ganglia. Besides
The three mains parts into which a
these organs the meninges (dura-
neuron can be didactically divided are:
mater, arachnoid and pia-mater) are
dendrites, cell body and axon.
part of the nervous system too since
they cover and protect the encephalon
Dendrites are projections of the plasma
and the spinal cord.
membrane that receive the neural
impulse from other neurons. The cell
body is where the nucleus and the main
cellular organelles are located. Axon is
the long membrane projection that
247
transmits the neural impulse at distance nervous system) in places known as
to other neurons, to muscle cells and to neural nuclei. Neural ganglia, or simply
other effector cells. ganglia, are structures of the peripheral
nervous system located beside the
spinal column or near some organs
where neuron cell bodies are also
6. What is the name of the located.
terminal portion of the axon?
Neurons situated at specific points can
present distant axonal terminations and
The terminal portion of the axon is
they also can receive impulses from
called presynaptic membrane. Through
axons of distant neurons. The inferior
this membrane neurotransmitters are
motor neurons situated in the spinal
released into the synaptic junction.
cord are examples since their axons can
transmit information to the extremities
of the inferior limbs triggering
contractions of the foot.
7. What are synapses?
Synapses are the structures that

transmit the neural impulse between 9. According to the function of
two neurons.
the transmitted neural
When the electric impulse arrives the impulse which are the types of
presynaptic membrane of the axon neurons? How different are
releases neurotransmitters that bind to the concepts of afference and
postsynaptic receptors of the dendrites efference of the neural
of the next cell. The activated state of impulse transmission?
these receptors alters the permeability
of the dendritic membrane and the
electric depolarization propagates along There are three types of neurons:
the neuron plasma membrane to its afferent neurons, efferent neurons and
axon. interneurons. Afferent neurons are
those that only transmit sensory
information from the tissues to neural
nuclei and ganglia (where they make
connection with interneurons or effector
neurons). Efferent neurons are those
situation in which the neuron that transmit commands to tasks
cell body is located in a part of performed in several parts of the body.
the body and its axonal Interneurons, also known as association
terminal portion is in another neurons or relay neurons, serve as
distant part of the body? Why connection between two other neurons.
does this happen? Afference is the conduction of sensory
impulses and efference is the
Most of the neurons are situated within conduction of effector impulses
the brain and the spinal cord (central
248
(impulses that command some body 12. What is meant by the
action). peripheral nervous system
(PNS)?
10. What are nerves? The peripheral nervous system

comprehends the nerves and ganglia of
the body.
Axons extend throughout the body
inside nerves. Nerves are axon-
containing structures presenting many
axons and covered by connective tissue.
The nerves connect neural nuclei and
ganglia with the tissues. myelin sheath? Do all axons
present a myelin sheath?
Nerves may contain only sensory axons
(sensory nerves), only motor axons The function of the myelin sheath is to
(motor neurons) or both types of axons improve the safety and speed of the
(mixed nerves). neural impulse transmission along the
axon. The myelin sheath serves as an
electrical insulator preventing the
dispersion of the impulse to other
11. What are ganglia? adjacent structures. Since the myelin
sheath has gaps called Ranviers’ nodes
Ganglia (singular ganglion), or neural in its length, the neural impulse “jumps”
ganglia, are structures located outside from one node to another thus
the central nervous system (for increasing the speed of the neural
example, beside the spinal column or transmission.
near viscera) made of concentration of
neuron bodies. Not all neurons have a myelin sheath.
There are myelinated axonal fibers and
Examples of neural ganglia are the unmyelinated ones.
ganglia that concentrate cell bodies of
sensory neurons in the dorsal roots of
the spinal cord and the ganglia of the
myenteric plexus responsible for the 14. What are the cells that
peristaltic movements of the digestive produce the myelin sheath? Of
tube. which substance is the myelin
sheath formed?
In the central nervous system (CNS) the
concentrations of neuron bodies are
called nuclei and not ganglia. In the central nervous system (CNS) the
myelin sheath is made by apposition of
oligodendrocyte membranes. Each
oligodendrocyte can cover portions of
axons of several different neurons. In
the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the myelin sheath is made by
249
consecutive Schwann cell membranes 17. What is the difference
covering segments of a single axon. The between brain and cerebrum?
Ranviers’ nodes appear in the
What are the main parts of
intercellular space between these cells.
these structures?
The myelin sheath is rich in lipids but it
also contains proteins. The concept of brain, or encephalon,
comprehends the cerebrum (mostly
referred to as the hemispheres, but
actually the concept also includes the
15. What are some diseases thalamus and the hypothalamus), the
characterized by progressive brainstem (midbrain, pons and medulla)
and the cerebellum. Brain and spinal
loss of the axonal myelin
cord form the central nervous system
sheath? (CNS).
Multiple sclerosis is a severe disease

caused by progressive destruction of the
myelin sheath in the central nervous 18. How is the cerebrum
system. The Guillain-Barré disease is anatomically divided?
due to destruction of the myelin sheath
in the peripheral nervous system caused
by autoimmunity (attack by the own The cerebrum is divided into two
cerebral hemispheres, the right and the
immune system). The genetic deficiency
in the formation or preservation of the left. Each hemisphere is made of four
cerebral lobes: frontal lobe, parietal
myelin sheath is an X-linked inheritance
called adrenoleukodystrophy. The movie lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe.
“Lorenzo’s Oil” featured a boy with this
disease and his father's dramatic search Each cerebral lobe contains the gray
matter and the white matter. The gray
for treatment.
matter is the outer portion and it is
made of neuron bodies; the gray matter
is also known as the cerebral cortex.
The white matter is the inner portion
16. What are meninges and
and it is white because it is in the region
cerebrospinal fluid? where axons of the cortical neurons
pass.
Meninges are the membranes that
enclose and protect the central nervous
system (CNS). Cerebrospinal fluid is the
fluid that separates the three layers that 19. Which is the brain region
form the meninges and it has the responsible for the
functions of nutrient transport, defense
coordination and equilibrium
and mechanical protection for the CNS.
of the body?
The cerebrospinal fluid fills and protects
cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. In the central nervous system the
cerebellum is the main controller of the
250
motor coordination and equilibrium of In the brain conscious sensory
the body. (Do not confuse this with information is received by the neurons
muscle command, performed by the situated in a special region called
cerebral hemispheres). postcentral gyrus (or sensory gyrus).
Gyri are the convolutions of the
cerebrum. Each of the two postcentral
gyri are located in one of the parietal
20. Why is the cerebellum lobes of the cerebrum.
more developed in mammals
The voluntary motor activity (voluntary
that jump or fly?
muscle movement) is commanded by
neurons situated in the precentral gyrus
The cerebellum is the main brain (or motor gyrus). Each of the two
structure that coordinates the precentral gyri are located in one of the
movement and the equilibrium of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum.
body. For this reason it appears more
developed in mammals that jump or fly The names post- and pre-central refer
(like bats). The cerebellum is also very to the fact that the motor and sensory
important for the flight of birds. gyri are spaced apart in each cerebral
hemisphere by the sulcus centralis, a
fissure that separates the parietal and
frontal lobes.
21. Which is the brain region
responsible for the regulation
of breathing and blood
pressure? 23. What is the spinal cord? Of
which elements is the spinal
The neural regulation of breathing, cord constituted?
blood pressure and other physiological
parameters like heartbeat, digestive The spinal cord is the dorsal neural cord
secretions, peristaltic movements and of vertebrates. It is the part of the
transpiration is performed by the central nervous system that continues
medulla. in the trunk to facilitate the nervous
integration of the whole body.
The medulla, together with the pons
and the midbrain, is part of the The spinal cord is made of groups of
brainstem. neurons situated in its central portion
forming the gray matter and of axon
fibers in its exterior portion forming the
22. Which is the brain region white matter. Neural bundles connect to
that receives conscious both lateral sides of the spinal cord
sensory information? Which is segments to form the dorsal and ventral
spinal roots that join to form the spinal
the brain region that triggers
nerves. The dorsal spinal roots present
the voluntary motor activity? a ganglion with neurons that receive
sensory information; the ventral spinal
251
roots contain motor fibers. Therefore The fibers cross to the other side in
the dorsal roots are sensory roots and specific areas of those axon paths.
the ventral roots are motor roots. About 2/3 of the fibers that go down the
spinal cord cross at the medullar level
forming a structure known as pyramidal
decussation. The other (1/3) of fibers
24. Which are the brain descend in the same side of their
regions associated with original cerebral hemisphere and cross
only within the spinal cord at the level
memory?
where their associated motor spinal root
exit. The fibers that command the
According to researchers some of the inferior motor neurons of the cranial
main regions of the nervous system nerves cross to the other side just
associated with the memory before the connection with the nuclei of
phenomenon are the hippocampus, these nerves.
situated in the interior portion of the
temporal lobes, and the frontal lobe The motor fibers that descend from the
cortex, both part of the cerebral superior motor neurons to the inferior
hemispheres. motor neurons of the spinal cord form
the pyramidal tract. Injuries in this
tract, for example, caused by spinal
sections or by central or spinal tumors
25. How is it structurally may lead to paraplegia and tetraplegia.
explained that the motor
activity of the left side of the
body is controlled by the right
cerebral hemisphere and the 26. What is meant by the arch
motor activity of the right side reflex?
of the body is controlled by
In some situations the movement of the
the left cerebral hemisphere? skeletal striated muscles does not
depend upon commands of the superior
In the cerebral hemispheres there are motor neurons, i.e., it is not triggered
neurons that centrally command and by volition.
control muscle movements. These
neurons are called superior motor Involuntary movements of those
neurons and they are located in a muscles may happen when sensory
special gyrus of both frontal lobes fibers that make direct or indirect
known as motor gyrus (or precentral connection with inferior motor neurons
gyrus). The superior motor neurons are unexpectedly stimulated in
send axons that transmit impulses to situations that suggest danger to the
the inferior motor neurons of the spinal body. This happens, for example, in the
cord (for neck, trunk and limb patellar reflex, or knee jerk reflex, when
movements) and to the motor nuclei of a sudden percussion on the knee patella
the cranial nerves (for face, eyes and (kneecap) triggers an involuntary
mouth movements). contraction of the quadriceps (the
extension muscle of the thigh). Another
252
example of the arch reflex occurs when 29. Is the neural impulse
someone steps on a sharp object: one generated by the stimulus
leg retracts and the other, by the arch
that triggers the arch reflex
reflex, distends to maintain the
equilibrium of the body. restricted within the neurons
of this circuit?
The sensory fiber that first conducts the

27. Which are the types of arch reflex connects with neurons of the
neurons that participate in the arch reflex but it also connects with
spinal arch reflex? Where are secondary sensory neurons of the spinal
cord that transmit information upwards
their cell bodies situated?
to other neurons of the brain. This is
obvious since the person that received
In the arch reflex first a sensory neuron the initial stimulus (e.g., the percussion
located in the ganglion of a dorsal spinal on his/her kneecap) perceives it
root collects the stimulus information (meaning that the brain became
from the tissues. This sensory neuron conscious of the fact).
makes direct or indirect (through
interneurons) connection with inferior
motor neurons of the spinal cord. These
motor neurons then command the reflex 30. How is it explained that a
reaction. So sensory neurons,
person with the spinal cord
interneurons and inferior motor neurons
participate in the arch reflex. sectioned at the cervical level
is still able to perform the
patellar reflex?
28. What are the respective The arch reflex depends only on the
constituents of the gray integrity of the fibers at a single spinal
matter and of the white level. In the arch reflex the motor
matter of the spinal cord? response to the stimulus is automatic
and involuntary and does not depend
upon the passage of information to the
The gray matter, or gray substance, of
brain. So it happens even if the spinal
the spinal cord contains predominantly
cord is damaged at other levels.
neuron bodies (inferior motor neurons,
secondary sensory neurons and
interneurons). The white matter is
mainly made of axons that connect
neurons of the brain with spinal
31. How does poliomyelitis
neurons. affect the neural transmission
in the spinal cord?
The poliovirus parasites and destroys

spinal motor neurons causing paralysis
253
of the muscles that depend on these The efferent portion of the visceral
neurons. nervous system is called the autonomic
nervous system.
32. Concerning volition of the

individual how can the 34. What are the two divisions
reactions of the nervous of the autonomic nervous
system be classified? system?
The efferences (reactions) of the The autonomic nervous system is

nervous system can be classified into divided into the sympathetic nervous
voluntary, when controlled by the will, system and the parasympathetic
and involuntary, those not consciously nervous system.
controlled. Examples of reactions
triggered by volition are the movements The sympathetic nervous system
of the limb, tongue and respiratory comprehends the nerves that come out
muscles. Examples of involuntary from the ganglia of the neural chains
efferences are those that command the lateral to the spinal column (near the
peristaltic movements, the heartbeat spinal cord) and thus are distant from
and the arterial wall muscles. The the tissues they innervate. The central
skeletal striated muscles are voluntarily and peripheral neurons associated to
contracted; the cardiac striated and the those neurons are also part of the
smooth muscles are involuntarily sympathetic.
contracted.
The parasympathetic nervous system is
made of nerves and central or
peripheral neurons related to the
33. What are the functional visceral ganglia, neural ganglia situated
near the tissues they innervate.
divisions of the nervous
system?
Functionally the nervous system can be 35. What is the antagonism

divided into the somatic nervous system between the sympathetic and
and visceral nervous system.
the parasympathetic neural
The somatic nervous system includes actions?
the central and peripheral structures
that make voluntary control of In general the actions of the
efferences. Central and peripheral sympathetic and the parasympathetic
structures that participate in the control are antagonistic, i.e., while one
of the vegetative (unconscious) stimulates something the other inhibits
functions of the body are included in the and vice versa. The organs, with few
concept of visceral nervous system. exceptions, get efferences from these
two systems and the antagonism
254
between them serves to modulate their In vertebrates the nervous system is
effects. For example, the well-characterized, having the brain and
parasympathetic stimulates salivation dorsal neural cord protected by rigid
while the sympathetic inhibits it; the skeletal structures. In most
parasympathetic constricts pupils while invertebrates the nervous system is
the sympathetic dilates it; the predominantly ganglial, with ventral
parasympathetic contracts the bronchi neural cords.
while the sympathetic relaxes them; the
parasympathetic excites the genital
organs while the parasympathetic
inhibits the excitation. 38. What are the protective
structures of the central
nervous system present in
36. Using examples of vertebrates?
invertebrate nervous systems
In vertebrates the brain and the spinal
how can the process of cord are protected by membranes, the
evolutionary cephalization be meninges, and by osseous structures,
described? respectively the skull and the vertebral
column. These protections are
Considering the example of fundamental for the integrity of those
invertebrates it is observed that important organs that command the
evolution makes the increasing of the functioning of the body.
complexity of the organisms to be
accompanied by convergence of nervous
cells to special structures for controlling
and commanding: the ganglia and the 39. What is the nature of the
brain. In simple invertebrates, like stimulus received and
cnidarians, the nervous cells are not transmitted by the neurons?
concentrated but they are found
dispersed in the body. In
Neurons receive and transmit chemical
platyhelminthes a beginning of
stimuli through neurotransmitters
cephalization with the anterior ganglion
released in the synapses. Along the
concentrating neurons is already
neuron body however the impulse
verified. In annelids and arthropods the
transmission is electrical. So neurons
existence of a cerebral ganglion is
conduct electric and chemical stimuli.
evident. In cephalopod molluscs the
cephalization is even greater and the
brain commands the nervous system.
37. What are some main
ions that participate in the
differences of the vertebrate
electrical impulse
nervous systems comparing to
transmission in neurons?
invertebrates?
255
The two main ions that participate in the The membrane is permeable to
electrical impulse transmission in potassium ions but not to sodium ions.
neurons are the sodium cation (Na+) At rest the positive potassium ions exit
and the potassium cation (K+). the cell in favor of the concentration
gradient since within the cell the
potassium concentration is higher than
in the extracellular space. The positive
41. Which is the normal sign sodium ions cannot however go into the
of the electric charge between cell. As positive potassium ions exit the
cell with not enough compensation of
the two sides of the neuron
positive ions entering the cell, the
plasma membrane? What is intracellular space becomes more
the potential difference negative and the cell stays polarized.
(voltage) generated between
these two sides? What is that
voltage called?
43. How is the depolarization
As in most cells the region just outside of the neuronal plasma
the surface of the neuron plasma membrane generated? How
membrane presents a positive electrical does the cell return to its
charge in relation to the region just original rest?
inside that thus is negative.
When the neuron receives a stimulus by
The normal (at rest) potential difference
the binding of neurotransmitters to
across the neuron membrane is about –
specific receptors sodium channels open
70 mV (millivolts). This voltage is called
and the permeability of the plasma
the resting potential of the neuron.
membrane in the postsynaptic region is
altered. Sodium ions then go into the
cell causing lowering (less negative) of
the membrane potential. If this
42. How do the sodium and reduction of the membrane potential
potassium ions maintain the reaches a level called the excitation
resting potential of the threshold, or threshold potential, about
neuron? –50 mV, the action potential is
generated, i.e., the depolarization
The plasma membrane of the neuron intensifies until reaching its maximum
level and the depolarization current is
when at rest maintains an electric
potential difference between its external transmitted along the remaining length
of the neuronal membrane.
and internal surfaces. This voltage is
called resting potential. The resting
If the excitation threshold is reached
potential about –70 mV indicates that
the interior is more negative than the voltage-dependent sodium channels in
the membrane open allowing more
exterior (negative polarization). This
condition is maintained by transport of sodium ions to enter the cell in favor of
the concentration gradient and an
sodium and potassium ions across the
plasma membrane. approximate –35 mV level of positive
256
polarization of the membrane is 45. How does the
achieved. The voltage-dependent depolarization of the neuronal
sodium channels then close and more
membrane start?
voltage-dependent potassium channels
open. Potassium ions then exit the cell
in favor of the concentration gradient The primary cause of the neuronal
and the potential difference of the depolarization is the binding of
membrane decreases, a process called neurotransmitters released in the
repolarization. synapse (by the axon of the neuron that
sent the signal) to specific receptors in
The action potential triggers the same the membrane of the neuron that is
electrical phenomenon in neighboring receiving the stimulus. The binding of
regions of the plasma membrane and neurotransmitters to those receptors is
the impulse is thus transmitted from the a reversible phenomenon that alters the
dendrites to the terminal region of the membrane permeability of the region
axon. since the binding causes sodium
channels to open. When positive sodium
ions enter the cell in favor of their
concentration gradient, the membrane
44. What is the excitation voltage increases, thus lessening the
negative polarization. If this
threshold of a neuron? How
depolarization reaches the excitation
does this threshold relate to threshold (about –50 mV) the
the “all-or-nothing” rule of the depolarization continues, the action
neural transmission? potential is reached and the impulse is
transmitted along the cell membrane.
The excitation threshold of a neuron is
the depolarization level that must be
caused by a stimulus to be transmitted
as a neural impulse. This value is about 46. How different are the
–50 mV. concepts of action potential,
resting potential and
The transmission of the neural impulse excitation threshold
along the neuronal membrane obeys an
concerning neurons?
all-or-nothing rule: or it happens with
maximum intensity or nothing happens.
Always and only when the excitation Action potential is the maximum
threshold is reached the depolarization positive voltage level achieved by the
continues and the membrane reaches neuron in the process of neuronal
its maximum possible positive activation, around + 35 mV. The action
polarization, about +35 mV. If the potential triggers the depolarization of
excitation threshold is not reached the neighboring regions of the plasma
nothing happens. membrane and thus the propagation of
the impulse along the neuron.
257
Resting potential is the membrane depolarized it becomes more positive in
voltage when the cell is not excited, relation to the neighboring internal
about –70 mV. region. So positive electrical charges
(ions) move towards this more negative
Excitation threshold is the voltage level, region and voltage-gated sodium
about –50 mV, that the initial channels are activated and open. The
depolarization must reach for the action action potential then linearly propagates
potential to be attained. along the membrane until near the
presynaptic region of the axon.
47. In chemical terms how is

the neuronal repolarization 49. What is the structure
achieved? through which the neural
impulse is transmitted from
Repolarization is the return of the one cell to another? What are
membrane potential from the action its parts?
potential (+35 mV) to the resting
potential (-70 mV). The structure through which the neural
impulse passes from one cell to another
When the membrane reaches its action is the synapse. The synapse is
potential voltage-gated sodium channels composed by the presynaptic
close and voltage-gated potassium membrane in the terminal portion of the
channels open. So sodium stops axon of the transmitter cell, the
entering into the cell and potassium synaptic cleft (or synaptic space) and
starts to exit. Therefore the the postsynaptic membrane in the
repolarization is due to exiting of dendrite of the receptor cell.
potassium cations from the cell.
The repolarization causes the potential

difference temporarily to increase under
50. How does synaptic
–70 mV, below the resting potential, a
phenomenon known as transmission between neurons
hyperpolarization. take place?
The propagation of the action potential

along the axon reaches the region
48. What is the mechanism by immediately anterior to the presynaptic
which the neural impulse is membrane causing its permeability to
transmitted along the axon? calcium ions to change and these ions
to enter the cell. In the presynaptic area
of the axon there are many
The neural impulse is transmitted along neurotransmitter-repleted vesicles that
the neuronal membrane through by means of exocytosis activated by the
depolarization of consecutive calcium influx release the
neighboring regions. When a region in neurotransmitters into the synaptic
the internal surface of the membrane is
258
cleft. The neurotransmitters then bind called neurotransmitter re-uptake. They
to specific receptors of the postsynaptic can also be destroyed by specific
membrane. (The binding of enzymes, like acetylcholinesterase, an
neurotransmitters to their receptors is enzyme that destroys acetylcholine. Or
reversible, i.e., the neurotransmitters they can simply diffuse out of the
are not consumed after the process.) synaptic cleft.
With the binding of neurotransmitters to
the postsynaptic receptors the
permeability of the postsynaptic
membrane is altered and the 53. Fluoxetine is an
depolarization that will lead to the first antidepressant drug that
action potential of the postsynaptic cell presents an action mechanism
begins.
related to the synaptic
transmission. What is that
mechanism?
51. What are some important
neurotransmitters? Fluoxetine is a substance that inhibits
the re-uptake of serotonin, a
The following are some neurotransmitter that acts mainly in the
neurotransmitters: adrenaline central nervous system. By inhibiting
(epinephrine), noradrenaline the re-uptake of the neurotransmitter
(norepinephrine), acetylcholine, the drug increases its availability in the
dopamine, serotonin, histamine, gaba synaptic cleft thus improving the
(gamma aminobutyric acid), glycine, neuronal transmission.
aspartate, nitric oxide.
54. What is the neuromuscular

52. Since neurotransmitters synapse?
are not consumed in the
synaptic process, what are the Neuromuscular synapse is the structure
mechanisms to reduce their through which the neural impulse
passes from the axon of a motor neuron
concentrations in the synaptic to the muscle cell. This structure is also
cleft after they have been known as neuromuscular junction, or
used? motor end plate. As in the nervous
synapse, the axonal terminal membrane
Since the binding of neurotransmitters releases the neurotransmitter
to the postsynaptic receptors is acetylcholine in the cleft between the
reversible, after these neurochemicals two cells. Acetylcholine binds to specific
perform their role they must be receptors of the muscle membrane,
eliminated from the synaptic cleft. dependent sodium channels then open
Neurotransmitters can then bind to and the depolarization of the muscle
specific proteins that carry them back to membrane begins. The impulse is then
the axon they came from in a process transmitted to the sarcoplasmic
259
reticulum that releases calcium ions into skin. In this last case they transmit
the sarcomeres of the myofibrils thus information to dendrites of sensory
triggering contraction. neurons connected to them. There are
also sensory receptors that are
specialized terminations of neuronal
dendrites (e.g., the olfactory receptors).
55. How does the nervous
system get information about
the external environment, the
57. According to the stimuli
organs and the tissues?
they collect how are the
Information about the conditions of the
sensory receptors classified?
external and internal environments, like
temperature, pressure, touch, spatial The sensory receptors are classified
position, pH, metabolite levels (oxygen, according to the stimuli they get:
carbon dioxide, etc.), light, sounds, etc., mechanoreceptors are stimulated by
are collected by specific neural pressure (e.g., touch or sound);
structures (each for each type of chemoreceptors respond to chemical
information) called sensory receptors. stimuli (olfactory, taste, pH, metabolite
Sensory receptors are distributed concentration, etc.); thermoreceptors
throughout the tissues according to are sensitive to temperature changes;
their specific roles. The receptors get photoreceptors are stimulated by light;
that information and transmit them nocireceptors send pain information;
through their own axons or through proprioceptors are sensitive to the
dendrites of neurons that connect to spatial position of muscles and joints
them. The information reaches the (they generate information for the
central nervous system that interprets equilibrium of the body).
and uses it to control and regulate the
body.
56. What are sensory

receptors?
Sensory receptors are structures

specialized in the acquiring of
information, like temperature,
mechanical pressure, pH, chemical
environment and luminosity,
transmitting them to the central
nervous system. Sensory receptors may
be specialized cells, e.g., the
photoreceptors of the retina, or
specialized interstitial structures, for
example the vibration receptors of the
260
In the animals of the second group the
Visual System photoreceptor cells are part of more
sophisticated structures, the eyes, able
to form images and to send them to the
nervous system.
1. What is vision? Why is
vision important for life on
earth?
3. What are the structures
that compose the human
Vision is the ability of some living beings
to perceive, to distinguish and to vision apparatus?
interpret luminous stimuli.
The organs of the human visual
Vision is important on earth mainly in apparatus are the eyes, the optical
the terrestrial and in the superficial nerves and the visual areas of the brain
aquatic habitats because our planet is (located in the occipital lobes of both
intensely exposed to sunlight and thus hemispheres).
light and colors become distinguishing
factors of objects present in the
environment, even at distance. This
distinction provided new survival 4. What are the main
strategies for the organisms, new structures of the human eye?
protection mechanisms against external
dangers, new ways to find food and to
The main structures of the human eye
communicate with other individuals,
are the cornea, the iris, the pupil, the
new types of courting and reproduction
ciliary muscles, the crystalline lens and
behaviors, etc. That is, it created new
the retina (the space between the
possibilities of interaction with the
crystalline lens and the retina within the
surrounds and increased capacity to
eyeball is filled with vitreous humor).
explore new ecological niches.

2. How does photosensitivity
iris and of the pupil?
in cnidarians, annelids and
worms differ from insects,
The iris works like the diaphragm of a
cephalopods and vertebrates? photographic camera since it has
muscles that contract or relax varying
In the first mentioned group of animals the pupil diameter. When the luminous
there are photoreceptor cells organized intensity heightens the parasympathetic
in ocelli or diffusely dispersed in the nervous system commands the
body. These animals do not form contraction of the pupil; when there is
images. shortage of light the sympathetic
nervous system stimulates the dilation
261
of the pupils. These movements depend 8. What type of structure is
upon the muscles of the iris. the crystalline lens? What is
its function?
6. Which is the part of the The crystalline is a converging spherical

lens. This natural lens has the function
human visual system where
to project images of objects onto the
the receptors that sense light, retina.
i.e., the photoreceptor cells,
are located? How do those
cells work?
9. What is visual
The photoreceptor cells form the retina, accommodation?
a lamina that covers the internal
posterior region of the eyeball. The Visual accommodation is the
photosensitive cells of the retina are phenomenon of varying the curvature of
divided into two types: the cone cells the crystalline lens to make possible the
and the rod cells. These cells have variation of its refractivity to adjust the
pigments that sense specific light wave images of objects exactly onto the
ranges (frequencies) and trigger action retina. The visual accommodation is
potentials conducted by the optical accomplished by the action of the ciliary
nerves to the visual area of the brain. muscles.
The nitid vision depends on the visual

accommodation since, if the images are
7. Since the visual images are not projected onto the retina but in
projected in an inverted front or behind it, they will appear
manner on the retina why blurred. The closer an object is more
the ciliary muscles must compress the
don't we see things upside crystalline lens (increasing its
down? curvature); the more distant an object
is more the ciliary muscles must relax.
Since the crystalline lens is a convex
spherical lens it forms inverted images
on the retina (every converging lens
forms inverted images). The inverted 10. What are the near point
information follows through the optical and the far point of the vision?
nerves until the occipital cerebral cortex
that contains the visual area of the
The near point is the closest distance
brain. In the brain the interpretation of
between an object and the eye that
the image takes place and the inverted
makes possible the formed image to be
information is reverted.
focused, i.e., it is the point in which the
ciliary muscles are in their maximum
contraction. The far point is the most
distant point from the eye in which an
262
object can be placed and its image is 12. What are presbyopia and
still focused, i.e., it is the situation of astigmatism?
maximum relaxation of the ciliary
muscles. The zone between the near
point and the far point is called the Presbyopia is the visual impairment in
which there is loss of the cililary muscle
accommodation zone.
strength thus reducing the capability of
the crystalline lens to adjust images of
near objects onto the retina. In
presbyopia the near point of vision
11. How can the visual
becomes more distant. The disease
deficiencies known as myopia generally occurs in old people.
and hypermetropia be
optically explained? Astigmatism is caused by irregular
shape of the refractive structures,
Myopia is the visual condition in which mainly the cornea. In astigmatism a
the images are formed before (in front single object-point may produce more
of) the retina. Hypermetropia is the than one image onto the retina and so
visual condition in which the point of the vision becomes distorted.
image formation is beyond (behind) the
retina. Actually myopia is due to an
increase in the distance between the
retina and the crystalline lens, mainly
caused by a slight flattening of the
eyeball. In hypermetropia the retina is
too close to the crystalline lens due to
slight shortening of the eyeball.
In myopia the near point and the far

point of vision come closer (the
refractivity of the crystalline lens that
corresponds to the maximum distension
capacity of the ciliary muscles is not
enough to provide visual
accommodation). In hypermetropia the
ciliary muscles are not able to contract
more to compensate the inadequate
position of the retina, i.e., the near
point becomes more distant.
263
4. What are the elements that
Hearing System form the middle ear? What are
the names of the three middle
ear ossicles that participate in
1. What are the structures the phonosensitivity?
that participate in the human
auditory sensitivity? The middle ear is formed by the
tympanum, the ossicular chain and the
oval window. The functional ossicles of
The structures of the human auditory
the middle ear are the hammer
sensitivity are the ears (external, middle
(malleus), the incus and the stapes.
and internal), the vestibulocochlear
nerves and the auditory areas of the
brain (located in the temporal lobes of
both hemispheres).
5. What is the tympanum? In
which part of the ear is it
located and what is its
2. What are the main parts of function?
the human ear?
The tympanum (or ear drum) is a
The human ear is divided into three membrane located in the middle ear
mains parts: the external ear, the just after the auditory canal and so it
middle ear and the internal ear. separates the middle ear from the
external ear. The function of the
tympanum is to vibrate with the same
frequency of the sound waves that
3. What are the structures reach it.
that form the external ear?
What is its function?
6. How is the sound vibration
The internal ear comprises the pinna, or captured by the tympanum
auricle, and the auditory canal. Its
function is to conduct the sound waves
transmitted through the
to the tympanum. ossicular chain of the middle
ear?
The acoustic transmission from the

external to the middle ear (and to the
internal ear too) is entirely mechanical.
The vibration of the tympanic
membrane triggers the vibration of the
hammer that then causes the incus to
264
vibrate. The incus then causes the 9. What is the vestibular
stapes to vibrate. system? How does it operate?
The vestibular system is the part of the

ear that participates in the control and
7. What are the elements that
regulation of the equilibrium of the body
constitute the internal ear? (balance).
What are the functions of
those structures? The semicircular canals of the inner
(internal) ear are perpendicularly placed
In the internal ear there are the cochlea and detect changes in the gravitational
and the semicircular canals. The fluid position of the head (this is another
that fills the cochlea receives vibration sensorial function of the inner ear,
from the ossicular chain of the middle besides auditory perception). When the
ear and transmits the pressure to the head rotates the pressure of the fluid
semicircular canals. Within the within the canals upon the cilia of
semicircular canals the pressure specific receptor cells varies and these
variation of the filling fluid moves cilia of cells generate action potentials
the hair cells of these structures. The transmitted by the vestibulocochlear
hair cells then generate action nerve. The neural impulse is then
potentials that are transmitted to the interpreted by the brain as information
brain through the auditory nerves. about the gravitational position of the
head.
8. Why is there a sense of

pressure change inside the ear
when someone goes down a
mountain?
The pressure inside the middle ear is

maintained equal to the external ear (so
to the exterior too) due to a
communicating duct between the middle
ear and the pharynx called the auditory
tube, or Eustachian tube. When
someone goes down a mountain the air
pressure upon the middle ear increases
and it is necessary to do some exercises
like fake swallowing to force the
opening of the pharyngeal orifice of the
auditory tube to equalize the pressure
again.
265
endocrine glands the invagination is
Endocrine System complete and there are no secretion
ducts.

between the endocrine gland 4. Why is the endocrine
and the exocrine gland? system considered one of the
integrative systems of the
Endocrine gland is a gland whose body? What is the other
secretions (called hormones) are physiological system that also
collected by the blood and reach the has this function?
tissues through the circulation. The
hypophysis (pituitary) and the adrenals
The endocrine system is said to have
are examples of endocrine glands.
integrative character since the
Exocrine gland is a gland whose
hormones produced by the endocrine
secretions are released externally
glands are substances that act at a
through ducts (into the skin, intestinal
distance and many of them act in
lumen, mouth, etc.). The sebaceous
different organs of the body. So the
glands and the salivary glands are
endocrine glands receive information
examples of exocrine glands.
from some regions of the body and they
can produce effects in other regions
providing functional integration for the
body.
2. What is the constitution of
the endocrine system? Besides the endocrine system, the other
physiological system that also has
The endocrine system is constituted by integrative function is the nervous
the endocrine glands and the hormones system. The nervous system integrates
they secrete. the body through a network of nerves
connected to central and peripheral
neurons. The endocrine system
integrates the body through hormones
3. What is the histological that travel through the circulation and
nature of the glands? How are are produced by the endocrine glands.
they formed?
The glands are epithelial tissues. They 5. What are hormones?

are made of epithelium that during the
embryonic development invaginated
into other tissues. Hormones are substances secreted by
the endocrine glands and collected by
In the exocrine glands the invagination the circulation that act to produce
has preserved secretion ducts. In the effects upon specific organs and tissues.
266
Hormones are effectors of the endocrine 9. What are the main
system. endocrine glands of the
human body?
6. What are target organs of The main endocrine glands of the

human body are the pineal gland (or
the hormones?
pineal body), the hypophysis (or
pituitary), the thyroid, the parathyroids,
Target organs, target tissues and target the endocrine part of the pancreas, the
cells are those specific organs, tissues adrenals and the gonads (testicles or
and cells upon which each hormone acts ovaries).
and produces its effects. Hormones
selectively act upon their targets due to Other organs like the kidneys, the heart
specific receptor proteins present in and the placenta also have endocrine
these targets. functions.
7. How does the circulatory 10. What is the pineal gland?

system participate in the
functioning of the endocrine The pineal gland, also known as pineal
system? body or epiphysis, is situated centrally
in the head. It secretes the hormone
The circulatory system is fundamental melatonin, a hormone produced at night
for the functioning of the endocrine and related to the regulation of the
system. The blood collects the circadian rhythm (or circadian cycle, the
hormones made by the endocrine wakefulness-sleep cycle). Melatonin
glands and through the circulation these possibly regulates many body functions
hormones reach their targets. Without related to the night-day alternation.
the circulatory system the 'action at
distance' characteristic of the endocrine
system would not be possible.
11. What is the osseous cavity
where the pituitary gland is
located?
8. Are hormones only
proteins? The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is
located in the sella turcica of the
Some hormones are proteins, like sphenoid bone (one of the bones in the
insulin, glucagon and ADH, others are base of the skull). So the gland is
derived from proteins (modified amino situated within the head.
acids), like adrenaline and
noradrenaline, other are steroids, like
the corticosteroids and estrogen.
267
12. What are the main hormone. When the blood level of an
divisions of the hypophysis? adenohypophyseal hormone is low the
hypothalamus stimulates the secretion
What are their functions? of the hormone.
The hypophysis is divided into two The hypothalamic cells produce the
portions: the adenohypophysis, or hormones released by the
anterior hypophysis, and the neurohypophysis. These hormones are
neurohypophysis, or posterior transported by their axons to the
hypophysis. hypophysis and then released in the
circulation.
In the adenohypophysis two hormones
that act directly, the growth hormone
(GH) and the prolactin, and four tropic
hormones, i.e., hormones that regulate 14. What are the hormones
other endocrine glands, the
secreted by the
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adenohypophysis? What are
the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the their respective functions?
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are
produced. The adenohypophisys secretes GH
(growth hormone), prolactin, ACTH
The neurohypohysis stores and releases (adrenocorticotropic hormone), TSH
two hormones produced in the (thyroid-stimulating hormone), FSH
hypothalamus, oxytocin and the (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH
antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or (luteinizing hormone).
vasopressin).
GH, also known as somatotropic
hormone (STH), acts upon bones,
cartilages and muscles promoting the
13. What is the relation growth of these tissues. Prolactin is the
between the hypothalamus hormone that in women stimulates the
and the hypophysis? production and secretion of milk by the
mammary glands. The ACTH is the
hormone that stimulates the cortical
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain portion of the adrenal gland to produce
situated just above the hypophysis. The and secrete the cortical hormones
hypothalamus gets peripheral and (glucocorticoids). The TSH is the
central neural impulses that trigger hormone that stimulates the activity of
response of its neurosecretory cells. The the thyroid gland increasing the
axons of these cells go down to the production and secretion of its
adenohypophysis to regulate the hormones T3 and T4. The FSH is a
hipophyseal secretions by means of gonadotropic hormone, i.e., it
negative feedback. When the plasma stimulates the gonads and in women it
levels of adenohypophyseal hormones acts upon the ovaries inducing the
are too high the hypothalamus detects growth of follicles, in men it stimulates
this information and commands the spermatogenesis. The LH is also a
interruption of the production of the
268
gonadotropic hormone that acts upon cases to nanism (dwarfism). Excessive
the ovaries of women to stimulate production of GH in children may cause
ovulation and the formation of the exaggerated osseous growth and
corpus luteum (that secretes estrogen) gigantism. In adults GH excess (for
and in men upon the testicles to example, in hypophiseal cancer or in
stimulate the production of people that wrongly ingest GH as a
testosterone. nutritional supplement) may lead to
acromegaly, excessive and
disproportional growth of the bone
extremities, like the skull, the
15. What is the relation maxillaries, the hands and the feet.
between the thyroid and the
hypophysis?
17. What are the target
The hypophysis secretes TSH, thyroid-
stimulating hormone. This hormone
tissues and target organs of
hastens the secretion of thyroid each adenohypophyseal
hormones (triiodothyronine and hormone?
thyroxine, or T3 and T4).
GH: bones, cartilages and muscles.
When the plasma concentration of Prolactin: mammary glands. ACTH: the
thyroid hormones is high this cortical portion of the adrenals. TSH:
information is detected by the thyroid gland. FSH and LH: ovaries and
hypothalamus and by the hypophysis testicles.
and this gland reduces the TSH
secretion. When the thyroid hormone
levels are low the TSH secretion
increases. It is thus a negative 18. What are the hormones
feedback.
secreted by the
Injuries of the hypophysis that cause neurohypophysis? What are
TSH hyposecretion (for example, in case their respective functions?
of tissue destruction) or hypersecretion
(in case, e,g., of excessive cell The neurohypophysis secretes oxytocin
proliferation or cancer) can change the and the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
functioning of the thyroid gland
completely. Oxytocin is secreted in women during
delivery to increase the strength and
frequency of the uterine contractions
and thus to help the baby’s birth.
16. What are some diseases During the lactation period the infant’s
caused by abnormal GH sucking action on the mother’s nipples
secretion by the hypophysis? stimulates the production of oxytocin
that then increases the secretion of milk
by the mammary glands.
In childhood deficient GH secretion may
lead to delayed growth and in severe
269
Vasopressin, or ADH, participates in the Low ADH reduces the tubular resorption
water regulation of the body and thus in of water in the kidneys and thus the
the control of the blood pressure since it urinary volume increases.
allows the resorption of free water
through the renal tubules. As water
goes back to the circulation the blood
volume increases. 21. Which are the target
organs and target tissues of
the neurohypophysis?
The target organs of oxytocin are the
between diabetes mellitus and uterus and the mammary glands. The
diabetes insipidus? What are target organs of ADH are the kidneys.
the characteristic signs of
diabetes insipidus?
Diabetes mellitus is the disease caused 22. Where in the body is the
by deficient insulin secretion by the thyroid gland located?
pancreas or by impaired capturing of
this hormone by the cells. Diabetes The thyroid is located in the anterior
insipidus is the disease caused by cervical region (frontal neck), in front of
deficient ADH secretion by the pituitary the trachea and just below the larynx. It
(hypophysis) or also by impaired is a bilobated mass below the Adam’s
sensitivity of the kidneys to this apple.
hormone.
In diabetes insipidus the blood lacks

ADH and so tubular resorption of water 23. What are the hormones
in the kidneys is reduced and a great secreted by the thyroid gland?
volume of urine is produced. The patient
urinates a lot and many times a day, a
What are their functions?
sign also accompanied by polydipsia
(increased thirst and exaggerated The thyroid secretes the hormones
ingestion of water) and sometimes by thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3)
dehydration. and calcitonin.
T3 and T4 are iodinated substances

derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
20. Why does the urinary They act to increase the cellular
metabolic rate of the body (cellular
volume increase when
respiration, metabolism of proteins and
alcoholic beverages are lipids, etc.). Calcitonin inhibits the
ingested? release of calcium cations by the bones
thus controlling the blood level of
Alcohol inhibits the ADH (antidiuretic calcium.
hormone) secretion by the hypophysis.
270
24. Why is the dietary 26. What happens to the TSH
obtainment of iodine so (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
important for thyroid blood level in hypothyroidism?
functioning? Why is there enlargement of
the thyroid in the endemic
The obtainment of iodine from the diet goiter disease?
is important for the thyroid because this
chemical element is necessary for the When there is low T3 and T4 secretion
synthesis of the thyroid hormones T3 by the thyroid the TSH secretion by the
and T4. The iodine supply often comes hypophysis is very stimulated and the
from the diet. TSH blood level increases. The increase
in the TSH availability promotes the
enlargement of the thyroid gland.
25. What is a goiter? What is The thyroid enlargement is a reaction of

endemic goiter? How is this a tissue that tries to compensate the
problem socially solved? functional deficiency by making the
gland increase its size.
Goiter is the abnormal enlargement of
the thyroid gland. The goiter appears as
a tumor in the anterior neck and it may
be visible or sometimes not visible but 27. What are some signs and
palpable. Goiter can occur in symptoms found in patients
hypothyroidism or in hyperthyroidism. with hyperthyroidism?
Endemic goiter is the goiter caused by The hormones made by the thyroid
deficient iodine ingestion (deficiency of gland stimulate the basal metabolism of
iodine in the diet). The endemic the body. In hyperthyroidism there is
character of the disease is explained abnormally high production and
because the iodine content of the diet is secretion of T3 and T4 so the basal
often a social or cultural condition metabolic rate is increased. The signs of
affecting many people of some this condition may be tachycardia
geographical regions. The (abnormally high heart rate), weight
hypothyroidism caused by deficient loss, excessive heat sensation,
iodine ingestion is more frequent in excessive sweating, anxiety, etc. One of
regions far from the sea coast (since the typical signs of hyperthyroidism is
sea food is rich in iodine). exophthalmos (protrusion of the
eyeballs). Generally the patient also
Nowadays the problem is often solved presents goiter.
by obligatory addition of iodine in table
salt. As table salt is a widely used
condiment the supply of iodine in diet is
almost assured by this method.
271
28. What are some signs and together with calcitonin and vitamin D
symptoms found in patients regulates the calcium blood level.
with hypothyroidism?
In hypothyroidism the production and 31. What is the relation

secretion of T3 and T4 are impaired.
between secretion of
Since these thyroid hormones stimulate
the basal metabolism of the body parathormone and the calcium
(cellular respiration, fat acid and protein blood level?
metabolism, etc.) the patient with
hypothyroidism may present The parathormone increases the calcium
bradycardia (low heart rate), low blood level since it stimulates the
respiratory rate, excessive tiredness, resorption (remodelation) of the
depression, cold intolerance and weight osseous tissue. When osteoclasts
gain. Hypothyroidism is normally remodel bones calcium is released in
accompanied by goiter (enlargement of the circulation.
the thyroid in the neck).
Parathormone also acts increasing the
calcium absorption in the intestines by
vitamin D activation. It acts in the
29. What is the physiological kidneys promoting tubular calcium
cause of the syndrome known resorption too.
as cretinism?
Cretinism is caused by chronic

32. What is a mixed gland?
deficiency of the thyroid hormones (T3
and T4) during childhood. The chronic Why is the pancreas
hypothyroidism during childhood may considered a mixed gland?
cause retardation and low stature due to
the low basal metabolic rate in a period Mixed gland is a gland that produces
of life when growth and development of endocrine and exocrine secretions.
mind faculties occur.
The pancreas is an example of a mixed
gland because it secretes hormones in
the circulation, like insulin and
30. What are the glucagon, but it also releases an
parathyroids? Where are they exocrine secretion, the pancreatic juice.
located and what are the
hormones secreted by these
glands?
The parathyroids are four small glands

embedded two in each posterior face of
one thyroid lobe. The parathyroids
secrete parathormone, a hormone that
272
33. What are the pancreatic 35. What are the functions of
tissues involved respectively insulin and glucagon for the
in the exocrine and endocrine blood glucose control?
secretions? What are their
respective hormones and Glucagon increases glycemia and insulin
enzymes? reduces it. They are antagonistic
pancreatic hormones. Glucagon acts
stimulating glycogenolysis and thus
The exocrine secretion of the pancreas
forming glucose from glycogen
is produced in the pancreatic acini,
breaking. Insulin is the hormone
aggregates of secretory cells that
responsible for the entrance of glucose
surround small exocrine ducts. The
from the blood into the cells.
exocrine pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes of the pancreatic juice:
When glycemia is low, for example,
amylase, lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin,
during fasting, glucagon is secreted and
carboxypeptidase, ribonuclease,
insulin is inhibited. When glycemia is
deoxyribonuclease, elastase and
high, as after meals, there are inhibition
gelatinase.
of glucagon and more secretion of
insulin.
The endocrine secretion of the pancreas
is produced and secreted by small
groups of cells dispersed throughout the
organ called islets of Langerhans. The
36. What are the target
pancreatic islets make insulin, glucagon
and somatostatin. organs upon which insulin and
glucagon act?
Glucagon mainly acts upon the liver.

