Quick notes

Earth science:
Geology
- Earth’s resources
Renewables – Air (Oxygen, Wind power), Water (Drinking water, Hydropower, Tidal,
Wave), Biotic (Forest, Agricultural, Biomass), Solar, Geothermal
Non-renewables – Minerals (Carbonates, Silicates, Sulphates, Phosphates, etc.), Metal
Ore (Iron, Copper, Zinc etc.), Fossil fuel (Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas), Nuclear
(Uranium, Plutonium etc.)

- Rocks and Minerals

Igneous -Volcanic (formed from lava i.e. magma reaching surface, e.g. granite)
-Plutonic (formed from magma cooling down underground, e.g. basalt)
Sedimentary -Accumulation of fragments of other rocks (Sandstone, Mudrocks)
-Accumulation of biochemical product (Limestone, Coal)
-Precipitation of dissolved chemicals (rock salt)
Metamorphic -Other rocks subjected to high pressure and temperature (marble)

- Plate Tectonics
Earth’s crust divided into multiple plates
Movements due to convection of mantle (containing magma)
Convergent -towards each other
-Continent & continent (Both up, Inland mountain ranges)
-Continent & ocean (Continent up, ocean down, Coastal mountain
ranges, active volcanoes)
-Ocean & ocean (One up, one down, Trenches due to subduction)
Divergent -away from each other
-Continent & continent (Rift Valley)
-Ocean & ocean (Ocean ridge)
Transform -sliding against each other
Continental drift over geological time (joining and breaking)
- Earth quake and volcanoes
Plate tectonics create pressure underground.
Causes earthquake when released
If occurs near ocean, may cause tsunami (creating ripple in ocean)
Epicentre refers to location where the pressure is released (shallow epicentre is more
destructive)
Volcanoes occurs due to rupture in earth’s crust which allows magma to leak to
surface (as lava)
Mostly found in boundary of tectonic plates due to weakened crust or heat from
tectonic motion (Pacific Ring of Fire).
Also found in hotspots which are areas which the mantle rises and weakens the
tectonic plates (Hawaii Islands).
Can be either active (constant activity), dormant (periodic activity) or extinct (lost
supply of magma)

- Geochemical cycles
Pathway taken by chemicals as they change from one form to another form
chemically on surface and in the crust.
Involves geological process such as subduction and volcanoes.
Sometimes may involve biological agents (biogeochemical cycle)
Important in recycling the chemical elements of the earth.
Very slow process so considered non-renewable.
E.g. Carbon, phosphorus, sulphur and rock cycle

- Fossils and Geological Time

Fossils are remains and traces of organism of past. (Bones, soft tissues, faeces,
footprints etc.)
Age of fossils are determined based on rock layers which they are found in.
The rock layers are accumulated over time.
The deeper the rock layer, the older the fossils (and rock) from that layer.
Precise age can be determined by radioactive dating.
Radioactive dating is based on half-life of radioactive material which is constant
throughout time.
- Mass movements
Movement of rock or soil under influence of gravity and often water as lubricant.
Can be very slow (Creep)
Or in an instant (landslide, rock fall)
Can be flowing if too much water is involved (mudflow, avalanche)

Water systems
- Water cycle
Movement of water from one form into another through various processes such as
evaporation, condensation, melting, precipitation etc.
Also includes water flows on ground (river and lakes, surface runoff) and below
grounds (ground water, soil moisture)
Transfer of heat in environment
Transport of minerals across surface
Powered mostly by energy from sun (evaporation).

- Lakes, river, oceans

Lakes -Bodies of water trapped in basin (depressed area on surface)
-May or may not have input and output from rivers
-Can be freshwater, saltwater, acidic or alkaline lake.
-Isolated from ocean
-Can be of tectonic origin (rift valleys or uprising continents isolated part of
ocean) or volcano lakes (formed in craters) or glacial (pockmarked landscape
after glacial retreat)
-Blocking of flowing river can produce lakes
-Sinkhole (limestone landscape)
-Human action (Dam) or impact craters (meteor)
-Not permanent, can disappear over time (opening of new output or filled up
by sediments)
River -Flowing watercourse
-Mostly ends up at another body of water (lakes, ocean, and another river) but
can dry up along the way.
 -Mostly flowing on surface but can be underground
-Mostly confined to channel but may form flood plains if passing through flat
area
-Erodes rocks and soil from upstream
-Deposit sediments downstream
-Estuaries are transition zone between river and ocean
Ocean -Contains most of the earth’s water
-From land outward, divided into intertidal zone, continental shelf (sea), open
ocean.
-pelagic refers to water body while benthic refers to the bottom
-Tides are formed due to gravitational effect of moon and sun on ocean water.
-Surface current formed due to wind which creates waves.
-Undercurrents are influenced by Earth’s rotation.
-At deep area, the currents are affected by temperature and salinity
differences (Thermohaline).

