AIRLAWS, logic, and code of ethics

NBDC

AIRLAWS - Air Law is a series of rules governing the use of airspace and its benefits for
aviation, the general public and the nations of the world. Definition of which is plenty but it
cannot be applied indiscriminately or without exceptions.

Brief History of Air laws

Because of the first engine-powered flight had successfully been carried out by the Brothers
Wright in 1903, it is already 100 years in the year of 2003. It is possible to review to the past
when one takes into account the national rules and regulations in various states.

The first concerted attempt at codification on an international scale took place before 1910, when
German balloons repeatedly made flights above French territory. 2 The French Government was
of the opinion that for safety reasons it would be desirable for the two governments involved to
try and reach an agreement to resolve the problem. As a result the Paris Conference of 1910 was
convened, the tendency of the conference did not adopt the idea of ‘freedom of the air’ but was
in favor of the sovereignty of states in the space above their territories, which was reflected on
the draft convention at the plenary session of the conference

Main international organizations in aviation

ICAO - is playing an outstanding role in world aviation events. Its set-up is starting by the
agreement concluded during the Chicago conference of 19445. The impulse of its set-up is
generated as to the field of aviation in structural innovations of international co-operation and
law making after the 2nd World War.

IATA - is not an official body but its aim and objective are clearly set out in its incorporating
acts for the safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the air aviation, to foster
air commerce and to study problems connected therewith by means of collaboration among
airlines engaged directly or indirectly in international air transport service. Its job is always
working with ICAO and the other international organization, lies in the sectors of technical and
commercial.

IATA has another important functions, one of which is performing as a clearing-house, handling
the ticketing clearing for airlines’ account under the responsibility of its financial committee
since 1947 in London, later, it moved to Geneva. The other function of IATA is to fix tariff rates
for international air transport, its activities find their expression in Resolutions and
Recommended Practices adopted by the Traffic Conferences which become binding on the
member when approved by interested governments.

CONVENTIONS

Rapid development of aviation has brought some international problems such as:

The coordination of operational techniques and laws

The dissemination (spreading widely) of technical and economic information far
beyond the ability of individual governments to solve
The need for safety and reliability in air transportation involves:

* Building airports

* Setting up navigation aids

* Establishing weather reporting systems

The standardization of operational practices for international services is fundamental importance

so that no error may be caused by misunderstanding or inexperience.

The establishment of such standards or rules of the air, of air traffic control, of personnel
licensing and of the design of airplanes and airports and other considerations of prime
importance to the safety and economic viability of international aviation all require more than
national action

As the airplane developed during the first decade of 20th century, the question arose as to the
sovereignty of each nation in the airspace above it.

“Should airspace above a nation be considered within the sovereignty of each nation or should
airspace, like the high seas, be considered international?”

Two principle theories of national sovereignty of airspace were advocated by international

jurists:

The air is free and therefore that individual states have no authority over it, either in time
of peace or in time of war, except when necessary for self-preservation.
The opposing view held that the individual states indeed have a right of sovereignty over
the airspace above their soil. They claimed that aircraft flying only a few miles over the
land are in a position to observe, photography and obtain data that might be used to the
disadvantage of the nation over which the aircraft are flown
As the close of World War I, in November 1918, the problems of international air control became an
important subjects at the peace conference. The secretary of the Inter-Allied Aviation Committee
proposed that the committee be constituted as an organization for international air regulation.
 THE PARIS CONVENTION-1919 - On October 13, 1919, the convention, with its
annexes, was agreed upon, adopted and opened the signature by the representatives of
32 allied and associated powers represented at the peace conference. The 34 articles
covered the reservation of sovereignty of airspace by the contracting nations;

-each nation’s registry of aircraft

-the issuance of certificates of airworthiness and competence by each contracting
nation
-the flight of aircraft across foreign territory
-international aircraft navigation rules
-prohibition of the transportation of arms, explosives and photographic equipment by
aircraft
-the establisment and maintenance of a permanent commission for air navigation.

Principles of Paris convention

1. Each nation has absolute sovereignty over the airspace overlying its territories and waters. A
nation, therefore, has the right to deny entry and regulate flights (both foreign and domestic) into
and through its airspace

2. Each nation should apply its airspace rules equally to its own and foreign aircraft operating
within that airspace, and make rules such that its sovereignty and security are respected while
affording as much freedom of passage as possible to its own and other signatories' aircraft.