34. What is the importance of Insulin acts in general upon all cells.
the glucose blood level for Both also act upon the adipose tissue
human health? respectively stimulating (glucagon) and
inhibiting (insulin) the use of fatty acids
in the energetic metabolism (an
The glucose blood level (glycemia) must
alternate path of the energetic
be kept normal. If it is abnormally low
metabolism is activated when there is
there is not enough glucose to supply
shortage of glucose).
the energetic metabolism of the cells. If
it is abnormally and chronically high it
causes severe harm to the peripheral
nerves, the skin, the retina, the kidneys
37. What are the effects of
and other important organs and it may
predispose to cardiovascular diseases somatostatin for the
(acute myocardial infarction, strokes, pancreatic hormonal
thrombosis, etc). If it is acutely too high secretion?
medical emergencies like diabetic
ketoacidosis and the hyperglycemic Somatostatin inhibits both insulin and
hyperosmolar state may occur. glucagon secretions.
273
38. What is diabetes mellitus? The main complications of diabetes are
tissue injuries that occur in vaious
organs caused by the chronic increased
Diabetes mellitus is the disease caused
by deficient production or action of blood osmolarity: in the peripheral
nerves (diabetic neuropathy), resulting
insulin and the consequent low glucose
uptake by the cells and high blood in sensitivity loss, increased wounds
(the person does not feel that the tissue
glucose level.
is being wounded and the wound
expands) and muscle fatigue; in the
kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), causing
glomerular lesions that may lead to
renal failure; in the retina (diabetic
signs of diabetes? retinopathy), leading to vision
impairment and blindness; in the skin,
The three main signs of diabetes as a consequence of the neuropathy.
mellitus are known as the diabetic triad: Diabetes mellitus also is one of the
polyuria, polydipsia and polyphagia. major risk factors for cardiovascular
diseases like embolism, myocardial
Polyuria is the excessive elimination of infarction and stroke.
urine; in diabetes it is caused by
reduced water resorption in the renal
tubules due to increased osmolarity of
the glomerular filtrate (caused by 41. What is the difference
excessive glucose). Polydipsia is the between type I diabetes
exaggerated ingestion of water; the
thirst is due to the excessive water loss
mellitus and type II diabetes
in the urine. Polyphagia is the mellitus?
exaggerated ingestion of food caused by
deficiency in energy generation by Type I diabetes, also known as juvenile
glucose-lacking cells. diabetes, or insulin-dependent diabetes
(this name is not adequate as type II
diabetes may become insulin-
dependent), is the impaired production
40. Why do diabetic patients of insulin by the pancreas believed to be
often undergo dietary sugar caused by destruction of cells of the
islets of Langerhans by autoantibodies
restriction? What are the main
(autoimmunity).
complications of diabetes
mellitus? Type II diabetes occurs in the adult
individual and it is often diagnosed in
Diabetic patients are often advised to people of more advanced age. In type II
ingest less carbohydrates since these diabetes there is normal or low
substances are degraded into glucose secretion of insulin by the pancreas but
and this molecule is absorbed in the the main cause of the high glycemia is
intestines. The dietary sugar restriction the peripheral resistance of the cells to
goal is to control glycemia to maintain it the action of the hormone.
at normal levels.
274
42. In ancient Greece the metabolism or in more severe cases
father of Medicine, with parenteral administration of insulin.
The moderation of carbohydrate
Hypocrates, described a ingestion is an important aid to diabetes
method of diagnosing diabetes treatment.
mellitus by tasting the
patient's urine. What is the The diabetes treatment with the use of
physiological explanation for hypoglycemic agents, like insulin or oral
medicines, must be carefully and
this archaic method?
medically supervised since if wrongly
used these drugs may abruptly decrease
Under normal conditions the glucose the glucose blood level, cause
filtered by the renal glomeruli is almost hypoglycemia and even death.
entirely resorbed in the nephron tubules
and not excreted in urine. With the Many other forms of diabetes treatment
elevated glucose blood level the renal are under research worldwide.
tubules cannot resorb all the filtered
glucose and some amount of the
substance appears in the urine. This
amount is enough to provide the sweet 44. How can bacteria produce
taste that helped Hypocrates to
diagnose diabetes and to differentiate it
human insulin on an industrial
from other diseases accompanied by scale? What are the other
polyuria. Nowadays the method is forms of insulin made
inconceivable due to the danger of available by the
contamination of the tester by disease pharmaceutical industry?
agents possibly present in the patient's
urine.
Bacteria do not naturally synthesize
insulin. It is possible however to implant
human genetic material containing the
insulin gene into the bacterial DNA. The
mutant bacteria then multiply and
treatments of diabetes produce human insulin. The insulin is
mellitus? isolated and purified for later
commercialization. This biotechnology is
The general goal of the diabetes known as the recombinant DNA
treatment is to maintain normal technology.
glycemic levels.
Besides human insulin the
Type I diabetes is treated with pharmaceutical industry also produces
parenteral administration of insulin. insulin to be used by humans made
Insulin must be administered from the pancreas of pigs and cows.
intravenously or intramuscularly
because as a protein it would be
digested if ingested orally. In type II
diabetes treatment is done with oral
drugs that regulate the glucose
275
45. Where are the adrenal supply to the brain, the muscles and the
glands located? How many are heart and by vasoconstriction they
reduce the blood supply to the kidneys,
they and what are their the skin and the gastrointestinal tract.
portions?
Substances like adrenaline and
Each adrenal gland is located on the top noradrenaline that promote vasodilation
of each kidney (forming a hat-like or vasoconstriction are called vasoactive
structure for the kidneys), so there are substances.
two glands. The adrenal parenchymal
structure is divided into two portions:
the most peripheral is the cortical
portion, or adrenal cortex, and the 47. What are the hormones
central is the medullary portion, or secreted by the adrenal
adrenal medulla.
cortex? What are their
respective functions?
46. What are the hormones The cortical portion of the adrenals
secreted by the adrenal secretes hormones of the corticoid (or
corticosteroid) group, derived from
medulla? What are their cholesterol: glucocorticoid,
respective functions? mineralocorticoids and cortical sex
hormones.
The medullary portion of the adrenals
secretes hormones of the catecholamine The glucocorticoids are cortisol and
group: adrenaline (also known as cortisone. The glucocorticoids stimulate
epinephrine) and noradrenaline (also the formation of glucose from the
known as norepinephrine). Besides their degradation of proteins of the muscle
hormonal function, adrenaline and tissue (gluconeogenesis) and so they
noradrenaline act as neurotransmitters help to increase glycemia. These
too. The neurons that use them as hormones play an important
neurotransmitters are called adrenergic immunosuppressant role, i.e., they
neurons. reduce the action of the immune system
and for this reason they are used as
Adrenaline increases the glycogen medicine to treat inflammatory and
breaking into glucose (glycogenolysis) autoimmune diseases and rejection of
thus increasing glycemia and the basal transplanted organs.
metabolic rate of the body. Adrenaline
and noradrenaline are released during The mineralocorticoids aldosterone and
situations of danger (fightfight or flight deoxycorticosterone regulate the
response) and they intensify the sodium and potassium blood
strength and rate of the heartbeat and concentration and thus they control the
selectively modulate the blood irrigation water level of the extracellular space.
in some tissues by selective vasodilation Aldosterone increases the sodium
and selective vasoconstriction. By resorption and thus the water resorption
vasodilation they increase the blood in the renal tubules and it also
276
stimulates the renal excretion of 49. What are the hormones
potassium and hydrogen. produced by the testicles and
the ovaries?
The adrenal cortical sex hormones are
androgens, male sex hormones present
in men and women. In men their main The testicles make androgenic
site of production is the testicle and hormones, the main of them being
they promote the appearance of testosterone. The ovaries produce
secondary male sex characteristics, like estrogen and progesterone.
body hair and beard, deep voice, the
male pattern of fat distribution and
maturation of the genitalia. If
abnormally high in women they cause 50. What is the endocrine
inhibited maturation of the female function of the placenta?
genitalia and disturbances of the
menstrual cycle. The placenta is not a permanent gland
of the endocrine system but it also has
endocrinal function. The placenta
produces estrogen and progesterone. It
48. Why are glucorticoids also secretes human chorionic
used in transplant patients? gonadotropin (HCG, that acts similarly
to the hypophyseal LH), human
Patients with transplanted organs are placental lactogen, similar to prolactin
prone to host versus graft rejection and stimulant of the mammary glands,
since their own immune system tends to and a series of hormonal peptides
attack the grafted organ because of similar to the hormones of the
recognition of the grafted tissue as hypothalamus-hypophysis axis.
foreign matter. In the prevention and
treatment of this common problem
patients are given glucorticoids or other
immunosupressants. Glucocorticoids
have an immunosuppressant action and
so they reduce the aggression of the
immune system against the graft.
The immune action however is also very

important for the individual. The
immune system defends the body
against invasion and infection by
pathogenic agents (virus, bacteria,
toxins) besides being fundamental for
the elimination of modified cells that
may proliferate and cause cancer.
Patients receiving immunosuppressants
like glucocorticoids are thus under
increased risk of infectious and
neoplastic diseases.
277
proteins and defense cells (e.g.,
Immune System interferons and macrophages).
1. What is the function of the 3. What is inflammation?

immune system?
Inflammation is the initial response of
The immune system performs specific the unspecific defense system versus
defense against agents, the antigens, aggressions against the body (the
that are foreign or harmful to the body. aggressions may be caused by
infectious parasites, chemical
Exogenous antigens are often in contact contamination, trauma, physical agents
with the skin or entering the airway, the like heat and fire, autoimmunity, etc.).
digestive tube and the genital orifices During inflammation a series of
and mucosae. They can also penetrate unspecific leukocytes present in the
the circulation directly through wounds. circulation are attracted to the injury
site in an attempt to destroy harmful
agents and to isolate the affected region
2. What are the two groups of of the tissue.
defense mechanisms of the
body against foreign or
harmful agents? What is the 4. How does the inflammation
difference between them? mechanism work?
The body has many defense When some tissue injury occurs
mechanisms against foreign pathogenic histamine and other vasoactive
agents. These mechanisms are divided substances (called mediators of
into two groups: the specific inflammation) are released, they cause
mechanisms and the unspecific vasodilation and the blood flow to the
mechanisms. The specific mechanisms affected site increases. Granulocyte
are part of the immune system and leukocytes present in the blood are
comprehend the humoral immune attracted to the site of the injury by
response and the cellular immune substances known as chemotactic
response that respectively produce factors also released by the injured
antibodies and defense cells against tissue and by the active granulocytes in
specific antigens. The unspecific the area. The granulocytes exit the
mechanisms fight in a general manner capillaries by diapedesis, i.e., using
any type of antigen (they do not have pseudopods. Macrophages present in
specificity) and in them a series of the region are activated too. These cells
defense means are included, like the flood the extracellular space of the
skin barrier against foreign agents, the affected area trying to kill or eliminate
mucous and ciliated epithelium of the harmful agents, to prevent tissue
airway, inflammation (the inflammatory
response) and the action of unspecific
278
necrosis and to isolate the damaged these cells are increased, a clinical
tissue. condition known as neutrophilia.
In the bacterial inflammation fragments

of dead bacteria, dead neutrophils and
5. What is pus? tissues form the pus.
Pus is a residual of the inflammatory

reaction. It contains a mixture of
fragments of dead leukocytes, infectious 8. Of which type of defense
agents (generally bacteria) and tissues. cell do worm infections
stimulate the multiplication?
The main leukocytes that generally

6. What is the association multiply and participate in the defense
between inflammation and against worm infections are the
fever? eosinophils. In this type of inflammation
the blood level of these cells are
In the tissue region where inflammation increased, a clinical condition known as
occurs bacterial toxins, cytokines, eosinophilia.
prostaglandins, interleukins and
endothelins are released. These Eosinophils are also increased in allergic
substances gain the circulation and conditions.
reach the central nervous system which
then commands the increase of the
body temperature.
9. Of which type of defense
cell do viral infections
stimulate the multiplication?
7. Which type of defense cell
do bacteria attract and cause The main leukocytes that generally
to multiply during the multiply and participate in the defense
inflammation process? What is against viral infections are the
lymphocytes. In this type of
the name given to the waste
inflammation the blood level of these
material produced by the cells are increased, a clinical condition
inflammation triggered by known as lymphocytosis.
bacterial infection?
The main leukocytes that generally

multiply and participate in the 10. What is the defense
inflammation reaction against bacterial mechanism that begins to
infections are the neutrophils. In this work when inflammation fails
type of inflammation the blood level of to stop an infection?
279
If the inflammatory attack is not enough 14. What are
to halt the infectious process the body immunoglobulins?
still relies on a specific defense, the
immune response proper (humoral and
cellular) performed by the lymphocytes. Immunoglobulin is the alternate name
given to antibody. Immunoglobulins are
complex proteins containing an
invariable portion and a variable portion
and made of four polypeptide chains.
The variable portion of each
between humoral specific immunoglobulin is responsible for the
immune response and cellular high specificity of the antigen-antibody
specific immune response? bond.
Humoral specific immune response is

the defense system by means of
antibodies, defense proteins secreted by 15. How do antibodies work to
lymphocytes that attack foreign agents neutralize antigens?
with high specificity. Cellular specific
immune response is the defense system The antibodies, or immunoglobulins, act
by means of specific lymphocytes (cells) to facilitate the destruction of antigens:
that directly attack other foreign cells they attract phagocytic leukocytes, they
and agents. trigger the attack of specific defense
molecules (activation of the complement
system) and they directly neutralize the
toxicity of some antigens.
12. What is an antigen?
Antigen is any substance, particle or

infectious agent recognized as foreign to 16. How can an organism that
the body. The contact of the antigen once underwent contact with
with the body promotes a defense an antigen be immunized
reaction against the antigen (unspecific,
against future infections by
specific or both).
the same agent?
This phenomenon is called immune

13. What are the cells memory. When an antigen makes
responsible for the production contact for the first time with cells of
the humoral immune system, B
of antibodies?
lymphocytes that are producers of
specific immunoglobulins against that
The cells that produce antibodies, i.e., antigen multiply and in days synthesize
the cells of the humoral immune their antibodies. This is called primary
system, are the B lymphocytes (B cells). response. Some of these specific B
lymphocytes remain in the circulation
for a long time, sometimes during the
280
entire life of the individual, and they mastocytes whose cytoplasm is full of
become the memory cells of the histamine granules. The antibody-
immune system. When the body is mastocyte bond causes these cells to
exposed in the future to the same release a great amount of histamine in
antigen the production of antibodies will the circulation, stimulating inflammation
be faster and more intense since the and generating the allergic symptoms
immune system is already prepared to and signs. For this reason allergy is
react against that antigen. This is called treated with antihistamines, drugs that
the secondary response. block the histaminic reaction.
Exacerbated allergic reactions, for
example, in hypersensitivity to some
medicines like penicillin and sulfas, may
17. How can the immune cause anaphylactic shock, a severe
memory lead to the efficacy of clinical condition that sometimes leads
to death.
vaccines and also produce
allergies?
Vaccines are controlled inoculations of 18. How different are the

fragments of infectious agents or of actions of antibodies against
inactive infectious agents to induce the
primary immune response, the
bacteria and against virus?
formation of specific memory B Why is the cellular immune
lymphocytes against the antigen. response activated in case of
Therefore the organism produces chronic viral infection?
immunoglobulins and becomes prepared
to destroy antigens when exposed to The antibodies of the humoral immune
new infections by those agents. system act against extracellular agents,
like toxins or bacteria, but they are not
In allergies the humoral immune system active in the intracellular space and they
is sensitized (makes antibodies and cannot fight virus efficiently.
specific memory B lymphocytes) against
some common environmental In case of viral infection (and also of
substances wrongly recognized as cancerous or precancerous cells) the
antigens. For example, pollen-derived immune attack is made by the cellular
substances, dust particles, compounds immune system, mediated by T and NK
present in foods or in medicines, etc. (natural killers) lymphocytes that
may be recognized as antigens destroy specific cells and virus.
triggering the primary response and
creating an immune memory against
them that then become causes of
allergy. The more the individual is 19. How does the cellular
exposed to those substances the more
intense is the immune reaction. immune response take place?
The IgE antibodies that cause allergy The lymphocytes that participate in the
bind to receptors of leukocytes called cellular immune response are the T
281
lymphocytes. T lymphocytes 21. What are passive and
differentiate into three main types: active immunization?
cytotoxic T lymphocytes (cytotoxic T
According to the duration of
cell), helper T lymphocytes (helper cell)
and suppressor T lymphocytes. The the protection how do these
cytotoxic cells are the effectors of the types of immunization differ?
system, i.e., they directly attack other
cells recognized as foreign (for example, Active immunization is that in which an
fungi cells, cells infected by virus, antigen penetrates the body triggering
neoplastic cells, graft cells, etc.). The the primary immune response and the
helper cells and the suppressor T production of memory lymphocytes and
lymphocytes act as regulators of the antibodies that provide faster and more
system releasing substances that effective immune defense in future
respectively stimulate and inhibit the infections by the same antigen. Passive
immune action of T and B lymphocytes. immunization is that in which
After the primary immune response immunoglobulins against an antigen are
memory T lymphocytes also remain in inoculated in the body to provide
the circulation to provide faster and protection in case the body becomes
more effective reaction in case of future infected by the antigen.
infections.
Active immunization tends to be longer
lasting than passive immunization since
in the active type as well as antibodies,
20. What are the antigen- specific memory lymphocytes remain in
presenting cells of the the circulation. In the passive
immune system? immunization the duration of the
protection is that of the duration of the
antibodies in the circulation.
The antigen-presenting cells of the
immune system, also known as APC
cells, are cells that do phagocytosis and
digestion of foreign (to the body)
22. Why is maternal milk
microorganisms and later expose
antigens derived from these important for the immune
microorganisms in the outer side of protection of the baby?
their plasma membrane. These
processed antigens are then recognized Besides being nutritionally important,
by lymphocytes that activate the maternal milk participates in the
immune response. Several types of defense of the baby against infectious
cells, like the macrophages, can act as agents. Soon after delivery the mother
antigen-presenting cells. produces a more fluid milk called
colostrum that is rich in
immunoglobulins (antibodies). These
antibodies are not absorbed by the
baby’s circulation but they cover the
internal surface of the baby’s bowels
thus attacking possible antigens and
282
making more difficult the proliferation of immunoglobulin is that obtained from
pathogenic bacteria within the organ. animals of different species from the
individual into which it will be
inoculated.
23. How are antivenoms The homologous immunoglobulin is

produced? Why are safer since it is collected from beings of
the same species of the individual in
antivenoms an example of
which it will be inoculated and thus the
passive immunization? risk of the antibodies to be recognized
as foreign and to trigger an immune
Antivenoms are obtained by the response is lower. Heterologous
following process: the venom (antigen) immunoglobulins are more prone to
is inoculated into other mammals, e.g., being destroyed by the own antibodies
in horses; these animals make specific of the individual.
antibodies against the antigen; blood
from the animals is collected and
purified to get the antibodies; this
antibody-containing material is the 25. What are natural active
antivenom. When a human being is immunization and artificial
infected by the antigen the specific
antivenom is given to him/her and the
active immunization?
action against the antigen occurs.
Natural active immunization is that in
Antivenoms may also be administered which a previous natural infection
as a preventive measure and, since it is induces the primary immune response,
basically made of specific specific memory cells are produced and
immunoglobulins against some antigen, the individual becomes immune to new
the process is an example of passive infections with the antigen. This is what
immunization. happens in diseases that affect people
only once in life, like mumps and
chickenpox.
24. What is the difference Artificial active immunization is that in

which the primary immune response is
between homologous and
caused by the inoculation into an
heterologous individual of specially prepared
immunoglobulins? antigens. This is the case with vaccines.
Homologous immunoglobulin is the

human (from the same species)
immunoglobulin. In case of inoculation 26. Why are vaccines made of
in animals as in veterinary procedures the own disease agent or of
homologous immunoglobulin is that fragments of it?
from the blood of animals of the same
species of the animal undergoing
treatment. Heterologous The goal of vaccines is to artificially
induce a specific primary immune
283
response (and the consequent formation 28. Why doesn't a long lasting
of antibodies and memory cells) vaccine against common cold
concerning a given infection or disease
exist yet?
in order to immunize the individual
against infections by the pathogenic
agent in the future. Viruses that present a high mutation
rate like the virus that causes the
Since each antibody does not act common cold escape easily from the
against a variety of antigens but instead action of vaccines against them. After a
it acts only against its specific antigen, primary immune response (natural or
it is necessary for the immune system artificially induced) against the virus in
to make contact in some way with the the next season of infection new mutant
antigen against which the immunization resistant strains appear and the
is wanted. The reconnaissance of protection obtained with the immune
specific molecular portions of each response of the last season is lost. (One
antigen causes the immune system to could say that the high mutation rate is
produce the specific variable portion of a form of “immunization” found by
the immunoglobulins to attack that these viruses.)
antigen. Therefore to induce the active
immunization it is necessary to
inoculate into the body small parts of
the infectious agent or the agent 29. Why are vaccines used in
entirely (dead or inactivated). the prevention but not in the
treatment of infections? Why
can antivenom serums be
used in prevention and
treatment?
antigenic agents that may
constitute vaccines?
Vaccines are not used in the treatment
of infections because they depend on
Vaccines can be constituted of dead the primary immune response that
agents of disease, of inactivated agents takes about a week to occur and is not
of disease, of inactivated toxins or of so intense and effective. Antivenom
fragments of the infectious agent. serums however are inoculated into the
circulation and used as an immediate
Examples of some vaccines and their treatment because they are made of a
type of antigenic agents are: BCG, great amount of immunoglobulin
inactivated tuberculosis bacilli; (antibodies) which is potent against
antitetanic vaccine, inactivated toxin; their respective specific venom.
antidiphtheric, inactivated toxin;
antipolio Salk, dead poliovirus; antipolio
Sabin, attenuated (inactivated)
poliovirus. 30. What is the DNA vaccine?
The DNA vaccine, or DNA vaccination, is

a vaccination technology based on
284
genetic engineering. In DNA vaccination
a recombinant plasmid (vector)
containing the gene of a specific antigen
that is part of a given pathogenic agent
is inserted into cells of the individual to
be immunized. These cells then begin to
produce the antigen that triggers the
primary immune response and
theoretically the individual becomes
immunized against that antigen.
31. What is the name given to

conditions in which the own
immune system of the
individual is the agent of
diseases? What are some
examples of these conditions?
Diseases caused by the action of the

own immune system of the individual
are called autoimmune diseases.
The autoimmune diseases appear when

the immune system makes antibodies or
defense cells that attack cells, tissues
and organs of its own body. The
attacked cells or tissues are wrongly
recognized as antigens by the immune
system. Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus,
scleroderma, vitiligo, pemphigus, type I
diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease
(chronic inflammation of the gut),
myasthenia gravis, Graves disease,
Hashimoto's disease, etc., are all
examples of autoimmune diseases.
285
3. What is the name of the
Gametogenesis cells capable of making
gametes? What is the ploidy
of these gamete-forming
1. What are gametes? cells?
Gametes are cells specialized in sexual The cells that form gametes are the
reproduction. They contain half of the germ cells as opposed to the somatic
maximum number of chromosomes of cells. The ploidy (number of
the species and unite with another chromosomes) of the germ cells is the
gamete giving birth to a zygote with same as the somatic cells (only during
double of the number of chromosomes the formation of gametes meiosis occurs
of the gametic cells. and the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half).
In humans gametes are formed by
meiosis; the male gametes are the
sperm cells and the female gametes are
the egg cells. 4. What are gonads? What are
the male and the female
gonads in humans?
2. What is the type of cell Gonads are the organs that produce
division that allows sexual gametes. They contain the germ cells
reproduction? What is that undergo division and generate
gametogenesis? gametes. In males the gonads are the
testicles. In females the gonads are the
Meiosis is the type of cell division that ovaries.
allows sexual reproduction since it
reduces to a half the number of
chromosomes of the species making
possible the combination of two 5. Indicating the name and
gametes to form a new individual. (In respective ploidy of each
some beings meiosis creates haploid involved cell how can the
gametophytes that by means of mitosis formation of sperm cells from
generate gametes. Even in this case the germ cells be described?
function of meiosis is the same: to
provide cells with half of the number of
chromosomes of the species with The formation of sperm cells, or
separation of the homologous.) spermatogenesis, begins with a germ
cell called spermatogonium (2n) that
Gametogenesis is the name given to the suffers mitosis and gives birth to the
process of gamete production. spermatocyte I (2n). The spermatocyte
I undergoes meiosis I and generates
two spermatocyte II (n) that then
286
undergo meiosis II and produce four 9. What is the difference
spermatids (n). Each spermatid between spermatids and
undergoes a maturation process called
sperm cells? What is the name
spermiogenesis and four sperm cells
appear. of the transformation of
spermatids into sperm cells?
Sperm cells (the male gametes) are

6. What is the difference matured spermatids that have already
between spermatogonium and undergone differentiation (appearance
spermatocyte I? of the flagellum, reduction of the
cytoplasm, formation of the acrosome,
increase in the number of
The male germ cells are the
mitochondria). This differentiation
spermatogonia (diploid cells, 2n)
process is called spermiogenesis.
situated in the testicles. They mature
and by means of mitosis give birth to
spermatocytes I (2n) that will undergo
meiosis.
10. What is the acrosome of
the sperm cell? How is it
formed?
between spermatocyte I and The acrosome is a structure that
spermatocyte II? contains a great number of digestive
enzymes, it is located in the anterior
end of the sperm cell and it is formed by
The spermatocyte I (2n) undergoes the
the union of Golgi apparatus vesicles.
first division of meiosis (meiosis I)
The function of the acrosome is to
originating two spermatocyte II
release its enzymes when the sperm cell
(haploid, n).
meets the egg cell to break the external
covering of the female gamete thus
making fecundation possible.
between spermatocyte II and
spermatid? 11. What is the function of the
flagellum of the sperm cell?
The spermatids (n) are the products of How is it formed?
the second division of meiosis (meiosis
II) in the male gametogenesis. Each
The flagellum of the sperm cell is made
spermatocyte II originates two
by the centrioles that migrate to the
spermatids totaling four spermatids for
region posterior to the nucleus. Its
each spermatocyte I that enter meiosis.
function is to promote locomotion
towards the egg cell.
287
12. Why is the cytoplasm of 14. Indicating the name and
sperm cells very reduced? respective ploidy of each
Why do mitochondria of sperm involved cell how can the
cells concentrate in the base formation of egg cells from
of the flagellum? germ cells be described?
The reduced cytoplasm of sperm cells The formation of egg cells begins with a
decreases the cell weight and provides a germ cell called oogonium (2n) that
more hydrodynamic shape for the undergoes mitosis and gives birth to the
locomotion in fluids. oocyte I (2n). The oocyte I undergoes
meiosis I that however is interrupted at
The high concentration of mitochondria prophase. After puberty during each
at the base of the flagellum of the menstrual cycle an oocyte I finishes the
sperm cell is necessary for the energetic meiosis I and generate one oocyte II (n)
supply of the flagellum (for it to beat and the first polar body (n). With
and move the sperm cell). fecundation the oocyte II then
undergoes meiosis II and produces the
mature egg cell (n) and the second
polar body (n).
13. Concerning events during
the periods of life how
different is the gametogenesis
15. What is the first polar
in women and in men?
body? How different is it from
The formation of spermatogonia in men
the oocyte II?
takes place during the embryonic
period. The formation of sperm cells In oogenesis the oogonium
however is a continuous process that differentiates into oocyte I (2n) and this
begins in puberty and goes on until old cell enters meiosis. After finishing the
age and sometimes during all the first meiotic division (meiosis I) the
remaining life of the man. oocyte I forms two cells: the oocyte II
(n) and the first polar body. The oocyte
In women all oogonia are formed before II is bigger because it gets almost all
birth. The oogonia turn into oocytes I the cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic
that enter the first division of meiosis structures of the oocyte I as a strategy
(meiosis I). This division however is for metabolite and nutrient storage. The
interrupted at prophase and continues oocyte II cell goes then to the second
only in puberty. After the beginning of meiotic division. The first polar body is
menses an egg cell is released during very small and almost lacks cytoplasm;
each period and, if fecundated, it it disintegrates or stays attached to the
finishes the meiotic division. The oocyte II.
oogenesis stops after menopause
(cessation of the menstrual activity) and
the climacteric period of life begins.
288
16. What is the relation 19. How does the male
between fecundation and the gamete penetrate the egg
end of the meiotic process cell? How does the female
during oogenesis? gamete protect itself from the
entrance of more gametes
The oocyte II only completes the second after the entrance of the first
meiotic division (interrupted at sperm cell?
metaphase) if fecundation by a male
gamete occurs. (One can say therefore
The sperm cell that reaches the egg cell
that in fact the female gamete is the
triggers the acrosome reaction, a
oocyte II).
process in which hydrolytic enzymes of
the acrosome are released on the
external surface of the zona pellucida
(the protective layer that surrounds the
17. What is the second polar
egg cell). A portion of this layer is
body? digested by the acrosomal enzymes
allowing the sperm cell to reach the
After termination of the second meiotic plasma membrane of the egg cell
division of the oocyte II two cells are carrying out fecundation.
generated: the egg cell proper and the
second polar body. The second polar At the moment that the sperm cell
body is a very small cell that almost makes contact with the egg cell
lacks cytoplasm and stays adnexal to membrane a chemical alteration of this
the egg cell. The entire cytoplasmic membrane occurs. Enzymes secreted by
content of the oocyte II passes to the exocytosis (cortical reaction) make the
egg cell. zona pellucida unable to bind to other
sperm cells (zonal reaction) and other
male gametes cannot enter the egg cell.
18. What is the relationship

between the menstrual cycle
and ovulation? 20. What are the female
pronucleus and the male
Ovulation is the releasing of the female pronucleus?
gamete from the ovary. Ovulation is a
periodical event that occurs during each The female pronucleus is the proper
menstrual cycle. Considering as the first haploid nucleus of the egg cell. Male
day of the menstrual cycle the day when pronucleus is the haploid nucleus of the
menses begins, the ovulation occurs sperm cell that has fecundated the egg
around the 14th day when the cell. After fecundation both pronuclei
concentrations of the hormones LH and fuse forming the nucleus of the diploid
FSH reach high levels. zygote.
289
21. Concerning their size and
basic morphology how and
why do the male and the
female gametes differentiate
from each other?
The female gametes are big cells full of

vitellus (nutritive material). The male
gametes are small, mobile and agile
flagellate cells.
Those features are related to their

respective biological functions. While
the female gametes have the basic
functions of receiving the sperm cell
nucleus and of storing nutrients for the
zygote, the male gametes have the
function of active movement towards
the egg cell.
290
the prostate and the bulbourethral
Reproductive glands and then go through the urethra,
System inside the penis, to the exterior.

1. What are the organs that secretions of the prostate,
are part of the male genital seminal vesicle and
system? bulbourethral glands in
reproduction?
The organs that comprise the male
genital system are the testicles, the
These secretions along with sperm cells
epididymides, the vas deferens, the
from the testicles form the semen. The
seminal vesicles, the ejaculatory duct,
secretions have the function of
the prostate, the bulbourethral glands,
nourishing the sperm cells and serving
the urethra and the penis.
them as a fluid means of propagation.
The basic pH of the seminal fluid also
neutralizes the acid secretions of the
vagina allowing the survival of sperm
2. Concerning reproduction cells in the vaginal environment after
what is the function of the copulation.
testicles?
The testicles are the male gonads, i.e.,

the organs where the production of 5. What are the endocrine
gametes takes place. In human beings glands that regulate sexual
the gametes are made by meiosis that activity in males? How does
occur in the testicles.
this regulation work and what
are the involved hormones?
3. After passing the In males the sexual activity is regulated

epididymides through which by the endocrine glands hypophysis
(pituitary), adrenals and gonads
structures do sperm cells go (testicles).
until exteriorization?
The FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
After leaving the epididymis in the secreted by the adenohypophysis acts
testicle sperm cells enter the vas upon the testicles stimulating the
deferens, after that they receive spermatogenesis. The LH (luteinizing
secretions from the seminal vesicles and hormone), another adenohypophyseal
gather (from right and left sides) in the hormone, stimulates the production of
ejaculatory duct that passes inside the testosterone by the testicles too.
prostate. They also get secretions from Testosterone, whose production
291
intensifies after the beginning of 8. What is the organ that
puberty, acts in several organs of the releases the female gamete
body and it is responsible for the
under formation? How is this
appearing of the male secondary sex
characteristics (beard, body hair, deep release triggered? What is the
voice, increase of the muscle and organ that collects the
osseous mass, maturation of genitalia, released gametes?
etc.) Testosterone also stimulates
spermatogenesis. The organ that liberates the female
gamete is the ovary, the female gonad.
The releasing of the oocyte is a
response to hormonal stimuli. The
6. What are the organs that immature egg cell (still an oocyte) falls
are part of the female into the abdominal cavity and is picked
reproductive system? up by the Fallopian tube (uterine tube,
or oviduct), a tubular structure that
The organs that constitute the female connects the ovary with the uterus.
reproductive system are the ovaries, the
Fallopian tubes (or uterine tubes), the
uterus, the vagina and the vulva.
9. What are the anatomical
relationships between the
organs of the female
7. In which period of life does reproductive system from the
the formation of gametes external vulva to the ovaries?
begin in women?
The external female genitalia is called
The meiosis that forms female gametes the vulva. The vulva is the external
begins in the cells of the ovarian follicles opening of the vaginal canal, or vagina.
before birth. After the beginning of The vagina is the copulation organ of
puberty, under hormonal stimuli, during the females and its posterior extremity
each menstrual cycle one of the cells is communicates with the uterus through
released on the surface of the ovary and the uterine cervix. The uterus is divided
meiosis resumes. The meiotic process is into two portions: the cervix and the
only concluded however if fecundation uterine cavity. The lateral walls of the
happens. uterine fundus communicate with the
Fallopian tubes. The other extremity of
each Fallopian tube ends in fimbria
forming fringes in the abdominal cavity.
Between the uterine tube and the ovary
there is still intra-abdominal space.
292
10. What is the menstrual estrogens and progesterone are in low
cycle? concentration.
The menstrual cycle is the periodic

succession of interactions between
13. After menses what is the
hormones and the organs of the female
reproductive system that, after the hormone that influences the
beginning of puberty, regulates the maturation of the ovarian
release of the female gametes and follicles?
prepares the uterus for fecundation and
pregnancy. The maturation of the ovarian follicles
after menses is stimulated by the action
of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).
11. What are the endocrine

glands involved in the
menstrual cycle? What are the 14. What is the hormone
hormones in action? secreted by the growing
ovarian follicles? What is the
The endocrine glands that secrete action of that hormone upon
hormones involved in the menstrual the uterus?
cycle are the hypophysis (pituitary) and
the ovaries.
The follicles that are growing after
menses secrete estrogen. These
The hormones from adenohypophysis
hormones act upon the uterus
are FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
stimulating the thickening of the
and LH (luteinizing hormone) and the
endometrium (the internal mucosa of
hormones from the ovaries are estrogen
the uterus).
and progesterone.
15. What is the relationship