- Groundwater
Water which exist below surface
Among soil particles (soil moisture) or in cracks among rock layers (aquifer)
In colder region, may exist as permafrost (frozen soil)
In deeper area, may interact with geothermal energy (geyser, hot spring)
Depth which ground is saturated with water is known as water table

Atmosphere
- Earth’s atmosphere
Layer of gas surround Earth held in by gravity
Exerts pressure on surface of Earth (1 atm at surface)
Pressure and density of air decreases at higher level (Same for temperature but with
exception)
78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and the rest (including 0.04% carbon dioxide)
Also includes different concentration of water vapour depending on area
Troposphere -Lowest layer which is In contact with surface
 -roughly 9 to 17 km from surface (thicker at equator)
-Contains most of the mass of atmosphere (highest density)
-Location of most of the weather (intense thunderstorms may reach
up to lower stratosphere)
Stratosphere -up to 50-55 km from surface
-Contains ozone layer which absorbs most of the UV light from sun.
-Ozone layer’s reaction with UV also creates warm layer of atmosphere
in the middle of stratosphere
-Very stable, no turbulence
Mesosphere -up to 80-85km from surface
-Most of the meteors burn up at this layer
-Very low temperature
Thermosphere -up to 500 to 1000km from surface
-100km region usually taken as the boundary between atmosphere
and space but gases still exist (at very low concentration) beyond that
distance.
-Very high temperature due to extremely low density of particle (i.e.
each particle is extremely energetic but combined heat is low).
-No presence of water
-International space station orbit around this region.
Exosphere -up to 10000km
-Contains extremely low concentration of gas molecules which no
longer behave as gases
-Ionic particles from sun may interact with magnetic field of earth to
produce aurora. (Sometimes extends into thermosphere)
-Most satellites orbit in this region.

- Weather and Climate

Weather refers to short term changes in atmosphere (wind, cloud, rain, snow etc.)
while climate refers to long term trends of weather (season, monsoon, cyclone, El
Nino, global warming).
Caused by temperature, pressure and moisture differences.
Varies across latitude, altitude and geographical location
 Differences between temperature of polar, temperate and tropical region gave rise to
atmospheric cells (Hadley, Ferrel and Polar) with jet streams in between.
Rotation of Earth creates the major wind systems.
The tilting of Earth’s axis causes seasonal variation in temperate and polar regions
due to difference in amount of sunlight received.
In long term the changes in Earth’s orbit affects climate by causing warming or cooling
due to difference sunlight received.
In recent times, excessive release of CO2 also affect the climate of Earth through
excessive greenhouse effect.

-.Weathering and Erosion

Weathering -Breaking down of rocks, soil and mineral due to contact with
atmosphere, water or biological organism.
-Occurs at same location with little or no movement
-Weathering creates soil from parent material.
-Physical/Mechanical dominant in extreme conditions (very cold or
very dry).
-Thermal stress breaks down rocks due to repeated fluctuation
in temperature over time which causes expansion and
contraction.
-Repeated freezing and melting of water also breaks rocks as
ice expands when frozen.
-Waves and winds also causes weathering by chipping away at
rocks
-Chemical weathering dominant in warm and wet conditions.
-Parent material may dissolve in water or reacts with acidity
(due to CO2) in rainwater.
-May also convert the chemical properties of parent material
(e.g. to more brittle material) by hydration or hydrolysis.
-O2 in water or air may also oxidize parent material (e.g. rust)
-Biological organism may also modify the environment
chemically (e.g. absorption of minerals by plants,
decomposition increases acidity)
Erosion -Removal and transportation of parent material from original location
to another location.
-Can be very near (few mm) to very far (thousands of km)
-Can be very slow (geological time) to very fast (flooding)
-Occurs physically (as suspensions) or chemically (as solutions).
-Rainfall and surface runoff carry materials away from original
location
-Streams and rivers carry materials downstream
-Waves and currents can removes material from coast
-Chemically by dissolving in water
-Glaciers by scraping, breaking and thrusting (due to ice frozen
across surface) of parent material.
-Floods can remove large amount of materials rapidly
-Wind also removes particles away from surface.
-Wind carried particles can also collide with surface of parent
material to cause abrasion.
-Mass movement of soil and rocks (landslides etc.)