3. Aircraft of contracting states are to be treated equally in the eyes of each nation's law

4. Aircraft must be registered to a state, and they possess the nationality of the state in which they
are registered

The convention had 9 chapters, dealing with

• General Principles

• Nationality of aircraft

• Certificates of airworthiness and competency

• Admission to air navigation above foreign territory

• Rules to be observed on departure when under way and on landing

• Prohibited transport

• State aircraft

• International Commission for air navigation

• Final Provisions
 The WARSAW CONVENTION of 1929

It is the convention for the unification of certain rules relating to international transportation by
air applies to any international transportation of persons, baggage or merchandise by aircraft
compensations. The Warsaw Convention provided that an air carrier was liable for damages
sustained by:

• Death or injury to the passengers

• Destruction, loss or damage to baggage or goods

• Loss resulting from delay in the transportation of passengers, baggage or merchandise.

The CHICAGO CONFERENCE – 1944

Worl War II had a tremendous impact on the technical development of air transportation, but
there were many problems on political, legal, economical and technical subjects. Therefore,
representatives of 52 nations assembled in Chicago in November, 1944

The aim of the conference was to foster (to develop) development of international civil aviation
“in a safe and orderly manner” to establish international air transport service on the basis of
equality of service

The contracting states were required to undertake to secure the highest degree of uniformity in
complying with international standards and practices with respect to the followings:

• Communication systems and air navigation aids

• Characteristics of airports and landing areas

• Rules of air and air traffic control practices

• Licensing of operating and mechanical personnel

• Airworthiness of aircraft

• Registration and identification of aircraft

• Collection and exchange of meteorological information

• Logbooks

• Aeronautical maps and charts

• Customs and immigration procedures

• Aircraft in distress and investigation of accidents and other matters concerning the safety,
regularity and efficiency of air navigation

• The Chicago Conference established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to
foster the planning and development of international air transport.

• The Chicago Conference provided another significant document, “The International Air
Transport Agreement” or the “Five Freedoms Agreement”. This agreement is applicable only to
civil aircraft engaged in scheduled air services.

TOKYO CONFERENCE-1963

This convention provides that the State of Registration of an aircraft is competent to exercise
jurisdiction over offences and acts committed on board.

Its object is to ensure that offences, wherever committed should not go unpunished. As
certain acts committed on board or may prejudice good order and discipline on board, the aircraft
commander and others are empowered to prevent such acts being committed and to disembark the
person concerned.

In the case of an anticipated or actual unlawful or forcible seizure of an aircraft in flight by a

person on board, the States party to the Convention are obliged to take all appropriate measures to
restore and preserve control of the aircraft to its lawful commander.

HAGUE CONFERENCE-1970

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft was signed at the Hague in
December 1970.

The Convention defines the Act of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, and lists which Contracting
States have undertaken to make such offences punishable by severe penalties.

The Convention contains detailed provisions on the establishment of jurisdiction by States over
the offence, on the taking of the offender into custody and on the prosecution or extradition of the
offender.

MONTREAL CONFERENCE-1971

This convention came into force on 26 January 1973. It is mainly concerned with acts other than
those pertaining to the unlawful seizure of aircraft. For example:

• Acts of violence on board which endanger people and property and safety of the aeroplane.
 • The destruction of an aircraft in service or causing damage which renders it incapable of flight or
which is likely to endanger its safety in flight.

• Placing in an aircraft any device likely to destroy, damage or render unfit for flight any aircraft.

• Destroying or damaging any air navigation facility or interference with its correct operation.

• The communication of information known to be false which endangers the safety of an aeroplane
in flight.

FREEDOMS OF THE AIR

• The first and second freedoms are considered as technical freedoms. The third, forth and fifth
freedoms are called commercial freedoms.

FIRST FREEDOM

The right to fly over another country without landing

SECOND FREEDOM

The right to make a landing for technical reasons (e.g. refueling) in another country without picking
up/setting down revenue traffic (The privilege to land non-traffic purposes)

THIRD FREEDOM

The right to carry revenue traffic from your own country (A) to the country (B) of your treaty partner (e.g.
From İstanbul to Paris).