12. What event marks the
between the estrogen level
beginning of the menstrual
and the LH level in the
cycle? What is the blood
menstrual cycle? What is the
concentration of FSH, LH,
function of LH in the
estrogen and progesterone in
menstrual cycle and when
this phase of the cycle?
does its blood concentration
By convention the menstrual cycle
reach a peak?
begins at the day that menses begins.
(Menses is the endometrial hemorrhage The increase in the blood concentration
excreted through the vaginal canal.) At of estrogen with the growing of the
these days the hormones FSH, LH, ovarian follicle causes the hypophysis to
secrete LH. In this phase LH acts
293
together with FSH promoting the 18. How long after ovulation
maturation of the follicle that at the must fecundation occur to be
14th day ruptures releasing the female
effective?
gamete (ovulation). After the release of
the ovum LH acts stimulating the
formation of the corpus luteum, a If fecundation does not occur
structure made from the remaining approximately 24 hours after ovulation
follicular mass. The LH concentration is the released ovum often dies.
at maximum at the 14th day of the
cycle.
19. What is the structure into

which the follicle is
16. What are the hormones transformed after ovulation?
that promote the release of What is the importance of that
the female gamete from the structure in the menstrual
follicle and at which day of the cycle?
menstrual cycle does this
phenomenon happen? What is The follicle that released the ovum
this event called? suffers the action of LH and is
transformed into the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum is very important
The hormones that promote the release
of the ovum from the follicle are FSH because it secretes estrogen and
progesterone.
and LH, hormones found in maximum
blood concentration around the 14th
These hormones prepare the uterine
day of the cycle. The release of the
female gamete from the ovary is called mucosa, also known as endometrium,
for nidation (implantation of the zygote
ovulation. Ovulation happens at
(around) the 14th day of the menstrual in the uterine wall) and embryonic
development since they stimulate the
cycle.
thickening of the mucous tissue,
increase its vascularity and make the
appearing of uterine glycogen-producing
glands.
17. How does the female
gamete move from the ovary
to the uterus?
The female gamete released from the the uterine glycogen-
ovary falls into the surrounding producing glands?
abdominal cavity and is collected by the
Fallopian tube. The internal epithelium
The uterine glands produce glycogen
of the uterine tubes has ciliated cells
that move the ovum or the fecundated that can be degraded into glucose to
nourish the embryo before the complete
egg cell towards the uterus.
development of the placenta.
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21. How does the hypophysis- endometrium is a richly vascularized
corpus luteum negative tissue. The rupture of blood vessels of
the uterine mucosa during the
feedback work? What is the menstrual desquamation causes the
name given to the atrophied bleeding.
corpus luteum after this
feedback process?
After ovulation the estrogen and 24. Which are the phases of
progesterone secretions from the corpus the menstrual cycle?
luteum inhibit the hypophyseal FSH and
LH secretions (this happens by inhibition The menstrual cycle is divided into two
of GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing main phases: the follicular (or
hormone, a hypothalamic hormone). menstrual) phase and the luteal (or
The blood concentration of these secretory) phase.
adenohypophyseal hormones falls to
basal levels again. As LH lowers the The menstrual phase begins at the first
corpus luteum (luteum means “yellow”) day of menses and lasts until ovulation
becomes atrophic and turns into the (around the 14th day). The luteal phase
corpus albicans (“white”). With the begins after ovulation and ends when
regression of the corpus luteum the menses begins (around the 28th day).
production of estrogen and
progesterone ceases.
25. Including main events and

hormonal changes how can
22. In hormonal terms why
the menstrual cycle be
does menses occur?
described?
Menses is the endometrial monthly
One can imagine a cycle like an analog
desquamation that occurs as the
clock at which at 0 o’clock is the
estrogen and progesterone levels fall
beginning and the end of the menstrual
after the regression of the corpus
cycle and that 6 o’clock corresponds to
luteum because these hormones, mainly
the 14h day of the cycle.
progesterone, can no longer support
and maintain the thickening of the
At 0 o’clock the menses and so the
endometrium.
menstrual cycle begins and FSH blood
level begins to increase. Around 2
o’clock the maturing follicles under FSH
action are already secreting estrogen
23. What is the explanation and the endometrium is thickening.
for the bleeding that Around 3 o’clock estrogen is intensely
accompanies menses? stimulating the increase of LH blood
level. At 6 o’clock (the 14th day) LH is
The hemorrhage that accompanies at its maximum concentration and FSH
menses occurs because the also at high levels to promote ovulation,
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LH then stimulates the formation of the 27. What is the part of the
corpus luteum. Around 7 o’clock the female reproductive system
corpus luteum is already secreting a
where fecundation occurs?
great amount of estrogen and
progesterone and the endometrium
thickens even more, concomitant Fecundation generally occurs in the
lowering of FSH and LH occurs with the Fallopian tubes but it can also take
increasing of the ovarian hormones. place within the uterus. There are cases
Around 11 o’clock the reduced LH and when fecundation may occur even
FSH levels make the corpus luteum turn before the ovum enters the uterine
into the corpus albicans, the production tube, a fact that may lead to a severe
of estrogen and progesterone ceases medical condition known as abdominal
and the endometrium regresses. At 0 pregnancy.
o’clock again (28th day) the
endometrium desquamates and a new
menstrual cycle begins.
28. How does the sexual
arousal mechanism in women
facilitate fecundation?
26. In general what is the
phase of the menstrual cycle During sexual arousal in women the
when copulation may lead to vagina secretes substances to neutralize
fecundation? its acidity thus allowing the survival of
sperm cells within it. During the female
fertile period hormones make the mucus
Although this is not a rule, to be
effective fecundation in general must that covers the internal surface of the
uterus less viscous to help the passage
occur within about 24 hours after
ovulation (that occurs around the 14th of sperm cells to the uterine tubes.
During copulation the uterine cervix
day of the menstrual cycle).
Fecundation may occur even if advances inside the vagina to facilitate
the entering of male gametes through
copulation took place up to 3 days
before ovulation since the male gametes the cervical canal.
remain viable for about 72 hours within
the female reproductive system.
The fertile period of the women however 29. What is nidation? In which
is considered the period from 7 days phase of the menstrual cycle
before ovulation to 7 days after does nidation occur?
ovulation.
Nidation is the implantantion of the
embryo in the uterus. Nidation occurs
around the 7th day after fecundation,
i.e., 7 to 8 days after ovulation
(obviously, it occurs only if fecundation
also occurs). Since it occurs in the luteal
phase the progesterone level is high and
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the endometrium is in its best condition The functioning of the hypophysis is
to receive the embryo. altered during pregnancy. Since
estrogen and progesterone levels
remain elevated during the gestational
period the production of GnRH
30. What is tubal pregnancy? (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from
the hypothalamus is inhibited. The lack
Many times fecundation takes place in of GnRH thus inhibits the secretion of
the Fallopian tubes. Generally the newly FSH and LH from the hypophysis and a
formed zygote is taken to the uterus new menstrual cycle does not begin.
where nidation and the embryonic
development occur. In some cases If pregnancy does not occur the
however the zygote cannot go down to lowering of estrogen and progesterone
the uterus and the embryo implants levels stimulates the production of
itself in the uterine tube tissue, GnRH by the hypothalamus. This
characterizing the tubal pregnancy. hormone then hastens the
Tubal pregnancy is a severe clinical adenohypophyseal secretion of FHS and
condition since often the tube ruptures LH that in their turn stimulate the
during gestation causing hemorrhage maturation of follicles and the beginning
and even death of the woman. The most of a new menstrual cycle.
common treatment for tubal pregnancy
has been surgery.
33. What is the endocrine

function of the placenta?
31. How do hormonal tests to
detect pregnancy work? The placenta besides being the organ
through which the exchange of
Laboratory tests to detect pregnancy substances between the mother and the
commonly test for human chorionic fetus is done also has the function of
gonadotropin (HCG) concentration in secreting estrogen and progesterone to
blood or urine samples. If the level of keep a high level of these hormones
this hormone is abnormally high, during pregnancy. (The placenta still
pregnancy is likely. secretes other hormones like human
placental lactogen, that act similarly to
the hypophyseal hormones that regulate
reproduction, and HCG, human
32. Does the hypophysis- chorionic gonadotropin.)
ovaries endocrine axis work in
the same way during
pregnancy as in non-pregnant 34. How do contraceptive pills
women? If pregnancy does generally work?
not occur how does another
menstrual cycle begin? Contraceptive pills generally contain the
hormones estrogen and progesterone. If
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taken daily from the 4th day after allowing the release of seminal fluid
menses the abnormal elevation of these during ejaculation.
hormones acts upon the hypophysis-
hypothalamus endocrine axis inhibiting Surgical sterilization of women is often
the FSH and LH secretions. Since these done by bilateral tubal ligation. With
hormones then do not reach their tubal ligation the ovum does not pass to
normal high levels during the menstrual the uterus so the sperm cells cannot
cycle ovulation does not occur. reach it.
(Treatment with contraceptive pills must

be initiated under medical supervision.)
37. How does the
contraceptive diaphragm
work? What are the
35. What are the common
limitations of this
contraindications of the
contraceptive method?
contraceptive pills?
The contraceptive diaphragm is an
There are medical reports associating artifact made of latex or plastic that
the use of contraceptive pills with when placed on the vaginal fundus
vomiting, nausea, vertigo, headaches, covers the uterine cervix forbidding the
hypertension and other pathological passage of sperm cells through the
conditions. Some research has cervical canal. To be more effective the
attempted to relate the medical diaphragm needs to be used together
ingestion of estrogen and progesterone with spermicide. This method however
with increased propensity to does not prevent sexually transmitted
cardiovascular diseases (like infarction, diseases (STDs).
strokes and thrombosis) and to
malignant neoplasias (cancers). Doctors
must always be asked about the risks
and benefits of the contraceptive pill
38. Why is the use of condoms
prior to use.
not just a contraceptive
method but also a health
protection behavior?
36. What are the most
common methods of male and The use of condoms besides being an
female surgical sterilization? efficient contraceptive method also
helps the prevention of diseases caused
by sexually transmitted agents (STDs),
Vasectomy is the most common method
like syphilis, gonorrhea, HPV (human
of surgical sterilization in men. In
papilloma virus that may lead to genital
vasectomy the vas deferens inside the
cancers) infestation, HIV infection, etc.
scrotum are sectioned and closed at a
section which will forbid the sperm cells
to follow to the ejaculatory duct but still
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39. What is the normal Copper is then gradually released (IUD
duration of the menstrual may last 5 to 10 years) and since it has
a spermicidal action sperm cells are
cycle? How does the calendar destroyed before fecundation. Besides
contraceptive method work? this mechanism the movement of the
IUD inside the uterus causes slight
The normal duration of the menstrual endometrial inflammation that helps to
cycle is 28 days but it can vary among prevent nidation.
different women or in different cycles of
the same woman.
In the calendar contraceptive method 42. Generally how does a male

the date n-14 (n minus 14) is taken animal realize that the female
considering n the number of days of the
is receptive to copulation?
normal menstrual cycle of the woman
(generally n=28). The safety margin +3
or –3 refers to the days around n-14 In most vertebrate species with internal
that intercourse should be avoided to fecundation the females have
prevent pregnancy. (This method is not reproductive cycles with fertile periods.
exempt from failures. A doctor must During this period the female secretes
always be consulted before relying on pheromones (odoriferous substances
any contraceptive method.) that attract the male of the species)
from the skin and mucosae. The
presence of the male individual and his
pheromones also stimulates the release
40. How is the ovulation date of pheromones by the female. (Many
animals also use pheromones for
estimated with the control of territorial demarcation and for signal
the woman's body transmission between individuals about
temperature? the location of dangers and food.)
One method to estimate the exact

ovulation day is daily control of the
body temperature taken always under 43. What is parthenogenesis?
same conditions. At the ovulation day
the body temperature often increases Parthenogenesis is the reproduction or
about 0.5 degrees centigrade. formation of a new individual from the
egg cell but without fecundation by the
male gamete. According to the species,
individuals born by parthenogenesis
41. What is the contraceptive may be male or female, or of any sex.
mechanism of the IUD?
In bees the drone (the single male bee)
The IUD (intrauterine device) is a piece is haploid and born by parthenogenesis
of plastic coated with copper that is while the females (queen and workers)
inserted within the uterus by a doctor. are diploid.
299
300
Embryology
301
302
The animal pole of a telolecithal egg is
Embryonic the portion of the egg with little vitellus,
Development it is opposite to the vegetal pole which
is the region where the yolk is
concentrated.
1. What is the cell division

process directly related to the 4. What are the four initial
embryonic growth? stages of the embryonic
development?
The embryonic growth depends directly
on mitosis. Through this type of cell The four initial stages of the embryonic
division the zygote divides itself giving development are the morula stage, the
birth to a series of cells that by mitosis blastula stage, the gastrula stage and
also compose differentiated tissues and the neurula stage.
organs until the formation of a complete
individual.
5. What is the cell division

during the first stage of the
embryonic development
vitellus in the vertebrate egg?
called? How is this stage
How are these eggs classified
characterized?
according to the amount of
vitellus within them? The cell division in the first stage of the
embryonic developments is called
Vitellus (yolk) is the nutritive material cleavage, or segmentation. In this stage
that accumulates in the cytoplasm of several mitoses occur from the zygote
the egg (zygote) with the function of forming the new embryo.
nourishing the embryo. According to the
amount of vitellus in them, the
vertebrate eggs are classified as
oligolecithal (little yolk), centrolecithal, 6. What are the cells produced
or heterolecithal (more yolk diffusely in the first stage of the
distributed) and telolecithal (more yolk
concentrated in one end of the egg).
embryonic development
called?
The cells that result from the cleavage

3. What are the animal pole (the first stage of the embryonic
and the vegetal pole of the development) are called blastomeres. In
this stage the embryo is called morula
vertebrate egg?
(similar to a “morus”, mulberry).
303
7. After the morula stage what 10. What are the archenteron
is the next stage? What is the and the blastopore? What is
morphological feature that the stage of the embryonic
defines this stage? development in which these
structures are formed? What
After passing the morula stage in which are the destinations of the
the embryo is a compact mass of cells, archenteron and of the
the next stage is the blastula stage. In
blastopore?
the blastula stage the compactness is
lost and an internal cavity filled with
fluid appears inside, the blastocele. Archenteron is the tube formed during
gastrulation by means of invagination of
the blastula wall inside the blatocele. It
is the origin of the gastrointestinal tract.
8. After the blastula stage Blastopore is the opening of the
archenteron to the exterior. The
what is the following stage of
blastopore gives birth to one of the
the embryonic development? extremities of the digestive tube: the
What is the passage from mouth in protostome beings, or the
blastula to the next stage anus in deuterostome beings.
called?
The blastula turns into gastrula in a

process known as gastrulation.
11. How is the mesoderm
(third germ layer) of
triploblastic animals formed?
9. What is gastrulation? How The mesoderm appears from

during gastrulation are the differentiation of endodermal cells that
first two germ layers formed? cover the dorsal region of the
archenteron.
What are these germ layers?
Gastrulation is the process through

which a portion of the blastula wall 12. What are the three types
undergoes invagination inside the
blastocele, forming a tube called
of germ layers that form
archenteron (primitive intestine). The tissues and organs in animals?
cells of the inner side of the tube form
the endoderm (germ layer) and the cells The three germ layers are the
of the outer side form the ectoderm ectoderm, the mesoderm and the
(another germ layer). It is the beginning endoderm.
of the tissue differentiation in embryonic
development.
304
13. How are animals classified in vertebrates. It is formed by
according to the germ layers differentiation of mesodermal cells.
present in their embryonic
development?
16. What is the coelom? To
Cnidarians are diploblastic, i.e., they which structures do coeloms
present only endoderm and ectoderm.
give birth? Are all animals
With the exception of poriferans, all
remaining animals are triploblastic. coelomate?
Poriferans do not present differentiated
tissue organization and so they do not Coeloms are cavities delimited by
classify regarding germ layers (although mesoderm. Coeloms originate the
sometimes they are mentioned as cavities where the internal organs of the
diploblastic). body are located, like the pericardial
cavity, the peritoneal cavity and the
pleural cavity.
14. How does the embryo turn Besides coelomate animals, there are
from gastrula into neurula? acoelomate animals, like
platyhelminthes, and pseudocoelomate
How is the neural tube animals, like nematodes.
formed? What is the
embryonic origin of the
nervous system in
vertebrates? 17. What is the germ layer
from which the coeloms
The neurula stage is characterized by originate?
the appearance of the neural tube along
the dorsal region of the embryo. The The coeloms are originated from
growth of mesoderm in that region mesoderm.
induces the differentiation of ectodermal
cells just above. These cells then
differentiate forming the neural tube. So
the origin of the nervous system is the 18. What are pleura,
ectoderm (the same germ layer that pericardium and peritoneum?
gives birth to the skin).
Pleura is the membrane that covers the

lungs and the inner wall of the chest;
15. What is the notochord? pericardium is the membrane that
covers the heart; peritoneum is the
How is this structure formed? membrane that covers most organs of
the gastrointestinal tract and part of the
The notochord is a rodlike structure that abdominal cavity. All these membranes
forms the supporting axis of the embryo delimit coeloms (internal cavities).
and gives birth to the vertebral column
305
19. After the neurula stage 22. From which germ layer do
and from its ventral portion to the epidermis and the nervous
the dorsal how can the system originate? What are
morphology of the embryo be other organs and tissues made
described? from that germ layer?
In a schematic longitudinal section of Epidermis and nervous system have the

the embryo after the neurula stage, the same embryonic origin: the ectoderm.
outermost layer of cells is the ectoderm. The epidermal appendages (like nails,
In the ventral region comes the hair, sweat glands and sebaceous
archenteron tube formed of endodermal glands), the mammary glands, the
cells. In both sides of the embryo adenohypophysis, the cornea, the
coeloms delimited by mesoderm are crystalline lens and the retina are also
present. In the central region above the derived from ectoderm.
archenteron and in the middle of the
coeloms there is the notochord. In the
dorsal region just above the notochord
lies the neural tube. 23. From which germ layer do
blood cells originate? What
are other organs and tissues
20. What are somites? made from that germ layer?
Blood cells have a mesodermal

Somites are differentiated portions of
embryonic origin. Other organs made
mesodermal tissue longitudinally
from mesoderm are: covering serous
distributed along the embryo. The
membranes like the pericardium, the
somites originate the muscle tissue and
peritoneum and the pleura, muscles,
portions of the connective tissues.
cartilages, dermis, adipose tissue,
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra,
gonads, blood and lymph vessels,
bones.
21. What are histogenesis and
organogenesis?
Histogenesis is the process of tissue 24. From which germ layer do

formation in the embryonic the liver and the pancreas
development. Organogenesis is the
originate? What are other
process of organ formation. Before
histogenesis and organogenesis the organs and tissues made from
primitive embryonic structures have that germ layer?
been already formed: germ layers,
neural tube, notochord, coeloms, The liver and the pancreas are
somites. originated from the endoderm. Also
from endodermal origin are the epithelia
of the airway, the epithelia of the
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bladder, of the urethra and of the GI
tube (except of the mouth and anus),
the alveolar cells of the lungs and the
thyroid and parathyroid glands.
25. What are twins?

Genetically what are the two
types of twins that can be
generated?
Twins are simultaneously generated

(within the mother’s uterus) offspring.
Twins classify according to zygosity as
monozygotic or as dizygotic twins.
Monozygotic twins, also known as

identical twins, are those originated
from one single fertilized ovum
(therefore from one single zygote);
monozygotic twins are genetically
identical, i.e., they have identical
genotypes and are necessarily of the
same sex. Dizygotic twins, also known
as fraternal twins, are those generated
from two different ova fecundated by
two different sperm cells; so they are
not genetically identical and they are
not necessarily of the same sex.
26. What is polyembryony?
Polyembryony is the phenomenon in

which a single embryo in its initial
embryonic stage divides itself forming
many new individuals of the same sex
and genetically identical. This is the
way, for example, in which reproduction
takes place in armadillos of the genus
Dasypus. Polyembryony is an example
of natural “cloning”.
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In placental mammals besides all these
Extraembryonic membranes the placenta is present too.
Membranes
4. How is the yolk sac formed?
What is the function of the
1. What are extraembryonic
yolk sac?
membranes?
The yolk sac is formed from the
Extraembryonic membranes are covering of the vitellus by some cells
membranous structures that appear in originated from the primitive gut.
parallel with the embryo and play
important roles in the embryonic The yolk sac stores vitellus, the main
development. They form from the nourishment source of non-placental
embryo but do not become part of the embryos.
individual organism after its birth.
5. Which is the
2. What are the
extraembryonic membrane
extraembryonic membranes
whose function is to store
present in vertebrates?
nitrogen wastes of the
embryo? Is this function
The extraembryonic membranes that
may be present in vertebrates are the present in placental
yolk sac, the amnion, the chorion, the mammalian embryos?
allantois and the placenta.
The allantois is the extraembryonic
membrane whose function is to store
the excreted matter of the embryo.
3. Are the extraembryonic
membranes the same in all In placental mammals the allantois is
vertebrates? present but it does not exert that
function since the embryonic wastes are
collected by the mother’s body through
The presence of each extraembryonic the placenta.
membrane varies according to the
vertebrate class.
In fishes and amphibians only the yolk

sac is present. In reptiles and birds
besides the yolk sac there are also the
amnion, the chorion and the allantois.
308
6. Why can the allantois be 9. What is the chorioallantois
considered an adaptation to membrane present in the
terrestrial life? embryonic development of
reptiles and birds? How does
The allantois is an adaptation to dry this membrane participate in
land because in embryos of oviparous the energetic metabolism of
terrestrial beings, like reptiles and birds,
the embryo?
the metabolic residuals cannot be
immediately excreted to the aquatic
surrounds (as fishes and amphibian The chorioallantois membrane is formed
larvae do). It was necessary then for by juxtaposition of some regions of the
the appearance of a structure capable of chorion and the allantois. Since it is
storing the embryonic excretes until porous, the chorioallantois membrane
hatching. allows the passage of gases between
the embryo and the exterior thus
making aerobic cellular respiration
possible.
between amnion and chorion?
10. In which type of animals
Amnion is the membrane that covers
does the placenta exist? What
the embryo. Chorion is the membrane
that covers the amnion, the yolk sac is its main function?
and the allantois. The space delimited
by the chorion and the amnion is called True placenta is present in placental
amniotic cavity and it is filled with mammals.
aminiotic fluid. The amniotic cavity has
the functions of preventing desiccation The placenta is formed from the chorion
of the embryo and of protecting it of the embryo and from the mother’s
against mechanical shocks. endometrium. Its main function is to
allow the exchange of substances
between the fetus and the mother’s
body.
8. Why can the amnion also be
considered an adaptation to
terrestrial life?
substances transferred from
The amnion is also an adaptation to dry
land since one of its functions is to the mother to the fetus
prevent desiccation of the embryo. through the placenta? And
from the fetus to the mother?
From the mother to the fetus the main

transferred substances through the
placenta are water, oxygen, nutrients
309
and antibodies. From the fetus to the 14. What is the function of the
mother, metabolic wastes, including umbilical cord?
urea (nitrogen waste), and carbon
dioxide.
The umbilical cord is a set of blood
vessels that connects the fetus with the
placenta. In the fetus one extremity of
the cord inserts into the center of the
12. Is there a exchange of
abdominal wall (the later scar of this
cells between the mother and insertion is the umbilicus or navel).
the fetus through the
placenta? The function of the umbilical cord is to
allow the transport of substances,
Under normal conditions, there is no nutrients, gases and residuals, between
passage of cells across the placenta the fetus and the mother’s body.
during gestation. The placenta has a
smooth mucosa separating the richly
vascularized region in contact with the
mother’s endometrium from the
umbilical cord in contact with the fetal
blood. This barrier is known as placental
barrier. Although permeable to some
substances (selective permeability) the
placental barrier forbids the passage of
cells.
13. What are the endocrine

functions of the placenta?
The placenta has endocrine function

since it secretes the hormones
progesterone and estrogen that
maintain the endometrium (internal
covering of the uterus) and prevent
menses during pregnancy. The placenta
also secretes other important hormones
for pregnancy regulation.
310
Botany
311
312
4. What are the subkingdoms
Plant Classification into which the plant kingdom
is divided?
1. What are the main cellular The kingdom Plantae is divided into two
big subkingdoms: the bryophytes and
features of the beings of the
the tracheophytes (pteridophytes,
plant kingdom? gymnosperms and angiosperms). The
criterion for the division is the presence
The typical plant cells are eukaryotic or not of conductive (vascular) tissue.
(have nucleus), autotrophic (produce
their own food) and photosynthetic (use
light to make food). Plant cells also
have chloroplasts and a cell wall (a 5. What is the difference
structure exterior to the plasma between bryophytes and
membrane) made of cellulose.
tracheophytes?
Bryophytes are nonvascular plants

2. How different are animal (mosses, liverworts, hornworts), i.e.,
they do not have a conductive system
cells from plant cells?
for transport of sugar, water and
nutrients. Tracheophyte plants are
While plant cells are eukaryotic, vascular plants, they have conductive
autotrophic, photosynthetic and have structures.
chloroplasts and cell wall, the animal
cells are eukaryotic, heterotroph and do
not present chloroplasts nor cell wall.
6. What are the four main
groups into which the study of
3. Do plants have tissue the plants is divided?
organization and specialized
In Botany the plant kingdom is divided
organs?
into bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Plants have specialized organs (like
reproductive organs, roots, limbs,
leaves) and differentiated tissues
(vascular tissue in tracheophytes, 7. What is the difference
support tissue, parenchyma, etc.)
between cryptogamic and
phanerogamic plants?
Cryptogamic (hidden sex organs) plants

are those that do not present flowers or
313
seeds. They comprise the bryophytes 10. What respectively are
and the pteridophytes. zygotic meiosis, gametic
meiosis and sporic meiosis?
Phanerogamic plants are those having
seeds. They comprise the gymnosperms
and the angiosperms. Zygotic meiosis is the one that occurs in
the haplontic haplobiontic life cycle.
Gametes from adult haploid individuals
unite forming the diploid zygote. The
8. What are the two divisions zygote undergoes meiosis and
generates four haploid cells that by
of the angiosperms?
mitosis develop into adult individuals.
Therefore in the zygotic meiosis the cell
The angiosperms are divided into that undergoes meiosis is the zygote
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. and the gametes are formed by mitosis.
(These categories are explained later in
this text.) Gametic meiosis is that in which meiosis
produces gametes, i.e., haploid cells
that each of which can unite with
another gamete forming the zygote. It
9. What are the three basic occurs in the diplontic haplobiontic life
sexual life cycles studied in cycle (e.g., in humans) in which the
Biology? Which of them individual is diploid and meiosis forms
corresponds to metagenesis? gametes.
Which of them is the human
Sporic meiosis happens in metagenesis
life cycle? (alternation of generations, or
diplobiontic life cycle). In this life cycle
Sexual reproduction may take place cells from the diploid individual (called
through three different types of life sporophyte) undergo meiosis producing
cycles: the haplontic (the being is haploid spores that do not unite with
haploid) haplobiontic (a single type of others but instead develop by mitosis
being) cycle; the diplontic (the being is into haploid individuals (called
haploid) haplobiontic (a single type of gametophytes). In this life cycle the
being) cycle; and the diplobiontic cycle gametes are made by mitosis from cells
(two types of beings, one haploid and of the gametophyte.
the other diploid). The diblobiontic cycle
is known as alternation of generations,
or metagenesis. In humans the cycle is
diplontic haplobiotic (a single diploid 11. Are gametes always made
being). by meiosis?
In the plant life cycle (diplobiontic life

cycle) and in the haplontic haplobiontic
life cycle gametes are made by mitosis
and not by meiosis. Obviously in some
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stage of these sexual life cycles meiosis 14. Do plants present only
must occur. sexual reproduction?
There are asexual forms of reproduction

in plants. Some naturally detached
12. Why is the plant life cycle
pieces of root, limbs or leaves develop
known as alternation of into another complete individual.
generations? Artificial asexual reproduction of plants
can be obtained by means of grafting or
The plant life cycle is known as cutting.
alternation of generations because in
this cycle there are two different forms
of living beings that alternate each
other, one haploid and the other diploid.
Alternation of generations is also called
the diplobiontic cycle, or metagenesis,
and it does not occur only in plants,
other living beings, like cnidarians,
present the cycle.
13. For each of the three types

of life cycles what is the
respective ploidy of the
individual that represents the
adult or lasting form?
In the haplontic haplobiontic life cycle

the single and lasting form is haploid. In
the diplontic haplobiontic life cycle it is
diploid. In the diplobiontic life cycle the
lasting individual that alternates with
the intermediate form may be the
haploid gametophyte (as in bryophytes)
or the diploid sporophyte (as in
pteridophytes).
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no conductive vessels it is not viable to
Bryophytes have cells too far from each other (the
emergence of the conductive tissues in
tracheophytes allowed their increase in
size).
characteristics of the
bryophytes?
4. What is the life cycle type
of bryophytes?
Bryophytes are nonvascular plants, i.e.,
they do not have conductive tissues and
they perform transport of water and As in all plants the life cycle of
nutrients by diffusion; they are bryophytes is diplobiontic (alternation of
cryptogamic, i.e., they do not present generations). In bryophytes the lasting
flowers or seeds; they are small in size; form is the haploid one.
they present water-dependant
fecundation; in their life cycle the
lasting form is haploid (the
gametophyte) and the sporophyte 5. In general where is the
depends on the gametophyte to survive. sporophyte positioned in
relation to the gametophyte in
bryophytes? How does the
sporophyte obtain nutrients?
bryophyte groups?
The bryophyte sporophyte in general is
a tiny long stem that grows on the top
The main bryophyte groups are the of the gametophyte. The sporophyte
mosses, the liverworts and the depends totally upon the gametophyte
hornworts. to obtain nutrients.
3. How is the transport of 6. Why can the bryophytes be

substances done across the considered the “amphibians of
bryophyte tissues? How is this the plant world”?
feature related to the general
size of these plants? Like adult amphibians, the bryophytes
live in the terrestrial environment but
In bryophytes there are no water- they depend on water to reproduce. For
conducting or nutrient-conducting this reason the nickname is justified.
structures and the transport of these
substances is done by cell to cell
diffusion. The small size of bryophytes
relates to this feature since if there are
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3. Why are pteridophytes
Pteridophytes better adapted to dry land
than bryophytes? Were
pteridophytes always less
1. What are the main abundant than phanerogamic
representatives of the plants?
pteridophytes? Is this plant
group cryptogamic or Although bryophytes and pteridophytes
have water-dependant gametes for
phanerogamic?
fecundation the emergence of
conductive vessels in this last group
The better known pteridophytes are the facilitated life in a terrestrial
ferns and the maidenhairs, from the environment. The conductive vessels of
filicinae (filicopsida) group, and the the pteridophytes collect water from the
selaginellas, mosslike plants from the moist soil and distribute it to the cells.
lycopodineae group (lycopsida). Bryophytes do not have this option and
Pteridophytes are cryptogamic plants, they depend entirely on the water that
i.e., they are flowerless and seedless. reaches the aerial part of the plant and
so they need to live in humid or rainy
places.
2. How different are Before the ascension of the

pteridophytes from phanerogamic plants (plants that
bryophytes regarding present seeds) the pteridophytes were
substance transport? the plants that predominated in the
terrestrial environment. The large
pteridophyte forests of the
Pteridophytes are tracheophyte Carboniferous period (named after the
(vascular) plants, i.e., they have tissues pteridophytes) are responsible for the
specialized in conduction of water and formation of coal deposits, mainly in
nutrients. Bryophytes are nonvascular Europe, Asia and North America; the
plants. In pteridophytes therefore the Carboniferous period occurred between
substance transport is done through 290 and 360 million years ago and is
vessels and in bryophytes that transport part of the Paleozoic era.
occurs by diffusion.
4. What is the evolutionary

importance of pteridophytes?
As the first tracheophytes,

pteridophytes were also the first plants
to extensively colonize the terrestrial
environment forming forests. They also
317
constituted an important source of food 8. What is the structure of the
for terrestrial animals. By presenting adult fern within which cells
conductive vessels they could be larger,
undergoing meiosis can be
a feature inherited from them by
phanerogamic plants. found?
In these plants meiosis takes place

within structures called sorus (plural,
5. What are the main parts of sori), small dustlike brown dots lining
ferns? the underside of fern leaves. The sori
contain sporangia where reproductive
cells undergo meiosis and where spores
Ferns are constituted by small roots that
are produced.
come downwards from the rhizome
(stem, often horizontalized). The fronds
also arise from the rhizome. On the
back side of each leaf of the plant there
9. What is the prothallus of
are small dustlike dots called sori
(singular, “sorus”, also known as pteridophytes?
“seeds”).
Prothallus is the pteridophyte
gametophyte (the haploid individual
that forms gametes). The gametophyte
6. What is the type of life develops by mitosis from a spore.
cycle present in
pteridophytes?
10. How are gametes formed
Like all plants pteridophytes present
diplobiontic (alternation of generations,
in the pteridophyte life cycle,
or metagenesis) life cycle. by mitosis or meiosis? What is
the type of meiosis that occurs
in pteridophytes?
7. Why are pteridophytes In pteridophytes gametes are made by

more common in humid mitosis from special cells of the
places? gametophyte. As in all plants, in
pteridophytes, meiosis is sporic, i.e.,
Pteridophytes are more common in cells of the sporophyte undergo meiosis
humid places because they depend on and generate spores that then by
water for their gametes to fecundate mitosis develop into the gametophyte.
one another. In humid environments
their reproduction is more intense and
they proliferate.
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11. What is the lasting form in
pteridophytes, the
gametophyte or the
sporophyte? How can it be
compared to bryophytes?
The lasting form in pteridophytes is the

diploid (2n) sporophyte (the fern itself,
for example). In bryophytes the lasting
form is the gametophyte (n).
12. What is xaxim?
Most pteridophytes have subterraneous

stems parallel to the substrate called
rhizomes. Xaxim is a type of
pteridophyte with an aerial stem
generally perpendicular to the soil and
from which hundreds of roots arise to
absorb water from the environment.
The xaxim stem is used to make flower
pots and other plant supports for
gardening (also popularly known as
xaxim).
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variety of ecological niches and for the
Gymnosperms diversity of plant species.
Seeds in addition protect the plant

embryo against external aggressions
1. What are the main divisions and they also provide germination under
and representing species of more adequate conditions (inside the
seed). These features contribute to the
the gymnosperms?
evolutionary success of the
phanerogam.
This group of plants can be divided into
conifers (pine, sequoia, cypress), that
have flowers known as strobiles
(cones), cycads (very ancient 4. In which areas of the globe
gymnosperms, like the cycads used in
is gymnosperm abundance
garden architecture, that also form
strobiles), gnetaceae (gnetum) and noteworthy?
ginkgos (the known species is Ginkgo
biloba). These plants are the typical vegetation
of cold regions like the taiga, or boreal
forest, of the northern hemisphere, or
the araucaria forests of the southern
2. How different are hemisphere.
gymnosperms from
bryophytes and
pteridophytes? 5. What is the life cycle of the
gymnosperms?
Gymnosperms are not cryptogamic as
bryophytes and pteridophytes are. They
As all plants they present a diplobiontic
are phanerogamic and so they form
life cycle, i.e., alternation of generations
flowers and seeds.
with diploid and haploid stages. The
lasting (final) stage is the diploid one.
3. What is the evolutionary
importance of the emergence
of seeds in the plant kingdom? 6. What is pollen?
The evolutionary importance of the seed Pollen grains are the male
is related to the plant capability of gametophytes of the phanerogamic
distant colonization and to the (flowering) plants. Therefore within the
protection of the embryo. Embryo- pollen grains the male gametes of these
containing seeds can be carried by plants are formed by mitosis.
water, wind and animals and germinate
in different environments. This fact
contributes to the exploration of a
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7. How are the male gametes gametophyte that contains the
of gymnosperms formed? oospheres (female gametes) of the
plant. The female gametophyte is
What is the relationship located within the megasporangium that
between the pollen grains and has a small opening, the micropyle,
the concept of alternation of through which the pollen tube enters.
generations?
The process is related to the diplobiontic
In the male strobiles (cones) there are life cycle (alternation of generations)
microsporophylls (fertile leaves of the since the functional megaspore
strobile) that contain microsporangia. generates the haploid stage of the plant
Within the microsporagium spore (the female gametophyte).
mother cells undergo meiosis and
generate haploid microspores. The
microspore wall develops into winglike
projections (to facilitate its aerial 9. How do fecundation and
propagation) and mitosis occurs zygote formation occur in
producing two cells, the generative cell these plants? Do these
and the tube cell. The final structure processes depend on water?
containing these elements is the pollen
grain.
The microsporangia in the male strobile
rupture at the right period of the year
The pollen grain relates to the
releasing thousands of pollen grains.
alternation of generations since it is the
Since their pollen grains are “winged”
male gametophyte (the haploid stage of
they can be transported by the wind
the life cycle).
over distances. When the pollen grains
fall into the female strobiles they pass
the micropyle and enter the pollen
chamber. This process is called
8. How are the female pollination.
gametes of gymnosperms
formed? What is the Within the pollen chamber the
relationship between this generative cell nucleus divides forming
process and the concept of two gametic nuclei and the tube cell
elongates forming the pollen tube. The
alternation of generations?
pollen tube penetrates the female
gametophyte and the gametic nuclei
In the female strobiles (cones) there are (also known as sperm nuclei) pass
megasporophylls (fertile leaves of the through the tube; one of them unites
strobile) that contain megasporangia. In with an oosphere (the female gamete)
the megasporangium the spore mother and forms the zygote (2n). Generally
cell undergoes meiosis generating four fecundation occurs one year after
haploid cells of which three regress and pollination and during this time interval
one gives birth to the functional the maturation of the male and of the
megaspore. The functional megaspore female gametes takes place.
by several mitosis forms the female
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The fecundation in these plants is
independent from water. The
gametophytes however are entirely
dependent on the sporophyte (the adult
plant) for nutrition and hydration.
10. How are the gymnosperm

seeds formed? What are the
ploidies of the structures that
compose the seeds?
Their seeds are formed from

differentiation of the megasporangia in
the female strobiles (cones). After an
oosphere is fecundated the female
gametophyte originates the haploid (n)
primary endosperm (nutritive tissue
that covers the embryo) and the
covering of the megasporangium turns
into the diploid (2n) seed shell.
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scattered in monocots, concentrically
Angiosperms ringed in dicots.
Grasses, banana tree, sugar cane,
orchids are examples of monocots.
Sunflowers, oaks and waterlilies are
1. What are angiosperms, the examples of dicots.
flowering plants? What is the
main feature that
distinguishes them from the 4. What are the androecium
gymnosperms? and the gynoecium? What are
the other structures of
Flowering plants have flowers and seeds
flowers?
(phanerogamic plants). They differ from
gymnosperms by having their seeds
within fruits. Androecium is the set of male
reproductive structures of flowers. It
comprehends the stamens formed of
filament and anther; one flower has one
2. What are the two main androecium that may have one or
several stamens. Gynoecium is the set
groups into which flowering
of female reproductive structures of
plants are divided? flowers. It generally is composed of a
single pistil that includes the stigma, the
Angiosperm plants are divided into style and the ovary. The androecium
monocotyledonous (monocots) and usually surrounds the central
dicotyledonous (dicots). gynoecium.
Besides the androecium and the

gynoecium typical flowers are also made
3. What are the main of peduncle, sepals and petals.
morphological differences
between monocot plants and
dicot plants?
5. What is pollination? What
are the main forms of
The main differentiation criteria between
monocots and dicots are: number of pollination?
cotyledons (seed leaf) in seeds, one in
monocots and two in dicots; pattern of The process in which pollen grains (the
leaf veins, parallel in monocots, male gametophytes of phanerogamic
reticulated in dicots; multiplicity of petal plants) reach the female gametophyte is
number, multiples of three in monocots, called pollination.
multiples of four or five in dicots;
position of vascular bundles in the stem, The main forms of pollination are:
anemophily, in which pollen is carried
by wind. Hydrophily, pollination helped
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by water; entomophily, pollen carried by gametes) that migrate through the
insects; ornitophily, pollination by birds; pollen tube.
chiropterophily, pollen dissemination by
bats.
Characteristics of the flowers of each 7. How many cellular nuclei

plant species relate to the type of does the pollen tube of
pollination used by the plant. Colored angiosperms have? What is
flowers are specialized in bird and insect
attraction; nocturnal flowers generally the ploidy of each of these
are white and perfumed, many nuclei?
specialized in pollination by bats; the
nectar is also a specialization to attract The pollen tube that is the mature male
pollinator animals; flowers that produce gametophyte of angiosperms has three
an exaggerated amount of pollen often cellular nuclei: two sperm nuclei and
use the wind as pollinator; the position one tube cell nucleus.
of anthers more external or internal
next to the nectar is a way to facilitate All those nuclei are part of the male
the pollen dissemination respectively by gametophyte of the plant and thus each
the wind or by animals. of them is haploid (n).
6. How are the male 8. How is the female

gametophytes and the male gametophyte formed in
gametes formed in angiosperms?
angiosperms?
In the flower ovary there are
In the anthers of each stamen there are megasporangia enclosed by a tegument
pollen sacs. Within the pollen sacs there having a small opening, the micropyle.
are microspore mother cells, or Within the megasporangium there is a
microsporocytes. These cells undergo megasporocyte, or megaspore mother
meiosis forming microspores. Each cell, that undergoes meiosis forming
microspore by mitosis forms a pollen four megaspores of which three regress
grain containing one generative cell and and only one is functional. The
one tube cell. The pollen grain is the functional megaspore undergoes (three)
male gametophyte. mitosis generating eight cells that as a
whole form the embryonic sac.
When pollination occurs and the pollen
grain makes contact with the stigma
(the apex of the pistil) the tube cell
elongates its cytoplasm forming the
pollen tube that grows towards the
ovary. The generative cell divides
forming two sperm nuclei (male
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9. What is the embryonic sac? 11. What is the difference
Which are the cells that form between self pollination and
the embryonic sac? What are cross pollination? Which of
their ploidies? these two modes of
pollination contributes more
The embryonic sac is the female to the plant diversity?
gametophyte of angiosperms.
Self pollination occurs when pollen
The embryonic sac is composed of three grains from a flowering plant fall into
cells that remain next to the micropyle, the pistils of the same plant and thus
two lateral synergids and the central gametes from the same individual unite
oosphere (egg); one binucleated cell, to form a zygote. Cross pollination
the polar nuclei, is placed in the central occurs when pollinators carry pollen
region; three antipodal cells stay in the grains from a plant to reach other
opposite side to the micropyle. individual plants of the same species
thus gametes of different individuals
Since all these cells come by mitosis form the zygote.
from the functional megaspore they are
haploid (n). Since it promotes formation of zygotes
containing genes from different
individuals (new gene combinations)
cross pollination contributes more to
10. After pollination how does biological diversity.
fecundation occur in
angiosperms? In these plants
is fecundation dependent on
water? 12. What is dichogamy?
After pollination one of the sperm nuclei Dichogamy is the phenomenon of the
from the pollen tube unites with the maturation of female reproductive
oosphere of the embryonic sac forming structures of the plant in a different
the diploid (2n) zygote. The other period to the maturation of the male
sperm nucleus fuses with the polar reproductive structures. Dichogamy
nuclei of the embryonic sac originating a prevents self pollination and makes
triploid (3n) cell that by mitosis will turn cross pollination almost obligatory so
into the secondary endosperm of the assisting in an evolutionary strategy to
seed. The synergids and the antipodal promote genetic recombination.
cells degenerate after the fecundation
process.
Fecundation in these plants is 13. What are the typical

independent from water. structures of the seed? What
is endosperm?
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A typical seed is composed of the 17. From which floral
embryo, endosperm and shell. Within structure do fruits come?
seeds of angiosperms there are one or
two cotyledons (seed leaf, one in
monocots, two in dicots). Fruits are modified ovaries of the
flowers.
The endosperm is the tissue within the
seed that has the function of nourishing
the embryo.
18. How are fruits formed?
14. How different are the
endosperm of gymnosperms The fecundation in angiosperms triggers
the release of hormones that act upon
and the endosperm of the ovaries. The ovary wall then
angiosperms? develops into a fruit that contains the
seeds.
In gymnosperms the endosperm is
haploid (n), it is called primary
endosperm. In angiosperm the
endosperm is triploid (3n), it is called 19. Are fruits always the flesh
secondary endosperm. part of the “fruits”? Is the
edible part of the onion a
fruit?
15. What are cotyledons?
In some so-called fruits the actual fruit
Cotyledons, or seed leaves, are is not the flesh part. For example, the
flesh part of the strawberry is not the
structures formed by the embryo of
angiosperms to absorb nutrients from fruit. The fruits are the small hard dots
on the surface of the strawberry.
the endosperm and to store and
transfer these nutrients to the embryo. Another example: the flesh part of the
cashew is not the fruit. The fruit is the
(Cotyledons are auxiliary embryonic
structures). nut.
Seeds of monocots have a single The edible part of the onion is the stem
of the plant and not the fruit.
cotyledon. Seeds of dicots have two
cotyledons.
20. Why are there plants

16. What are the main having single-seeded fruits
functions of fruits? and plants having fruits with
more than one seed?
The main functions of fruits are the
protection and spreading of seeds. Plants that produce single-seeded fruits,
for example, mango and avocado, often
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have ovaries with only one egg inside. A tendency of the gametophyte
Fruits with more than one seed are evolution in plants has been towards the
originated from plants whose ovaries formation of gametes that are
have more than one egg. independent from water. In bryophytes
and in pteridophytes the fecundation is
totally dependent on water. In
phanerogamic plants such dependency
21. What are infructescences, does not exist.
pseudofruits and
Another tendency is the reduction in the
parthenocarpic fruits?
size and duration of the gametophyte.
In bryophytes the gametophyte is
Infructescences are aggregated fruits indeed the lasting stage. In
formed from inflorescences, aggregated pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
flowers. Grape clusters are examples of angiosperms it became the temporary
infructescences. Pseudofruits are “fruits” stage and its relative size was
not made in the ovaries and in general successively reduced.
their true fruits lack development and
are found within the flesh, like in apples A third evolutionary trend relates to the
and pears. Parthenocarpic fruits are interdependency between gametophytes
those made without fecundation, by and sporophytes. In bryophytes the
means of hormonal stimuli, like sporophyte is entirely dependent on the
bananas. gametophyte to survive. In the
remaining plants the sporophyte is the
independent stage and the once
autotrophic gametophyte in bryophytes
22. What is the evolutionary and pteridophytes became dependent
importance of the fruits for upon the sporophyte in the
the angiosperms? phanerogamic plants.
The fruits contain seeds and they can

detach from the plant falling on the
ground or can serve as food for animals.
Therefore with the emergence of fruits
the seeds of angiosperms could be
transported across long distances
contributing to the propagation of the
species.
23. What are the trends of the

gametophyte in the evolution
of plants?
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primary growth (lengthening) of the
Plant Tissues plant.
Secondary meristems are those that

make the plant grow in thickness
1. How are the plant tissues (secondary growth) and they are
classified according to their formed by tissues that thicken the
stem: cambium and phellogen (cork
functions?
cambium).
Plant tissues are divided into growth

(embryonic) tissues, supporting, filling
and photosynthetic tissues (ground 3. What is the difference
tissues), conductive (vascular) tissues
between the lateral and the
and covering (dermal) tissues.
apical buds of the plants?
Embryonic tissues: primary meristems;
secondary meristems. Supporting Lateral buds are portions of
tissues: collenchyma; sclerenchyma. meristematic tissue located in the base
Filling and photosynthetic tissues: of the shoots. Apical buds are portions
photosynthetic parenchyma; storage of meristematic tissue situated in the tip
parenchyma. Conductive tissues: of the stem and shoots.
xylem; phloem. Covering tissues:
epidermis; periderm.
4. What are apical meristems?

Which type of plant growth
2. Which are the growth does this meristem promote?
tissues of plants? How do they
classify and where can they be Apical meristems are those primary
found? meristems found in the apex of the
stem and in the tips of shoots and roots.
The growth tissues of the plants are the
meristems. Meristems are the tissues The apical meristems are responsible for
that produce the plant growth giving the primary growth of the plants.
birth to all other tissues; they are
formed of undifferentiated cells having
intense cell division rate. Meristems
classify as primary meristems and as 5. What are lateral
secondary meristems. meristems? Where can they
be found and which type of
Primary meristems are found in the plant growth do they
apex of the stem, in the lateral buds of
the stem, in the basis and tips of the
promote?
shoots and within the root cap. Primary
meristems are responsible for the
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Lateral, or secondary, meristems, are The plant supporting tissues are the
the cambium and the phellogen (also collenchyma and the sclerenchyma.
known as cork cambium), tissues from
the stem, branches and roots that by The collenchyma is made of living and
mitosis generate other tissues. These elongated cells that accumulate
tissues participate in the secondary cellulose and pectin in some regions of
growth of plant, i.e., in the thickening of the cell wall making them unequally
the stem, branches and roots. thick and thus providing flexibility.
The sclerenchyma is made mostly of

dead cells killed by lignin deposition
6. What are the main features (lignin is an impermeable biopolymer)
of the meristematic cells? Why forming elongated, rigid and
impermeable fibers. The sclerenchyma
do these cells need to have a
is a plant tissue widely used in the
high mitotic rate? textile industry.
Meristematic cells have very thin cell

walls, small vacuoles, a well-centralized
nucleus and they are constantly 9. Which is the plant tissue
undergoing mitosis. Meristematic cells responsible for the filling of
need a high mitotic rate because they
are responsible for the plant growth.
the space between other
tissues?
The plant-filling tissue is generically

7. What is the best called parenchyma. The plant
identification hypothesis for a parenchyma can be divided into
photosynthetic parenchyma, a tissue
plant tissue seen under the
that has cells with many chloroplasts
microscope having most cells and a high photosynthesis rate found
undergoing cell division? mainly in leaves, and storage
parenchyma, specialized in the storage
The best hypothesis is that the tissue is of water (e.g., in cactus), starch or air
a sample of meristematic tissue. (e.g., in aquatic plants).
Meristematic tissues seen under the
microscope have many cells undergoing
mitosis.
10. Where in the leaves is the
photosynthetic tissue often
located?
8. Which are the plant tissues
responsible for the supporting The main photosynthetic tissue is the
of the plant? photosynthetic parenchyma (also known
as chlorenchyma, do not confuse with
collenchyma) often located between the
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superior and the inferior epidermis of lignin (an impermeable biopolymer)
the leaves. remained. The tracheids form tubes that
communicate with neighboring tubes
through pores; the vessel elements do
not present pores but instead they
11. How are water, mineral communicate with the successive vessel
salts and food (sugar) element through perforations in their
extremities.
transported throughout the
plant?
Water, mineral salts and sugar are 14. What are the cell types
transported throughout the plant that form the phloem? What
through conductive vessels formed by
specialized tissues.
are the main features of those
cells?
The main cells that form the phloem are

12. Which are the specialized the sieve elements and the companion
conductive tissues of the cells. The sieve elements form the
vessel walls; they are living enucleated
plants?
cells positioned in series forming the
sieve tubes. Between successive vessel
The vascular tissues of the plants are elements there are communicating
the xylem and the phloem. Xylem is the pores. The companion cells are located
plant tissue that forms the vessels that outside and alongside the sieve tubes
conduct water and mineral salts and they help in the absorption of the
absorbed from the soil to the plant cells. material to be transported.
Phloem is the plant tissue that forms
the vessels that conduct dissolved sugar
from the leaves (where they are
produced by photosynthesis) to other 15. What is the vascular
plant cells.
cambium? What is its
function?
13. What are the cell types Vascular cambium is the secondary
that form the xylem? What are meristematic tissue that in roots and in
the stem forms the vascular tissues
the main features of those
(xylem and phloem) of the plant.
cells? Usually the outer side of the vascular
cambium produces a layer of phloem
The main cells of the xylem are the and the inner (more central) side of the
tracheids and the vessel elements tissue produces a layer of xylem.
(these only in angiosperms). The
tracheids and the vessel elements are
dead cells that have lost their cytoplasm
and only their cell wall impregnated with
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16. What are vascular previous lighter band. Therefore two
bundles? How does the ring bands are made yearly, one lighter
and the other darker. By a direct count
configuration of the vascular of these band pairs one can estimate
bundles within the stem the age of the tree.
differentiate monocots from
dicots?
Vascular bundles are segments of xylem 19. What are the plant tissues
and associated phloem that run that constitute the functional
longitudinally within the stem. In dicots structures of the leaf veins?
the vascular bundles are organized side-
by-side forming concentric rings. In Leaf veins are made of vascular tissues.
monocots the vascular bundles are They are constituted by xylem and
scattered and do not form rings. phloem that respectively conduct water
and mineral nutrients (xylem) and sugar
(phloem).
17. What are the main plant

tissues that form the rings
observed on stem sections of 20. Which are the plant
some trees? tissues specialized in
covering?
The rings observed on a stem cross
section of dicot trees are made of The covering tissues, or dermal tissues,
conductive tissues: xylem and phloem. of the plants are the epidermis (that
covers the leaves and the young stems
and shoots) and the periderm (a tissue
that substitutes the epidermis in stems,
18. How can the age of a tree shoots and roots). The periderm is
be estimated from the made of phelloderm, phellogen and
analysis of the rings present suber (cork).
on a cross section of its stem?
For the growth of the tree it is 21. Which are the plant
necessary to have formation of new
vessels within the stem, a task
tissues that cover the stem
performed by the vascular cambium. and the leaves?
The vascular cambium is more active in
hot seasons (summer and spring) The stem may be covered by epidermis
generating a lighter band made of large (having stomata, cuticle and
calibered vessels. During winter and fall photosynthetic cells) as in monocots or,
the vascular cambium produces the alternatively, the epidermis is
opposite, so small calibered vessels and substituted by the periderm
a darker band appears outside the
331
(phelloderm, phellogen and cork) as in The bark is the mature periderm of the
dicots and gymnosperms. stem, branches and roots. It dies and
breaks when these structures grow and
The leaves are covered by epidermis. thus the peridermal suber formed of
already dead cells ruptures.
22. What is phellogen? What

is its function? 26. What is the leaf cuticle?
Phellogen, also known as cork cambium, The leaf cuticle is a thin waxy layer
is the meristematic plant tissue made of cutin and waxes on the outer
responsible for the formation of the surface of the leaf epidermis. Its
periderm (the covering of the stem, function is to control the cellular
shoots and roots). The inner side of the transpiration.
phellogen layer forms the phelloderm
and its outer side forms the cork
(suber). The suber secretes suberin, an
impermeable substance that 27. Which are the plant
impregnates the tissue. tissues that form the plant
roots?
The roots have a central portion called

23. Which type of plant tissue medulla made of vascular tissue (inner
is cork? xylem and outer phloem). The medulla
is surrounded by the medullary
Cork, the material, for example, used to parenchyma and delimited by pericycle,
cap wine bottles, is extracted from the a meristem that originates the
suber of a special oak called cork oak. secondary roots (ramifications).
Externally to the medulla lies the
24. What are the plant root cortical portion formed of endodermis
hairs? Where can they be (that surrounds the pericycle) and
cortical parenchyma. The covering of
found and what is their
the roots is epidermis (with root hairs)
function? later substituted by suberized (corky)
periderm.
The root hairs are external elongated
projections of the root epidermis. Their
role is to increase the absorption of
water by the root. 28. What is the root cap?
The root cap is a protective structure

located in the tip of the growing root. It
25. Why does bark often die protects the meristematic tissue of the
and break naturally? root forming a cap that surrounds the
tip. The cover is necessary since during
332
the growth of the root the meristem
otherwise would be injured by the
friction with the soil.
29. What are secondary roots?

In origin how secondary roots
differentiate from shoots?
Secondary roots are ramifications of the

primary (main) root. The secondary
roots emerge from the pericycle, inner
tissue of the root. The shoots originate
from the lateral buds of the stem.
Therefore the origin of the secondary
roots is endogenous and the origin of
the shoots is exogenous.
30. Why do roots of many

swamp plants have a special
morphology?
Swamp and marsh plants generally

present supporting roots that ramify
from portions of the stem above the
ground helping the plant to fixate down
the muddy and sandy soil. They may
also have respiratory roots
(pneumatophores), structures that
emerge from buried roots to catch
oxygen.
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3. What is plant transpiration?
Plant Physiology What are the two main types
of plant transpiration process?
Which of them is more
1. Why do plants need to significant in volume?
exchange gases with the
environment? Transpiration is the loss of water from
the plant to the atmosphere in the form
of vapor.
Plants need to do gas exchange because
they create aerobic cellular respiration
Transpiration occurs through the cuticle
(like animals) and they need to get
of the epidermis (cuticular transpiration)
molecular oxygen and to release carbon
or through the ostioles of the stomata
dioxide. Besides aerobic cellular
(stomatal transpiration). The most
respiration plants still need to get
important is stomatal transpiration since
carbon dioxide to make photosynthesis
it is more intense and physiologically
and to release the molecular oxygen
regulated.
that is the product of this reaction.
4. What are stomata? How do

2. What are the main gas
these structures participate in
exchange organs of the
the plant transpiration?
plants? How is the process
accomplished?
Stomata (singular, stoma) are small
specialized passages for water and
In the covering of the leaves and of the gases present in the epidermis of the
primary structure of the stem gas plants. As the plant needs more or less
exchange is made through the cuticle to lose water and heat the stomata
and pores of the epidermis. In the respectively close or open preventing or
covering of the secondary structure of allowing the passage of gases by
the stem of woody plants gas exchange diffusion.
is made through the lenticels of the
periderm (small breaches of the cork).
The gas exchange in plants is
accomplished by simple diffusion. 5. What are the elements that
constitute the stomata?
The stoma is made of a central opening,

the ostiole, or slit, delimited by two
guard cells responsible for its closing or
opening. A substomatal chamber is
located under the ostiole.
334
6. How do plants control the If plants from a moister region were
opening and the closing of the transferred to a drier region probably
their stomata would remain closed for a
stomata? longer time, i.e., the time during which
stomata are open will be reduced to
The opening and the closing of the lower the loss of water by transpiration.
stomata depend upon the necessity of
the plant to lose water and heat through
transpiration (exit of water vapor means
elimination of heat). When the plant has 8. Why do some plants
excessive water the guard cells become
adapted to a dry environment
turgid and the ostiole opens. When little
water is available the guard cells open their stomata only at
become flaccid and the ostiole closes. night?
Water enters and goes out the stomata During the day in dry habitats the guard
by osmosis. cells become flaccid and the stomata
close; concurrently carbon dioxide is
Other factors like light intensity and disallowed to pass to participate in
carbon dioxide concentration in the diurnal photosynthesis. Some plants
leaves influence the opening and the from dry regions solve this problem
closing of the stomata. When luminosity through the method of nocturnal carbon
is high the photosynthesis rate dioxide fixation. At night, when water
increases and the stomata open to loss by transpiration is lower, the
absorb more carbon dioxide from the stomata open, carbon dioxide enters
environment and release heat; when and it is stored within the parenchymal
luminosity is low the stomata tend to tissues. During the day the stored gas is
close. When the carbon dioxide mobilized to be used in photosynthesis.
concentration in the photosynthetic
parenchyma is low the stomata open to
absorb more of the gas and make
photosynthesis possible; when such 9. How has the position of the
concentration is high the stomata tend stomata changed in some
to close.
plants to prevent excessive
water loss by transpiration?
7. Do plants placed under an In some plants that have leaves that

environment drier than the receive too much sunlight the stomata
concentrate in the inferior epidermis, so
habitat where they are used to
their heating is lower and less water is
living have an increase or a lost by stomatal transpiration. In other
reduction in the time during plants of dry environments the stomata
which their stomata remain group in some regions of the leaf; over
open? the surface of these areas the water
concentration of the air is higher
comparing to the environment and the
335
loss of water by transpiration is thus During the day the transpired volume of
reduced. Some plants of dry climates water is higher than the volume
also have stomata within cavities. absorbed by the roots. At night the
situation reverses and the roots absorb
more water than the transpired volume.
10. Is transpiration the only It is observed that the transpired and

way through which leaves lose the absorbed volumes practically equal
in a day.
water?
Plants do not only lose water as vapor,

as by transpiration. The leaves also lose 13. How do plants solve the
liquid water by a phenomenon known as
gutation. Gutation takes place through
problem of transporting
structures called hydathodes similar to substances throughout their
stomata. Gutation mainly occurs when tissues?
transpiration is difficult due to high air
humidity or when the plant is placed in In bryophytes the substance transport is
a watery soil. done by diffusion. In tracheophytes
(pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms) there are specialized
conductive vessels, the xylem that
11. When air humidity is high carries water and mineral salts and the
does the plant transpiration phloem that conducts organic material
increase or lower? (sugar).
When air humidity is high transpiration

diminishes. Since transpiration is a
simple diffusion process it depends upon
14. Is transportation of gases
the concentration gradient of water in tracheophytes made
between the plant and the environment. through the vascular tissues?
If the atmosphere has too much water
vapor the gradient becomes lower or Carbon dioxide and oxygen are not
even reversed. transported through the xylem or
phloem. These gases reach the cells and
exit the plant by diffusion through
12. How do the water intercellular spaces or between
absorption volume and the neighboring cells.
water transpiration volume
comparatively vary in plants
in a day? What is the final
comparative balance of these
processes?
336
15. Are the xylem and the Therefore there is electrical attraction
phloem made of living cells? (adhesion force) between the capillary
wall and the water molecules that then
pull each other (cohesion force) since
The cells that constitute the xylem ducts they are bound. Not just water but
are dead cells killed by lignin deposition. other liquids may move inside capillaries
The cells of the phloem are living cells. by capillarity.
Capillarity is not too relevant for the

transport of water in plants. It
16. What is the importance of contributes only to a few centimeters of
lignin for the xylem ascension.
formation?
Lignin is important because it is

deposited on the cell wall of the xylem 19. What are the forces that
cells providing impermeability and make water to flow within the
rigidity to the xylem vessels. xylem from the roots to the
leaves?
Water enters the roots due to the root

17. What is root pressure?
pressure and a water column is
maintained within the xylem from the
Root pressure is the pressure that roots to the leaves. The most important
forces water from the soil to be factor that makes water ascend is
absorbed by the xylem of the root. It is transpiration, mainly in the leaves. As
due to the osmotic gradient between the leaves lose water by transpiration their
interior of the root and the soil. cells tend to attract more water creating
suction inside the xylem. The cohesion
property of water that keeps its
molecules bound (one pulls the other)
18. What is capillarity? How is by hydrogen bonds helps the process.
this phenomenon chemically
explained? What is the
relevance of capillarity for
water transport in plants? 20. What is tree girdling?
What happens to a plant when
Capillarity is the phenomenon through that girdle is removed from
which water moves inside extremely the stem (below the
thin tubes (capillaries) aided by the branches)?
attraction between water molecules and
the capillary wall. The capillarity Malpighi’s girdling, or tree girdling, is
phenomenon is possible because water the removal from a stem of a complete
is a polar molecule and forms external girdle containing the phloem
intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
337
(that is more external) but preserving 23. What is the plant
the xylem (that is more internal). coleoptile? Why does the
removal of the coleoptile
When a girdle like that is removed
below the branches the plant dies extremity disallow plant
because organic food (sugar) is growth?
disallowed to pass to the region below
the girdle and thus roots die from the Coleoptile is the first (one or more)
lack of nutrients. Since roots die the aerial structure of the sprouting plant
plant does not get water and mineral that emerges from the seed. It encloses
salts and dies too. the young stem and the first leaves,
protecting them.
The top of the coleoptile generally is the

21. What are plant hormones? region where auxins are made. If this
region is removed, plant growth stops
Plant hormones, also called since auxins are necessary to promote
phytohormones, are substances that growth and tissue differentiation.
control the embryonic development and
the growth of the adult plant.
24. What is indolacetic acid

(IAA)?
22. What are the main natural
plant hormones and what are Indolacetic acid (indolyl-3-acetic acid),
their respective effects? or IAA, is the main natural auxin made
by plants. It promotes plant growth and
The main natural plant hormones and cellular differentiation.
their respective functions are the
following:
Auxins (the best known natural auxin is 25. What are synthetic auxins
IAA, indoleacetic acid): their function is and what are their uses?
to promote plant growth, distension and
cellular differentiation. Gibberellins: Synthetic auxins, like indolebutyric acid
have action similar to auxins (growth (IBA) and naphthalenic acid (NAA) are
and distension), stimulate flowering and substances similar to IAA (a natural
fruit formation and activate seed auxin) but artificially made. Some are
germination. Cytokinins: increase used to accelerate methods of asexual
cellular division rate and together with reproduction (like grafting or budding)
auxins help growth and tissue and others are even used as herbicides
differentiation, slow the plant aging. since they selectively kill some plants
Ethylene (ethene): a gas released by (mainly dicots).
plants that participates in the growth
process and has noteworthy role in fruit
ripening and in leaf abscission.
338
26. Where in plants is a large In some parts of the plant (stem, roots,
amount of IAA found? lateral buds) there are auxin
concentration ranges in which the
hormonal action is positive (stimulate
Auxins are produced and found in large growth). It is observed that
amount in the apical buds of the stem concentrations over the superior limit of
and shoots and in the young leaves. those ranges have the opposite effect
(inhibition of growth).
27. How do phytohormones

help the development of 30. What is the phenomenon
parthenocarpic fruits? of apical dominance in plants?
How can it be artificially
Parthenocarpic fruits are those produced eliminated?
without fecundation. Some plants
naturally make parthenocarpic fruits,
like the banana tree, stimulated by their Apical dominance is the phenomenon
through which high (over the positive
own hormones.
range limit) auxin concentrations due to
auxins from the apical bud moving
Angiosperms that do not naturally
produce parthenocarpic fruits may do it downward the stem inhibit the growth
of the lateral buds of the plant. At the
if auxins are applied to flowers before
fecundation. Therefore even without beginning of the stem development the
apical dominance causes the plant
fecundation the ovaries grow and fruits
are formed although seedless. growth to be longitudinal (upwards)
since the growth of the lateral buds
remains inhibited. As the lateral buds
become more distant from the apex the
auxin concentration in these buds
28. How do auxins act helping
lowers and shoots grow more easily.
the lateral (secondary)
growth of the stem? The growth of tree branches can be
stimulated preventing the apical
Auxins stimulate the formation of dominance through the removal of the
conductive vessels, xylem and phloem, apical bud.
promoting the thickening of the stem.
31. What are gibberellins?

29. What happens when the Where are they produced?
auxin concentration in some
structures of the plant is over Gibberellins are plant hormones that
the action range of the stimulate plant growth, flowering and
hormone? fruit formation (also parthenocarpy) and
the germination of seeds. There are
more than 70 known types of
339
gibberellins. Gibberellins are made in 34. Are the development and
the apical buds and in young leaves. growth of plants only
influenced by plant hormones?
32. What are cytokinins? Physical and chemical environmental

factors, like intensity and position of
Where are they made?
light in relation to the plant,
gravitational force, temperature,
Cytokinins are phytohormones active in mechanical pressures and chemical
the promotion of cellular division, they composition of the soil and of the
slow down the aging of tissues and act atmosphere, can also influence the
together with auxins stimulating plant growth and development of plants.
growth. Cytokinins are produced by the
root meristem and distributed through
the xylem.
35. What are plant tropisms?
Tropisms are movements caused by

33. What is the plant hormone
external stimulus. In Botany the studied
remarkable for stimulating plant tropisms are: phototropism
flowering and fruit ripening? (tropism in response to light),
What are the uses and geotropism (tropism in response to the
practical inconveniences of earth gravity) and thigmotropism
that hormone? (tropism in response to mechanical
stimulus).
The plant hormone notable for
stimulating and accelerating fruit
36. To which direction does
ripening is the gas ethylene (ethene).
By being a gas, ethylene acts not only the growth of one side of a
in the plant that produces it but also in stem, branch or root induce
neighboring ones. the structure to curve?
Some fruit processing industries use Whenever one side of a stem, branch or
ethylene to accelerate fruit ripening. On root grows more than the other side the
the other hand, if the intensification or structure curves towards the side that
acceleration of fruit ripening is not grows less. (This is an important
desirable care must be taken to prevent concept for plant tropism problems.)
the mixture of ripe fruits that release
ethylene with the others.
37. What is phototropism?
Phototropism is the movement of plant

structures in response to light.
Phototropism may be positive or
340
negative. Positive phototropism is that Under this condition it is observed that
in which the plant movement (or the stem grows upwards and the root
growth) is towards the light source and grows downwards. This happens
negative phototropism is that in which because in the stem the high auxin
the movement (or growth) is inverse, concentration in the bottom makes this
away from the light source. side grow (longitudinally) more and the
structures arcs upwards. In the root the
Phototropism relates to auxins since the high auxin concentration in the bottom
exposition of one side of the plant to inhibits the growth of this side and the
light makes these hormones upper side grows more making the root
concentrate in the darker side. This fact to curve downwards.
makes the auxin action upon the stem
to be positive, i.e., the growth of the
darker side is more intense and the
plant arcs towards the lighter side. In 39. What is thigmotropism?
the root (when submitted to light, in
general experimentally) the auxin action Thigmotropism is the movement or
is negative (over the positive range), growth of the plant in response to
the growth of the darker side is mechanical stimuli (touch or physical
inhibited and the root curves towards contact), as when a plant grows around
this side. a supporting rod. It occurs for example
in grape and passionfruit vines, etc.
38. What are the types of 40. What is photoperiod?

plant geotropisms? Why do
the stem and the root present Photoperiod is the daily time period of
opposite geotropisms? light exposure of a living being. The
photoperiod may vary according to the
The types of geotropisms are the period of the year.
positive geotropism, that in which the
plant grows in favor of the gravitational
force, as for example in roots, and the
negative geotropism, that against the 41. What is photoperiodism?
gravitational force, for example, in the
stem. Photoperiodism is the biological
response presented by some living
Root geotropism and stem geotropism beings to their daily time of light
are opposed due to different exposure (photoperiod).
sensitivities to auxin concentration in
these structures. The following
experiment can demonstrate the
phenomenon: Stem and root are placed
in a horizontal position (parallel to the
ground) and naturally auxins
concentrate along their bottom part.
341
42. What are the plant organs characteristics of the biological response
responsible for the perception and to the studied plant.
of light variation? What is the To determine the critical photoperiod
pigment responsible for this relating to flowering, 24 groups of
perception? plants of the same species can be taken
and the following experiment can be
Leaves are mainly responsible for done: Each group is submitted to a
perception of light intensity in plants. different photoperiod, the first group to
The pigment that performs this 1 hour of daily exposure to light, the
perception and commands second to 2 hours, the third to 3 hours,
photoperiodism is called phytochrome. and so on, until the last group is
exposed to 24 hours. It is observed
later that beyond a specific duration of
light exposure plants present or do not
43. How does the present flowering and the remaining
photoperiodism affect the submitted to a shorter photoperiod
present opposite behavior. The duration
flowering of some plants? of the light exposure that separates
these two groups is the critical
Flowering is a typical and easy to photoperiod.
observe example of photoperiodism.
Most flowering plants flower only during
specific periods of the year or when
placed under some conditions of daily 45. How do plants classify
illumination. This occurs because their
according to their
blossoming depends on the duration of
the photoperiod that in its turn varies photoperiodism-based
with the season of the year. Flowering is flowering?
also affected by exposition to certain
temperatures. According to their photoperiodism-based
flowering plants classify as long-day
plants, those that depend on longer
photoperiods than the critical
44. What is the critical photoperiod to flower, as short-day
photoperiod? How can the plants, those that depend on shorter
critical photoperiod relate to photoperiods than the critical
photoperiod to flower, and as indifferent
flowering be experimentally plants, whose flowering does not
determined? depend on the photoperiod.
The critical photoperiod is the limit of

the photoperiod duration for the
occurrence of some biological response.
This limit can be a maximum or a
minimum, according to the
342
46. Why do most plants
present opposite phyllotaxis?
Phyllotaxis is the way leaves are

arranged on shoots. Most plants have
opposite phyllotaxis (alternating in
sequence, one in one side of the shoot,
the following in the opposite side) as a
solution to prevent self shading of the
leaves thus improving the efficiency of
photosynthesis.
343
344
Genetics
345
346
Gene locus (locus means place) is the
Genetic Concepts location of a gene in a chromosome,
i.e., the position of the gene in a DNA
molecule.
1. What is a gene?
A gene is a sequence of DNA 5. What are alleles of a gene?

nucleotides that codifies the production
of a protein. Diploid individuals have paired
chromosomes. For example in humans
there are 23 pairs of chromosomes
totaling 46 chromosomes. Each pair
2. Is a gene a triplet of comprehends homologous
consecutive DNA nucleotides? chromosomes, one chromosome from
the father and another from the mother,
both of them containing information
A gene is not a triplet of DNA
related to the production of the same
nucleotides with their respective
proteins (with the exception of the sex
nitrogen-containing bases, like AAG or
chromosomes, which are partially
CGT. The nucleotide triplets may be
heterologous). So in the diploid
pieces of genes but not genes.
individual it is said that each gene has
two alleles, one in each chromosome of
A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule
the homologous pair.
that codifies a specific protein. Thus it is
formed by several DNA nucleotide
triplets.
6. Are the alleles of a gene
necessarily originated one
3. How is the concept of from the father and the other
chromosome related to the from the mother? Are there
concept of the gene? exceptions?
A chromosome is a DNA molecule. A It is natural that alleles have come one

chromosome may contain several from the father and the other from the
different genes and also DNA portions mother but it is not obligatory. In a
that are not genes. “clone” generated by nucleus
transplantation technology, for example,
the alleles come from a single
individual. In polysomies (as in trisomy
4. What is meant by “gene 21) each gene of the affected
locus”? chromosome has three alleles, in
trisomies, or four, in tetrasomies.
347
7. What is a phenotype? remain intact; a person can go to a
hairdresser and change the color of
his/her hair; plastic surgery can be
A phenotype is every observable
characteristic of a living being performed to alter facial features of an
individual; colored contact lenses may
conditioned by its genes. Some
phenotypes may be altered by be worn; a plant can grow beyond its
genetically conditioned size by
nongenetic factors (for example,
artificial hair coloring). Specific application of phytohormones.
phenotypes are also called phenotypical
traits. Revealing cases of environmental
influence on phenotypes are observed in
monozygotic twins that have grown in
different places. Generally these twins
present very distinct phenotypical
8. What is a genotype? What
features due to the environmental and
is the difference between cultural differences of the places where
genotype and phenotype? they lived and to their different
individual experiences in life.
Genotype is the genes, DNA nucleotide
sequences contained in the (Biologically programmed phenotypical
chromosomes of an individual, that changes, like nonpathological changes
condition the phenotype. Phenotypes of the skin color caused by sunlight
then are a biological manifestation of exposure, tanning, or the variation of
genotypes. the color of some flowers according to
the pH of the soil cannot be considered
For example, the altered hemoglobin independent from the genotype.
chain of sickle cell disease and the Actually these changes are planned by
manifestation of the disease itself are the genotype as natural adaptations to
the phenotype. The altered DNA environmental changes.)
nucleotide sequence in the gene that
codifies the production of that abnormal
hemoglobin chain is the genotype.
10. Are environmental
phenotypical changes
transmitted to the offspring?
9. Does the environment exert
Changes caused on phenotypes by the
an influence on the environment are not transmitted to the
phenotype? offspring (unless their primary cause is
genotypical change in germ cells or in
A phenotype may be altered (compared gametic cells). If a person changes the
to the original situation conditioned by color of the hair or undergoes aesthetic
its genotype) by nongenetic means. plastic surgery the resulting features are
Examples: some hormones may cease not transmitted to his/her offspring.
to be secreted due to diseases but the
genes that determine their secretion
348
11. What are the situations in that do not present variation among
which the environment can individuals of the same species are: in
general the number of limbs, the
alter the genotype of an anatomical position of the organs, the
individual? What is the general constitution of tissues and cells,
condition for this type of etc.
change to be transmitted to
the offspring? Phenotype possibility of presenting
natural variations (in beings of the same
species) are necessarily determined by
The environment can only alter
two or more different alleles of the
genotypes when its action causes
correspondent gene. These different
alterations in the genetic material
alleles combine and form different
(mutations) of the individual, i.e.,
genotypes that condition the different
deletion, addition or substitution of
phenotypes (variations).
entire chromosomes or of nucleotides
that form the DNA molecules.
Mutations are only transmitted to the

offspring when affecting the germ cells
13. Considering a pair of
that produce gametes or the gametes homologous chromosomes
themselves. containing a gene having two
different alleles how many
different genotypes can the
individual present?
of phenotypical characteristics If a gene of a diploid species has
that present two or more different alleles, for example, A and A’,
varieties and of phenotypical the possible genotypes are: A’A’, AA,
features that do not vary? In and AA’. So any of these three different
relation to the genes genotypes may be the genotype of an
individual.
correspondent to those
characteristics that vary
among individuals what can
be expected about their 14. For an individual having a
alleles? genotype formed of two
different alleles that condition
Color of the eyes, color of the hair, color different varieties of the same
of the skin, height, blood type are phenotypical trait, upon what
examples of phenotypical features that
present two or more varieties. Other
will the phenotypical feature
examples are the color of flowers and actually manifested depend?
seeds in some plants, the sex of the
individual in dioecius species, etc. If an individual presents a gene having
Examples of phenotypical characteristics different alleles (common situation), for
349
example, A and A’, three types of corresponding sequence in the dominant
genotypes may be formed: AA, A’A’ and allele but that during evolution was
AA’. The question refers to an individual inactivated by mutation. This fact
bearing a genotype made of two explains the expression of the dominant
different alleles, so it is the AA’ phenotype in heterozygosity (since one
genotype (the heterozygous individual). functional allele is still present).
This AA’ individual may manifest the

phenotype conditioned by the allele A or
the phenotype conditioned by the allele 16. Whenever a pair of alleles
A’ or still a mixed phenotype of those has different alleles is there
two forms. If the allele A is dominant dominance between them?
over the allele A’ the form conditioned
by A will manifest. If A’ is the dominant
allele, the form determined by A’ will Not in all cases of a gene having two
manifest. This phenomenon is known as different alleles is the dominance
dominance and occurs because the complete. There are genes in which
recessive (nondominant) allele heterozygosity occurs with incomplete
manifests only when present in double dominance (manifestation of an
in the genotype (in homozygosity), intermediate phenotype in relation to
while the dominant allele manifests the homozygous, like in the color of
even when in heterozygosity. If none of roses, between white and red) and
the alleles dominate a mixture of the other genes that present codominance
two varieties conditioned by both alleles (expression of a third different feature,
appears or instead a third form may as in the MN blood group system).
come out.

15. What is the difference between homozygosity and
between dominant allele and heterozygosity?
recessive allele?
Homozygosity occurs when an individual
Dominant allele is the allele that has two identical alleles of a gene, for
determines phenotypical features that example, AA or aa. Heterozygosity
manifest in homozygous or occurs when an individual has two
heterozygous genotypes. different alleles of the same gene, in the
example, Aa.
In Genetics the dominant allele is
represented in uppercase, e.g., “A”, and
its recessive allele is written in
lowercase, “a”.
In molecular terms generally the

recessive allele has a nucleotide
sequence previously identical to the
350
18. Why can it be said that a
recessive allele can remain
hidden in the phenotype of an
individual and revealed only
when manifested in
homozygosity in the
offspring?
A recessive allele can remain hidden

because it does not manifest in
heterozygous individual, i.e., it may be
present in the genotype but not
expressed in the phenotype. When this
allele is transmitted to the offspring and
forms homozygous genotype with
another recessive allele from other
chromosomal lineage the phenotypical
characteristics that come out reveal its
existence.
351
of ascendants and the exclusive
Mendel's Laws obtainment of individuals with the
desired characteristics ensured that the
individuals of the parental generation
were “pure”, i.e., homozygous for that
1. Who was Gregor Mendel? characteristic.)
Mendel is considered the father of

Genetics. He was a monk, biologist and
botanist born in Austria in 1822 and 3. What is monohybridism?
who died in 1884. During the years
1853 to 1863 he cultivated pea plants in Monohybridism is the study of only one
the gardens of his monastery to be used characteristic in the crossing of two pure
in his research. His experiments individuals (hybridization) for that
consisted of crossing pea plants of characteristic.
distinct characteristics (size, color of the
seeds, etc.), cataloging the results and
interpreting them. The experiments led
him to enunciate his laws, results 4. Considering hybridization in
published in 1886 with no scientific a trait like the color of the
repercussion at that time. Only at the flowers of a given plant
beginning of the 20th century, in 1902,
18 years after his death, were his merits
species (red dominant/ yellow
broadly recognized. recessive) conditioned by a
pair of different alleles, what
are the phenotypical results of
the first generation (F1) and
2. What in Genetics is the phenotypical results of the
hybridization? second generation (F2, formed
by crossing among F1
Hybridization in Genetics is the crossing
of individuals from “pure” and different
genotypes)? What are the
lineages in relation to a given trait, i.e., phenotypical proportions in F1
the crossing of different homozygous for and F2?
the studied trait.
In relation to genotypes and phenotypes
In Mendel’s experiments with peas, for the hybridization comprises of: parental
example, a plant from a green pea generation (P): RR (read), yy (yellow).
lineage obtained from self fecundation F1 generation (RR x yy): Ry (red). F2
of its ascendants through several generation (Ry x Ry): RR (red), Ry
generations was crossed (cross (red), Ry (red) and yy (yellow).
fecundation) with another plant from a
yellow lineage also obtained by self In the F1 generation the proportion of
fecundation of ascendants. (The self red flowers is 100%. In the F2
fecundation through several generations
352
generation, the phenotypical proportion In the monohybridism conditioned by
is three red (75%) to one yellow (25%). two different alleles the F1 generation
presents only heterozygous individuals
(Bw). In F2 there is one individual BB,
two individuals Bw and one individual
5. Considering hybridization in ww. In relation to the phenotype there
a trait like the color of the are in F2 two black individuals and one
white individual, since black is the
flowers of a given plant
dominant color. So the proportion is
species (red/yellow) 3:1, three black-haired to one white-
conditioned by a pair of haired.
different alleles in relation to
complete dominance (red
dominant/ yellow recessive),
why in the F1 generation is 7. What is meant by saying
one of the colors missing? that in relation to a given trait
conditioned by a gene with
In this monohybridism one of the colors two different alleles the
does not appear in the F1 generation gametes are always “pure”?
because their parental generators are
pure, i.e., homozygous, and in F1 all To say that gametes are pure means
descendants are heterozygous (each that they always carry only one allele of
parental individual forms only one type the referred trait. Gametes are always
of gamete). Since only heterozygous “pure” because in them the
genotypes appear and red is dominant chromosomes are not homologous, they
over yellow the individuals of the F1 contain only one chromosome of each
generation will present only red flowers. type.
6. Considering hybridization in 8. What is the Mendel’s first

a given trait like the color of law?
the hair of a mammalian
species (white/black) The Mendel’s first law postulates that a
conditioned by a pair of characteristic (trait) of an individual is
different alleles under always determined by two factors, one
inherited from the father and the other
complete dominance (black from the mother and the direct offspring
dominant, B/ white recessive, of the individual receives from it only
w), how can the phenotypical one of these factors (aleatory). In other
proportion obtained in the F2 words, each trait is determined by two
generation be explained? factors that segregate during gamete
formation.
What is this proportion?
353
The Mendel’s first law is also known as 11. In the F2 generation of a
the law of purity of gametes. Mendel hybridization for a given trait
deduced the way genes and alleles were
conditioned by a pair of alleles
transmitted and traits were conditioned
without even knowing of the existence T and t, according to Mendel’s
of these elements. first law what are the
genotypes of each
phenotypical form? How many
respectively are the
9. Which is the type of gamete
genotypical and phenotypical
(for a given trait) produced by
forms?
a dominant homozygous
individual? What is the In the mentioned hybridization the
genotypical proportion of genotypical forms in F2 will be TT, tt
these gametes? What about a and Tt. Therefore there will be three
recessive homozygous different genotypical forms and two
individual? different phenotypical forms
(considering T dominant over t).
If an individual is dominant
homozygous, for example, AA, it will
produce only gametes having the allele
A. The proportion thus is 100% of AA
12. Why can the crossing of an
gametes. individual that manifests
dominant phenotype with
If an individual is recessive another that manifests
homozygous, for example, aa, it will recessive phenotype (for the
produce only gametes having the allele
same trait) determine
a, also in a 100% proportion.
whether the dominant
individual is homozygous or
heterozygous?
gamete produced by a From the crossing of an individual
heterozygous individual? having recessive phenotype with
What is the genotypical another having dominant phenotype (for
the same trait) it is possible to
proportion of these gametes? determine whether the dominant
individual is homozygous or
Heterozygous individuals, for example, heterozygous. This is true because the
AA, produce two different types of genotype of the recessive individual is
gametes: one containing the allele A obligatorily homozygous, for example,
and another type containing the allele a. aa. If the other individual is also
The proportion is 1:1. homozygous, AA, the F1 offspring will
be only heterozygous (aa x AA = only
Aa). If the other individual is
354
heterozygous there will be two different connected to that line. The presence of
genotypical forms, Aa and aa in the 1:1 the studied phenotypical form is
proportion. So if a recessive phenotype indicated by a complete hachure
appears in the direct offspring the (shading) of the circle or the square
parental individual that manifests correspondent to the affected individual.
dominant phenotype is certainly It is useful to enumerate the individuals
heterozygous. from left to right and from top to
bottom for easy reference.
13. What is a genetic family

tree? 15. What are the three main
steps for a good study of a
Genetic family tree is a schematic family genetic family tree?
tree that shows the biological
inheritance of some trait through Step 1: to determine whether the
successive generations. studied phenotypical form has a
dominant or recessive pattern. Step 2:
Genetic family trees are useful because to identify recessive homozygous
it is practically impossible and ethically individuals. Step 3: to identify the
unacceptable to make experimental remaining genotypes.
crossings for genetic testing between
human beings. With the help of family
tress the study is made by analysis of
marriages (and crossings) that have 16. What is Mendel’s second
already occurred in the past. From the
law?
analysis of family trees, for example,
information on probabilities of the
emergence of some phenotype and Mendel’s second law postulates that two
genotypes (including genetic diseases) or more different traits are also
in the offspring of a couple can be conditioned by two or more pair of
obtained. different factors and that each inherited
pair separates independently from the
others. In other words, gametes are
formed always with an aleatory
14. What are the main representative of each pair of the
factors that determine phenotypical
conventional symbols and characteristics.
signs used in genetic family
trees? Mendel’s second law is also known as
the law of independent segregation of
In genetic family trees the male sex is factors, or law of independent
usually represented by a square and the assortment.
female by a circle. Crossings are
indicated by horizontal lines that
connect squares to circles and their
direct offspring are listed below and
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17. What is the condition for 19. Considering independent
Mendel’s second law to be segregation of all factors, how
valid? many types of gametes does a
VvXXWwYyzz individual
Mendel’s second law is only valid for produce? What is the formula
genes located in different chromosomes. to determinate such number?
For genes situated in the same
chromosome, i.e., linked genes (genes
The mentioned individual will produce
in linkage) the law is not valid since the
eight different types of gametes
segregation of these genes is not
(attention, gametes and not zygotes).
independent.
To determine the number of different
gametes produced by a given multiple
genotype the number of heterezygous
pairs is counted (in the mentioned case,
18. According to Mendel’s
three) and the result is placed as an
second law, in the crossing exponent of two (in the example, 23 =
between homozygous 8).
individuals concerning two
pairs of nonlinked alleles,
AABB x aaBB, what are the 20. How is it possible to
genotypical and phenotypical obtain the probability of
proportions in F1 and F2? emergence of a given
genotype formed of more than
Parental genotypes: AABB, aaBB. one pair of different alleles
Gametes from the parental generation: with independent segregation
Ab and aB. Thus F1 will present 100% from the knowledge of the
AaBb gametes (and the phenotypical parental genotypes?
correspondent form).
Taking as example the crossing of
As F1 are AaBb individuals the gametes
AaBbCc with aaBBCc, for each
from their crossing can be: AB, Ab, aB
considered pair of allele it is possible to
and ab. The casual combination of these
verify which genotypes it can form (as
gametes forms the following genotypical
in an independent analysis) and in
forms: one AABB, two AABb, two AaBb,
which proportion. AA x aa: Aa, aa (1:1).
four AaBB, one Aabb, one Aabb, one
Bb x BB: BB, Bb (1:1). Cc x Cc: CC, Cc,
aaBB, two aaBb and two aabb. The
cc (1:2:1). The genotype to which the
phenotypical proportion then would be:
probability is to be determined is for
nine A_B_ (double dominant); three
example aaBbcc. For each pair of this
A_bb (dominant for the first pair,
genotype the formation probability is
recessive for the second); three aaB_
determined: to aa, 0.5; to Bb, 0.5; to
(recessive for the first pair, dominant
cc, 0.25. The final result is obtained by
for the second); one aabb (double
multiplication of these partial
recessive).
probabilities, 0.5 x 0.5 x, 0.5, resulting
0.0625.
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2. What is the genetic
Non-mendelian condition in which the
Inheritance heterozygous individual has
different phenotype from the
homozygous individual?
1. According to Mendel’s law This condition is called lack of

phenotypical characteristics dominance and it can happen in two
would be determined by pair ways: incomplete dominance or
of factors (alleles) that codominance.
separate independently in
In incomplete dominance the
gametes. What are the main heterozygous presents an intermediate
types of inheritances that are phenotype between the two types of
exceptions to Mendel’s rules? homozygous, as in sickle cell anemia in
which the heterozygous produces some
There are many types of inheritance sick red blood cells and some normal
that do not follow the mendelian red blood cells. Codominance occurs, for
pattern. Notable among them are: example, in the genetic determination of
multiple alleles, gene interactions the MN blood group system, in which
(complementary genes, epistasis and the heterozygous has a phenotype
quantitative, or polygenic, inheritance), totally different from the homozygous,
linkage with or without crossing over not being an intermediate form.
and sex-linked inheritance.
Pleiotropy, lacking of dominance and

lethal genes do not fit as variations of 3. What is pleiotropy?
inheritance since genes can have these
behaviors and at the same time obey Pleiotropy (or pliotropy) is the
mendelian laws. phenomenon in which a single gene
conditions several different phenotypical
Mutations and aneuploidies are traits.
abnormalities that also alter the
mendelian pattern of inheritance as well Some phenotypical traits may be
as mitochondrial inheritance (passage of sensitive to pleiotropic effects (for
mitochondrial DNA from the mother example, inhibition) of other genes,
through the cytoplasm of the egg cell to even when conditioned by a pair of
the offspring). alleles in simple dominance. In these
cases a mixture of pleiotropy and gene
interaction is characterized.
357
4. What are lethal genes? 6. What are gene interactions?
What are the three main types
Lethal genes are genes having at least of gene interactions?
one allele that, when present in the
genotype of an individual, causes death. Gene interaction is the phenomenon in
There are recessive lethal alleles and which a given phenotypical trait is
dominant lethal alleles. (There are also conditioned by two or more genes (do
genes having alleles that are dominant not confuse with multiple alleles in
when in heterozygosity but lethal when which there is a single gene having
in homozygosity, i.e., the dominance three or more alleles).
related to the phenotype does not
correspond to the dominance related to The three main types of gene
lethality.) interaction are: complementary genes,
epistasis and polygenic inheritance (or
quantitative inheritance).
5. What are multiple alleles?