FOURTH FREEDOM

The right to carry traffic from country (B) back to your own country (A). (e.g. From Paris to İstanbul).

Note: the 3rd and the 4th freedom always comes together.

FİFTH FREEDOM

The right of an airline from country (A) to carry revenue traffic between country (B) and other countries
such as (C) or (D) on services starting or ending in its home country (A). This freedom cannot be used
unless countries (C) or (D) also agrees. (The right for an airline to carry traffic between countries outside
its own country)

SIXTH FREEDOM
The use by an airline of country (A) of two sets of third and fourth freedom rights to carry traffic between
two other countries but using its base at (A) as a transit point.

This freedom is very rarely accepted in bilateral agreements or in multi-lateral conventions. For example,
it permits to the same passenger to fly Paris-London then London-Singapore with British Airways

SEVENTH FREEDOM

The right of an airline to carry revenue traffic between points in two countries on services which lie
entirely outside its own home country. For example, Singapore permitted British companies to handle
traffic from Singapore to South-East Asia.

EIGHT FREEDOM

The eight freedom is also called cabotage. The right for an airline to pick up and set down passengers or
freight between two domestic points in another country on a service originating in its own home country.
This freedom is the most protected by the states. Domestic market depends on the sovereignty of each
state.

NINTH FREEDOM

This freedom is a direct result of the IATA conference and permits interlining or code sharing. This is a
scheduled flight being flown by an operator other than the operator to whom the schedule has been
granted or with whom the schedule is shared. In this situation, the flight code (identifying the
carrier/operator and the schedule flight) is used by another operator. In this situation, the passenger must
be informed who the actual carrier is.

FAA – FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATION

Major functions of FAA

Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation

Regulating air navigation facilities' geometry and flight inspection standards

Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology

Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates

 Regulating civil aviation to promote safety, especially through local offices called
Flight Standards District Offices

Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil
and military aircraft

Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics

Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other
environmental effects of civil aviation

FAR - Federal Aviation Regulations

• Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR’s) are mandates for controlling all aspects of aviation
in the United States.

• The regulations are established and enforced by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA), and are part of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

• The primary objectives of FAR’s are ensuring safe aviation procedures and programs.
Besides protecting aviation employees and the general public, FARs also protect the
national security of the United States.

• Due to the wide variety of aviation activities, FAR’s are organized into parts under the
CFR by their specific aviation activity, with some parts containing thousands of sections.

• For example, regulated aviation activities include: temporary flight restrictions (due to
national events or presidential matters), aircraft design, pilot training, parachute
operations, flight schools, maintenance training schools, repair stations, and even hot-air
ballooning to name a few.

• It is important to note that FAR’s are designed to control the certifications for airports,
aviation schools, repair stations, pilots, and other aviation workers.

• Once a certification has been issued, such as a repair station certificate, the FAA conducts
regular audits to ensure continued compliance is maintained. FAR’s are periodically
revised in order to maintain the highest safety standards

Federal Aviation Regulations For Airworthiness

• The FAA issues production approvals to companies who produce aircraft, engines, or
parts thereof. These approvals are outlined in FAR Part 21.

• When aircraft or engines are manufactured, they must be manufactured to a specific set
of standards. Those standards are published by the FAA in the form a FAR’s
 • In the process of producing aviation articles the manufacturer must comply with one of
the following regulations, as applicable:

• FAR Part 23 - details the airworthiness standards for airplanes with a maximum take-off
weight of less than 12,500 lbs., such as the Cessna 172 and Cirrus SR20.

• FAR Part 25 - details the airworthiness standards for airplanes with a maximum take-off
weight of 12,500 lbs. or more, such as the Boeing 737 or Airbus A320.

• FAR Part 26 - Details continued airworthiness standards and safety improvements for
large transport category airplanes, such as the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320.

• FAR Part 27 - details the airworthiness standards for helicopters with a maximum take-
off weight of less than 12,500 lbs., such as the Bell 407 or Eurocopter EC120B.

• FAR Part 29 - details the airworthiness standards for helicopters with a maximum take-
off weight of 12,500 lbs. or more, such as the Bell 412 or Boeing Chinook.

• FAR Part 33 - details the airworthiness standards for both reciprocating and turbine
aircraft engines such as the Lycoming IO-540 or the Pratt & Whitney PW4000.