Is there dominance in multiple
alleles? 7. What are complementary
genes? Does this inheritance
Multiple alleles is the phenomenon in pattern obey Mendel’s second
which the same gene has more than law?
two different alleles (in normal
mendelian inheritance the gene has only
Complementary genes are different
two alleles). Obviously these alleles
genes that act together to determine a
combine in pairs to form the genotypes.
given phenotypical trait.
In multiple alleles relative dominance
For example, consider a phenotypical
among the alleles may exist. A typical
trait conditioned by 2 complementary
example of multiple alleles is the
genes whose alleles are respectively X,
inheritance of the ABO blood group
x, Y and y. Performing hybridization in
system, in which there are three alleles
F2 4 different phenotypical forms are
(A, B or O, or IA, IB and i). IA is
obtained: X_Y_ (double dominant),
dominant over i, which is recessive in
X_yy (dominant for the first pair,
relation to the other IB allele. IA and IB
recessive for the second), xxY_
lack dominance between themselves.
(recessive for the first pair, dominant
for the second) and xxyy (double
Another example is the color of rabbit
recessive). This is what happens, for
fur, conditioned by four different alleles
example, regarding the color of
(C, Cch, Ch and c). In this case the
budgerigar feathers, in which the double
dominance relations are C > Cch > Ch
dominant interaction results in green
> c (the symbol > means “dominates
feathers, the dominant for the first pair,
over”).
recessive for the second interaction
results in yellow feathers, the recessive
for the first pair, dominant for the
358
second interaction leads to blue feathers 3 dominant for the first pair, recessive
and the double recessive interaction for the second to 3 recessive for the
leads to white feathers. first pair, dominant for the second to 1
double recessive (9:3:3:1).
Each complementary gene segregates
independently from the others since Considering that the epistatic gene is
they are located in different the second pair and that the recessive
chromosomes. Therefore the pattern genotype of the hypostatic gene means
follows Mendel’s second law (although it lacking of the characteristic, in the F2
does not obey Mendel’s first law). generation of the dominant epistasis the
following phenotypical forms would
emerge: 13 dominant for the second
pair or recessive for the first, i.e., the
8. What is epistasis? What is characteristic does not manifest, 3
the difference between dominant for the first pair, recessive for
the second, i.e., the characteristic
dominant epistasis and
manifests. The phenotypical proportion
recessive epistasis? would be 13:3. In the recessive
epistasis in F2 the phenotypical forms
Epistasis is the gene interaction in which that would emerge are: 9 double
a gene (the epistatic gene) can disallow dominant (the characteristic manifests),
the phenotypical manifestation of 7 recessive for the first pair or recessive
another gene (the hypostatic gene). In for the second, i.e., the characteristic
dominant epistasis the inhibitor allele is does not manifest. So the phenotypical
the dominant allele (for example, I) of proportion would be 9:7.
the epistatic gene so inhibition occurs in
dominant homozygosity (II) or in These examples show how epistasis
heterozygosity (Ii). In recessive changes phenotypical forms and
epistasis the inhibitor allele is the proportions, from the normal 9:3:3:1 in
recessive allele of the epistatic gene (i) F2 to 13:3 in dominant epistasis or to
so inhibition occurs only in recessive 9:7 in recessive epistasis (note that
homozygosity (ii). some forms have even disappeared).
(If the recessive genotype of the

hypostatic gene is active, not simply
9. In the hybridization of 2 meaning that the dominant allele does
genes (4 different alleles, 2 of not manifest, the number of
each pair) how does epistasis phenotypical forms in F2 changes.)
affect the proportion of
phenotypical forms in the F2
generation?
In dihybridism without epistasis double

heterozygous parental individuals cross
and in F2 4 phenotypical forms appear.
The proportion is 9 double dominant to
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10. What is polygenic If a trait statistically has a normal
inheritance? How does it (gaussian, bell-shaped curve)
distribution of its phenotypical forms it
work? is probable that it is conditioned by
polygenic inheritance (quantitative
Polygenic inheritance, also known as inheritance).
quantitative inheritance, is the gene
interaction in which a given trait is In quantitative inheritance the effects of
conditioned by several different genes several genes add to others making it
having alleles that may or may not possible to represent the trait variation
contribute to increase the phenotype of a given population in a gaussian
intensity. The alleles may be curve with the heterozygous genotypes
contributing or noncontributing and in the center, i.e., appearing in larger
there is no dominance among them. number, and the homozygous in the
Polygenic inheritance is the type of extremities.
inheritance, for example, of skin color
and of stature in humans.
Considering a given species of animal in 12. How to find the number of

which the length of the individual is
pair of alleles involved in
conditioned by polygenic inheritance of
three genes, for the genotype having polygenic inheritance using
only noncontributing alleles (aabbcc) a the number of phenotypical
basal phenotype, for example, 30 cm, forms of the trait they
would emerge. Considering also that for condition?
each contributing allele a 5 cm increase
in the length of the animal is added, so
Considering “p” the number of
in the genotype having only contributing
phenotypical forms and “a” the number
alleles (AABBCC) the animal would
of involved alleles of the polygenic
present the basal phenotype (30 cm)
inheritance. The formula p = 2a + 1 is
plus 30 cm more added by each
then applied.
contributing allele, i.e., its length would
be 60 cm. In the case of triple
(Many times it is not possible to
heterozygosity, for example, the length
determine precisely the number of
of the animal would be 45 cm. That is
phenotypical forms, p, due to the
the way polygenic inheritance works.
multigenic feature of the inheritance,
since often the observed variation of
phenotypes seems to be on a continuum
or the trait suffers environmental
influence.)
11. What is the most probable
inheritance pattern of a trait
with gaussian proportional
distribution of phenotypical
forms?
360
13. Why is sex-linked chromosome is an excellent means of
inheritance an example of study of the paternal lineage).
nonmendelian inheritance?
Sex-linked inheritance is a type of

nonmendelian inheritance because it
opposes Mendel’s first law, which
postulates that each trait is always
conditioned by two factors (alleles). In
nonhomologous regions of the sex
chromosomes the genotypes of the
genes contain only one allele (even in
the case of the XX karyotype, i.e., in
women, one of the X chromosomes is
inactive).
14. What is mitochondrial

inheritance?
Mitochondrial inheritance is the passage

of mitochondrial DNA molecules
(mtDNA) to the offspring. All stock of
mtDNA an individual has have come
from the mother, the maternal
grandmother, the maternal great
grandmother and so on, since
mitochondria are inherited from the
cytoplasm of the egg cell (that later
constitutes the cytoplasm of the
zygote).
There are several genetic diseases

caused by mitochondrial inheritance,
like Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy,
that leads to loss of the central vision of
both eyes, and the Kearns-Sayre
syndrome, a neuromuscular disease
that causes ophthalmoplegia and muscle
fatigue.
Mitochondrial inheritance is an excellent

means of genetic analysis of the
maternal lineage (just like the Y
361
3. What is linkage?
Linkage and
Crossing Over Two genes are said to be under linkage,
or linked, when they reside in the same
chromosome.
For example, the research of the human

1. Why is not Mendel’s second
genome discovered that the factor III of
law always valid for two or clotting gene and the factor V of clotting
more phenotypical traits of an gene are located in the same
individual? chromosome (the human chromosome
1). The factor VII gene however is not
Mendel’s second law, or the law of the linked to those genes since it is located
independent assortment, is valid for in the chromosome 13.
genes located in different chromosomes.
These genes during meiosis segregate
independently.
4. What is crossing over? How
Mendel’s second law however is not is meiosis related to this
valid for phenotypical features phenomenon?
conditioned by genes located in the
same chromosome (genes under Linked alleles, for example, A-b and a-
linkage), since these genes, known as B, form the gametes A-b and a-B that
linked genes, do not separate in meiosis maintain the linkage of the alleles. This
(except for the phenomenon of crossing type of linkage is called complete
over). linkage. In the first division of meiosis
(meiosis I) however the crossing over
phenomenon may occur. Chromosomes
from a pair of homologous may
2. Why is drosophila a exchange extremities and some once
convenient animal for the linked alleles, for example, A-b and a-B,
study of linked genes? recombine to form different gametes, in
the case, A-B and a-b.
The fruit fly drosophila is suitable for the
study of Genetics because it presents Crossing over may happen when the
many distinct traits but only four arms of the chromatids of each
chromosomes (one sex chromosome homologous are paired during meiosis.
and three autosomes). Matching portions of the extremities of
two nonsister chromatids (one from one
homologous of the pair) break and the
pieces are exchanged, each of them
becoming part of the arm of the other
chromatid. For example, if the allele A is
situated in a side of the arm relating to
the point of breaking and the allele b is
362
located in the other side, they will be 7. Why does the
separated and gametes A-B and a-b will recombination frequency of
be formed, instead of A-b and a-B.
genes vary with the distance
(The percentage of recombinant between them in the
gametes relating to normal gametes chromosome?
depends upon the crossing over rate
that in its turn depends upon how far The farther the distance between the
distant the given alleles are in the loci of two genes in a chromosome the
chromosome.) higher the recombination frequency
between these genes. This is true
because once alleles are nearer in the
chromosome it is more probable that
5. In genetic recombination by they are kept united when chromosomal
crossing over what is the extremities are exchanged by crossing
difference between parental over. On the other hand, if they are
farther apart it will be easier for them to
gametes and recombinant
separate by crossing over.
gametes?
Parental gametes are those gametes

that maintain the original linkage of 8. What is a centimorgan?
genes (alleles) in the chromosome.
Recombinant gametes are those in Centimorgan, or recombination unit, by
which the original linkage is undone due convention is a distance between two
to exchange of chromosomal pieces by linked genes that corresponds to 1% of
crossing over during meiosis. recombination frequency of these
genes.
6. What is recombination
frequency? 9. How can the concept of
recombination frequency be
Recombination frequency, or crossing used in genetic mapping?
over rate, is the percentage of
recombinant gametes made by crossing
over (in relation to the number of Genetic mapping is the determination of
the location of the genes in a
parental gametes made). It always
refers to two genes located in the same chromosome.
chromosome.
By determining the recombination
frequency between several different
linked genes it is possible to estimate
the distance between them in the
chromosome. For example, if a gene A
has a recombination frequency of 20%
with the gene B, this gene B has
363
recombination frequency of 5% with the
gene C and this gene C has
recombination frequency of 15% with
the gene A, it is possible to assert that
the gene A is 20 centimorgans distant
from the gene B and that between them
lies the gene C at 15 centimorgans of
distance from the gene A.
10. Is crossing over important

for the diversity of biological
evolution?
Sexual reproduction and recombination

of linked genes (crossing over) are,
along with mutations, the main
instruments of biological variability.
Sexual reproduction allows many
combinations between genes situated in
different chromosomes. Crossing over,
however, is the only means to provide
recombination of alleles located in a
same chromosome. Crossing over
probably emerged and has been
maintained by the evolution because of
its importance to biological diversity.
364
Heterologous portion is that whose
Sex Determination genes do not have correspondent alleles
and Sex-Linked in the other sex chromosome. These
genes are located more in the peripheral
Inheritance regions of the arms of the Y and X
chromosomes.
3. Concerning the sex

1. How is the genetic
chromosomes of the XY
determination of sex
system which type of gamete
established in humans?
do the male and the female
In the diploid genome of human beings individuals respectively
there are 46 chromosomes, 44 of them produce?
are autosomes and two are sex
chromosomes. The individual inherits The individual of the male sex is XY so
one of these chromosomes from each he forms gametes containing either the
parent. X chromosome or the Y chromosome in
a 1:1 proportion. The individual of the
The human sex chromosomes are called female sex is XX and thus she forms
X chromosome and Y chromosome. only gametes containing an X
Individuals having two X chromosomes chromosome.
(44 + XX) are female. Individuals
having one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome (44 + XY) are male.
(Individuals 44 + YY do not exist since 4. Is it possible that an X
the chromosome Y is exclusively from chromosome of a woman can
paternal lineage.)
have come from her father?
It is not only possible that an X

2. What are the homologous chromosome of a woman is from her
father, it is certain. Every woman has
and the heterologous portions an X chromosome from her father and
of the human sex the other X chromosome from her
chromosomes? mother.
Homologous portion is that in which In men however the X chromosome

there are genes having alleles in both Y comes always from his mother and the
and X sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is always from his
homologous portions are situated more father.
in the central part of the sex
chromosomes, near the centromere.
365
5. Is it more indicated for a Diseases caused by abnormal number of
geneticist desiring to map the sex chromosomes are called sex
aneuploidies.
X chromosome of the mother
of a given family (the The main sex aneuploidies are: 44 +
researcher does not have XXX, or trisomy X (women whose cells
access to her DNA, only access have an additional X chromosome); 44
to the genetic material of the + XXY, or Klinefelter's syndrome (men
whose cells have an extra X
offspring) to analyze the
chromosome); 44 + XYY, or double Y
chromosomes of her syndrome (men whose cells have an
daughters or of her sons? additional Y chromosome); 44 + X,
Turner’s syndrome (women whose cells
To analyze the X DNA of a mother lack an X chromosome).
(assuming no access to her own
material) it is more indicated to study
the genetic material of her sons since all
X chromosomes of males come from the 8. What is the inactivation of
mother while the daughters have X the X chromosome? What is a
chromosomes from the mother and Barr body?
from the father. By researching the
material of the sons it is ensured that
the studied X chromosome is from the Inactivation of the X chromosome is a
mother. phenomenon that occurs in women.
Since women have two X chromosomes
only one of them remains active and
functional mixed to the chromatin while
the other remains condensed and
6. Do the genes of the X and Y
inactive.
chromosomes determine only
sex characteristics? In the same woman in some cell
lineages the functional X chromosome is
Besides sex genes the sex the one from the father and in other cell
chromosomes have also autosomal lineages the functional chromosome is
genes, genes that codify several the X from the mother characterizing a
proteins related to nonsexual traits. condition known as mosaicism (related
to the X chromosome).
Under the microscope the inactive X

7. What are the main diseases chromosome is seen as a granule
caused by errors of the generally in the periphery of the
nucleus. This granule is called the Barr
number of sex chromosomes
body.
in the cells of an individual?
366
9. Besides the XY system are For each correspondent gene to an X-
there other sex determination linked trait women present always two
alleles since they have two X
systems? chromosomes. Men present only one
allele of genes related to X-linked traits
Some animals have a sex determination since they have one X chromosome.
system different from the XY system.
The X0 system is the sex determination

system of many insects; in this system 12. What is the clinical
the females are XX and the males have
deficiency presented by
only one X chromosome (a conditioned
represented by X0). hemophilic people? What is
the genetic cause of that
In birds, in some fishes and in deficiency?
lepidopterae (butterflies) insects the sex
determination is made by the ZW Hemophilia is a disease characterized by
system; in this system females are ZW impaired blood clotting and the affected
and males are ZZ. person is more prone to internal and
external hemorrhages.
In another system, the haploid-diploid
sex determination system, one of the Patients with hemophilia A have
sexes is represented by the fertilized alteration in the gene that codifies the
diploid individual and the individual of factor VIII of blood clotting, a gene
the opposite sex is formed by located in the non-homologous portion
parthenogenesis, being haploid (it of the X chromosome. Patients with
occurs in bees and other insects). hemophilia B present a defect of the
gene that codifies the factor IX of
clotting, a gene also located in the non-
homologous region of the X
10. What are X-linked traits? chromosome. Thus both diseases are X-
linked diseases.
X-linked traits are phenotypical traits
conditioned by genes located in the
nonhomologous (heterologous) portions
of the X chromosome. 13. What are all possibilities
of genotypes and phenotypes
formed in the combination of
alleles responsible for the
11. How many alleles of genes
production of factor VIII?
that condition X-linked traits
do female and male
Considering the alleles Xh and X, where
individuals respectively Xh represents the allele that conditions
present? hemophilia A, in women the possible
genotypes are XX, XXh and XhXh. In
men the possible genotypes are XY and
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XhY. Concerning the phenotypes, factor The X-linked daltonism is a disease in
VIII is produced in every individual with which the affected individual sees the
at least one nonaffected X chromosome. red color as green or confounds these
So the women XX and X Xh and the two colours.
men XY are normal. Only women XhXh
and men XhY have the disease.
17. What is the type of genetic

inheritance of daltonism? Is
14. Why is it rare to find daltonism more frequent in
hemophilic women? men or in women? What is the
physiological explanation for
There are more hemophilic men than
the daltonism?
hemophilic women because women
need to have two X chromosomes
affected to develop the disease while in Daltonism is a recessive X-linked
men the disease manifests when the inheritance (gene situated in the
single X chromosome is affected. nonhomologous portion of the X
chromosome).
Daltonism is more frequent in men since

15. Is it possible for any son in them only the single X chromosome
needs to be affected for the disease to
of a couple formed by a
manifest. In women it is necessary for
hemophilic man (XhY) and a both X chromosomes to be affected for
nonhemophilic noncarrier the disease to come out.
(XX) woman to be hemophilic?
The disease appears due to a defect in
If mothers are not affected by the the gene that codifies a retinal pigment
disease and noncarriers of the gene (do sensitive to red.
not have an Xh allele) it is impossible
for their sons to be hemophilic since the
X chromosome of males always comes
from the mother. Hemophilic sons are 18. Are sex-linked diseases
only possible when the mother is associated only to genes of
hemophilic (homozygous for the the X chromosome?
hemophilic gene, a very rare situation)
or carriers of an affected X chromosome There are many X-linked diseases, like
(XXh). hemophilia A, hemophilia B and
adrenoleukodystrophy, but known Y-
linked diseases are few and very rare.
16. What is the clinical

manifestation of the disease
known as daltonism?
368
19. What are holandric genes?
Holandric genes are genes situated in

the nonhomologous region of the Y
chromosome. Holandric genes condition
phenotypes that emerge only in men
since individuals of the female sex do
not present in their X chromosomes
genes from the nonhomologous portion
of the Y chromosome (existent only in
men). A widely known holandric gene is
the one that conditions hypertrichosis
pinnae (hair in the ears), a phenotype
inherited from fathers to sons through
the Y chromosome.
20. What is sex-influenced

dominance?
Sex-influenced dominance is the

phenomenon in which the manifestation
of a phenotype of a gene in
heterozygosity depends on the sex of
the individual. For example, hereditary
baldness is a dominant phenotypical
form if the individual is male and it is a
recessive form if the individual is
female.
369
The ABO blood system includes the
Blood Types erythrocytic antigens A and B that can
be attacked by the antibodies anti-A and
anti-B.
1. What are the main human The antigens A and B are agglutinogens
blood group systems? and the antibodies anti-A and anti-B are
agglutinins.
In humans the main blood group
systems are the ABO system, the Rh
system and the MN system.
4. What are the blood types of
the ABO blood system?
2. Why is the determination of The blood types of the ABO blood

the blood types of the donor system are the type A, the type B, the
type AB and the type O.
and of the recipient important
in transfusions?
Red blood cells have different antigens 5. What are the antigens and
in the outer surface of their plasma antibodies of each blood type
membrane; for example, the antigens A
of the ABO blood system?
and B of the ABO system are
glycoproteins of the membrane. If a
donor has red blood cells with antigens Type A: antigen A, antibody anti-B.
not present in the red blood cells of the Type B: antigen B, antibody anti-A.
recipient (lacking of transfusion Type AB: antigens A and B, does not
compatibility) the immune system of the produce antibody A neither antibody B.
recipient recognizes these molecules as Type O: does not have antigen A neither
actual antigens (i.e., foreign antigen B, has antibodies anti-A and
substances) and triggers a defense anti-B.
response producing specific antibodies
against those antigens. The transfused (Obviously antibodies are made by B
red blood cells then are destroyed by lymphocytes not by red blood cells.)
these antibodies and the recipient
individual may even die.
6. What is the logic of the

transfusional compatibility
3. What are the antigens and concerning the ABO blood
the respective antibodies of group system?
the ABO blood group system?
The transfusional compatibility for the
ABO system takes into account the
370
antigens present in the red blood cells 8. What is the type of genetic
of the donor and the antibodies that the inheritance that determines
recipient can produce. Whenever the
the ABO blood group system?
recipient is not able to produce
antibodies against antigens of the red What are the relations of
blood cells of the donor the transfusion dominance among the
is compatible. involved alleles?
So regarding ABO compatibility type A The inheritance of the ABO blood
can donate to type A and to type AB. system is a multiple alleles inheritance.
Type B can donate to type B and to type There are three involved alleles, IA, IB
AB. Type AB can donate only to type and i that combine in pairs to form the
AB. Type O can donate to all ABO types. genotypes.
(Blood transfusion must be studied, Concerning dominance, the allele i is

planned and supervised by doctors.) recessive in relation to the alleles IA and
IB. Between IA and IB however lack of
dominance is established with the
heterozygous (IAIB) manifesting distinct
7. What are universal donors phenotype.
and universal recipients
concerning the ABO blood
system?
9. What are the genotypes and
Universals donors of the ABO blood type respective blood types of the
system are the individuals of the type ABO system?
O. Type O blood does not have antigen
A neither antigen B in its red blood cells Since the alleles are IA, IB and i the
and can be donated to individuals of any possible genotypes are IAIA (blood type
ABO type. A), IAIB (blood type AB), IBIB (blood type
B) and ii (blood type O).
Universal recipients of the ABO blood
type system are the individuals of the
type AB. Type AB blood does not
contain antibody anti-A neither antibody 10. Is it possible to perform
anti-B and people of this group can investigation of natural
receive blood from any of the ABO
types.
paternity, maternity or
brotherhood and sisterhood
using the ABO blood typing?
By using the ABO blood typing it is

possible only to exclude paternity,
maternity or brotherhood/sisterhood but
it is not possible to conclude positively
about these relationships.
371
For example, if an individual has type O The origin of the name Rh factor is
blood, ii genotype, he or she cannot related to the first researches that
have biological parents of the type AB discovered this blood antigen was in
(IAIB genotype) since necessarily one of rhesus monkeys (“Macaca mulatta”).
his/her alleles has come from the father
and the other from the mother. Another
example: a couple of individuals of the
type O (ii) in their turn can only 13. How are the antibodies
generate direct offspring of the type O against the Rh factor formed?
blood, since they do not have alleles
that condition antigen A neither antigen
Anti-Rh antibodies are made by humoral
B.
immune response. When an Rh-
individual makes contact with the Rh
factor this is recognized as foreign
(antigen), the primary immune
11. Is ABO blood compatibility response begins and small amounts of
enough for the safety of blood anti-Rh antibodies and memory B
transfusion? lymphocytes are made. In future
contact with the antigen there will
Besides ABO blood compatibility the already be circulating antibodies and
compatibility concerning the Rh blood memory immune cells prepared to
system must also be checked. In create an intense and effective attack
addition it is of fundamental importance against the Rh factor.
for the safety of blood transfusion
performing tests to detect agents of
main blood transmitted infectious
diseases, like HIV (AIDS), hepatitis B 14. What is blood typing?
and C, syphilis, Chagas disease, etc.
Blood typing is the determination, by
(Any transfusion must be studied, means of tests, of the classification of a
planned and supervised by doctors.) blood sample concerning blood group
systems (specially the ABO system and
the Rh system).
12. What is the Rh factor?
RH factor is a protein of the red blood 15. How is the blood typing
cell plasma membrane that behaves as concerning the ABO system
antigen in blood transfusions triggering and the Rh usually done?
a humoral (antibody-based) immune
response. Most people present the
In the blood typing for the ABO system
protein in their red blood cells and are
and the Rh system a blood sample is
part of the Rh+ group. People that do
collected from the person and three
not have the protein classify as Rh-.
small volumes of the sample are
separated and dispersed on glass
laminae (slides). On the first lamina
372
serum containing anti-A antibody is 18. What is the Rh typing of
dripped; on the second lamina serum the mother and of the fetus in
containing anti-B antibody is dripped;
the hemolytic disease of the
on the third lamina serum with anti-RH
antibody is dripped. If no agglutination newborn?
reaction takes place in all of the laminae
the blood is of type O- (universal In the hemolytic disease of the newborn
donor); if agglutination occurs only in the mother is Rh- and the fetus Rh+. In
the first lamina the blood is type A-; this disease antibodies produced by the
and so on. mother attack the fetal red blood cells.
There are other methods of blood The hemolytic disease of the new born
typing. Blood typing must be performed is also known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
by qualified technicians.
19. How does the immune

16. What are the inheritance process that causes the
and dominance patterns of the hemolytic disease of the
Rh blood system? newborn take place?
The inheritance pattern of the Rh blood In the hemolytic disease of the newborn
system is autosomal dominant, i.e., the the mother has Rh- blood. This mother
heterozygous manifests as Rh+. The when generating her first Rh+ child
dominance is complete (R is dominant makes contact, possibly during delivery,
over r). The possible genotypes are RR, with Rh+ red blood cells of the child and
Rr (both Rh+) and rr (Rh-). her immune system triggers the primary
immune response against the Rh factor.
Curiosity: the Rh factor is codified by a In the next gestation in which the fetus
gene containing 2790 DNA nucleotides is Rh+ the mother will already have
situated in the human chromosome 1. much more anti-Rh antibodies in her
circulation; these antibodies cross the
placental barrier and gain the fetal
circulation causing fetal hemolysis
17. What is the logic of the (destruction of the red blood cells of the
transfusional compatibility fetus).
concerning the Rh blood group
system?
20. How can the hemolytic
An Rh+ donor can only donate blood to
disease of the newborn be
an Rh+ recipient. A person that lacks
the Rh factor (Rh-) can donate to prevented?
individuals of the Rh+ and Rh- groups.
Erythroblastosis fetalis can be prevented
if in the first delivery of a Rh+ child
from a Rh- mother serum containing
373
anti-Rh antibodies is given to the
mother in the first 72 hours (after the
delivery). Therefore the administered
anti-Rh antibodies destroy the fetal red
blood cells that entered the mother’s
circulation before the triggering of her
primary immune response.
21. What is the MN blood

system? What is the pattern of
genetic inheritance of the MN
blood system?
The MN blood system is a third (in

addition to the ABO and the Rh) system
of blood antigens also related to
proteins of the red blood cell plasma
membrane.
The inheritance pattern of the MN blood

system is autosomal with codominance,
a type of lack of dominance in which the
heterozygous manifests a phenotype
totally distinct from the homozygous.
The possible phenotypical forms are
three blood types: type M blood, type N
blood and type MN blood.
374
Under the action of this drug the cells
Karyotype and interrupt division at metaphase and the
Genetic Diseases anaphase does not occur. Therefore the
use of colchicine in the study of
karyotypes is interesting because
chromosomes will be seen replicated
and condensed.
1. What is karyotype?
The name karyotype is given to the set

of chromosomes of an individual, 4. What is the karyotype
usually when visualized and identified found in Down syndrome?
under the microscope. The visualization
generally is made with the cells in the Down syndrome is an aneuploidy, i.e., a
initial phases of cell division for the numeric alteration of chromosomes
chromosomes to be seen already within the cells compared to the normal
replicated and condensed. number of chromosomes of the species.
Affected individuals have in their cells
an additional chromosome 21 instead of
only one pair. For this reason the
2. Which type of genetic condition is also called trisomy 21. The
disease can be identified from affected person has karyotype with 47
the visual analysis of the chromosomes: 45 + XY or 45 + XX.
number of chromosomes
present in a karyotype?
5. What is aneuploidy? What
The counting and identification of
are the conditions caused by
chromosomes in the karyotype of an
individual can diagnose the the aneuploidies?
aneuploidies, diseases caused by
alteration in the number of Aneuploidy is an abnormal number of
chromosomes in relation to the normal chromosomes in the cells of an
number of the species. individual.
The main aneuploidies of the human

species and their respective conditions
3. Why in the preparation of a are: the nullisomies (absence of any
karyotype analysis is the use chromosome pair of the species, often
incompatible with life); the monosomies
of a substance like colchicine
(absence of a chromosome from a pair,
interesting? for example, Turner’s syndrome, 44 +
X); the trisomies (an extra
Colchicine is a substance that disallows chromosome, for example, the triple X
the formation of microtubules and thus syndrome, 44 + XXX, or the Edwards
of the spindle fibers in cell division.
375
syndrome, trisomy 18, 45 + XY or 45 + 8. How are genetic diseases
XX). classified?
Genetic diseases classify into

chromosomal abnormalities and genetic
6. In general what is the
mutations.
cause of the aneuploidies?
Among chromosomal abnormalities
Generally the aneuploidies are caused there are the aneuploidies, diseases
by impaired assortment of caused by alterations of the normal
chromosomes during meiosis. For (euploidy) number of chromosomes of
example, when the homologous the species. An example of aneuploidy is
chromosomes of the pair 21 do not Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, in which
separate gametes with two there are three chromosomes 21
chromosomes 21 and gametes without instead of the normal pair. In the group
chromosomes 21 form. If a gamete with of chromosomal abnormalities there are
two chromosomes 21 fecundates a also the deletions (absence of part of a
normal gamete of the opposite sex the chromosome), the inversions (in which
zygote will present trisomy (three a chromosome breaks and its pieces
chromosomes 21). If a gamete without reconnect in inverse manner) and the
chromosomes 21 fecundates a normal translocations (pieces of a chromosome
gamete of the opposite sex there will be that exchange positions).
a zygote with monosomy (with only one
chromosome 21). In the genetic mutation group there are
the deletions (one or more DNA
The defects in the separation of nucleotide absent), the substitutions
chromosomes during cell division are and the insertions.
called chromosomal nondisjunctions.
During meiosis nondisjunctions may
occur in the anaphase I (nondisjunction
of homologous) as well in anaphase II 9. What are genetic
(nondisjunction of sister chromatids). mutations?
Genetic mutations are alterations of the

genetic material (compared to the
7. Do all genetic diseases
normal condition of the species)
result from alteration in the involving modifications in the normal
number of chromosomes of nucleotide sequence of a gene but
the cells? without structural or numeric
chromosomal changes.
Besides aneuploidies there are other
genetic diseases, other chromosomal These modifications may be deletions
abnormalities and also the genetic (loss of nucleotides), substitutions
mutations. (exchange of nucleotides by other
different nucleotides) or insertions
376
(placement of additional nucleotides in survival and reproduction are preserved
the DNA molecule). (the remaider are eliminated as their
carriers have difficulty in surviving and
reproducing). In this manner the
combined processes of accumulation of
10. Does every gene mutation small mutations and of natural selection
cause alteration in the protein incorporate new features in the species
and they may even lead to speciation
the gene normally codifies?
(formation of new species) and
promotion of biological diversity.
Not every gene mutation causes
alteration in the composition of the (Obviously only genetic mutations
protein the gene codifies. Since the transmitted by cells that originate new
genetic code is degenerated, i.e., there individuals, in sexual or asexual
are amino acids codified by more than reproduction, have evolutionary effect.)
one different DNA nucleotide triplet, if
by chance the mutation substitutes one
or more nucleotides of a codifier triplet
and the newly formed triplet still 12. What are mutagenic
codifies the same amino acid codified by
the original triplet there will be no
agents?
modification in the protein made from
the gene. Mutagenic agents, or mutagens, are
physical, chemical or biological factors
that can cause alteration in DNA
molecules.
11. How do genetic mutations
Examples of well-known or believed to
influence biological diversity?
be mutagenic agents are: X, alpha, beta
and gamma rays, ultraviolet radiation,
Too extensive or too frequent genetic nitrous acid, many dyes, some
mutations generally are deleterious for sweeteners, some herbicides, many
individuals and species. These substances of tobacco, some viruses,
mutations often cause important like HPV, etc. Small DNA fragments
phenotypical changes or defects known as transposons can also act as
incompatible with the survival of the mutagens when incorporated into other
body and the continuity of the species. DNA molecules.
However small genetic mutations that

do not cause the appearing of lethal
changes are continuously accumulated
in the genetic patrimony of the species.
These mutations gradually add to each
other giving birth to small phenotypical
changes in individuals. These small
changes are exposed to the selective
criticism of the environment (natural
selection) and the more favorable for
377
13. How are mutagenic agents 15. What are some diseases or
related to cancer incidence in genetic abnormalities caused
a population? Is cancer a by recessive genes?
disease transmitted to the
individual offspring? Examples of recessive genetic diseases
are: cystic fibrosis, albinism,
The exposition of a population to phenylketonuria, galactosemia, Tay-
mutagenic agents (for example, the Sachs disease.
people living in the surrounds of the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant and
exposed to the radiation from the
nuclear accident in 1986) increases the 16. What are some diseases or
cancer incidence in that population. This genetic abnormalities caused
occurs because the mutagenic agents by dominant genes? Why are
increase the rate of mutation and the severe dominant genetic
probability of mutant cells to proliferate
diseases rarer than recessive
in pathological manner (cancer).
ones?
Cancer itself is not a hereditarily
transmissible disease. Genetic Examples of dominant genetic diseases
predispositions for the development of are: Huntington's disease (or
cancer, however, can be inherited. Huntington’s chorea),
neurofibromatosis,
hypercholesterolemia, polycystic kidney
disease.
14. How do the repairing
enzymes of the genetic Severe and early autosomal dominant
diseases are rarer than recessive
system act? autosomal diseases because in this last
group the affected allele may be hidden
There are enzymes within the cells that in the heterozygous individuals and
detect errors or alterations in DNA transmitted to the offspring until
molecules and begin a repair of those undergoing homozygosity (actual
errors. First, enzymes known as manifestation of the disease). In severe
restriction endonucleases, specialized in dominant diseases the heterozygous
cutting DNA molecules (also used in manifests the condition and often dies
genetic engineering), cut the affected without having offspring. (Some genetic
piece of DNA. Then polymerase diseases are of later manifestation, like
enzymes build correct sequences of Huntington disease; in these cases the
nucleotides correspondent to the incidence is higher because many
affected piece taking as template the individuals have children before knowing
DNA chain complementary to the that they are carriers of the dominant
affected chain. Finally the new correct gene).
sequence is bound in the DNA under
repair by specific enzymes.
378
17. What is consanguineal
marriage? Why is the
The Hardy-
appearing of genetic disease Weinberg Principle
more probable in the offspring
of a consanguineal marriage?
Consanguineal marriage is the marriage 1. What is allele frequency?

between relatives, i.e., people having
common near ancestors. Allele frequency is the percentage of
appearances of an allele in the
The consanguineal marriage increases genotypes of a given population
the probability of recessive genetic (compared to the other alleles of the
disease in the offspring since it is studied gene).
common for people from the same
genetic lineage to be heterozygous For example, in the ABO blood system
carriers of alleles that condition there are three alleles (IA, IB and i).
recessive genetic diseases. Considering a group of three persons,
one with genotype IAi, other IAIB and
other ii, the frequency of the allele IA in
this “population” is 2/6, the frequency
18. How is the early diagnosis of the allele IB is 1/6 and the frequency
of genetic diseases usually of the allele i is 3/6.
done?
Genetic disease may be diagnosed in 2. What is genetic

the prenatal period by karyotype
analysis, in case of aneuploidies, or by equilibrium?
DNA analysis, in case of other diseases.
Genetic equilibrium is the result of the
The test is performed by removal of Hardy-Weinberg law, a principle that
material containing cells of the embryo affirms that under specific conditions
by amniocentesis (extraction of amniotic the frequencies of the alleles of a gene
fluid) or cordocentesis (puncture of the in a given population remain constant.
umbilical cord) or even by chorionic
villus biopsy (that can be done earlier in (The Hardy-Weinberg principle is not
gestation). valid in the following conditions: for
populations too small, in the occurrence
Ultrasonography is a diagnostic of noncasual (driven) crossings, for
procedure for some genetic diseases populations with many infertile
that produce morphological variations members and in case of action of
during the embryonic development. The evolutionary factors, like natural
study of genetic family trees is also an selection, mutations and migrations.)
important auxiliary method in the early
diagnosis of many genetic diseases.
379
3. What is the mathematical 4. An hypothesis for the
expression of the genetic extinction of the dinosaurs is
equilibrium for genes with two that the earth had been hit by
alleles? Is this statistical a gigantic meteor that caused
distribution the same as the the death of those big reptiles.
statistical distribution of the In that case the entire genetic
respective phenotypes? pool of those animals has
been destroyed, invalidating
Considering p the frequency of one of the Hardy-Weinberg
the alleles and q the frequency of the equilibrium. In Genetics what
other allele of a given gene in a
is this type of gene frequency
population, in this population individuals
produce p gametes with the first allele change called?
for each q gamete containing the
second allele. Therefore the probabilities The phenomenon in which a large
of formation of homozygous genotype number of genes is destroyed or
for the first allele is p2, of homozygous introduced in a population is called
genotype for the second allele is q2 and genetic drift.
of the heterozygous genotype is p.q +
q.p, i.e., 2p.q. When a genetic drift occurs the Hardy
Weinberg principle is not applicable.
Since the sum of those probabilities
necessarily is 1, the resulting
mathematical expression is: p2 + 2p.q +
q2 = 1. 5. What are the penetrance
and the expressivity of a
In general the number of genotypical gene?
forms is not identical to the number of
phenotypical forms since there are
dominance and other interactions Individuals that carry a same genotype
do not always manifest in an identical
between genes that affect the
manifestation of the phenotype. manner the correspondent phenotype.
These manifestations may differ in
intensity, from one individual to
another, or even the phenotype may not
manifest in some percentage of carriers.
Gene penetrance is the percentage of

phenotypical manifestation of a gene in
a given population of carrier individuals
(same genotype). Gene expressivity is
the degree (intensity) of the
phenotypical manifestation of a gene in
each individual or group of individuals
that carry the gene (same genotype).
The gene penetrance and the gene
380
expressiveness may be influenced by
the environment.
6. Why is a balanced
frequency of different alleles
of a gene in a population more
useful for the survival of that
population facing
environmental changes?
For a trait conditioned by two alleles, for

example, A and a, a balanced frequency
between the alleles A and b is more
advantageous for survival. For example,
in an environmental situation in which
the aa homozygous phenotype becomes
incompatible with life the presence of a
good number of individuals AA and Aa
will result in better survival chance for
the species. Another example: an
environmental situation in which the
dominant phenotype becomes
incompatible with life; in this case the
existence of heterozygous and recessive
homozygous individuals in enough
number may be fundamental for the
survival of the species.
381
beings; the nucleus transplantation
Genetic technology, popularly known as
Engineering “cloning”, in which a nucleus of a cell is
grafted into a enucleated egg cell of the
same species to create a genetic copy of
the donor (of the nucleus) individual;
the technology of DNA amplification, or
1. What is biotechnology? PCR (polymerase chain reaction), that
allows millions replications of chosen
Biotechnology is the application of fragments of a DNA molecule.
biological knowledge to obtain new
techniques, materials and compounds of The recombinant DNA technology is
pharmaceutical, medical, agrarian, used to create transgenic organisms,
industrial and scientific use, i.e., of like mutant insulin-producing bacteria.
practical use. The nucleus transplantation technology
is in its initial development but it is the
The pioneer fields of biotechnology were basis, for example, of the creation of
agriculture and the food industry but “Dolly” the sheep. PCR has numerous
nowadays many other practical fields practical uses, as in medical tests to
use its techniques. detect microorganisms present in blood
and tissues, DNA fingerprint and
obtainment of DNA samples for
research.
2. What is genetic
engineering?
4. What are restriction
Genetic engineering is the use of
genetic knowledge to artificially
enzymes? How do these
manipulate genes: It is one of the fields enzymes participate in the
of biotechnology. recombinant DNA technology?
Restriction enzymes, or restriction

endonucleases, are enzymes specialized
3. At the present level of the in the cutting of DNA fragments each
biotechnology what are the acting upon specific sites of the DNA
main techniques of genetic molecule. Restriction enzymes are used
engineering? in the recombinant DNA technology to
obtain with precision pieces of DNA
molecules to be later inserted into other
The main techniques of genetic DNA molecules cut by the same
engineering today are: the recombinant enzymes.
DNA technology (also called genetic
engineering itself) in which pieces of
genes from an organism are inserted
into the genetic material of another
organism producing recombinant
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5. What are DNA ligases? How enzymes (restriction endonucleases)
do these enzymes participate specialized in cutting DNA fragments.
The once circular plasmid is open by the
in the recombinant DNA restriction enzyme. The same enzyme is
technology? used to cut a human DNA molecule
containing the insulin gene. The piece of
DNA ligases are enzymes specialized in human DNA containing the insulin gene
tying the complementary DNA chains then has its extremities bound to the
that form the DNA double helix. These plasmid with the help of DNA ligases.
enzymes are used in the recombinant The recombinant plasmid containing the
DNA technology to insert pieces of DNA human insulin gene is then inserted into
cut by restriction enzymes into other the bacteria.
DNA molecules submitted to the action
of the same endonucleases. Another human hormone already
produced by recombinant bacteria is GH
(somatotropin, or growth hormone).
6. What are plasmids? The insertion of DNA molecules into

cells of an individual is also the method
Plasmids are circular DNA molecules of the gene therapy, a promising
present in the genetic material of some treatment for genetic diseases. In gene
bacteria. They may contain genes therapy cells from an organism deficient
responsible for bacterial resistance to in the production of a given protein
some antibiotics and for proteins that receive (by means of vectors, e.g.,
cause virulence (pathogenic hostility). virus) pieces of DNA containing the
protein gene and they then begin to
synthesize the protein.
7. How is genetic engineering

used to create bacteria
8. What is cloning?
capable of producing human
insulin? Cloning is the making of an organism
genetically identical to another by
In the production of human insulin by means of genetic engineering.
bacteria the human insulin gene is
incorporated into the genetic material of The basis of cloning is the nucleus
these microorganisms. The mutant transplantation technology. A nucleus
bacteria multiply forming lineages of from a cell is extracted, generally from
insulin-producing bacteria. an embryonic (not differentiated) cell
and this nucleus is inserted into a
In bacteria there are circular strands of previously enucleated reproductive cell
DNA called plasmids, minichromosomes (in general an egg cell); the egg is then
which act as an accessory to the main implanted in the organ where the
DNA. To create a mutant bacteria embryonic development will take place.
capable of producing insulin a plasmid is If embryonic development occurs the
submitted to the action of restriction new organism will have identical genetic
383
patrimony to the organism owner of the DNA fingerprint, the method of
cell whose nucleus was used in the individual identification using DNA, is
transplantation. based on the fact that the DNA of every
individual (with exception of identical
twins and individual clones) contains
nucleotide sequences exclusive to each
9. What is PCR? How does PCR individual.
works?
Although normal individuals of the same
species have the same genes in their
PCR, polymerase chain reaction, is a
chromosomes, each individual has
method to synthesize many copies of
different alleles and even in the inactive
specific regions of a DNA molecule
portions of the chromosomes
known as target-regions. Its inventor,
(heterochromatin) there are differences
Kary Mullis, won the Nobel prize for
in nucleotide sequences among
Chemistry in 1993.
individuals.
First, the DNA to be tested is heated to
cause the double helix to rupture and
the polynucleotide chains to be
exposed. Then small synthetic
11. Why are the recombinant
sequences of DNA known as primers DNA technology and the
and containing nucleotide sequences nucleus transplantation
similar to the sequences of the technology still dangerous?
extremities of the region to be studied
(for example, a region containing a The recombinant DNA technology and
known gene exclusive of a given the nucleus transplantation technology
organism) are added. The primers (cloning) are extremely dangerous since
paired with the original DNA in the they are able to modify, in a very short
extremities of the gene to be amplified. time, the ecological balance that
Enzymes known as polymerases, that evolution has taken millions of years to
catalyze DNA replication, and nucleotide create on the planet. During the
supply are added. The primers then are evolutionary process, under the slow
completed and the chosen region is and gradual action of mutations, genetic
replicated. In the presence of more recombinations and of natural selection
primers and more nucleotides millions of species emerged and were modified and
copies of that specific region are genetic patrimonies were formed. With
generated. (PCR is very sensitive even genetic engineering however humans
using a minimal amount of DNA). can mix and modify genes, making
changes of unpredictable long term
consequences, risking creating new
plant or animal diseases, new types of
10. What is the fact of cancers and new disease outbreaks. It
Molecular Biology on which is a field as potentially dangerous as the
DNA fingerprint is based? manipulation of nuclear energy.
384
12. What is the main moral
problem about the cloning of
human individuals?
Besides biological perils, a very serious

moral problem involves the nucleus
transplantation technology concerning
humans: an individual right of a human
being is offended when a man or
woman is made as a copy of another.
Since it is impossible to first ask if the

person to be generated wants or not to
be a genetic copy of another person,
certainly the most important human
right is being offended, one's individual
freedom, when a human being is
obliged to be a genetic copy of another.
It is indeed a danger to democracy,
whose most basic principle must be
nonviolation of individual freedom.
385
386
Evolution
387
388
transcendental explanations about the
Origin of Life origin of life on the planet.
With the development of science new
explanatory attempts have emerged.
Notable among them are the
1. How old is the earth? spontaneous generation hypothesis, or
abiogenesis, that asserted that living
It is believed that the earth is beings were created from nonliving
approximately 4.5 billion years old. material, the cosmic panspermia
hypothesis, theory that life on earth is a
result of seeding from the outer space,
the autotrophic hypothesis, according to
2. How old is the universe? which the first living beings were
autotrophs, and the heterotrophic
hypothesis, the most accepted
From analysis of data collected by the nowadays, that affirms that life
Hubble telescope the age of the emerged from heterotrophic cells.
universe is estimated to be about 12
billion years. At the end of the 1980s decade a new
hypothesis known as the RNA world
hypothesis was presented. This
hypothesis asserts that primitive life
3. When did life appear on had only RNA as genetic material and as
earth? structural molecules that later turned
into DNA and proteins. The RNA world
It is estimated that life on earth hypothesis is strengthened by the fact
emerged about 3.5 billion years ago, that RNA can play a catalytic role, like
thus 1 billion years after the formation enzymes, and by the finding that some
of the planet. bacteria have ribosomes made only of
RNA without associated proteins.
4. Historically how has the

origin of life on earth been 5. What is the spontaneous
explained? generation hypothesis?
The most recurrent explanation for the The spontaneous generation

phenomenon of life on earth is the hypothesys, or abiogenesis, asserts that
mythological. People from various parts life on earth has come from nonliving
of the world developed explanatory material. For example, the fact that with
myths about the origin of animals and time rats appeared around waste was
human beings. Some of those myths considered in the past a confirmation of
were incorporated into religions and this hypothesis. Some supporters of
almost all religions have metaphorical or spontaneous generation associated it
with the existence of an active principle
389
(the vital elan) that would be the source other planets or even from other
of life, a theory known as vitalism. galaxies by traveling in meteorites,
comets, etc. According to this
hypothesis even the type of life now
existent on earth could have also been
6. How did the experiments of seeded intentionally by extraterrestrial
Redi and Pasteur refute the beings in other stellar and planetary
systems.
hypothesis of spontaneous
generation?
To refute the spontaneous generation 8. What is the autotrophic

hypothesis many experiments were hypothesis on the origin of
performed. Francisco Redi, in 1668,
verified that maggots appeared on meat
life?
only when there was exposition to the
environment; within closed The autotrophic hypothesis on the origin
environments, they did not appear. In of life asserts that the first living beings
1862, Louis Pasteur working with swan- on earth were producers of their own
neck flasks refuted the abiogenesis food, just like plants and
hypothesis definitively. In this chemosynthetic microorganisms.
experiment Pasteur demonstrated that
boiled (to kill microorganisms) nutritive
soups put in swan-neck flasks (with a
curved down mouth so microorganisms 9. What is the heterotrophic
could not enter easily) did not hypothesis on the origin of
contaminate with microorganisms while life?
the same soups within flasks with open
upwards mouths were contaminated in
According to the heterotrophic
a few days. The fact that both flasks
hypothesis the first living beings were
were open refuted the argument of the
very simple heterotrophic organisms,
vitalists that the vital elan could not
i.e., not producers of their own food,
enter the flasks. Pasteur broke the
which emerged from the gradual
swan-necks of the flasks to demonstrate
association of organic molecules into
that proliferation of microorganism
small organized structures (the
could happen if these beings were able
coacervates). The first organic
to reach the broth.
molecules in their turn would have
appeared from substances of the earth's
primitive atmosphere submitted to
strong electrical discharges, to solar
7. What is panspermia? radiation and to high temperatures.
Panspermia is a hypothesis that

describes life on earth as not originated
from the planet. The idea is that the
first living beings that colonized the
earth came from outer space, from
390
10. What is the most accepted 12. What are the main
hypothesis about the origin of constituents of the earth's
life on earth? How does it atmosphere in our time?
compare to the other main
hypotheses? The present atmosphere of the earth is
constituted mainly of molecular nitrogen
The heterotrophic hypothesis is the (N2) and molecular oxygen (O2).
strongest and most accepted hypothesis Nitrogen is the most abundant gas,
about the origin of life. approximately 80% of the total volume.
Oxygen makes up about 20%. Other
The spontaneous generation hypothesis gases exist in the atmosphere in a low
has been excluded by the experiments percentage. (Of great concern is the
of Pasteur. The panspermia hypothesis increase in the amount of carbon
is not yet completely refuted but it is dioxide due to human activity, the cause
not well-accepted since it would be of the threatening global warming.)
necessary to explain how living beings
could survive long space journeys under
conditions of extreme temperatures as
well as to clarify the manner by which 13. Was there molecular
they would resist the high temperatures oxygen in the earth's primitive
faced when entering the earth's atmosphere? How has that
atmosphere. The autotrophic hypothesis molecule become abundant?
is weakened if one takes into account
that the production of organic material
The presence of molecular oxygen in the
from inorganic substances is a highly
primitive atmosphere was probably at a
complex process requiring diversified
minimum and extremely rare. Oxygen
enzymatic systems and that the
became abundant with the emergence
existence of complex metabolic
of photosynthetic beings,
reactions on the primitive earth were
approximately, 1.5 billion years after
not probable.
the appearance of life on the planet.
11. Before the emergence of 14. Which physical elements

life of what gases was the contributed to the great
earth's primitive atmosphere amount of available energy on
constituted? the primitive earth at the time
of the origin of life?
The earth's primitive atmosphere was
basically formed of methane, hydrogen,
ammonia and water vapor. 3.5 billion years ago the water cycle was
faster than today, resulting in hard
storms with intense electrical
discharges. There was also no chemical
protection from the ozone layer against
391
ultraviolet radiation. The temperatures might divide themselves and also
in the atmosphere and on the planet absorb and excrete substances. It is
surface were very high. Electricity, believed that these structures may have
radiation and heat constituted large been the precursors of cells.
available energy sources.
17. How can coacervates be

15. What was the experiment formed of phospholipids or
of Stanley Miller (1953) on the polypeptides?
origin of life?
Phospholipids are amphipathic
In 1953 Stanley Miller arranged an molecules, i.e., they present a polar
experimental apparatus that simulated portion and a nonpolar portion. In
the atmospheric conditions of the contact with water these molecules tend
primitive earth. The experiment to spontaneously unite and organize
contained a mixture of methane, themselves forming membranes that
ammonia, hydrogen and circulating create a closed interior space separated
water that when heated was from the exterior environment.
transformed into vapor. He submitted Polypeptide chains in their turn can
the mixture to continuous bombardment attract water (by electrical attraction)
of electrical discharge and after days forming a surrounding water layer and
obtained a liquid residual within which also creating an organized structure
he discovered organic molecules and with delimited interior space.
among them surprisingly the amino
acids glycine and alanine, the most
abundant constituents of proteins. Other
researchers reproduced the Miller 18. How could coacervates
experiment and noted also the have facilitated the
formation of other organic molecules emergence of life on earth?
such as lipids, carbohydrates and
nucleotides.
Coacervates probably provided a nitid
separation between an internal and an
external environment and thus the
16. What are coacervates? organic material within was not lost to
the ocean. The enzymatic action inside
that internal environment could develop
Coarcervates are small structures made in different manners increasing the
of the aggregation of organic molecules speed of specific chemical reactions.
under water solution. By electrical Coacervates also allowed the molecular
attraction the molecules join into bigger flux across its membrane to be
and more organized particles distinct selective. Since containing different
from the fluid environment forming a molecules and differently organized
membrane-like structure that separates from each other, coacervates could
an internal region of the coacervate have promoted a competition for
from the exterior. The coacervates
392
molecules from the environment setting 21. What evidence
out an evolutionary selection. strengthens the hypothesis
that chloroplasts could have
been photosynthetic
19. What is the evolutionary prokaryotes and mitochondria
origin of the internal could have been aerobic
membranous organelles of the prokaryotes?
cell?
The fact that chloroplasts are the
It is accepted that the internal organelles responsible for
membranous organelles of the photosynthesis in plants leads to the
eukaryotic, like the Golgi apparatus and supposition that before symbiosis they
the endoplasmic reticulum, appeared were autotrophic prokaryotes. For the
from invaginations of the external reason that mitochondria are the center
membrane of primitive cells. of the aerobic cellular respiration, the
powerhouse of the eukaryotic cell, it is
supposed that they were once aerobic
prokaryotes.
20. How have prokaryotic cells
The endosymbiotic hypothesis to explain
given origin to aerobic the emergence of aerobic and
eukaryotic cells and to autotrophic eukaryotic beings is
photosynthetic aerobic strengthened further by the following
eukaryotic cells? evidence: chloroplasts as well as
mitochondria have their own DNA,
According to the most accepted similar to bacterial DNA; chloroplasts
hypothesis aerobic eukaryotic cells and mitochondria reproduce asexually
emerged from the association of aerobic by binary division, like bacteria do; both
prokaryotes engulfed by primitive organelles have ribosomes and
anaerobic eukaryotic cells. This would synthesize proteins.
have been the origin of mitochondria
that thus would have primitively been
aerobic bacteria engulfed by eukaryotic
anaerobes. This hypothesis is called the 22. How did the first
endosymbiotic hypothesis on the origin fermenting autotrophs
of mitochondria. appeared? What about the
first aerobic beings?
Chloroplasts would also have appeared
by endosymbiosis from the entry of
The heterotrophic hypothesis asserts
photosynthetic prokaryotes into aerobic
that the first living beings were the
eukaryotes, both establishing a
fermenting heterotrophs. Fermentation
mutualist ecological interaction.
released carbon dioxide (CO2) and then
the atmosphere became enriched by
this gas. By mutation and natural
selection organisms capable of using
393
carbon dioxide and light to synthesize impracticable. Probably the first living
organic material appeared. These would beings lived submerged in deep water
have been the first photosynthetic to avoid destruction by solar radiation.
beings (that were also fermenting Only after the appearance of
beings since there was no abundance of photosynthetic beings and the later
oxygen). filling of the atmosphere with oxygen
released by them the formation of the
Since photosynthesis is a reaction that atmospheric ozone layer that filters
releases molecular oxygen, with the ultraviolet radiation was possible.
emergence of fermenting autotrophs
this gas became available. Some
organisms then developed aerobic
respiration using O2, a highly efficient
method to produce energy.
23. Why is it more probable

that the photosynthetic
prokaryotes appeared before
the aerobic eukaryotes?
It is more probable that photosynthetic

prokaryotes appeared before the
aerobic eukaryotes because without
photosynthesis the earth's atmosphere
would not be enriched with molecular
oxygen, and without oxygen the
existence of aerobic beings would not be
possible.
24. What is an argument that

shows that the emergence of
photosynthetic beings was
crucial for life to reach the
marine surface and later the
dry land?
Ultraviolet radiation from the sun was

not disallowed to reach the surface of
the primitive earth. Therefore the
development of life on dry land or even
near the aquatic surface was
394
of various religions. Modernized
Theory of Evolution religious interpreters teach creationism
as a metaphorical wisdom and not as
opposed to evolutionism.
1. What is the problem that Furthermore it is possible to make

the theory of evolution and its evolution compatible with creationism
by considering that God in His
rival theories try to solve?
perfection would not create a world so
full of imperfections and sufferings like
The problem that the theory of our world. One can maintain the
evolution, or simply evolution, and its creationist belief thinking that the world
rival theories try to solve is to explain God created is another much better
how the different living beings that live world or at least not the one that we
on earth have appeared. see while admitting the imperfection of
life that we see has emerged by
evolution.
2. What is the main theory

opposed to evolution?
4. In the scientific competition
The main theory that opposes the against fixism what are the
evolution theory on the explanation of main arguments that favor
how species emerged (phylogenesis) is evolutionism?
fixism.
The main arguments in favor of

evolutionism are: paleontological, from
3. What is fixism? the study of similarities among fossils of
different periods; of compared anatomy,
the existence of structures with same
Fixism is the theory about the diversity origin and function and of residual
of life on earth that affirms that the organs, like the human appendix, that
current existent species were identical reveal relationships among species; of
to species of the past and came out compared embryology, similarities of
already adapted to the environment structures and developmental processes
without undergoing changes. among embryos of related species; of
molecular biology, larger percentage of
Fixism opposes evolutionism since similar nucleotide sequences in the DNA
evolutionism is the idea that current of species having common ancestors.
species emerged from gradual
transformations suffered by ancestral
and extinct species.
The religious version of fixism is called

creationism. Many different forms of
creationism are found in the mythology
395
5. What are fossils? According to the law of use and disuse
the characteristics of a body vary as it is
more or less used. This rule is valid for
Fossils are petrified vestiges of beings
that lived in the past conserved by example for features like the muscular
mass and the size of the bones.
chemical and geological processes and
found within rocks and sedimentary
The law of the transmission of acquired
strata of the terrestrial crust.
characteristics in its turn established
that parents could transmit to their
offspring characteristics acquired by the
law of use and disuse.
6. How does the study of
fossils strengthen the theory
of evolution?
9. What is lamarckism?
The study of fossils reveals ancient and
extinct species having many similar Lamarckism is the theory that unites the
structures to others of the present and law of use and disuse with the law of
of the past. Fossils still allow radioactive the transmission of acquired
dating to estimate the periods during characteristics, i.e., that asserted that
which species lived and to establish a acquired characteristics, for example,
chronological relationship between the muscular mass, could be
them. Those evidences strengthen the transmitted from a parent to its
hypothesis of relationship and common offspring.
origin among species and that their
features have modified gradually until The theory was proposed by the French
the formation of the current species. naturalist Lamarck in the beginning of
the 19th century. At that time the idea
was not so absurd since nobody knew
how the transmission of hereditary
7. Historically what were the characteristics occurred. (Lamarck had
two main evolutionary great merit in introducing an
theories? evolutionary theory based in natural law
at a time dominated by fixism.)
The two main evolutionary theories
were lamarckism and darwinism.
10. Who was Charles Darwin?
8. What is meant by the law of Charles Darwin was an English

use and disuse and by the law naturalist born in 1809 and considered
the father of the theory of evolution. At
of the transmission of the end of the year 1831, before turning
acquired characteristics? 23 years of age, Darwin embarked as
volunteer scientist on the ship the
Beagle for a five year expedition to the
396
South American coast and the Pacific. advantageous characteristics for
During the voyage, whose most famous survival and more able to generate
passage was the stop in the Galapagos offspring and so he described the basis
Islands, Darwin collected data that he of the principle of natural selection.
used to write his masterpiece “The
Origin of Species” (1859). In this book
the principles of the common ancestry
of all living beings and of natural 13. How did the industrial
selection as the force that drives the revolution in England offer an
diversity of species were described. example of natural selection?
Darwin died in 1882.
(The original name of the most famous One of the classic examples of natural
book written by Darwin was “On the selection is regarding the moths of
Origin of Species by Means of Natural industrial zones of England in the end of
Selection”.) the 19th century and the beginning of
the 20th century. As the industrial
revolution advanced the bark of the
trees that moths landed on became
11. What is the mechanism darker due to the soot released from
factories. The population of light moths
described by Darwin that then decreased and was substituted by
eliminates species less a population of dark moths since the
adapted to environmental mimicry of the dark moths in the new
conditions? environment protected them from
predators, i.e., they had an adaptive
The mentioned mechanism is the advantage in that new environment.
natural selection. Light moths in their turn suffered the
negative effect of natural selection for
becoming more visible to predators and
were almost eliminated. In the open
forest far from factories however it was
12. How did Darwin reach the
experimentally verified that light moths
principle of natural selection maintained their adaptive advantage
from the observation of and the dark moths continued to be
differences among individuals more easily found by predators.
of the same species?
Darwin recognized that in a same

species there were individuals with 14. What are the fundamental
different characteristics. He also realized similarities and differences
that those differences could lead to between lamarckism and
different survival and reproduction darwinism?
chances for each individual. Therefore
he discovered the importance of the
Both lamarckism and darwinism are
environment acting upon organisms and
evolutionary theories as opposed to
preserving those having more
397
fixism, both admit the existence of alterations in the genetic material of the
processes that caused changes in the individuals, more precisely by
characteristics of the living beings in the modifications or recombinations of DNA
past. molecules. Small changes in the genetic
material accumulate and new
They have however different phenotypical characteristics emerge.
explanations for those changes. The carriers of these characteristics
Lamarckism combines the law of use then are submitted to natural selection.
and disuse with the law of the From modern Biology its recognized that
transmission of acquired characteristics natural selection generates in a given
to explain the changes. Darwinism population an increase in the frequency
defends the action of the natural of alleles and genes more favorable to
selection. survival and reproduction; less
advantageous genes and alleles tend to
be eliminated.
15. In the time of Darwin the

results of Mendel’s research
on biological inheritance had 17. Using the concepts of
not been published, Genetics variability, environmental
was not yet developed, pressure and natural selection
neither DNA nor the concept how does the synthetic theory
of genetic mutation were explain the darwinian natural
known. What is the modern selection?
darwinist theory that
Genetic variability occurs from
incorporates these bodies of
recombination of chromosomes during
knowledge? sexual reproduction and from DNA
mutations in germ cells and gametes.
The modern darwinist theory that Such variability creates individuals who
incorporates knowledge from Genetics are carriers of some new phenotypical
and Molecular Biology is called characteristics compared to their
neodarwinism, or synthetic theory of ancestors. These individuals are
evolution. submitted to environmental pressure
and can be more or less well-succeeded
concerning survival or reproduction.
Those better succeeded transmit their
16. How does the synthetic genetic patrimony to a larger number of
theory of evolution descendants increasing the frequency of
incorporate knowledge from their genes in the population; those less
well-succeeded tend to transmit their
Genetics and Molecular genes to a small number of descendants
Biology into the darwinism? decreasing the frequency of their genes
in the population or even becoming
Today it is known that variation of extinct. This process is called natural
inherited characteristics is created by selection (preservation of organisms
398
that present more adapted phenotypes 19. What is reproductive
for the environmental pressure they isolation?
face).
Living beings are considered under
reproductive isolation when they cannot
cross among themselves or if they can
18. In hospitals where many
cross but cannot generate fertile
tuberculosis patients are offspring.
treated the population of the
tuberculosis mycobacteria
may be constituted of
multiresistant (to antibiotics) 20. What is the relationship
strains. How does the between the concept of
synthetic theory of evolution reproductive isolation and the
explain this fact? concept of species?
The appearance of multiresistant strains Reproductive isolation is an important

of pathogenic parasites in hospitals, for concept because it defines the concept
example, of multiresistant tuberculosis of species: only living beings that can
bacteria, can be explained by the cross among themselves and generate
synthetic theory of evolution. fertile offspring, i.e., that are not under
reproductive isolation, belong to the
As in any environment, TB bacteria in same species. For example, humans
hospitals undergo changes in their and chimps are under reproductive
genetic material. In the hospital isolation and are not of the same
environment however they suffer species.
continuous exposition to antibiotics.
Many of them die by the antibiotic
action but carriers of mutations that
provide resistance to those antibiotics 21. What is speciation?
proliferate freely. These resistant
microorganisms when submitted to Speciation is the process by which
other antibiotics again undergo natural different species emerge from a
selection and those which became common ancestor species. Speciation
resistant to these other drugs are generally begins when populations of
preserved and proliferate. Thus strains the same species become
of multiresistant (nontreatable) mutant geographically isolated, i.e., when they
bacteria emerge in hospitals. are separated by some physical barrier
that disallows crossing between
The use of antibiotics is a factor that individuals from one population and
promotes natural selection and the individuals of another population.
emergence of multiresistant bacteria.
This is the reason why hospitals often Groups that for a long time are kept
have committees that control the use of under geographical isolation tend to
antibiotics. accumulate different phenotypical
399
characteristics from each other by 24. What is adaptive
means of genetic variability (mutations convergence?
and recombination) and natural
selection. When those differences reach
a point that makes the crossing of Adaptive convergence is the
phenomenon by which living beings
individuals of one group with individuals
of the other group impossible or the facing the same environmental pressure
(problems) and undergoing genetic
generation of fertile offspring no longer
happens it is said that speciation has variability and natural selection
incorporate similar (analogous) organs
occurred.
and structures (solutions) into their
bodies during evolution. For example,
the fins and the hydrodynamic body of
fishes and dolphins, phylogenetically
22. Why does geographical
distant animals.
isolation lead to speciation?
Geographical isolation between groups

of the same species leads to formation 25. What is adaptive
of a new species since it disallows radiation?
crossing among isolated individuals.
Distinct characteristics from the other
groups are incorporated by genetic Adaptive radiation is the appearance of
several other species from one common
variability and natural selection into the
isolated groups until the emergence of a ancestral species that have spread to
various regions or environments. The
new species. So the geographical
isolation creates the reproductive different characteristics among the
species correspond to the adaptive
isolation.
necessities of the ecological niches each
one occupies, i.e., to different
environmental pressures.
23. How can the fact that
fishes and dolphins have
similar organs and similar 26. What is the difference
general shape be explained? between analogous and
homologous organs?
Fishes and dolphins have similar organs
and shape because although they have
phylogenetically distant ancestors they Characteristics of different species are
face similar environmental pressures said to be analogous when having the
since they share the same habitat same biological function, for example,
(water). So by undergoing genetic the wings of bats and the wings of
variability and natural selection some insects.
similar features, for example, the
hydrodynamic body and the presence of Characteristics of different species are
fins, were incorporated into these said to be homologous when having the
animals.
400
same biological origin, i.e., when they
are products of differentiation of a same
characteristic from a common ancestor,
like cat paws and human feet.
(Characteristics of different species may
be analogous and homologous.)
401
402
Ecology
403
404
A community is a set of populations of
Concepts of Ecology living beings that live in the same
region and interact with each other.
In Ecology a population is a set whose

1. What is Ecology? members (living in a given place in a
given time) are part of the same
Ecology is the field of Biology that species. A community is a set of
studies the relationship between living populations of different species (living in
beings and between living beings and a given place in a given time).
the environment.

2. What is a species? between an ecological niche
and a habitat?
A species is a set of living beings able to
cross among themselves generating An ecological niche is a set of peculiar
fertile offspring. activities, resources and strategies that
a species explores to survive and
This concept however does not apply to reproduce.
individuals of exclusive asexual
reproduction and so other definitions An habitat is the place where the
have been proposed. For example, “a species lives to explore its ecological
species is a set of living beings that niche.
evolve in a common manner all of them
considered ancestors of the same type In other words it can be said that the
in relation to common descendants”. habitat is the “address” of the species
and the ecological niche is the
“profession” of the species.
3. What is a population?
A population is a set of individuals of 6. What are biotic factors?

the same species found in a given place
in a given time. Biotic factors are living beings (plants,
animals and microorganisms) that are
part of a given environment.
4. What is a community? What

is the difference between the
concepts of community and
population?
7. What are abiotic factors?
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Abiotic factors are the nonliving chemosynthesis. There are
elements that constitute a given photosynthetic autotrophs, like plants,
environment, like light, temperature, and chemosynthetic autotrophs, like
minerals, water, gases, atmospheric some bacteria.
pressure, etc.
8. What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a system composed of

biotic and abiotic factors in interaction.
9. What is a biosphere?
A biosphere is a set of all of the

ecosystems of the planet.
10. What are autotrophic

beings? What are
heterotrophic beings?
Autotrophic beings are those that can

produce their own food, i.e., that make
organic material from inorganic
compounds. Heterotrophic beings are
those that need to incorporate organic
material to nourish themselves.
Therefore heterotrophs depend on the
production of the autotrophs.
11. What are the processes

that autotrophic beings use to
produce organic material from
inorganic substances?
Autotrophic beings make organic

material by photosynthesis or by
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taiga many mammals, like moose,
Earth's Biomes wolves, foxes and rodents, migratory
birds and a great diversity of insects are
found.
1. What is a biome?
A biome is a prevailing ecosystem 5. What are the typical

constituted by similar biotic and abiotic vegetation and the typical
factors present in one or more regions fauna of the temperate
of the planet. forests?
In the temperate forest deciduous trees

predominate. Mammals are found in
2. What are the major great number, like bears and deer.
terrestrial biomes?
The major terrestrial biomes are:

tundra, taigas (or boreal forest), 6. What are deciduous trees?
temperate forests, tropical forests,
grasslands and deserts. Deciduous trees are plants that lose
their leaves in a period of the year. In
the case of the deciduous trees of the
temperate forest the fall of the leaves
3. What are the typical occurs in the autumn (fall). The loss of
vegetation and the typical leaves is a preparation to face the cold
fauna of the tundra? months of the winter: roots, stem and
branches are more resistant to low
Tundra has vegetation formed mainly by temperature and snow than the leaves;
mosses and lichens. In the fauna the without leaves the metabolic rate of the
densely furred animals, like caribous, plant is reduced; the decaying fallen
musk oxen and polar bears, and also leaves help to nourish the soil.
migratory birds are found.
7. What is the typical

4. What are the typical localization of the tropical
vegetation and the typical forests regarding latitude?
fauna of the taigas?
Tropical rain forests, like the Amazon
Taiga, or the boreal forest, is forest and the Congo forest, are
characterized by coniferous trees, pine typically located in low latitude, i.e., in
forests. There are also mosses, lichens, the equatorial and tropical zones.
small bushes and angiosperms. In the
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8. What are the typical 10. Why are the tropical
vegetation and the typical forests also known as
fauna of the tropical forests? stratified forests?
In the vegetation of the tropical forests In tropical forests tall trees of several
broadleaf evergreen trees predominate. species have their crowns forming a
On the top of the trees epiphytes and superior layer under which diverse other
lianas grow. Many varieties of trees and plants develop forming other
pteridophytes can be found in these inferior layers. From the upper layer to
forests. Regarding the fauna, the the inferior layers the penetration of
abundance and diversity is also great: light lowers gradually and the exposition
there are monkeys, rodents, bats, to wind and rain, the moisture and the
insectivores, felines, reptiles, birds, temperature also vary. Different
amphibians and invertebrates, mainly compositions of abiotic factors condition
insects. the prevailing of different vegetation in
each layer.
9. How can the abundance and

diversity of living beings in 11. What is the typical
the tropical forests be vegetation of the grasslands?
explained?
Grasslands are mainly formed of
The biodiversity of these ecosystems herbaceous (nonwoody) vegetation:
can be explained by the great grass, bushes and small trees.
availability of the main abiotic factors
for photosynthesis. Since these factors
are abundant plants can perform
maximum photosynthetic activity, living 12. What are the grasslands of
and reproducing easily. With a great North America and of South
amount and diversity of producers America respectively called?
(autotrophs), the consumers
(heterotrophic animals and The steppe grasslands of North America
microorganisms) also have abundant are called prairies. The grasslands of
food and a complex food web emerges South America are known as “pampas”
creating many different ecological (the steppe grassland) and “cerrado”
niches to be explored. So the (the savannah grassland).
appearance of varied living beings as
well as the existence of large
populations is possible.
13. How are grasslands

classified?
408
Grasslands may be classified into so they easily lose water by evaporation
steppes and savannahs. In the steppes and desiccate. They also need an
the prevailing vegetation is grass, as in aquatic environment to reproduce, since
the pampas of South America and in the their fecundation is external and their
prairies of North America. The fauna is larva is water-dependent.
mainly formed by herbivores, like
rodents and ungulates. The savannahs
present small trees, for example in the
Brazilian cerrado or the African 16. What are plankton, nekton
savannahs. The fauna is diverse; in the and benthos?
Brazilian cerrado there are animals like
ostriches, lizards, armadillos, jaguars,
Plankton, nekton and benthos are the
etc., and many types of insects; the
three groups into which aquatic living
African savannahs are the home of large
beings may be divided.
herbivores and carnivores, like zebras,
giraffes, antelopes, lions and leopards.
The plankton is formed by the algae and
small animals that float near the water
surface carried by the stream. The
nekton is composed of animals that
14. What are the typical actively swim and dive in water, like
vegetation and the typical fishes, turtles, whales, sharks, etc. The
fauna of the deserts? benthos comprises the animals
ecologically linked to the bottom,
The predominant fauna of desert including many echinoderms, benthonic
ecosystems is formed by reptiles, like fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, poriferans
lizards and snakes, terrestrial and annelids.
arthropods and small rodents. In these
areas plants very adapted to a dry
climate may be found, like the cactus,
which are plants that do not have real 17. What are the
leaves and thus lose less water, along phytoplankton and the
with grasses and bushes near places zooplankton?
where water is available.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are
divisions of the plankton. The
phytoplankton comprises the
15. Which terrestrial autotrophic floating beings: algae and
vertebrate group is extremely cyanobacteria. The zooplankton is
rare in deserts? formed by the heterotrophic planktonic
beings: protozoans, small crustaceans,
Amphibians are terrestrial vertebrates cnidarians, larvae, etc.
extremely rare in desert environments
(although there are a few species
adapted to this type of ecosystem).
Amphibians are rare in deserts because
they do not have a permeable skin and
409
18. What is the group of
aquatic beings composed of a
large number of
photosynthetic beings?
A large number of photosynthetic beings

is found in the plankton, i.e., in the
surface of aquatic ecosystems. This is
because light is abundant on the
surface.
410
4. In the ecological study of
Food Chains and food interactions, what are
Trophic Pyramids the autotrophic beings called?
In Ecology autotrophic beings are called

producers because they synthesize the
1. What is the primary energy organic material consumed by the other
source for life on earth? living beings of an ecosystem.
An ecosystem cannot exist without

The primary energy source for life on
producers.
earth is the sun. The sun plays the
important role of keeping the planet
warmed and it is the source of the
luminous energy used in
5. How are the heterotrophic
photosynthesis. This energy is
converted into organic material by the beings divided in the
photosynthetic autotrophic beings and ecological study of food
consumed by the other living beings. interactions?
Heterotrophs are divided into

consumers and decomposers. An
2. What is the main means by ecosystem can exist without consumers
which autotrophic beings but it cannot be sustained without
obtain energy? decomposers. Without the decomposers
the organic material would accumulate
The main means by which autotrophs causing environmental degradation and
obtain energy is photosynthesis. (There later death of the living beings.
are also chemosynthetic autotrophs.)
6. What is a food chain?

3. Which is the autotrophic
group responsible for the The food chain is the linear not
branched sequence in which a living
production of most part of the
being serves as food for another,
molecular oxygen of earth? starting with the producers and going
up to the decomposers.
Algae and cyanobacteria of the
phytoplankton are the organisms that
contribute most to the production of
molecular oxygen.
411
7. How is energy transferred consumer of the inferior orders. A
along a food chain? consumer however can participate in
several different chains not always
belonging to the same consumer order
The energy flux along a food chain is in each of them.
always unidirectional, from the
producers to the decomposers.

8. What are trophic levels? between the concepts of food
How many trophic levels can a chain and food web?
food chain have?
The chain concept is a theoretical model
to study the energy flux in ecosystems.
Trophic levels correspond to positions Actually in an ecosystem the organisms
on a food chain. Therefore producers are part of several interconnected food
always belong to the first trophic level chains, forming a food web. Therefore
and decomposers to the last trophic the chain is a theoretical linear
level, consumers that directly eat the sequence and the web is a more
producers belong to the second trophic realistic representation of nature in
level and so on. which the food chains interconnect
forming a web.
There is no limit regarding the number
of trophic levels on a chain, since many
orders of consumers can exist.
types of trophic pyramids
9. What are primary studied in Ecology?
consumers? Can a food chain
present quaternary consumers The three types of trophic pyramids
studied in Ecology are the numeric
without having secondary or pyramid, the biomass pyramid and the
tertiary consumers? Can a energy pyramid.
tertiary consumer of one chain
be a primary or secondary Generally the variable dimension of the
consumer of another chain? pyramid is the width, and the height is
always the same for each represented
strata of living beings. The width
Primary consumers are living beings
therefore represents the number of
that eat autotrophic beings, i.e., they
individuals, or the total mass of these
eat the producers. Primary consumers
individuals or the available energy in
always belong to the second trophic
each trophic level.
level of a chain.
A food chain cannot have consumers of

superior orders without having the
412
12. What do numeric pyramids 15. In the short term what will
represent? happen to the levels above
and below a population of
Numeric pyramids represent the number secondary consumers of a
of individuals in each trophic level of a numeric pyramid if a large
food chain.
number of individuals from
this population dies?
13. In a numeric pyramid to If an intermediate level of a numeric

which trophic level does the pyramid has its variable dimension
decreased, i.e., if the number of
base always refer? What
individuals of that level is reduced, the
about the top level? number of individuals of the level below
will increase and the number of
In a numeric pyramid the base individuals of the level above will be
corresponds to the first trophic level, reduced. That happens because the
i.e., to the producers. The top level of individuals of the level below will face
the pyramid corresponds generally to less predators and the individuals of the
the last consumer order of the food level above will have less available food.
chain (since the number of individual
decomposers, most of them
microorganisms, is too large to be
represented). 16. What do biomass pyramids
represent?
Biomass pyramids represent the sum of

14. In a numeric pyramid is it
the masses of the individuals that
possible for the base to be participate in each trophic level of a
smaller than the other levels? food chain.
Since the numeric pyramid represents

the quantity of individuals in each
trophic level of the food chain, inferior 17. What is dry mass?
trophic levels with less individuals than
the superior trophic levels may exist. When biomasses are compared often
For example, a single tree can serve as the concept of dry mass is used. The
food to millions of insects. dry mass is the total mass less the
water mass of an individual. The total
mass is also called fresh mass. To use
dry mass instead of fresh mass is useful
because among living beings there are
differences related to the proportion of
water within their body and such
differences can distort the quantitative
413
analysis of incorporated organic i.e., with the tip to the bottom and the
material. base to the top. It is also not possible to
have superior trophic levels with a
variable dimension larger than inferior
ones. In every energy pyramid, from
18. What do energy pyramids the base to the top, the size of the
represent? variable dimension decreases.
Energy pyramids represent the amount

of available energy in each trophic level
of the food chain.
21. What is the gross primary
production of an ecosystem?
How does GPP relate to
photosynthesis?
19. Into which type of energy
is the light used in Gross primary production of an
photosynthesis transformed? ecosystem, or GPP, is the quantity of
organic material found in a given area in
The luminous energy used in a given period.
photosynthesis is transformed into
chemical energy. Since only autotrophs produce organic
material and photosynthesis is the main
production process, GPP is a result of
the photosynthesis.
20. Can the amount of
available energy in a given
trophic level be larger than 22. What are the factors that
the available energy in inferior for influencing photosynthesis
trophic levels? What does that also interfere with the gross
condition means to the primary productivity?
conformation of the energy
pyramids? Mainly water and light, but also mineral
salts, temperature and carbon dioxide
A superior trophic level always has less are factors that interfere with the gross
available energy than inferior trophic primary productivity.
levels. This is because in each trophic
level only a fraction of the organic
material of the level below is
incorporated into the consumers (into
their bodies). The other part is
eliminated as waste or is used in the
metabolism as energy source. Therefore
it is never possible to have energy
pyramids with inverted conformation,
414
23. What are the destinations
of the organic material
fabricated by the producers?
Part of the organic material synthesized

by the producers is consumed as energy
source for the metabolism of the own
producer individual. The other part is
incorporated (into the body) and
becomes available to heterotrophic
beings of the ecosystem. In each
following trophic level part of the
organic material is used in the
metabolism of the individuals of the
level, the other part is eliminated as
waste and only a fraction is
incorporated and becomes available as
food for the following level.
24. What is the formula of the

net primary production (NPP)?
How does NPP relate to the
energy pyramids?
Net primary production is the gross

primary productivity less the organic
material consumed as energy source in
the metabolism of the producers: NPP =
GPP – (organic material spent in aerobic
respiration). It represents the organic
material available in the first trophic
level.
The base of the energy pyramids must

represent the NPP and not the GPP since
the idea of these pyramids is to show
the available energy in each trophic
level of the food chain.
415
3. What is the water cycle?
Biogeochemical
Cycles The water cycle represents the
circulation and recycling of water in
nature.
Liquid water on the planet surface is

1. What are biogeochemical
heated by the sun and turns into water
cycles? vapor that gains the atmosphere. In the
atmosphere large volumes of water
Biogeochemical cycles are vapor form clouds that when cooled
representations of the circulation and precipitate liquid water as rain.
recycling of matter in nature. Therefore water comes back to the
planet surface and the cycle is
The main biogeochemical cycles studied completed. As possible steps of the
in Ecology are the water cycle, the cycle, water may still be stored in
carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle. subterranean reserves or in the form of
ice in mountains and oceans and it may
also be used in the metabolism of living
beings, incorporated into the body of
2. What is the respective the individuals or excreted through
importance of water, carbon urine, feces and transpiration.
and nitrogen for living beings?
Water is the main solvent of living

4. Why is the sun the “motor”
beings and it is necessary practically for
all biochemical reactions, including as of the water cycle?
reagent of photosynthesis. Many
properties of water are very important The sun can be considered the motor of
for life. the water cycle because upon its energy
the transformation of liquid water into
Carbon is the main chemical element of water vapor depends. So the sun is the
organic molecules; carbon dioxide is energy source that causes water to
also reagent of photosynthesis and circulate in nature.
product of the energetic metabolism of
living beings.
Nitrogen is a fundamental chemical 5. What is the carbon cycle?

element of amino acids, the building
blocks of proteins that in their turn are The carbon cycle represents the
the main functional molecules of living circulation and recycling of the chemical
beings; nitrogen is also part of the element carbon in nature as a result of
nucleic acid molecules, the basis of the action of living beings.
reproduction, heredity and protein
synthesis.
416
Photosynthetic beings absorb carbon as 7. How is carbon dioxide made
carbon dioxide available in the by producers and consumers?
atmosphere and the carbon atoms
become part of glucose molecules.
During the cellular respiration of these Carbon dioxide is made by producers
and consumers through cellular
beings part of this organic material is
consumed to generate ATP and in this respiration.
process carbon dioxide is returned to
the atmosphere. The other part is
incorporated by the photosynthetic
organisms into the molecules that 8. What are fossil fuels?
compose their structure. The carbon
atoms incorporated into the producers Fossil fuels, like oil, gas and coal, form
are transferred to the next trophic level when organic material is preserved from
and again part is liberated by the the complete action of decomposers,
cellular respiration of the consumers, generally buried deep and under
part becomes a constituent of the pressure over millions of years. Under
consumer body and part is excreted as such conditions the organic material
uric acid or urea (excretes later recycled transforms into hydrocarbon fuels.
by decomposer bacteria). Therefore
carbon absorbed by the producers in Fossil fuels are a natural reservoir of
photosynthesis returns to the carbon. When oxygen is present these
atmosphere through cellular respiration fuels can be burned and carbon dioxide
along the food chain until the and carbon monoxide are released into
decomposers that also liberate carbon the atmosphere.
dioxide in their energetic metabolism.
Under special conditions in a process
that takes millions of years carbon
incorporated into organisms may also 9. What is the most abundant
constitute fossil fuels stored in deposits form under which nitrogen is
under the surface of the planet; as fossil found in nature?
fuels burn the carbon atoms return to
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide or
The most abundant nitrogen-containing
carbon monoxide. The burning of
molecule found in nature is molecular
vegetable fuels, like wood, also returns
nitrogen (N2). The air is 80%
carbon to the atmosphere.
constituted of molecular nitrogen.
6. What is the main biological

process that consumes carbon 10. Under which form is
dioxide? nitrogen fixed by living
beings?
The main biological process that
consumes carbon dioxide is
Most living beings cannot use molecular
photosynthesis.
nitrogen to obtain nitrogen atoms.
417
Producers fix nitrogen mainly from 12. Why is a leguminous crop
nitrate (NO3-). Some plants also fix rotation used in agriculture?
nitrogen from ammonia. Consumers and
decomposers acquire nitrogen through
digestion of mainly proteins and nucleic Leguminous crop rotation and other
crop rotations are used in agriculture
acids from the body of other living
beings. because in these plants many bacteria
important for the nitrogen cycle live.
The leguminous crop rotation (or
cojointly with the main crop) helps the
soil to become rich in nitrates that are
11. What is the nitrogen
then absorbed by the plants.
cycle?
Green manure, the covering of the soil
The nitrogen cycle represents the with grass and leguminous plants, is
circulation and recycling of the chemical also a way to improve the fixation of
element nitrogen in nature. nitrogen and it is an option in avoiding
chemical fertilizers.
The nitrogen cycle basically depends on
the action of some specialized bacteria.
Bacteria of the soil called nitrogen-fixing
bacteria present in plant roots absorb
molecular nitrogen from the air and
liberate nitrogen in the form of
ammonia. The decomposition of organic
material also produces ammonia. In the
soil and roots (mainly of leguminous
plants), a first group of chemosynthetic
bacteria called nitrifying bacteria, the
nitrosomonas, produces energy
consuming ammonia and releasing
nitrite (NO2). The second group of
nitrifying bacteria, the nitrobacteria,
uses nitrite in chemosynthesis releasing
nitrate (NO3). In the form of nitrate,
nitrogen is then incorporated by plants
to be used as constituent of proteins
and nucleic acids and the element then
follows along the food chain. Nitrogen
returns to the atmosphere by the action
of denitrifying bacteria that use
nitrogen-containing compounds from
the soil and release nitrogen gas
(molecular nitrogen).
418
extends to consumers and conditions
Biodiversity fewer ecological niches to be explored.
1. What is biodiversity? 3. How does the vegetal

stratification of an ecosystem
Biological diversity is the variety of influence the biological
species of living beings of an diversity?
ecosystem. In ecosystems which are
more biodiverse, like tropical forests, a
The vegetal stratification of an
great variety of plants, microorganisms
ecosystem, like the strata of the
and animals live; in ecosystems less
Amazon Rainforest, creates vertical
biodiverse, like deserts, there are less
layers with peculiar abiotic and biotic
variety of living beings.
factors, dividing the ecosystem into
several different environments.
Therefore in the superior layer near the
crowns of big trees the exposition to
2. How does biological light, rain and wind is greater but
diversity relate to the moisture is lower compared to the
characteristics of the abiotic inferior layers. As one goes down the
factors of an ecosystem? strata the penetration of light
diminishes and moisture increases.
The availability of abiotic factors like Regarding the biotic factors,
light, moisture, mineral salts, heat and communities of each stratum present
carbon dioxide, more or less conditions ing differcomposition and features, food
the biodiversity of an ecosystem. habits, reproduction strategies, etc.
Photosynthesis depends on water and Such variations in the abiotic and biotic
light, and plants also need mineral salts, factors make the selective pressure
carbon dioxide and adequate upon living beings to be also diversified,
temperature for their cells to work. In there are more ecological niches to be
environments where these factors are explored and more varied beings
not restrictive the synthesis of organic emerge during the evolutionary process.
material (by photosynthesis) is at a
maximum, plants and algae can
reproduce easier, the population of
these beings increase, potential
ecological niches multiply and new 4. Despite having a great
species emerge. The large mass of biodiversity why is the
producers makes viable the appearing Amazon Rainforest under risk
of a diversity of consumers of several of desertification?
orders. In environments with restrictive
abiotic factors, like deserts, the
The natural soil of the Amazon
producers exist in small numbers and
Rainforest is not very fertile but it is
less diversity, a feature that thus
419
enriched by the vegetal covering made cause big disturbances in the
of leaves and branches that fall from the equilibrium of the ecosystem.
trees. Deforestation reduces this
enrichment. In deforestation zones the
rain falls directly on the ground causing
erosion, “washing” large areas 6. Is monoculture a system
(leaching) and contributing to make the that contributes to great
soil even less fertile. Besides that, the biological diversity of an
deforestation disallows the recycling of
essential nutrients for plants, like ecosystem?
nitrogen. In this manner those regions
and their neighboring regions undergo Monoculture means that in a large area
desertification. a single crop (only one species of plant)
is cultivated. Therefore monoculture
does not contribute to the formation of
a community with great variety of
5. How can a great biological species in the area. Since there is only a
diversity protect an ecosystem single type of producer the types of
consumers that can live in the area are
from environmental damage? also restricted.
Why are less biodiverse
ecosystems at risk of suffering
deep biological harm if
submitted to even small 7. What are some economic
changes? applications that can be
generated by very biodiverse
In ecosystems with more biodiversity ecosystems?
the food webs and ecological
interactions among living beings are Very biodiverse areas present enormous
more complex and diverse. In these economic potential. They can be a
ecosystems environmental changes can source of raw material for the research
be more easily compensated by the and production of medicines, cosmetics,
multiplicity of available resources, foods chemical products and food. They are
and survival options. depositories of genetic wealth that can
be explored by biotechnology. They are
In ecosystems with less biodiversity the sources of species for agriculture. They
individuals are more dependent on can also be explored by 'ecological
some beings that serve them as food tourism'.
and they interact with a small number
of different species. In these
ecosystems generally abiotic factors are
restrictive and the species are more
specialized to such conditions and more
sensitive to environmental changes. So
even small environmental harm can
420
8. What are the main causes
of the loss of biological
diversity nowadays?
The biggest dangers to biological

diversity today are the action of
humans. The main of them is the
destruction of habitats caused by the
growth of the cities, deforestation,
pollution and fires. The second is the
invasion of ecosystems by nonnative
species introduced by humans; these
species change the equilibrium of
ecosystems causing harm. Other big
dangers are predatory hunting and
fishing and global warming.
421
5. What is harmonious
Ecological ecological interaction?
Interactions
Harmonious, or positive, ecological
interaction is that in which none of the
participating beings is harmed.
1. What is inharmonious
Inharmonious, or negative, ecological
intraspecific ecological
interaction is that in which at least one
of the participating beings is harmed. interactions?
The main harmonious intraspecific

ecological interactions are colonies and
2. How are ecological societies. The main inharmonious
interactions classified? intraspecific ecological interactions are
intraspecific competition and
cannibalism.
Ecological interactions are classified as
intraspecific or interspecific interactions
and as harmonious or inharmonious
interactions.
7. What are colonies and
societies?
3. What are intraspecific and Colonies are functional integrated

interspecific ecological aggregates formed by individuals of the
same species. Colonies are often
interactions?
confused with a single individual.
Examples are the coral reefs, by-the-
Intraspecific ecological interactions are wind sailors and filamentous algae.
those between individuals of the same
species. Interspecific ecological Societies are interactions for labor
interactions are ecological interactions division and collaboration among
between individuals of different species. individuals of the same species. Human
societies are examples of ecological
societies; other species, like bees, ants,
termites, wolves and dolphins, also form
4. What is inharmonious societies.
Inharmonious, or negative, ecological

interaction is that in which at least one
of the participating beings is harmed.
422
8. What is competition? Which 11. What are the main
type of ecological interaction interspecific ecological
is competition? interactions?
Competition is the ecological interaction The main harmonious interspecific

in which the individuals explore the ecological interactions are:
same ecological niche or their ecological protocooperation, mutualism and
niches partially coincide and therefore commensalism. The main inharmonious
competition for the same environmental interspecific ecological interactions are:
resources takes place. interspecific competition, parasitism,
predatism and ammensalism.
Competition is harmful for all
participating beings and thus it is
classified as an inharmonious (negative)
ecological interaction. 12. What is protocooperation?
Protocooperation is the ecological

interaction in which both participants
9. What is an example of benefit but which is not obligatory for
intraspecific competition? their survival. Protocooperation is a
harmonious (positive) interspecific
Intraspecific competition occurs in ecological interaction. Examples of
practically all species, for example, the protocooperation are: the action of the
competition of humans for a job. spur-winged plover that using its beak
eats residuals from crocodile teeth; the
removal of ectoparasites from the back
of bovines by some birds that eat the
10. Why is cannibalism an parasites; the hermit crab that live
inside shells over which sea anemones
inharmonious intraspecific
live (these offer protection to the crab
ecological interaction? and gain mobility to obtain food).
In cannibalism an individual eats other

of the same species (occurs in some
insects and arachnids). Since it is an 13. What is mutualism?
interaction between beings of the same
species and at least one of them is
Mutualism is the ecological interaction in
harmed (the other is benefited) the
which both participants benefit and that
classification as inharmonious
is obligatory for their survival.
intraspecific ecological interaction is
Mutualism is a harmonious (positive)
justified.
ecological interaction. Mutualism is also
known as symbiosis. Examples of
mutualism are: the association between
microorganisms that digest cellulose
and the ruminants or insects within
which they live; the lichens, formed by
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algae or cyanobacteria that make Examples of interspecific competition
organic material for the fungi and are: the dispute among vultures,
absorb water with their help; nitrifying worms, flies and microorganisms for
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium that carrion and the competition between
associated to leguminous plants offer snakes and eagles for rodents.
nitrogen to these plants.
17. What is parasitism?