• FAR Part 35 - details the airworthiness standards for aircraft propellers such as those
made by McCaulley or Hartzel.

Once an aviation article is produced, the maintenance and inspections (continued airworthiness)
of those articles is regulated by the following FAR's:

• FAR Part 43 – is the rule that governs the continued maintenance, preventive
maintenance, rebuilding and alteration of the above-mentioned articles after they have
been manufactured.

• FAR Part 145 – is the rule that governs aircraft repair station activities, and the personnel
working in repair stations.

Each regulation may have multiple levels of standards. For example, aircraft performance
standards include specifications for stall speed, rate of climb, take-off speed, and the average
weight of pilot, passengers, and crew.

EASA – European Aviation Safety Agency

EASA has jurisdiction over new type certificates and other design-related airworthiness
approvals for aircraft, engines, propellers and parts. EASA works with the National Aviation
Authorities (NAAs) of the EU members but has taken over many of their functions in the interest
of aviation standardisation across the EU and non-EU member Turkey. EASA is also responsible
for assisting the European Commission in negotiating international harmonisation agreements
with the 'rest of the world' (ROW) on behalf of the EU member states and also concludes
technical agreements at a working level directly with its counterparts around the world such as
the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Part-66 was based on the older JAR system and the required training level followed the ATA
104 system. There are 3 levels of authorization:

Category A - (Line Maintenance Mechanic): Basic A category License + Task Training (Level depends
on Task Complexity) + Company Certification Authorization for specific Tasks ("A category A aircraft
maintenance licence permits the holder to issue certificates of release to service following minor
scheduled line maintenance and simple defect rectification within the limits of tasks specifically endorsed
on the authorisation. The certification privileges shall be restricted to work that the licence holder has
personally performed in a Part-145 organisation"),

Category B1 (Mechanical) and/or B2(Avionics) (Line Maintenance Technician): Basic B1/B2

category Licensce + Type Training (i.e. Line and Base Maintenance I.A.W. Part-66 Appendix III Level
III) + Company Certification Authorization ("a category B1 aircraft maintenance licence shall permit the
holder to issue certificates of release to service following maintenance, including aircraft structure,
powerplant and mechanical and electrical systems. Replacement of avionic line replaceable units,
requiring simple tests to prove their serviceability, shall also be included in the privileges. Category B1
shall automatically include the appropriate 'A' subcategory", a Category B2 aircraft maintenance licence
shall permit the holder to issue certificates of release to service following maintenance on avionic and
electrical systems").

Category C (Base Maintenance Certifying Engineer): Basic C category license + Type Training (Line
& Base Maintenance i.a.w. Part-66 Appendix III, Level III for the first Type Rating and Part-66 Level I
training for subsequent Aircraft Types of similar technology, otherwise Level III training) + Company
Certification Authorization ("a category C aircraft maintenance licence shall permit the holder to issue
certificates of release to service following base maintenance on aircraft. The privileges apply to the
aircraft in its entirety in a Part-145 organisation").

Part 145: Maintenance Organization Approval

To obtain approval to be an aeronautical repair station, an organisation must write, submit and keep
updated a Maintenance Organisation Exposition (MOE). To support their MOE they must have a
documented set of procedures. Thirdly the organisation must have a compliance matrix to show how they
meet the requirements of Part-145
EASA Part-M: Continuing Airworthiness

EASA Part-M consists of several subparts. The noteworthy subparts are F (Maintenance for aircraft
below 5700 kg in non commercial environment), G (Continuing Airworthiness Management Organization
= CAMO, coordinating the compliance of aircraft with maintenance program, airworthiness directives
and service bulletins) in the regulations section.

EASA Part-147: Training Organisation Requirements

To go with Part-66 on the issuing of licenses is the larger area of setting up and gaining approval for a
training school for aircraft mechanics. Part-147 governs the larger situation of establishing such a training
school

EASA Part-21: Subpart J Design Organisation Approval

Design Organisation means an organisation responsible for the design of aircraft, aircraft engines,
propellers, auxiliary power units, or related parts and appliances, and holding, or applying for, type-
certificates, supplemental type-certificates, changes or repairs design approvals or ETSO Authorisations.
A design organisation holds DOA (Design Organisation Approval) or, by way of derogation, Alternatives
Procedures to DOA. A DOA-List enlisting all companies holding DO Approval with their capabilities can
be downloaded from the EASA web-site.