14. What is commensalism?
Parasitism is the ecological interaction in
Commensalism is the ecological which a being lives at the expense of
interaction in which one individual another. The parasite often does not
benefits while the other is neither cause immediate death of the host since
benefited nor harmed. Commensalism is it needs the host alive to survive.
a harmonious (positive) ecological
interaction, since none of the Parasitism is an inharmonious
participants is harmed. An example of (negative) interspecific ecological
commensalism is the numerous bacteria interaction, since although one
that live in the skin and in the digestive participant benefit the other is harmed.
tube of humans without being
pathogenic or beneficial. They are
innocuous bacteria living in
commensalism with humans. 18. What are some examples
of parasitism?
Classical examples are the parasites of

15. What benefits can humans (host), like the trypanosome
commensalism offer to a that causes Chagas’ disease, the HIV
species? virus (AIDS), the bacteria that causes
tuberculosis, the schistosome that
Commensalism may involve obtainment causes schistosomiasis, the hookworms,
of food (for example, the innocuous etc. Other examples are: tree (host)
bacteria of the human gut), shelter or and parasitic helminths (parasite), dog
support (epiphytes on trees) and (host) and lice (parasite), cattle (host)
transportation (pollen carried by insects and tick (parasite), etc.
or birds). The commensalism that
involves obtainment of shelter is also
called inquilinism.
19. What is predatism?

of interspecific competition? Predatism is the ecological interaction in
which one individual mutilates or kills
another to get food. Predatism is an
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inharmonious (negative) ecological proliferation of algae that by
interaction since one participant is intoxication can lead to death of fishes
harmed. and other animals.
20. Is herbivorism a form of

predatism?
Herbivorism is a form of predatism in

which first order consumers feed from
producers (plants or algae). For
example, birds and fruits, humans and
edible vegetables, etc. (There are
proposals to consider the herbivorism of
leaves a form of parasitism and the
herbivorism of entire plants and seeds a
form of predatism).
21. What is ammensalim?
Ammensalism is the ecological

interaction in which an individual harms
another without obtaining benefit.
Ammensalism is an inharmonious
(negative) ecological interaction since
one participant is harmed.
(Sometimes it is wrongly said that

ammensalism is a form of ecological
interaction in which an organism
releases in the environment substances
that harm another species; this
situation is indeed an example of
ammensalim but the concept is not
restricted to it.)
One of the best examples of

ammensalism is the one established
between humans and other species
under extinction due to human actions
like habitat devastation by fires,
ecological accidents, leisure hunting,
etc. Anther example is the red tide,
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Ecological between primary ecological
Succession succession and secondary
ecological succession?
Primary ecological succession is the

1. What is ecological changing sequence of communities from
succession? the first biological occupation of a place
where previously there were no living
Ecological succession is the changing beings. For example, the colonization
sequence of communities that live in an and the following succession of
ecosystem during a given time period. communities on a bare rock.
Secondary ecological succession is the

changing sequence of communities from
the substitution of a community by a
2. What are pioneer species?
new one in a given place. For example,
What is the role of the pioneer the ecological succession of the invasion
species? of plants and animals in an abandoned
crop or land.
Pioneer species are those first species
that colonize places where previously
there were no living beings, like, for
example, algae that colonize bare rocks. 4. What is the climax stage of
In general, pioneer species are an ecological succession?
autotrophs or those that maintain
harmonious ecological interaction with
The climax stage is the stage of the
autotrophic beings (like autotrophic
ecological succession in which the
bacteria, herbaceous plants, lichens).
community of an ecosystem becomes
stable and does not undergo significant
The pioneer community is formed of
changes. In the climax community
species able to survive under hostile
practically all ecological niches are
environments. The presence of these
explored and greater biodiversity is
species modifies the microenvironment
possible. In this stage the biomass, the
generating changes in abiotic and biotic
photosynthesis rate and the cellular
factors of the ecosystem undergoing
respiration reach their maximum levels
formation. Therefore they open the way
and thus the net primary production
to other species to establish in the place
(NPP = organic material made by the
by the creation of new potential
producers – organic material consumed
ecological niches.
in the cellular respiration of the
producers) tends to zero. At the climax
the amount of oxygen released by
photosynthesis is practically equal to
the oxygen consumed by respiration.
(This is one more reason why it is
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wrong to say that the Amazon
Rainforest, an ecosystem at climax
stage, is “the lung” of the earth. Other
reasons are: lungs are not producers of
oxygen; the algae and cyanobacteria of
the phytoplankton are the main
producers of the molecular oxygen of
the planet.)
5. How do biodiversity, the

total number of living beings
and the biomass respectively
vary during the ecological
succession?
Biodiversity, the number of living beings

and the biomass of an ecosystem tend
to increase as the succession progresses
and they stabilize when the climax
stage is reached.
At the initial stage of the succession the

use of carbon dioxide and the fixation of
carbon into the biomass are high, since
the total number of living beings in the
ecosystem is increasing. At the climax
stage the use of carbon dioxide by
photosynthesis equals the production by
cellular respiration and the fixation of
carbon into the biomass tends to zero.
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Population Ecology concepts of migration,
emigration and immigration?
1. What is a population? Migration is the moving of individuals of

a species from one place to another.
Emigration is the migration seen as an
In Biology a population is a set of
exit of individuals from one region (to
individuals of the same species living in
another where they will settle
a given place and in a given time.
permanently or temporarily).
Immigration is the migration seen as
the settling in one region (permanently
or temporarily) of individuals coming
2. What is population density? from another region. Therefore
individuals emigrate "from" and
Population density is the relation immigrate "to".
between the number of individuals of a
population and the area or volume they
occupy. For example, in 2001 the
human population density of the United 5. What are the main factors
States (according to the World Bank) that affect the growth of a
was 29.71 inhabitants per square
kilometer and China had a population
population?
density of 135.41 humans per square
kilometer. The main factors that make populations
grow are births and immigration. The
main factors that make populations
decrease are deaths and emigration.
3. What is population growth
rate?
Population growth rate (PGR) is the
percent variation between the number
migratory animals?
of individuals in a population at two
different times. Therefore the population Examples of migratory animals are:
growth rate can be positive or negative. southern right whales from Antarctica,
that procreate on the Brazilian coast;
migratory salmons that are born in the
river, go to the sea and return to the
river to reproduce and die; migratory
birds from cold regions that spend the
winter in tropical regions, etc.
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7. What is biotic potential? The environmental resistance is an
important concept of population
ecology.
Biotic potential is the capability of
growth of a given population under
hypothetical optimum conditions, i.e., in
an environment without limiting factors
to such growth. Under such conditions 10. What are the main limiting
the population tends to grow factors for the growth of a
indefinitely. population?
The factors that limit the growth of a

population can be divided into biotic
8. What is the typical shape of factors and abiotic factors. The main
a population growth curve? abiotic limiting factors are: availability
How can the biotic potential of water and light, availability of shelter.
be represented in the same The main limiting biotic factors are:
population density and inharmonious
way graphically? (negative) ecological interactions
(competition, predatism, parasitism,
A typical population growth curve ammensalism).
(number of individuals x time, linear
scale) has a sigmoidal shape. There is a
short and slow initial growth followed by
a fast and longer growth and again a 11. How do the availability of
decrease in growth preceding the
water and light and the
stabilization or equilibrium stage.
climate affect the growth of a
The population growth according to the population?
biotic potential curve however is not
sigmoidal, it is only crescent-shaped The availability of water and light and
and points up to the infinite value of the the climate are abiotic factors that limit
scale (there is neither a decreasing the growth of a population. Since the
stage nor equilibrium). producers are responsible for the
synthesis of organic material transferred
along the food chains of an ecosystem,
water and light affect the availability of
9. What is environmental food and a population cannot grow
resistance? beyond the number of individuals the
environment is able to feed. For
Environmental resistance is the action of example, in the desert, the biomass is
relatively small and populations that live
limiting abiotic and biotic factors that
disallow the growth of a population as it in this ecosystem are smaller (compared
to the same species in environments
would grow according to its biotic
potential. Actually each ecosystem is with large available biomass). The
climate, including the temperature,
able to sustain a limited number of
individuals of a given species. affects the population growth because
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excessive change in this factor, as the 13. What is the relationship
occurrence of droughts or floods, may between environmental
cause significant population decline;
resistance and the population
small climatic changes can also alter the
photosynthesis rate and reduce the growth according to the biotic
availability of food in the ecosystem. potential curve and the real
population growth curve?
The difference between the real

12. How do populations of population growth curve (number of
predators and prey vary in individuals x time) and the population
predatism? growth according to the biotic potential
curve of a given population is a result of
Whenever a predator population environmental resistance.
increases at the first moment the prey
population tends to decrease. At a
second moment the decrease of the
prey population and the bigger 14. How different is the
population density of predators cause growth according to the biotic
the predator population to decrease. potential of a viral population
The prey population then reverts the from the growth according to
tendency to decrease and begins to
the biotic potential of a
grow.
bacterial population?
If variations in the size of populations
occur in an unexpected intensity The growth curve according to the biotic
(different from the usual intensity of the potential of virus and bacteria both
ecological interaction) for example, due present a positive exponential pattern.
to ecological accidents killing many The difference between them is that in
prey, the prey-predator equilibrium is each time period bacteria double their
disturbed and both species can be population while the viral population
harmed. The existence of the predator multiplies dozens or hundreds of times.
sometimes is fundamental for the The viral population growth curve thus
survival of the prey population, since has more intense growth. This happens
the absence of predatism favors the because bacteria reproduce by binary
proliferation of the prey and, in some division, each cell generating two
cases, when the excessive proliferation daughter cells, while each virus
creates a population size over the replicates generating dozens or even
sustenance capacity of the ecosystem, hundreds of new viruses.
environmental degradation occurs and
the entire prey population is destroyed.
15. What are age pyramids?
Age pyramids are graphical

representations in form of superposed
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rectangles each representing the 17. What are the main
number of individuals included in age characteristics of the age
ranges into which a population is
pyramids of developed
divided. Generally the lower age ranges
are represented more to the bottom of countries?
the pyramid, always below higher
ranges, and the variable dimension that
represents the number of individuals is In a stabilized human population the
the width (there are age pyramids age pyramid has a narrower base since
however in which the variable the reproduction rate is not so high. The
dimension is the height). adult age ranges are generally wider
than the infantile ranges showing that in
practice there is no population growth.
16. What are the analyses There is a proportionally high number of
provided by the study of older individuals meaning that the life
quality is elevated and the population
human age pyramids?
has access to health services and good
nutrition. These are features of the age
The study of human age pyramids can pyramids of developed countries.
provide the following analyses:
proportion of individuals at an
economically active age; proportion of 18. What is the typical
elderly (indicating the quality of the
pension and health systems); proportion
conformation of the age
of children and youth (indicating need pyramids of underdeveloped
for job generation and educational countries?
services); reproductive profile (shows
the population growth tendency); The age pyramids of peripheral
postnatal survival rate (indicates quality countries or underdeveloped countries
of the health system, hygiene have characteristics related to the
conditions, nutrition and poverty); poverty of such populations, with a
longevity profile; etc. wider base and narrow apex. The base
age range, if much wider than the other
It is possible to predict whether a levels, indicates a high birth rate. The
population belongs to a rich and levels just above the base may present
industrialized society or to a poor an impressive reduction in poorer
country since the patterns of the age populations due to infant mortality.
pyramids differ according to these Ranges that represent the youth are
conditions. also wide showing future pressure on
job and habitation needs. The widths of
the rectangles diminish as age increases
to the apex that represents the elderly,
demonstrating difficult life conditions,
precarious health services and low life
expectancy.
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various kinds of waste accumulate,
Environmental polluting the environment and creating
Issues danger to humans and nature. (The
present destination of waste has been
public waste depositories where the
waste volume is compressed and buried
underground, an environmentally risky
1. What is pollution? method. Another method has been
incineration, with the grave
Pollution is the contamination of an consequence of causing air pollution.)
ecosystem by factors that are harmful
for the equilibrium of its biotic or abiotic
constituents.
4. What are the main types of
waste?
2. Is pollution always caused The waste can be classified into many

by humans? types, each of them carrying its own
different environmental problem:
In most cases pollution is caused by organic waste, recyclable waste, non
human activity. Other species and some recyclable waste, toxic waste, nuclear
abiotic factors however can also pollute toxic waste and space waste.
an ecosystem. For example, the red tide
is created by proliferation of some algae The organic waste is more easily
and volcanic dust is a consequence of resorbed by nature, but the speed and
the internal activity of the planet. the geographical concentration of its
production due to urbanization generate
pollution of rivers, lakes, proliferation of
disease vectors and environmental
3. Why is waste considered degradation of towns. The recyclable
one of the major waste is composed of residuals that can
be reprocessed, used again by humans,
environmental issues? like plastics and metals; the problem
regarding recyclable waste is that the
The environmental problem concerning separation of such material is not
waste worsens with industrial culturally diffused and there is not
development and the global growth of enough social organization to use them;
consumption societies in the 20th and so the recyclable waste is mixed to
21st centuries, factors that cause the other wastes increasing the volume of
immense volume of residuals produced waste depositories even more. The non
by mankind in the last decades. The recyclable waste is formed of residuals
increased waste generation raises the that technology cannot yet recycle, like
issue about what to do with waste since ceramics, photographic paper, mirrors,
nature is not able to degrade and resorb cigarettes, plasticized papers, etc; this
with adequate speed and efficiency kind of waste in the future may become
most of the residuals. Therefore the recyclable waste and should be
432
separated. The toxic waste includes sorted at the point of origin. Selective
industrial chemical residuals that are collection also helps the creation of an
harmful for life and the environment, environmental conscience in the people
like contaminated medical waste and that produce the waste.
the domestic waste containing
insecticides and medicines; the toxic
waste is one of the major environmental
problems since it puts the life of 6. What is the cost-benefit
humans and other living beings in relationship regarding sewage
danger. The nuclear toxic waste is made treatment as a strategy to
of materials that release invisible
dangerous radiation for many years; fight water pollution?
nuclear toxic waste is produced in the
extraction of nuclear minerals (like To treat sewage is much cheaper for
uranium), by nuclear reactors and society. The non treated sewage
nuclear plants, in hospitals where pollutes rivers, lakes and the sea, being
Nuclear Medicine is performed and in a cause of diseases transmitted through
research centers; although the nuclear water. For the society the costs of these
waste is often put into armored diseases are much higher than the cost
receptacles the risk of accidents is of the sewage treatment.
permanent. Space waste is the waste
produced by the activity of humans in One of the most economical systems to
space from the second half of the 20th treat sewage is the aerobic treatment
century; it consists of non operating system, reservoirs kept very
satellites, rocket piece and other oxygenated for aerobic bacteria to
equipments that remain orbiting the decompose organic material.
earth or other celestial bodies or even
travelling across space.
Environmental Issues: organic waste 7. What is eutrophication?

recyclable waste non recyclable waste
toxic waste nuclear toxic waste Eutrophication is the process of
excessive increasing of nutrients, like
phosphate and nitrate, in water due to
direct deposit of non treated sewage.
5. What is selective waste The nutrients act as fertilizers leading to
collection? abnormal proliferation of aquatic algae.
With the exaggerated growth of the alga
Recyclable waste is waste that can be population the number of aerobic
reprocessed and used again. Waste bacteria that cause decomposition of
recycling depends on the separation of organic material also increases. The
the recyclable residuals from non proliferation of these bacteria depletes
recyclable ones and on the classification the dissolved oxygen killing fishes and
of the recyclable into plastics, metals, other animals. Besides, the lack of
papers, etc. The function of the oxygen causes the decomposition to be
selective waste collection is to simplify assumed by anaerobic bacteria.
that separation for the waste to be Anaerobes multiply and release
433
hydrogen sulfide that makes water 10. Besides mercury which
improper to other living beings and other heavy metals cause
creates a putrid smell.
toxic pollution?
Examples of other heavy metals that

8. What is a biodigester? cause toxic pollution are lead, cadmium
and chromium.
A biodigester is equipment that
produces carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide and fuel gases (biogases) like
11. What are persistent
methane from organic material under
decomposition (dung, food waste, sugar organic pollutants (POPs?
cane waste, etc.). The biogas is used in
heating, as energy for motors and POPs, or persistent organic pollutants,
machines and it even has industrial are toxic substances formed from
uses. Biodigesters are widely used in organic compounds. POPs are made in
public waste depositories and in rural several industrial processes, like the
areas. Besides producing biogas the production of PVC, paper whitened by
organic waste can be turned into good chlorine, herbicides, insecticides and
quality fertilizer. fungicides, and also in the incineration
of waste. Examples of POPs are dioxins,
furanes, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin,
heptachloride, toxaphen and
9. What are the environmental hexachlorbenzene.
harms caused by mercury
POPs are toxic and highly harmful since,
pollution? What are the main
like the heavy metals, they are
sources of mercury pollution? bioaccumulative, i.e., they are not
degraded by the body and accumulate
Mercury is a metal that when present in even more in each following trophic
the water of rivers, lakes and seas level of the food chains. In humans
contaminates fishes, crustaceans, POPs can cause cancer and nervous,
molluscs and other living beings. The immune and reproductive impairments.
mercury accumulates along the food
chain and in each following trophic level
the amount of the metal within the
individuals is higher. When humans eat 12. Is the upward move of
contaminated animals they also become warm air good or bad for the
contaminated and severe nervous
system injuries may emerge. The main
dispersion of pollutants?
sources of mercury pollution are gold
mining and the use of derived The upward movement of warm air is a
substances in industry and agriculture. natural method of dispersion of
pollutants. The air near the ground is
hotter because the sun heats the soil
and the soil heats the air nearby. Since
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it is less dense, the warm air tends to 15. What is the role of the
move towards higher and colder strata ozone layer for living beings?
of the atmosphere. Such movement
helps the dispersion of pollutants.
Ozone, O3, is a gas of the atmosphere
that filters ultraviolet radiation from the
sun disallowing most of that radiation
from reaching the surface of the planet.
13. Does thermal inversion
Ultraviolet radiation is harmful for living
occur in the winter or in the beings because it is a mutagen and can
summer? cause cancer (mainly skin cancer), other
DNA mutations and even burns.
Pollutant low altitude thermal inversion
occurs in the winter. In this period of
the year the sun heats the soil less and
the natural upward move of warm air 16. What are the main
decreases. Therefore the pollutants chemical compounds that
form a low altitude layer between the destroy the ozone layer?
cold air layer near the ground and
another layer of warmer air above. The
The mains chemical compounds that
pollutant layer over industrial areas or
big urban concentrations reduces the destroy the ozone layer are the CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons, or freons,
penetration of the sun's energy and the
air bellow takes an even longer time to substances used in the past in
refrigerators, airconditioners and spray
warm.
cans.
Chlorofluorocarbons react with ozone in

the high atmosphere releasing
14. Why does thermal
molecular oxygen and therefore the
inversion increases air amount of ozone in the atmosphere is
pollution? What harm can reduced.
thermal inversion cause to
humans? Another substance that destroys the
ozone layer is methyl bromide, used in
agricultural insecticides.
Thermal inversion confines at low
altitude a layer of pollutants that would
have been dispersed by the natural
upward move of warm air. The solid
particles present in the atmosphere 17. What is nuclear pollution?
cause health problems, like the
exacerbation of asthma and other Nuclear pollution consists of radiations
pulmonary diseases, cough, respiratory emitted from atomic nuclei, these
unease and ocular discharges; later the radiations are highly injurious to living
pollution can also trigger the beings. They can be originated from the
appearance of cardiovascular and extraction of radioactive minerals,
neoplastic diseases. nuclear plant reactors, nuclear research
435
centers, hospitals and medical centers 19. What is transgenic food?
that use radioisotopes, nuclear bomb
explosions or accidents with Transgenic beings are animals,
transportation, handling or storage of microorganisms and plants that contain
nuclear material. Nuclear materials recombinant DNA, i.e., genes from
remain dangerous for many years, other plants, microorganisms or animals
contaminating the environment with artificially inserted into their genetic
radiation that can cause cancer, material. Transgenic beings are made
immune impairment, congenital for scientific and economic purposes, in
deficiencies, burns and even death. The this last case with the intention of
damage is proportional to the intensity improving their commercial features.
of the exposition to the radiation. For example, bacteria that produce
human insulin are transgenic beings
Its persistent feature and high made by biotechnology. The main
aggression power make nuclear targets of the transgenic technology are
pollution one of the major edible vegetables, like soy, corn, potato
environmental problems of our time. and tomato.
18. What is plutonium 20. Why are transgenics

reprocessing? Why is it a big considered a threat to the
environmental issue? environmental safety?
Plutonium is the highly radioactive Transgenics can be dangerous to the
chemical element produced from entire biosphere since the transfer of
uranium by nuclear plants. Plutonium genes between species may have
can be reprocessed to be used again in immediate and long term unpredictable
nuclear plants or in other destinations, consequences. The creation of new
like the making of nuclear bombs. species by nature is a slow process,
Plutonium reprocessing nowadays, dependent on causal mutations and
however, is done only in some countries natural selection, a relatively safe
like France, Russia and Britain. The process for the ecological equilibrium. It
countries that have nuclear plants, like is impossible to know how the fast and
Japan, Australia, etc., send their atomic artificial introduction of transgenic
waste by ship to those plutonium beings in nature affects ecosystems.
reprocessing centers. Besides the Pathogenic agents may be involuntarily
inherent risks of the storage of nuclear created in laboratories, spreading
waste, plutonium reprocessing brings unknown diseases; transgenic species
the risks of the transport of radioactive may uncontrollably proliferate
material across the oceans. The destroying ecological interactions that
“nuclear ships” often travel near the have taken thousands of years to be
coast of many countries posing danger established; the ingestion of transgenic
to their populations. food also has unpredictable effects.
436
21. What is biological control? substrate for their cellular respiration
are employed.
Biological control is a natural method to
control the size of animal,
microorganism or plant populations.
Biological control is based on the 23. What is global warming?
knowledge of inharmonious (negative)
ecological interactions between species. Global warming is the increase in the
Using such knowledge a parasite, temperature of the planet due to
competitor or predator species is accumulation of some gases in the
introduced in an ecosystem in order to atmosphere, especially gases that retain
attain reduction of the population of the solar energy reflected by the planet
another species with which it has surface. The main gas that causes the
inharmonious ecological interaction. The global warming is carbon dioxide, CO2,
biological control presents the but other gases act as “warming gases”
advantage of substituting the use of too, like methane, CH4, and nitrous
pesticides and other toxic chemical oxide, N2O. The exaggerated increase of
products in the control of plagues and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
diseases. It however should be been caused by the burning of fossil
employed with caution under serious fuels (mainly oil and coal) in industrial
previous study to avoid harmful and urban societies and by forest fires.
ecological disequilibrium. (It is important to note that the natural
warming provided by gases of the
A kind of biological control of some atmosphere is fundamental for the
species can be done by the introduction maintenance of the planet
of previously sterilized males, that do temperature.)
not generate offspring.
Predictions of studies sponsored by the
United Nations stated that the global
warming may cause life-threatening
22. What is bioremediation? transformations to the planet in the
near future. Countries that are the
biggest emitters of carbon dioxide, like
Bioremediation is the use of
microorganisms, like bacteria, protists the United States and China, however,
systematically ignore the warnings and
and fungi, to degrade noxious
substances turning them into non toxic continue to largely contribute to the
danger.
or less toxic substances. Bioremediation
employs microorganisms whose
Global warming is one of the most
metabolism uses contaminants as
reagents. polemic environmental issues today.
Bioremediation is used, for example, in

the decontamination of environments
polluted by oil spills. In this process
bacteria that use hydrocarbons as
437
438
Diseases
439
440
4. What is the criterion used
Concepts of to classify hosts as
Parasitism intermediate hosts or as
definitive hosts?
The criterion used to classify hosts as

1. What is parasitism? intermediate hosts or as definitive hosts
is the kind of reproduction of the
Parasitism is an inharmonious parasite, sexual or asexual, within the
interspecific ecological interaction in host. The host within which the sexual
which individuals of a species (the reproduction stage of the parasite
parasites) explore organs, tissues or occurs is the definitive host. The host
cells of individuals of another species within which the asexual reproduction
(the hosts) causing harm to these. stage of the parasite occurs is the
intermediate host.

between ectoparasite and 5. What are vectors of
endoparasite? parasites?
Ectoparasites are parasites that explore Vectors of a parasite are organisms able
the external surface of the host (like, for to transport the parasite during stages
example, mites that parasite the skin). of its life cycle mediating the infection of
Endoparasites are parasites that live other hosts. For example, the mosquito
within the body of the host (like the Aedes aegypti is the vector of the
taenias). dengue virus; triatomine bugs are
vectors of the Trypanosoma cruzi,
protozoan that causes Chagas’ disease;
mice are vectors of leptospira, bacteria
that cause leptospirosis.
3. Concerning the number of
hosts how are parasites
classified?
6. What is an etiological agent
Parasites that require only one host are of disease?
called monoxenous parasites. Parasites
that need more than one host for their
An etiological agent of disease is the
life cycle are called heteroxenous
agent that causes the disease. It may
parasites.
be a living being, substance or
environmental fact.
441
between the concepts of
epidemic disease and endemic
disease?
Endemic diseases are those that often

affect people of a given place, many or
few individuals. Epidemic diseases are
those of rapid spread and elevated
number of new cases. An endemic
disease can turn into an epidemic
disease.
442
tuberculosis had already been one of
Bacterial Infections the main causes of death in the USA
and Europe. The disease can remain
latent, without manifestation for several
years and even throughout the life.
1. What are some human
diseases caused by bacteria Tuberculosis is highly contagious,
transmitted by air route through
and what are their respective
sneezes and coughs from a person with
modes of transmission? the active disease. Transmission is
common between members of the same
The main human bacterial infections family or even in work environments.
transmitted by respiratory secretions The disease today has treatment with
(sneezes, cough) and saliva drops are: efficient antibiotics. Generally, the
bacterial pneumonias, tuberculosis, patient receives three different drugs for
whooping cough (pertussis), diphtheria, several months until healing is
bacterial meningitis. Main bacterial complete. There are however some
diseases transmitted by blood or sexual strains of multiresistant TB bacteria that
contact are: gonorrhea, syphilis. Main emerged by mutation and natural
bacterial diseases transmitted by animal selection due to the intense use of
vectors are: bubonic plague, endemic antibiotic drugs mainly in hospitals and
typhus, leptospirosis. Some bacterial treatment facilities; in these cases the
diseases transmitted through fecal-oral treatment is more difficult.
route and contaminated food are:
cholera, typhoid fever. Other important
bacterial infections: Hansen's disease,
possibly transmitted by saliva drops and 3. Is there vaccine against
contact with injured skin and mucosae; tuberculosis?
trachoma, eye disease transmitted by
ocular secretions; tetanus, transmitted
The vaccine against tuberculosis is
when the etiological agent enters the
called BCG (bacillus Calmette-Guérin).
body through skin wounds.
BCG is not used in some countries
where tuberculosis is not so prevalent
because it can distort later diagnostic
studies of the disease; in other
2. What is tuberculosis? How
countries, like Brazil, it is obligatory for
is the disease transmitted? Is children. The vaccine is made of
there treatment for attenuated TB bacteria.
tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis is a disease caused by the

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, bacteria
which attack other organs of the body
but mainly the lungs leading to
respiratory insufficiency. Before 1940,
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4. Are all pneumonias caused 6. What is the etiological
by bacteria? agent and the main
manifestations of cholera?
Pneumonia is the generic name of
inflammation of the lungs. Besides Cholera is a bacterial disease caused by
bacterial pneumonias, there are the Vibrio cholerae. The disease is
pneumonias caused by virus, fungi, transmitted by fecal-oral route and the
toxic pneumonias, etc. main mode of transmission is ingestion
of contaminated water or food. It is
most prevalent in places that lack
adequate sanitary conditions.
5. What is Hansen’s disease
(etiological agent, mode of Inside the human gut the cholera
transmission, clinical vibrion releases toxins called
enterotoxins. The infection can cause
manifestations and
intense diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration
prevention)? and even death in more severe cases.
The etiological agent of Hansen’s

disease is bacteria called Mycobacterium
leprae. The mode of transmission is not 7. What is meningitis?
yet totally known but it is believed that
respiratory secretions and saliva drops
Meningitis is the generic name given to
can spread the disease. Hansen’s
inflammation of the meninges,
disease is a chronic disease (slow
membranes that cover the central
progression) that generally attacks the
nervous system. Meningitis can have
skin and the peripheral nerves although
several causes (infectious, toxic,
other areas of the body can be affected.
traumatic, neoplastic infestation,
In the skin nodules, reddish spots,
autoimmune). Bacterial infections
thickening of the dermis and lack of
caused by meningococcus, haemophilus,
sensitivity appear; the mucosae,
pneumococcus or by tuberculosis
especially the nasal mucosa, may be
bacteria are severe and contagious.
injured and also the viscera may be
affected. The main form of prevention is
The main symptoms of bacterial
information, since there is available
meningitis are high fever, nuchal
treatment; infected people should, as
rigidity, intense headache, vomiting and
soon as possible, look for health
sometimes convulsions. The disease
services for evaluation and treatment of
should be treated with antibiotics.
the disease.
In the past Hansen’s disease was called

leprosy.
8. What is syphilis?
Syphilis, also known as lues, is a

disease caused by the bacteria
Treponema pallidum. Before the
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discovery of penicillin, syphilis was a antibiotics and the emergence of
fatal disease. Today the use of multiresistant bacteria.
antibiotics can cure the disease
completely. Patients with primary
syphilis present a single and painless
wound in the skin, sometimes called
chancre, in the region where the
treponema has penetrated; the chancre
is highly infective. Syphilis is one of the
main STDs, sexually transmitted
diseases. Generally the chancre
develops in the penis, vagina, anus,
hands or mouth, and the bacteria is
often transmitted by sexual contact.
Later syphilis develops into systemic
diseases, secondary and tertiary
syphilis.
Syphilis can also be transmitted by

blood transfusions, accidents with
contaminated objects and vertically
from the mother to the child (congenital
syphilis). It is very important for
patients with the disease to seek
treatment as soon as possible and to
undergo tests to look for other STDs,
like HPV and HIV infections.
9. What is an antibiogram?
Antibiogram is a laboratory test

intended to guide the choice of
adequate antibiotic to treat a given
bacterial infection. In the antibiogram
cultures of bacteria obtained from
tissues contaminated by the infection
under study are submitted to the action
of different antibiotics. After some time
it is verified which of the antibiotics
were successful in interrupting the
bacterial growth or in killing the
bacterial population.
The antibiogram is very important to

avoid exaggerated and inefficient use of
445
4. What is the vector of
Protozoan Chagas’ disease? How is the
Diseases disease transmitted?
The vector of Chagas’ disease is its

intermediate host, a triatomine bug. The
1. Which is the kingdom of the main species is Triatoma infestans.
parasites that cause malaria
Hemipteran insects, like triatiomines,
and Chagas’ disease?
have sucking mouthparts that can be
used to suck blood from animals or
Those diseases are caused by the organic fluids from plants. The vectors
protozoans, beings of the kingdom of Chagas’ disease are hematophagous
Protista. hemipterans that have nocturnal habits.
The blood-sucking bugs become
infected when they bite a contaminated
person. The parasites then multiply
2. What is the scientific name within the bug gut and are eliminated
of the etiological agent of with its feces. When a contaminated
Chagas’ disease? triatomine bites another person it
defecates near the bite site and the
released protozoans can penetrate into
The etiological agent of Chagas’ disease
the definitive host through mucosae or
is the Trypanosoma cruzi. The name
through the bite wound. Wild and
“cruzi” was given in honor of the
domestic mammals can also be vessels
Brazilian doctor Oswaldo Cruz. The
for the disease.
disease was named after the Brazilian
doctor Carlos Chagas.
5. What is the life cycle of

3. Under which forms is the Trypanosoma cruzi?
Trypanosoma cruzi found in
its hosts? Trypanosoma cruzi is a heteroxenous
parasite, i.e., it has an intermediate
host, the triatomine bug, and a
In the definitive hosts as well as in definitive host, the human. The
triatomine bugs (intermediate hosts) triatomine bug becomes infected by
the protozoan that causes Chagas’ sucking the blood of a contaminated
disease alternates mastigote (flagellate) person. Within the bug gut the
and amastigote forms and also protozoan reproduces itself. When the
intermediate forms between these triatomine bites another person it
forms. defecates near the bite site. Generally
the bitten person itches the area of the
bite and the parasite gains the
circulation of the definitive host. Within
446
humans the Trypanosoma cruzi multiply fatal inflammation of the cardiac muscle
as amastigote form in the cardiac or of the meninges may happen.
muscle tissue or in the nervous tissue
forming pseudocysts. These
pseudocysts break releasing flagellate
parasites into the circulation and the 8. In the long term which are
cycle is repeated. the organs affected by chronic
Chagas’ disease?
6. What is the incubation In the chronic phase of Chagas’ disease,

that manifests years after the infection,
period of an infection? the trypanosoma infests the muscles of
the heart causing insufficient blood
Incubation period is the time interval pumping, pulmonary edema and
between the infection by an agent that increase in the size of the organ
causes disease and the first signs or (cardiomegaly). This is the cardiac
symptoms of the disease. manifestation of Chagas’ disease. The
main symptoms that appear are
dyspnea, cough and cardiac
arrhythmias.
7. What is the average
incubation period of Chagas’ In the digestive form of manifestation of
disease? What are some signs the disease the parasite destroys cells
of the autonomic nervous system
and symptoms of the acute
responsible for the peristaltism of the
phase of Chagas’ disease? digestive tube. Since the motility of the
esophagus and intestines is reduced the
Chagas’ disease may or may not transit of materials inside these organs
present an acute phase. When it is is impaired and they increase in size
present, the incubation period is about 5 (width), conditions respectively known
to 14 days. The chronic phase, however, as megaesophagus and megacolon. The
can manifest in more than 10 years main symptoms are dysphagia
after the infection. (impaired swallowing), constipation,
flatulence and formation of fecaloma
At the site where the trypanosoma has (accumulation of feces inside the
penetrated the skin or the mucosa bowels).
becomes swelled: This sign is known as
chagoma. Another sign that may appear
in up to 20% of cases after the infection
is the Romana’s sign, a swelling of one 9. What is prophylaxis?
of the eyelids when infection took place
through the ocular route. In the acute
Prophylaxis are measures taken to
Chagas’ disease fever, malaise,
prevent diseases. For example, the use
inflammation and enlargement of lymph
of condoms in sexual relations is a
nodes may occur. In more severe cases
prophylaxis against contamination by
447
agents that cause STDs (sexually 12. What is the vector of
transmitted diseases). malaria? How different is its
behavior from the behavior of
the vector of dengue fever?
10. What are the etiological
agents of malaria? The vector of malaria is a mosquito of
the genus Anopheles, also called
anopheline. In opposition to the
The etiological agents of malaria are
mosquito vector of the dengue fever,
protozoans of the genus Plasmodium.
the anopheline has nocturnal habits.
There are four different types of
plasmodia that cause malaria:
Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium
vivax, Plasmodium falciparum and
13. What are the intermediate
Plasmodium ovale.
and the definitive hosts of the
plasmodium?
11. What are the human In the life cycle of the plasmodium
tissues affected by malaria? humans are the intermediate hosts
What are the main clinical (where asexual reproduction takes
place) and the vector mosquito is the
manifestations of the disease?
definitive host (where sexual
reproduction occurs).
The plasmodium infects the human
blood causing destruction of red blood
cells and it also affects the liver. Malaria
characterizes by periodical episodes of 14. What is the life cycle of
fever, chills and sweating that can be
accompanied by headache, nausea,
Plasmodium vivax?
vomiting and jaundice. The destruction
of red blood cells may lead to anemia The vector mosquito bites a
and hypoxemia. contaminated person and ingests female
and male gametocytes of the parasite.
The infection by Plasmodium falciparum Within the insect gut the gametocytes
if not treated can cause other differentiate into gametes and
complications and even death. fecundation occurs, forming zygotes.
Each plasmodium zygote by mitosis
(sporogony) generates numerous
infective sporozoites that migrate to the
salivary glands of the mosquito. When
the mosquito bites a person the
sporozoites enter the human circulation
and when in the liver they undergo the
first asexual reproduction (tissue
schizogony), releasing several
merozoites into the blood. The
448
merozoites infect red blood cells where trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis,
the second asexual reproduction of the toxoplasmosis and meningoencephalitis
cycle (erythrocytic schizogony) and the by free-living amoebas.
production of many other parasites
occur; some of these parasites
differentiate into gametocytes. The red
blood cells then break (hemolysis), the 18. What is the etiological
parasites are released in the blood and agent of amebiasis? How is it
the cycle can restart.
transmitted and what are the
typical manifestations of the
disease?
15. To which phase of the
plasmodium life cycle do the Amebiasis is caused by the protozoan
typical chills and fever of Entamoeba histolytica, or simply
amoeba.
malaria correspond?
The transmission of the disease is oral-
The typical chills and fever episodes of fecal, through contaminated water and
malaria correspond to the phase when food or by insects like cockroaches and
red blood cells are destroyed after the flies. The amoeba parasites the intestine
erythrocytic schizogony of the of humans generally in an
plasmodium life cycle. asymptomatic manner, but it can
sometimes cause enteritis with diarrhea
and severe dysentery, abdominal pain,
weight loss and anemia. In rare cases
16. What are the main extra-intestinal invasion may occur
prophylactic measures against affecting the liver, skin, genital organs
malaria? and other organs.
The main preventive measures against

malaria are the elimination of the vector
mosquito, treatment of infected people,
19. What is the parasite that
avoidance of the mosquito bite, causes giardiasis? How is it
information for travelers to endemic transmitted and what are the
areas and the use of preventive typical manifestations of the
medicines. disease?
Giardiasis is a protozoal infection caused

by Giardia lamblia, or simply giardia, a
17. What are other important
flagellate protozoan.
human diseases caused by
protozoans? The transmission is fecal-oral, through
contaminated water and food or carried
Some other important protozoan by insects like cockroaches and flies.
infections are amebiasis, giardiasis, Giardiasis manifests like amebiasis, as
449
an enteritis with diarrhea, abdominal The transmission, like in the visceral
pain, weight loss and anemia. form of the disease, is by the bite of the
sand fly Lutzomya (named after the
Brazilian scientist Adolfo Lutz), the
vector host. Cutaneous leshmaniasis
20. What is trichomoniasis? develops in the bite site where the
Why is it classified as an STD? parasite establishes itself. The skin
wound has a volcanic crater shape, a
reddish injury with elevated borders.
Trichomoniasis is an extra-intestinal
From the primary lesions the parasites
protozoan infection caused by
can spread through the blood to affect
Trichomonas vaginalis, a flagellate
other areas, mainly the mucosae of the
protozoan. The parasite infects the
nose, mouth and pharynx, causing facial
urinary tract of males and females. In
deformations.
females it causes discharge, pain and
itching.
Trichomoniasis is an STD because its

main mode of transmission is sexual
23. What is the etiological
contact. agent of visceral
leishmaniasis? How is the
disease transmitted and what
are its typical manifestations?
manifestations of Visceral leishmaniasis is caused by the
leishmaniasis? protozoan Leishmania donovani.
There are two main forms of The transmission is similar to the

leishmaniasis: cutaneous leishmaniasis cutaneous leishmaniasis, by the bite of
and visceral leishmaniasis (also known sand flies. The affected organs generally
as kala-azar). The form is determined are the liver, the spleen and the bone
by the species of infective leishmania marrow. The patient often has fever,
and by the immune response of the weight loss, splenomegaly (hypertrophy
host. of the spleen), anemia and decreased
counts of leukocytes and platelets. The
disease may cause death.
22. What is the etiological

agent of cutaneous
leishmaniasis? How is the
disease transmitted and what
are its typical manifestations?
The etiological agent of cutaneous

leishmaniasis is the protozoan
Leishmania braziliensis.
450
24. What is the parasite that
causes toxoplasmosis? How is
the disease transmitted and
what are its typical
manifestations?
Toxoplasmosis is caused by the

protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, a
sporozoan.
Toxoplasmosis is a disease transmitted

by cats, which are the definitive hosts of
the parasite. Cats eliminate toxoplasma
oocysts in feces; the oocysts are
extremely resistant and remain viable
for months in the environment. Human
beings are infected when ingesting
water or food contaminated by oocysts
or when making contact with
contaminated objects. Humans can also
become infected by eating meat of
animals like pork, cow and sheep, which
can be intermediate hosts too. Vertical
transmission, from mother to offspring,
may also occur.
In toxoplasmosis the cystic form of the

parasite invades tissues of the body,
including the brain and the retina. The
infestation is potentially fatal. In
congenital toxoplasmosis the child may
present blindness and mental
retardation. The disease is especially
severe when occurring as an
opportunistic disease in AIDS patients.
451
candidiasis that generally appears in
Fungal Infections mouth and in the genital mucosae and
disappears naturally.