EASA Part-21: Subpart G Production Organisation Approval

A part built for an aircraft can be certificated with an EASA Form One as approved for a particular
aircraft type once it has been installed as prototype to an aircraft and has been certificated by a Design
Organisation with a Minor Change Approval, a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) or a Type
Certificate (TC).

BOARD OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING IMPLEMENTING

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF PD. 1570

Pursuant to the provisions of section 7(g0 and (h) of PD 1570, otherwise known as the “Philippine
Aeronautical Engineering Decree” approved June 11, 1978, the following rules and regulations including
the code of Professional Ethics are hereby adopted.
Article I – Definition of Terms
Section 1 – Definition of Terms.

In the application and interpretation of PD 1570 and these Rules and Regulations, the
Board of Aeronautical Engineering shall be guided by the following definitions:

Commission - The Professional Regulation Commission created under PD 223 as

amended by PD 657.
Board - The Board of Aeronautical Engineering created under PD 1570
Aircraft - Any contrivance now known or hereafter to be used, invented or designed for
navigation of or designed for navigation of or flight in the air (section 29 of PD 1570).
Such contrivance or device can be powered or non powered flying machine that is
lighter-than-air (Balloon, dirigible), or heavier than air with fixed wing (airplane, glider),
or heavier than air with rotary wing (Helicopter, autogyro). This contrivance can also be a
winged or finned weapon system (missile, bomb) or any other device that is designed to
operate fully or partly in the air and whose motion and flight path is influenced or
determined by the combined effects of forces and moments created by its mass, its power
system, and the air, or by Its mass and the air if non-powered. A spacecraft, designed for
operations in the outer space, can be treated as an aircraft while operating in transit within
the limits of the earth’s atmosphere.
Aircraft Structures - Those parts of an aircraft comprising of what is collectively known
as the airframe which is the framework of the aircraft and support all other components
including the forces acting on the aircraft. The landing gear assembly and the engine
mount are considered parts of the aircraft structures.
Power Plant - Sometimes referred to in these Rules as Engine or Power/propulsion
System. That part of an aircraft which generates power mainly to produce the force or
thrust necessary to cause the aircraft to move horizontally, or to be lifted, or both. A
small fraction of the power generated by the power plant is used to drive the aircraft
accessories and equipment. A propeller or a rotary wing is not part of the power plant.
Aircraft Components - All parts which comprise the basic aircraft. These consist of
aircraft structures, power plant, instruments, control system, fuel system, accessories,
equipment and others.
Aerodynamics - The science that deals with the study of the air in motion and the forces
and moments created on bodies moving relative to the air. Aerodynamic
theories/principles in general govern the flight of heavier than air aircraft which is
vertically supported in flight by an aerodynamic force “lift” created on its fixed or rotary
wing. A lighter than air aircraft, whose bulk consists mainly of one or More
bags/compartments filled with gas that is lighter than air is lifted by a “buoyant force”
(NOT AN AERODYNAMIC FORCE) equal to the weight of the displaced air. During
horizontal and manoeuvrings flights of these two (2) types of aircraft, the resisting
aerodynamic force “thrust” which may be generated by a power system discharging a
high-velocity exhaust gas (jet) or driving a propeller (propjet) or a tilted rotary wing, or a
combination of a jet and a propeller (Propjet).
Aeronautical Engineering - The science and technology dealing with the study of the
theories/principles of flight and basic engineering sciences and the application of these
 theories/principles to the research and development, manufacture, operation,
maintenance, repair and modification of aircraft and its components.
Aeronautical Engineering Practice - The act of rendering or offering to render
professional service in aeronautical engineering in the form of direct work participation,
consultancy, supervision, or management, with without fee, salary or any other kind of
compensation. The professional services as enumerated in section 27 and 28 (b) of PD
1570 can be grouped into four (4) major activity areas namely:
Research and Development - Basic and applied research in fluid mechanics (study of
gases and liquids at rest and in motion) particularly on data acquisition and analysis;
formulation of plans, specifications, standards, techniques and procedures; preparation of
project feasibility study; design and construction of test equipment and aircraft tooling;
and other research activities leading to or resulting in the development of new or
improved aircraft and/or components

SECTION 2 - Seal of the Board of Aeronautical Engineering

There shall be a seal to be used by the Board of authenticate its official documents. This seal
which shall be a circular in shape with maximum diameter of 48 millimetres ( 1-7/8 inches) shall
bear a design consisting of an airplane wing section with shock waves attached to its leading and
trailing edges (leading edge at the right). Near the leading edge of the wing section here
represents an aircraft. The atom as whole symbolizes engineering activity with its four (4) orbiting
electrons signifying the four (4) major activity areas in the practice of aeronautical engineering. These
shock waves, which are normally created about moving body in air at speeds way above the speed of
sound, indicate that the aircraft together with engineering activities involved in it is at high speed flight
condition symbolic of the fact that aeronautical engineering is a dynamic and progressive profession.
Between the two (2) concentric circles along the circumference of the seal shall be inscribed the words
“PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION” and “BOARD OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING” at the
upper and the lower portions of the circumference, respectively.

SECTION 3 - Seal of the Aeronautical Engineer

A seal shall likewise be used by a registered aeronautical engineer to authenticate all official
documents in the pursuit of his profession. Except for the inscriptions on the seal in the
preceding section, the seal of the aeronautical engineer shall have the same basic design,
meaning, and size as that of the Board. The words “AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER” shall be
inscribed on the upper portion of the circumference of the seal with the words “PHILIPPINES” on the
lower portion of the circumference. Slightly below the center of the seal shall be printed horizontally the
full name of the engineer. His corresponding registration number shall also appear in a horizontal line
above his name.
Article II - Registration of Aeronautical Engineers

Section 1 - Registration with Examination

Unless exempted from taking the licensure examination of aeronautical engineering shall be
required to take and pass the said examination conducted jointly by the Commission and the
Board once a year at a date and place to be set by the commission

Section 2. Proof of Qualification for Examination

The application for examination shall be supported by evidence showing that the applicant
possesses all the qualifications prescribed in section 14 of PD 1570. every applicant shall submit
with his application the following supporting papers.

a. Copy of the transcript of scholastic records, duly authenticated, showing completion of the
prescribed curriculum leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Aeronautical Engineering
from any local institution of learning recognized by the government of the Philippines, or
completion of an equivalent course offered in any institution of learning in foreign country. The
board shall deny admission to the examination graduates of aeronautical engineering courses
found deficient of the essential subjects given in the licensure examination

b. If the applicant is a foreigner, proof of reciprocity between the Republic of the Philippines
and the state or country of which he is a subject. Proof of reciprocity may be copy of pertinent
laws, rules and regulations of his country, duly authenticated and proved by any means
sanctioned by Philippine Laws or rules of jurisprudence, or any other documentary evidence,
confirmed by the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines, showing that his country’s
existing laws, rules and regulations allow citizens of the Philippines to practice aeronautical
engineering on the same basis as with the same privilege accorded to, and under the same rules
and regulations governing the subjects or citizens of the foreign state or country.
Section 3. Scope of Examination

The examination shall consist of written test which shall cover the following subjects with their
corresponding relative weights.

a. Aerodynamics 25%

Fundamentals of low speed and high speed aerodynamics; applications of Aerodynamics to

fixed/rotary wing aircraft configurations, performance, stability and control, wind tunnels and
applications.

b. A/C Structures and Design 20%

Aircraft design fundamentals; structural loading conditions; structural analysis and design of
airframe components; landing gears, engine mounts, and other structural parts; non structural
components design.

c. Aircraft Power plant 20%

Thermodynamics; Power plant design and operation; Fundamentals with applications to

internal combustion engine, reciprocating engines, aircraft gas turbine, pulse jet and ram jet,
rocket propulsion systems, and other aircraft power systems.

d. A/C Construction, Repair and Modification 15%

Aircraft materials and processes, methods and techniques in repair and modification in
accordance with Civil Airworthiness Regulations; Manufacturing/production processes and
quality assurance

f. Mathematics 10%

Algebra, trigonometry, analytic geometry, calculus, and differential equations with aeronautical
applications.
Section 4. Proof of Qualifications for Exemption from Examination