diseases caused by fungi? 3. What are some fungal
diseases transmitted by
The main human diseases caused by animal feces?
fungi in immunocompetent patients are
coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, Bat and pigeon feces can carry
blastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, Histoplasma capsulatum, the fungus
or South American blastomycosis, agent of histoplasmosis. The infection is
sporotrichosis and onychomycosis (nail transmitted through inhalation of
mycosis). contaminated dust in places visited by
these animals (caves, tunnels, squares,
In immuno-deficient patients, besides roofs, etc.). Cryptococcosis is another
the diseases mentioned above, other fungal disease transmitted by pigeon
fungal diseases like systemic excrement.
candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis
and other opportunistic diseases can
occur.
4. What are some antibiotics
used against fungi?
2. Moniliasis is one of the
The topical or systemic azoles (like
most common opportunistic itraconazole, fluconazole and others),
diseases in AIDS. What is the amphotericin B, the echinocandins
etiological agent of moniliasis (caspofungin, micafungin), terbinafine
and what is the other name of and griseofulvin are examples of
the disease? Why is monilia antifungal drugs.
also common in healthy
newborns?
The etiological agent of moniliasis is

Candida albicans, a fungus. Moniliasis is
also known as mucocutaneous
candidiasis. In AIDS moniliasis can
complicate and turn into systemic
candidiasis, affecting many organs.
Newborns do not yet have their immune

system working with complete efficiency
and thus they are more susceptible to
452
previous infections is not efficient in
Viral Infections future infections).
The vaccine against flu is a vaccine

made of attenuated virus of three
1. What are some human different strains. Each year the WHO
diseases caused by virus and (World Health Organization) researches
and determines which are the strains
what are their respective
that should compose the vaccine. This is
modes of transmission? a strategy to face the high mutation
rate of the virus.
The main viral diseases transmitted by
respiratory secretions (sneezes, cough)
and by saliva drops are flu, mumps,
smallpox (variola, already considered 3. Why is rubella during
eradicated), rubella, measles, SARS. gestation a threat to the
Main viral diseases transmitted through
fetus?
blood or sexual contact are AIDS,
hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HPV, ebola
hemorrhagic fever. Main viral diseases If occurring during gestation rubella is a
transmitted by animal vectors are dangerous disease because the virus
rabies, dengue fever, yellow fever. crosses the placenta and contaminates
Some viral diseases transmitted by the fetus. The fetus then develops
fecal-oral route, including contaminated congenital rubella, a teratogenic (cause
food, are hepatitis A, poliomyelitis of malformations) disease.
(disease almost eradicated in many
parts of the world). Congenital rubella may be prevented by
vaccination. Doctor must always be
consulted before vaccination.
2. What is the virus that

causes flu? Why doesn't the
4. What are the main available
body produce permanent
vaccines against
immunity against that virus?
poliomyelitis?
How does the vaccine against
flu work? The vaccines used against poliomyelitis
are the Sabin vaccine and the Salk
Flu is a disease caused by the influenza vaccine. The Sabin vaccine contains
virus, a highly mutant DNA virus. Due attenuated virus and is taken through
to the high mutation rate of the virus, oral drops. The Salk vaccine is made of
that forms many different strains, flu dead virus and is administered by
always presents epidemic features in injection.
affected populations and people may
have several flu episodes during life
(the immune response made from
453
5. Is rabies caused by virus or Smallpox killed thousands of people
by bacteria? How is it around the world in the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th
transmitted? Which organs century but today it is almost eradicated
and tissues are affected by the by vaccination. Nowadays however a
disease? How is it prevented great fear is the possibility of use of
and treated? smallpox virus in biological weapons and
by bioterrorists. Measles is not
Rabies, also known as hydrophobia, is a eradicated and affects millions of people
viral disease. It is found in dogs, cats, each year. Both diseases can be
bats and other wild mammals. The prevented by vaccination.
transmission to humans occurs through
the saliva of contaminated animals,
mainly through bites.
The rabies virus is neurotropic and types of viral hepatitis?
attacks the central nervous system in a
fast and lethal fashion. The prevention There are many types of viral hepatitis.
of the disease is done by prophylactic The most important epidemiologically
vaccination of animals and humans. The are hepatitis A, hepatitis B and hepatitis
treatment is done by anti-rabies serum C.
containing specific antibodies against
the virus.
8. What are the modes of

transmission, main signs and
symptoms and treatments of
between smallpox (variola)
hepatitis A?
and measles?
Hepatitis A is an acute disease of low
Smallpox is a viral infection like mortality caused by the hepatitis A virus
measles. Smallpox is transmitted by (an RNA virus). It is transmitted by
respiratory secretions, saliva and fecal-oral route often through
objects in contact with contaminated contamination of foods like vegetables
patients. The disease is characterized by and sea-food. The virus attacks the liver
the appearance of numerous vesicles on and its incubation period varies between
the skin of the face, trunk and limbs, 15 and 45 days. After incubation the
that can suppurate and form crusts; symptoms are fever, headache,
smallpox complications can lead to abdominal pain, malaise, nausea and
death. Measles is transmitted by saliva vomiting and the main signs are
drops and respiratory secretions too. It jaundice, hepatomegaly (enlargement of
is characterized by exanthems (red the liver) and darkened urine (due to
spots on the skin), fever, malaise and excessive bile in blood). Blood tests
lymphadenomegaly (enlarged show increased levels of hepatic
lymphnodes). If not treated measles enzymes caused by injuries to liver
complications can cause death.
454
cells. Hepatitis A often heals naturally manifestation is chronic and many
after 4 to 6 weeks. people that have the virus are
asymptomatic. The liver gradually
undergoes injuries and some patients
evolve to cirrhosis, hepatic cancer and
9. What are the modes of death. Today interferon use is an
transmission, main signs and attempt to control replication of the
hepatitis C virus. The assessment of the
disease is made periodically by hepatic
hepatitis B? biopsy and by blood tests of hepatic
enzymes. Viral replication can be
Hepatitis B is a disease caused by a estimated through PCR (polymerase
DNA virus. The transmission is by blood chain reaction).
(wounds, sexual relations, transfusions,
accidents with contaminated material,
etc.). The most common form of the
disease is chronic, the infected patient 11. Are there non viral
carries the virus for life and the liver hepatitides?
gradually suffers injuries that can lead
to cirrhosis or even to hepatic cancer.
Another form of the disease is acute, Hepatitis is a generic name for
sometimes fulminating, with symptoms inflammation of the liver. There are
similar to those of hepatitis A but more bacterial hepatitides, for example, in
severe and sometimes lethal. There are lepstopirosis, and toxic hepatitides, for
persons that are asymptomatic carriers example by alcohol, medicines or
of the virus. The level of hepatic injury inhaled chemical products.
is assessed by blood tests of hepatic
enzymes and by hepatic biopsy
(extraction of small samples of tissue to
be examined under the microscope). 12. What are the main human
Viral replication can be estimated viral diseases transmitted by
through PCR (polymerase chain mosquitoes?
reaction).
The main human viral infections
transmitted by mosquitoes are dengue
fever and yellow fever.
10. What are the modes of
transmission, main signs and
hepatitis C? 13. What is dengue?
Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus Dengue, or dengue fever, is an epidemic

and transmitted through blood (like disease in some countries (for example,
hepatitis B, through wounds, sexual in Brazil), and its most dangerous form
relations, transfusions, accidents with is hemorrhagic dengue. It is caused by
contaminated material, etc.). The usual four different but related viruses, the
reason that it is difficult for an already
455
infected person to become immunized the vector mosquito is also an important
against the disease. Dengue is prevalent prophylactic measure.
in tropical and subtropical regions of
Asia, Africa and South America and it is
transmitted by the bite of the Aedes
aegypti mosquito, a diurnal mosquito. 15. Why is it difficult to
The viral infection causes varied produce efficient vaccines
symptoms similar to flu, like fever, against a viral infection like
malaise, myalgia (muscle pain); in
hemorrhagic dengue high fever, with or dengue and AIDS?
without convulsions, and hemorrhages
may occur leading to circulatory failure It is difficult to make vaccines against
and death. There is no vaccine against dengue because there are four different
dengue since there are four agent types of viruses that cause the disease
viruses and it is supposed that the (DEN1, DEN2, DEN3 and DEN4) and it is
severity of the disease is greater when supposed that the protection against
the patient is already protected against one of them aggravates the clinical
one type of virus and is infected by manifestation when the person is later
another. The best prophylactic method infected by the another dengue virus.
is to eliminate the vector mosquito.
In the case of HIV, the production of a
vaccine is difficult because the virus is
highly mutant and evades the antibody
14. What is yellow fever? action.
Yellow fever is a viral infection that

occurs mainly in Central Africa and in
the Amazon region of South America. It 16. Is a viral infection treated
is prevented through vaccination and with the same kind of drug
transmitted by many species of that treats bacterial
mosquitoes of the Aedes genus, infections?
including Aedes aegypti e Haemogogus.
The infection causes clinical Antibacterial drugs, potent against a
manifestations that range from great variety of bacteria, are not
asymptomatic cases to lethal effective against viruses, which are
fulminating cases. Generally the disease intracellular parasites. A viral infection
begins with fever, chills, malaise, is difficult to treat since anti-viral drugs
headache, nausea and evolves to are too specific and have limited
jaundice (increase of bilirubin in blood, efficiency. In general the anti-viral
after which the disease is named), drugs reduce the viral load (number of
mucosal and internal hemorrhages, virus) relieving symptoms. The anti-
hemorrhagic vomiting and renal failure. virals (and anti-retrovirals, drugs that
act against RNA virals) often inhibit the
Prevention is done by regular mass action of specific enzymes that
vaccination and vaccination of travelers participate in the virus life cycle.
to endemic areas. The combat against
456
3. What are CD4 lymphocytes?
AIDS What is the relationship
between these cells and HIV?
How does HIV replicate?
1. How is HIV transmitted?
What is the disease caused by CD4 lymphocytes are T helper
this virus? lymphocytes that present in their
plasma membrane receptor proteins
called CD4.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is
supposed to be transmitted through
CD4 lymphocytes are the cells that HIV
blood, semen, vaginal secretions and
infects and within which the virus
maternal milk.
replicates. HIV has proteins in its
capsule that bind to the CD4 receptors
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
of lymphocytes. Through that bond the
(acquired immune deficiency
virus fuses with the cell membrane and
syndrome), a disease characterized by
its content (RNA, reverse transcriptase,
destruction of cells of the immune
protease, etc.) penetrates into the
system making the body susceptible to
cytoplasm and the viral replication
many opportunistic and severe
process begins.
diseases.
HIV RNA is then converted into DNA by
the reverse transcriptase. The new DNA
is inserted into the genetic material of
2. Which type of virus is the the lymphocyte with the aid of enzymes
HIV? What is the enzyme called integrases. By transcription and
reverse transcriptase present translation this DNA commands the
in HIV? synthesis of proteins necessary for the
assemblage of new viruses. Long
HIV is a retrovirus, i.e., an RNA viral (its polypeptides are thus produced and
genetic material is RNA and not DNA). then fragmented into proteins and viral
enzymes by the enzyme protease. So
Reverse transcriptase is a specific new HIV viruses are assembled and
enzyme of the retrovirus responsible for break the cell membrane to gain the
the transcription of the viral RNA into circulation.
DNA within the infected (host) cell. This
DNA then commands the production of
viral proteins and the viral replication.
4. Why is AIDS difficult to
prevent by vaccination?
It is difficult to produce a vaccine

against AIDS because the HIV is a
highly mutant virus. In almost every
replication the produced viruses have
different proteins in their surface
457
making difficult their recognition by the The CD4 counting test is done from a
immune system. blood sample of a person infected by
the HIV. In this test the number of CD4
cells is counted. If that number
(concentration) is abnormally low it
5. What is the cause of the means immunodeficiency and the
immunodeficiency presented patient usually must be treated with
antiretroviral drugs. The other test used
by AIDS patients?
to follow up the infection is the viral
load test. In this test the number of HIV
The cause of the immunodeficiency virus is estimated from a blood sample
presented by AIDS patients is the indicating whether the treatment
destruction of CD4 T helper (control) of the disease has been
lymphocytes by the HIV. With this successful or not.
destruction the immune system
becomes impaired and the body cannot
defend itself against many diseases that
normally do not develop in 8. What are the main
immunocompetent people.
opportunistic diseases that
can affect AIDS patients?
6. What is the difference Among the opportunistic diseases that

between carriers of HIV and affect HIV infected people during the
AIDS stage some are: mucocutaneous
AIDS patients?
and systemic candidiasis, Kaposi’s
sarcoma (blood vessel tumors that
A person can be a carrier of the HIV result in darkened spots on the skin and
without necessarily being affected by internal organs), tuberculosis,
the immunodeficiency syndrome at that cytomegalovirus infection, pneumonia
time since the virus can remain in the by the fungus P. Carinii (pneumocystis
body for many years without producing pneumonia), toxoplamosis, herpes, etc.
clinical manifestations. The AIDS Some other opportunistic diseases are:
condition is characterized when the salmonellosis, histoplasmosis,
patient actually becomes aspergillosis, cryptococcosis,
immunodeficient and begins to show isosporiasis, lymphomas.
signs and symptoms of opportunistic
diseases.
9. How long is the incubation

period of the HIV? What is
7. How does the CD4 counting
meant by acute AIDS?
act to monitor the HIV
infection? What is another
The incubation period of the HIV (the
laboratory method to follow time interval between the infection and
up the disease? the beginning of the immunodeficiency
458
symptoms) ranges in average from 10 response) against the virus. The tests
to 15 years. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay) and Western-blot search for the
Acute AIDS is the clinical situation presence of specific antibodies against
characterized by signs and symptoms HIV antigens in blood samples. Since
that may appear in 5 to 30 days after only one positive ELISA is not
the infection by the HIV, due to the high conclusive, as false positive tests may
replication rate of the virus on this happen, the Western-blot test is often
period. Acute AIDS does not always used after the positive ELISA.
happen and many times it is mistaken
for common diseases like the common
cold. The patient can present fever,
malaise, myalgia (muscle pain) and 12. What is the window phase
arthralgia (joint pain), of an infection? How is this
lymphadenomegaly (enlargement of
concept important for the test
lymphnodes), sweating and diarrhea.
The manifestation often lasts from 3 to of HIV infection in blood
15 days. banks?
The primary immune response of the

body facing any infection is not
10. What are the three phases immediate. The window phase is the
into which the HIV infection is period from the infection until the
often divided? formation of detectable specific
antibodies against the infective agent.
In this period, immunochemical tests
The HIV infection is often divided into that indirectly search infections, like the
three phases: the acute phase, from the ELISA and the Western-blot for HIV,
infection to 1 until 9 weeks after the give a negative result even if the person
infection, a phase in which the virus is actually infected by the agent. In the
replicates and the number of CD4 case of HIV, the window phase can last
lymphocytes is reduced; the about 2 weeks to 3 months.
asymptomatic phase, lasting from 9
weeks to often more than 10 years, in The window phase is a big problem for
which the viral load remains stable and blood banks that perform only
the CD4 count is not abnormally low; immunochemical tests on the donated
the AIDS stage, when the viral load is blood. This is the reason why in some
high, CD4 count is abnormally low and countries the blood donors are
opportunistic diseases manifest. submitted to a series of questions
regarding their prior behavior, mainly
11. How do antibody-based sexual and drug use related, in the
tests detect how HIV infection months preceding the donation and also
works? to voluntary confidential self exclusion,
in which they declare whether their
After the infection by the HIV the blood may be used or should be
immune system begins the production excluded. Instead of facing this
of antibodies (primary immune dangerous problem, modern blood
459
banks nowadays use the PCR that, the high mutation rate of the virus
(polymerase chain reaction) for HIV, a may make the treatment ineffective and
test that is not distorted by the window for this reason the use of the drug
phase since it is not antibody-based. cocktail allows physicians to choose
Using specific primers, the PCR detects other different drug combinations to
the presence of DNA generated by escape the viral resistance.
reverse transcription of the HIV RNA.
15. What are some

13. What are some strategies prophylactic measures against
of the anti-retroviral drugs HIV infection?
used in the AIDS treatment?
The main prophylactic measures against
Anti-retroviral drugs used in AIDS HIV infection are: the use of condoms in
treatment try to approach any of the sexual relations, not to share syringes
several steps of the HIV life cycle. There and needles, careful handling of
are three main groups of drugs: the contaminated medical and nosocomial
reverse transcriptase inhibitors, that material, up-to-date information about
attempt to disallow the formation of the virus and its mode of transmission.
DNA from the viral RNA (zidovudine, or
AZT, ddI, d4T, 3TC, nevirapine,
efavirenz, etc.); the protease inhibitors,
that block the enzyme protease
necessary for the assemblage of new
virus (saquinavir, ritonavir, nelfinavir,
indinavir); and the group of entry
inhibitors (includes fusion inhibitors),
that try to block the entry of HIV into
the host cell (enfuvirtide, a fusion
inhibitor).
14. Why is the AIDS treatment

often done with a drug
cocktail?
The treatment of acquired immune

deficiency syndrome is often done with
one or more anti-retroviral drugs of
different groups, for example, a
protease inhibitor plus a reverse
transcriptase inhibitor in an attempt to
approach in one single time two or more
stages of the HIV life cycle. Besides
460
migrans, an ancylostomiasis of the skin
Worm Diseases caused by Ancylostoma braziliensis.
1. What are worm infections? 3. What is schistosomiasis?
Worm infections are human diseases Schistosomiasis is a worm infection

caused by platyhelminthes (flatworms) caused by schistosomes, a species of
or nematodes (roundworms). flatworms (platyhelminthes). The
disease is prevalent in Latin America
and in the Far East. The main species of
schistosome found in Latin America is
2. What are the most Schistosoma mansoni.
important worm infections?
The most important human worm

4. How do schistosomes
infections are schistosomiasis, taeniasis,
cysticercosis, ascariasis and differentiate regarding sex
ancylostomiasis (hookworm infection). separation?
Other important worm infections caused Schistosomes are dioecious, i.e., the
by platyhelminthes are: fascioliasis, species has separated sexes, male and
caused by Fasciola hepatica, which female individuals.
attacks the liver and the bile ducts;
hydatid disease, also known as
echinococcosis, caused by a taenia-like
parasite and transmitted by feces of 5. What is the intermediate
dogs in contact with sheep, with a host of Schistosoma mansoni?
clinical picture similar to cysticercosis.
Other important infections caused by
Where does that host live?
roundworms are: strongyloidiasis, agent
Strongyloides stercoralis, a common The intermediate host of the
opportunistic disease in AIDS; filariasis, schistosome is a gastropod mollusc, a
also known as elephantiasis, snail of the Planorbidae family and
transmitted by mosquitoes of the Culex Biomphalaria genus. The snail vector of
genus, caused by Wuchereria bancrofti schistosomiasis lives in freshwater, as in
and other thread-like worms and lagoons and creeks.
manifested by obstruction and fibrosis
of lymphatic vessels that cause swelling
(lymphedema) of limbs; enterobiasis
(pinworm infection), caused by
Enterobius vermicularis, a worm that
parasites the colon and the human
perianal region; cutaneous larva
461
6. What is the life cycle of the have hemorrhages and bloody vomiting
schistosome? that may even cause death.
Male and female adult schistosomes live

within blood vessels of the human
intestines. The females release eggs
that trespass the vessel walls and enter prophylactic measures against
the intestinal lumen being eliminated schistosomiasis?
with the human feces. When in water
the egg releases a larva called The main measures to prevent
miracidium that then swims to reach the schistosomiasis are: information for
snail that is the intermediate host. infected individuals to look for
Within the snail miracidia transform into treatment and to not disseminate the
cercariae, another kind of schistosome disease; chemical and biological combat
larva. The cercariae leave the snail and against the vector snail; basic sanitary
swim until penetrating through the conditions to avoid contamination of
human skin. In humans the cercaria lakes, rivers and other water streams by
gains the circulation infecting mainly the infected feces; to avoid contact with
blood vessels of the intestines, liver or fresh water suspected of contamination.
lungs and develops into the adult form
of the parasite.
9. What are taenias? What are

the diseases caused by them?
7. What are the main phases
and clinical manifestations of Taenias, also know as tapeworms, are
schistosomiasis? platyhelminth animals (flatworms). The
main diseases caused by taenias are
Schistosomiasis has acute and chronic taeniasis and cysticercosis.
phases. Days after the infection the
cercarial dermatitis appears at the site
where the worm penetrated the skin. In
one or two months the acute phase 10. How do taenias classify
begins and fever, cough, muscle pain according to the division of
and nausea occur but soon disappear; in sexes?
some people this phase may not
manifest. In the chronic phase of the
Taenias are monoecious
disease the worm infestation can affect
(hermaphrodite), the same individual
the bowels, causing diarrhea, bloody
has female and male reproductive
feces, tiredness and
organs and undergoes self fecundation.
hepatosplenomegaly (enlargement of
the liver and spleen). The excessive
pressure upon the hepatic portal vein
produces varix (collateral circulation) in
the esophagus and the patient may
462
11. What are the two main As the proglottids become distant from
species of taenias that cause the scolex (head) they mature. Mature
proglottids can fecundate themselves or
human diseases? neighboring ones and the eggs formed
are stored inside them. Proglottids
The two mains species of taenias that called pregnant proglottids, full of eggs,
cause disease in humans are Taenia detach from the body of the worm and
solium, or the pork tapeworm, and are eliminated with the human feces.
Taenia saginata, or the beef tapeworm.
Besides these species there are still the

fish tapeworm, or Diphyllobothrium 14. Concerning their
latum, and a tapeworm, Echinococcus
respective intermediate hosts
granulosus, which lives in dogs and
cause in humans the severe disease how different are Taenia
known as hydatid disease, or solium and Taenia saginata?
echinococcosis.
The intermediate hosts of Taenia solium
are pigs and the intermediate hosts of
Taenia saginata are cattle.
12. How do taenias obtain
food and make gas exchange?
Tapeworms have hooks and sucking 15. What is the life cycle of a
structures on their heads (scolex) that tapeworm?
fixate the parasite in the gut wall; these
structures often do not injure the host Pregnant proglottids with taenia eggs
tissue. The parasite obtains food and are released together with human feces.
makes gas exchange through absorption If ingested by the intermediate hosts,
and diffusion across its skin; since it is a swine or bovine, the eggs break inside
platyhelminth it does not have a their intestines and the larva trespass
digestive system or a circulatory the mucosa and gains the circulation to
system. settle on muscles, heart, brain and
other organs of these animals and then
differentiate into cystic larvae called
cysticerci. Humans become infected
13. What are the segments when eating raw or badly cooked swine
that form the body of the or bovine meat contaminated by
tapeworm called? What is cysticerci. In the human intestines the
cysticerci develop into adult worms and
their function? the cycle goes on.
The body of the tapeworm is made of

segments called proglottids. The
proglottids are reproductive structures
of the taenia and contain the organs
that produce male and female gametes.
463
16. What is the difference gut the cysticerci may develop into an
between taeniasis and adult tapeworm.
cysticercosis?
Taeniasis is the parasitic disease caused 18. How does self infection by
by the adult tapeworm installed within
tapeworms occur?
the human intestine.
Cysticercosis occurs when humans Taeniasis patients may develop the

ingest eggs or pregnant proglottids of most severe form of the worm infection,
taenias, for example, through badly cysticercosis, because their feces
washed food or self infection. In contain eggs and pregnant proglottids of
cysticercosis humans assume the role of the taenia and there is risk of self
intermediate hosts of the parasite and infection due to bad hygienic habits, like
the cysticerci develop within human not washing the hands after defecation.
organs like muscles, brain, eyes and If these individuals ingest the eggs of
subcutaneous tissue. The brain the parasite they can develop
infestation by cysticerci, a condition cysticercosis too.
known as neurocysticercosis, is
extremely severe and may lead to
death.
19. What are some
In the normal life cycle of taenias the prophylactic measures for
humans are the definitive hosts and tapeworm infections?
develop taeniasis, a less serious
disease, and not cysticercosis. The main prophylactic measures against
taeniasis and cysticercosis are: not to
ingest raw or badly cooked swine or
bovine meat; sanitary education of the
17. If a person eats raw or people; appropriate destination of feces;
badly cooked meat infected by adequate treatment of infected people.
Taenia solium or Taenia
saginata will this person
develop taeniasis or
20. What is ascaris? What is
cysticercosis?
the disease caused by this
If a person eats raw or badly cooked
worm?
meat infected by Taenia solium or
Taenia saginata he or she will develop Ascaris, or Ascaris lumbricoides, is an
the disease taeniasis. The ingestion of animal of the nematode phylum, i.e., a
contaminated raw or badly cooked roundworm. Ascaris causes ascariasis, a
infected meat means that cysticerci are common worm infection of the intestine.
being ingested. The human then will be
affected by taeniases since in his or her
464
21. How do ascaris obtain 24. What are the main
food? symptoms of the pulmonary
and of the intestinal phases of
The ascaris live within the human gut the ascaris infestation?
and feed from the food ingested by the
infected person. In the pulmonary phase the ascaris
infestation causes cough, hemoptysis,
dyspnea, fever, fatigue and may cause
a special kind of pneumonia called
22. Does Ascaris lumbricoides eosinophilic pneumonia. In the intestinal
present an intermediate host? phase the symptoms are due to
spoliation of nutrients of the host and
Ascaris is a monoxenous parasite, its thus hunger and weight loss may
life cycle is dependent only on one host appear. Masses of ascaris inside the
and so it does not have intermediate bowels can cause severe intestinal
host. obstruction.
23. What is the life cycle of 25. What are some

ascaris? prophylactic measures against
ascariasis?
Adult ascaris that live within the human
intestine can release up to 200 The main prophylactic measures against
thousand eggs a day. The eggs are ascariasis are: efficient washing of
eliminated with human feces and vegetables and other foods; basic
mature in the environment under some sanitary conditions and appropriate
heat and moisture conditions. Humans destination of feces; hygiene education
may ingest mature eggs through food for people; combat against insects that
contaminated by human feces or can carry the eggs of the parasite, like
through bad hygienic habits. The eggs flies and cockroaches.
again inside the human intestine release
larvae that cross the enteric mucosa
and gain the circulation reaching the
lungs. In the lungs the larva mature and 26. What is ancylostomiasis?
go to the airway and to the pharynx
when they are then swallowed. Within Ancylostomiasis is a disease caused by
the gut the larvae develop into adult Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator
worms. americanus, both hookworms belonging
to the nematode phylum (roundworms).
Ancylostomiasis caused by these worms
is also called hookworm disease.
Since the parasites nourish themselves

on human blood the infection causes
465
anemia, hypoproteinemia and the to the airway and the pharynx. When
patient often seems pale. the larvae are swallowed they enter the
small intestine and develop into adult
worms and the cycle restarts.
27. Which is the typical

feature of the hookworms
related to the way they obtain 30. What are the main
food and explore the host? prophylactic measures against
hookworm disease?
Both Ancylostoma duodenale and
Necator americanus have mouthparts The main prophylactic measures against
with hooks or “teeth” that help the hookworm disease are: to avoid walking
fixation of the parasite in the human barefoot on soils suspected of
intestine wall and facilitate the tissue contamination; basic sanitary conditions
injury necessary to drain blood from the and appropriate destination of feces;
host. The structures are evolutionary treatment of infected people.
adaptations for the parasitic way of life
of these animals.
28. Are hookworms

monoxenous or
heteroxenous?
Hookworms are monoxenous, i.e., their

life cycle depends only on one host.
29. What is the life cycle of

the hookworms?
Adult hookworms within the human

intestine release eggs that are
eliminated with the human feces. Under
adequate conditions of moisture and
temperature the eggs mature in the soil
and generate larvae. The larvae
differentiate into thread-like infective
larvae that can penetrate the human
skin, generally through the feet. The
larvae them gain the human circulation
and reach the lungs from where they go
466
Prion Diseases
1. What is a prion?
A prion is an infectious (transmissible)

protein able to replicate by transforming
other proteins into a copy of the prion.
The mechanism of copying is not yet
understood by science.
The hypothesis come out from research

about a nervous system disease known
as Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease,
epidemiologically associated to a bovine
disease called bovine spongiform
encephalitis (the mad cow disease).
Research discovered that the infectious
agent that causes those diseases,
suprisingly, was a protein capable of
copying itself and of being transmitted
by ingestion (the reason why meat from
contaminated animals cannot be
consumed), inoculation and even
heredity.

diseases caused by prions?
The main known human diseases of

such type are the Creutzfeldt-Jacob
disease (CJD), the kuru and the
Gerstmann-Sträussle-Scheinken disease
(GSS). The hypothesis that many other
diseases of unknown etiological agents
are actually caused by self-replicating
infectious proteins is strong.
467
diseases of the nervous system are
Degenerative Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's

disease.
Diseases
4. What is hypertension?
1. What are degenerative
Hypertension is a disease in which the
diseases? arterial blood pressure, during systole
or during diastole, is abnormally high.
Degenerative diseases are non
infectious prevalent diseases whose Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is
incidences increase with aging. a condition that must be diagnosed and
treated since it produces irreversible
injuries in arteries and, later, it causes
other severe diseases in organs like the
2. What are risk factors for heart, brain, kidneys, retina, etc.
diseases?
Risk factors for a disease are everything

that contributes to increase the risk of 5. What are the main risk
the disease to appear. For example, for factors for hypertension?
most cardiovascular diseases, tobacco
smoking and diabetes mellitus are both The main risks factors for hypertension
important risk factors; for some cancers are tobacco smoking, stress, obesity,
having a genetic component a positive sedentary lifestyle and alcoholism.
family history is a risk factor, etc.
6. What is the relation

3. What are the main human between the maximum and
degenerative diseases? the minimum blood pressure
with the phenomena of systole
The main human degenerative diseases
and diastole?
are divided into three groups:
cardiovascular diseases, neoplastic
diseases and degenerative diseases of The maximum blood pressure is the
the nervous system. The main pressure on the wall of the systemic
cardiovascular diseases are arteries during systole, i.e., when the
hypertension, the cardiopathies, heart is pumping blood to arterial
including coronary disease and vessels. The minimum blood pressure is
myocardial infarction, and the the pressure on the wall of the systemic
cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs, or arteries during diastole, i.e., when the
strokes). Neoplasias are benign tumors heart ventricles are relaxing and getting
and cancers. The main degenerative blood.
468
7. What are the main cannot irrigate some regions of the
degenerative diseases of the heart muscle (myocardium) the
infarction occurs and the muscle cells of
heart? the affected area die.
The main degenerative diseases of the

heart are heart failure, arrhythmias,
valvular heart diseases, coronary 9. What is myocardial
insufficiency and myocardial infarction.
infarction?
Myocardial infarction is the condition in

8. What is coronary disease? which an area of this tissue or the entire
heart muscle dies by hypoxia due to
lack of blood irrigation. Myocardial
Coronary disease, or coronary infarction is a severe disease since on
insufficiency, is a disease in which there the dependence of its extension the
is total or partial obstruction of one or heart can fail, i.e., it can no longer
more of the arteries that irrigate the pump blood to the lungs or to the body
heart musculature, i.e., obstruction of or it can even stop beating (causing
the coronary arteries. The disease is death).
formed by slow and gradual formation
of atheroma plaques inside the The main cause of myocardial infarction
coronaries. The fatty plaques grow and is coronary obstruction, blocking of the
block the flow of blood, a process known arteries that carry arterial blood to the
as atherosclerosis (do not confuse with heart muscle. Other events like
arteriosclerosis which is the hardening hemodynamic shock (circulation
of the arteries generally cause by stoppage due to large hemorrhages, for
chronic high blood pressure). example) can also cause myocardial
infarction.
The main risk factors for coronary
disease are tobacco smoking, diabetes
mellitus, hypertension,
hypercholesterolemia (high level of bad
10. What is coronary bypass
cholesterol and low level of good
cholesterol), stress, alcoholism and graft?
sedentary lifestyle.
Coronary artery bypass graft is a kind of
Coronary disease may present in two surgical myocardial revascularization,
manners, as angina pectoris or as i.e., a way to provide blood to a
myocardial infarction. If the arterial myocardium whose blood supply is
obstruction is not complete and impaired or blocked due to coronary
extensive the patient often feels chest disease. In this surgical treatment of
pain (angina pectoris), mainly when coronary disease one or more blood
performing physical exercise or in any vessel grafts taken from other parts of
situation when the heart needs more the body are used to join the obstructed
oxygen. If the obstruction of one or artery (in a region after the obstruction)
more coronaries is complete or blood with the aorta or other healthy coronary
469
artery thus reestablishing the blood flow organism. Neoplasias can be benign or
to the myocardium. Often the blood malign. Benign neoplasias are those in
vessel grafts are part of the saphenous which the cell proliferation is limited to a
vein from the leg or of the mammary given site of the body and so neoplastic
artery from the chest or even of the cells do not spread to other close
radial artery from the forearm. regions or at distance through the
circulation. Malign neoplasias are those
in which the neoplastic cells disseminate
at distance to other sites and organs of
11. What are cerebrovascular the body, a process called metastasis,
accidents? where they continue to proliferate.
Malign neoplasias injure tissues and if
not eradicated they are fatal. Benign
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), also
neoplasia can also be deadly when it
known as stroke, is the generic name
forms a tumor that grows and
given to infarction (tissue and cellular
compresses vital organs.
death by hypoxia) of areas of the brain
due to vascular obstruction or
hemorrhages. CVAs are divided into
ischemic and hemorrhagic. In the
ischemic CVA blocking of arteries that
carry blood to the brain occurs; its concepts of neoplasia, tumor
cause is generally atherosclerosis and cancer?
(atheroma formation) of these vessels.
In the hemorrhagic CVA there is rupture Not every tumor is neoplastic and not
of one or more blood vessels of the every neoplasia creates tumor. Tumor is
brain with blood leakage, increasing the generic name given to the abnormal
intracranial pressure and thus increase in mass or volume of any area
interruption of blood flow in some areas of the body (for example, the enlarged
of the brain. The severity of the stroke tonsils during throat infection are a kind
depends on the function performed by of tumor, any inflammation creating a
the affected area of the brain, for swelled area characterize a tumor, etc.).
example, motor function, visual Neoplasias can form tumors, some of
function, vegetative function, etc., and them very large, by aggregation of
on the size of the involved area. neoplastic cells in the region where the
neoplasia began or in distant
The main risk factors for implantations. Cancer is a synonym for
cerebrovascular accidents are malign neoplasia.
hypertension, hypercholesterolemia,
tobacco smoking and old age.
14. What is cancer?

12. What are neoplasias? Cancers are malign neoplasias, i.e.,
abnormal and uncontrolled proliferation
Neoplasia is any abnormal and of cells that can disseminate to other
uncontrolled proliferation of cells of an sites of the body. Cancer dissemination
470
at distance usually occurs through blood natural and synthetic substances to
or lymphatic vessels. inhibit angiogenesis.
15. How do malign neoplasias 18. What are the main types
appear? of cancer that affect humans?
Neoplasias appear due to DNA Excluding skin cancer, that are the more
mutations in genes that regulate the easily detected and so cases are
cellular proliferation thus making the registered in larger number, the main
cell lose its capacity to control and limit types of cancer in men are prostate
its division by mitosis. The cell then cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer; in
divides continuously and uncontrollably women, breast cancer, colon and rectal
and this defect is transmitted to its cancer and lung cancer are of great
daughter cells. incidence. Other common cancers are
ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, liver
cancer, esophageal cancer, brain cancer
and the leukemias and lymphomas
16. What are carcinogens? (blood cancers).
Carcinogens are factors capable of Epithelial cancers, of the skin as well as

producing neoplasias. Any mutagen, a of the internal organs, are more
substance that can induce DNA common because epithelial tissues are
mutation, is a potential carcinogen. more exposed to carcinogens.
Examples of carcinogens are radiation,
nitrous acid, many substances inhaled The proportional incidence of the many
through tobacco smoking and the types of cancers varies according to the
human papilloma virus (HPV). considered population.
17. How do cells of neoplastic 19. What is the main risk

tumors obtain oxygen and factor for lung cancer?
nutrients and release wastes?
The main risk factor for lung cancer is
tobacco smoking. The large number of
In neoplastic tumors a phenomenon
cases of this type of cancer is due to the
called angiogenesis occurs.
increased number of smokers
Angiogenesis is the formation of new
worldwide.
blood vessels. Neoplastic cells induce
the formation of new blood vessels to
irrigate and drain the neoplastic tissue.
Angiogenesis is important because the
tumor growth depends on it. A lot of
20. What is the main risk
research on cancer has tried to discover factor for skin cancer?
471
The main risk factor for skin cancer is dementia and alteration of mental
solar exposition of the skin without functions.
protection against ultraviolet radiation
(a potential carcinogen). The disease generally appears after 40
years of age and it is more frequent in
The most lethal skin cancer is the elderly. Image studies of the brain
melanoma. show broad loss of brain tissue. (The
Alzheimer’s disease should not be
confused with other mental
deteriorations common in the elderly.)
21. How is cancer usually
treated?
If the cancer is in its initial stage

24. What is Parkinson’s
treatment is often done by surgical disease?
removal of the neoplastic tissue.
Cancers already disseminated are often Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative
treated with radiation (radiotherapy) disease of the nervous system in which
and anti-mitotic drugs (chemotherapy). the main manifestations are progressive
motor disturbances, like tremors of feet,
hands and mandibles (jaws) and
walking and balance impairments.
22. What are the main Parkinson’s disease is due to the
degenerative diseases of the degeneration of dopaminergic motor
neurons, i.e., motor neurons that use
nervous system?
dopamine as a neurotransmitter,
located in a specific region of the brain,
The main degenerative diseases of the the mesencephalon. Such degeneration
nervous system are Alzheimer’s disease creates deficiency of dopamine in the
and Parkinson’s disease. nervous system. (Parkinson’s disease
should not be confused with other
Degenerative diseases of the nervous causes of tremors, like the use of some
system are caused by progressive tissue medicines.)
degradation or loss of neurons in some
regions of the nervous system.
23. What is Alzheimer’s

disease?
Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative

disease of the central nervous system in
which the patient has progressive
472

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Biochemistry Introduction Review -

8. What are some examples of 10. What are biopolymers?

4. Is water a polar or a non-

9. What are ions? What are Osmotic pressure depends on the

15. How do mineral salts 18. What is the importance of

16. What are the main Magnesium also acts as a cofactor of

20. Why is iodine important

Iodine is a fundamental chemical

21. What are the main

Like sodium cations, chlorine anions

1. What are the organic Monosaccharides are simple molecules

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxylated

Monosaccharides are simple molecules

5. What are hexoses? What Polysaccharides have an energy storage

6. What are pentoses? What

Pentoses are carbohydrates made of

The DNA molecule is made of a

So pentoses are fundamental

8. Regarding solubility, how

Fats and oils are hydrophobic molecules,

There are some amphipathic lipids, i.e.,

Peptide is the molecule formed by the

Amines can be classified into primary

13. Do the –R groups bound to

14. Do the –H groups bound to

In the alpha-helix structure the

The primary structure is the basis of the

Protein denaturation can be a reversible

Secondary, tertiary and quaternary

In sickle cell disease there is a change

Substrates are reagent molecules upon

8. On what structural level of 11. What happens to a

14. How does temperature 16. How is the cooling of

Pepsin acts within the stomach so its

Inactive enzymes which are not bound

Many medical drugs, for example, some

Zymogens, or proenzymes, are

For example, the pepsinogen secreted

6. Which are the nucleotides

The phosphate group of one nucleotide Watson (North American), Crick

15. Why is it not correct to During the DNA replication process,

DNA is not completely autonomous in its

In the eukaryote cell nucleus RNA can

25. What are similarities and Messenger RNA, or mRNA, transfer

Cells can be classified as eukaryotic or

Prokaryotic cell is that without a

9. What is the difference

8. What are the chemical 10. What are the main

The chromatin, dispersed in the The nuclear membrane is also called

20. What are the main

21. What are cytoplasmic

The rough endoplasmic reticulum has a

It is presumed that mitochondria were

36. What are the colors (of the

There is a difference between the

The membrane that delimits the

39. What is the function of the

The plant cell wall has structural and

2. Concerning their Concentration gradient is the difference