The application for registration without examination shall be supported by evidence indicating
that the applicant possesses all the qualifications prescribed in section 14 and 20 of PD 1570.
every applicant shall include the following supporting papers:

a. Supporting paper(s) in Section 2 of Article II of these Rules and Regulations.

b. Certification of Aeronautical Engineering Practice acquired by the applicant at least five

(5) years as of June 11, 1978 which shall be issued and signed under oath by the
employer/Department head concerned or by the registrar/any authorized official of an
educational institution from whom said practice was acquired. This certification shall
include the applicant’s full name, position(s) during employment period, duties and
responsibilities, actual work performed subjects taught by semester if teaching and inclusive
dates of employment and also the employer’s full name, address and line of business. If self
employed, the applicant shall have a certification signed under oath at least two (2) from among
his client(s), colleague(s), or partner(s) in business in which aeronautical engineering practice is
being attested. This certification shall contain the applicants full names, addresses, and the lines
of businesses of attesting persons.

c. Which shall be issued and signed under oath by his employer or immediate superior,
preferably member of good standing of the recognized professional organization of
aeronautical engineers of the Philippines, and shall indicate that the applicant could be
entrusted to perform or render professional aeronautical engineering service.

If self employed, the applicant shall sign under oath and submit a documented report on
a design, device, or project of aeronautical engineering value which he made, or technical
paper or report, project of feasibility study, treaties, or thesis on any aeronautical engineering
subject which he authored.

ARTICLE III - Practice of Aeronautical Engineering

Section 1 - Nature and Scope of Practice

The practice of Aeronautical Engineering shall be in accordance with the definitions in section
27 of PD 1570 and Article I of these Rules and Regulations and Code of Professionals Ethics.

Section 2. Services of Aeronautical Engineers

All firms, corporations, offices, educational institutions, and agencies, whether government or
private whose activities in part or in full involve the operation of one (1) or more aircraft or the
practice of aeronautical engineers. Planning, design, operation, management or maintenance of
airports and their related facilities, except those activities that belong Belong to other
professions regulated by the commissions, shall require professional aeronautical engineering
services. Department/division/unit heads and deputy/assistant heads of organizations who are
directly involved in the decision making or in the implementation of aeronautical engineers.
Organizations referred to in the foregoing statement shall include government civilian agencies
which issue aircraft airworthiness certificates or promulgate/ enforce rules and regulations
governing the aeronautical engineering practice, and other government civilian agencies, government
owned/controlled corporations, educational institutions, and private firms engage in activities fully or
partly involving the practice of aeronautical engineering.

ARTICLE IV - Code of Professional Ethics

Section 1 – Foreword

Honesty , Justice and Courtesy form of moral philosophy which, associated with mutual interest
among men, constitutes the foundation of ethics. The engineer should recognize such a
standard not in passive observance but as a set of dynamic principles guiding his conduct and
way of life. It is his duty to practice his profession according to a Code of Ethics and Professional
Conduct.

The keystone of professional conduct is integrity, it behaves the engineer to discharge his
duties with to the public, his employers and clients, and to be ready to apply his special
knowledge for the benefit of mankind. He should uphold the honour and dignity of his profession
and avoid association with any enterprise or individual of questionable character. In his dealings with
fellow engineers. He should be fair and tolerant.

Section 2 – Relations with the State

a. Each and every engineer shall recognize and respect the supreme authority of the State
as expressed through its laws implemented by its agencies, whenever and wherever
such laws do not fringe upon the rights and privileges of citizens as guaranteed by the
Constitution.
 b. He shall recognize that the well-being of the public and the interest of the state are
above the well being and interest of any individual.

c. In the interest of justice, he shall aid the state, if and when the technology he is involved
in is needed in the prevention and/or prosecution of unjust, criminal or unlawful acts.

d. d. In the interest of good government, he shall extend cooperation to the State in the
accomplishment of its goals and objectives.

e. e. In the interest of social efficiency, he shall extend assistance, guidance and training to
subordinates under his jurisdiction in order to increase their skill and ability, knowledge and
experience for purposes of eventually increasing their responsibilities.

f. f. In the interest of national economy and well being, he shall always strive in the execution of
his work for optimum efficiency, economy and safety.

g. g. In the interest of national security, the state shall be given primary consideration in all his
inventions and/or devices on aeronautical science and technology useful for national security
and defence.

h. h. In the event of any national emergency, he shall offer his technology, skill, ability and
experience to the services of the State, even if it will involve personal sacrifices.

Section 3- Relations with the Public

a. He shall interest himself in public welfare and be ready to apply his special knowledge
for the benefit of mankind.

b. He shall guard against conditions that are dangerous or threatening to life, limb, or
property on the work for which he is responsible, or if he is not responsible.

c. He shall have due regard for the safety of life and health of the public who may be
affective by the work for which he is responsible.

d. d. He shall endeavour to extend public knowledge of aeronautical engineering and he shall strive
to win or maintain the public confidence by discouraging the spread untrue, unfair and
exaggerated statements regarding his profession.

e. e. As a witness before a court, commission, and/or other tribunal, he shall express an opinion
only when it is founded on adequate and honest conviction.

f. f. He shall not issue statements on matters connected with the public policy, and ex-parte
statements, critisms, or arguments which are inspired or paid for by private interest, unless
identifies on whose behalf he is making the statements
 g. g. He shall refrain from expressing in public any opinion on an engineering subject unless he is
fully familiar and knowledgeable will all facts relating to the subject.

h. h. His integrity shall be unquestionable and he shall discharge his duties and responsibilities with
fidelity to the public, his employers and clients and with fairness and impartiality to all.

Section 4- Relations with the Clients and Employers

a. He shall act in professional matters as a faithful agent or trustee and treat as

confidential all matters and information concerning business affairs, technical
processes, and others, of his clients and or employers.

b. He shall inform his client or employer of any financial interest on inventions, equipment,
and or any other device, before under taking any engagement in which he may be called
upon to decide on the use thereof.

c. c. He shall accept any other compensation, financial or otherwise, except from an interested
party for a particular service or other services related therewith, without the consent of all
parties concerned.

d. d. He shall exercise fairness and justice when dealing with contracts between his clients or
employers and the contractors.

e. e. He shall not accept any commissions or allowances, directly or indirectly, from contractors,
suppliers, and all other parties dealing with his clients and/or employers in connections with the
work for which he is responsible.

f. f. He shall not be financially interested in the bid or bids of contractors, suppliers and other
interested parties participating in a competitive work or job on which he has been employed as
engineer without full knowledge and consent of his clients or employers.

g. h. He shall not allow any decision in connection with his work for which he has been employed
or on which he may be called to perform, to be affected by interest in any business.

h. He shall present clearly the consequences to be expected from deviations proposed if

his engineering judgement is overruled by nontechnical authority in cases where he is
responsible for the technical adequacy of engineering work.

i. He shall undertake only those engineering assignments for his qualified. He shall engage
or advise his employer or client to engage specialists and shall cooperate with them
whenever his employer’s or client’s interest are served best by such arrangement.
Section 5 – Relations with the Engineers

a. He shall individually or collectively with others in the profession protect the profession from
misunderstanding and/or misrepresentations.

b. He shall not directly or indirectly injure the professional reputation, prospects, and
advancement, and/or practice of other engineers. However, if he has proof or personal
knowledge that an engineer has been unethical and/or illegal in his practices he shall inform in
writing the proper authorities for appropriate action.

c. He shall adequate uphold the principle of appropriate and adequate compensation for those
engaged in the engineering profession, including those in the sub ordinate capabilities in the
interest of public service, and maintain the standards of the profession.

d. He shall not try to supplant another engineer in a particular employment after becoming
aware that definite steps have been taken towards the other’s employment.

e. He shall not complete, by underbidding through reduction in his normal fees on the basis of
charges for work, after having been informed of the charges submitted by another engineer.

f. He shall be fair and tolerant in his dealings with fellow engineers and give credit to those to
whom credit is properly due.

g. He shall uphold the honour and dignity of his profession and avoid association in
responsibility for work with engineers who do not conform to ethical practices .

h. He shall exercise due restraint in criticizing another engineer’s work in public, recognizing the
fact that the engineer’s work in public , recognizing the fact that the engineering societies and
the engineering press provide the proper forum for technical discussions and criticism.

Section 6- Relations with the Profession

a. He shall cooperate in extending the effectiveness of the engineering profession and

endeavour to be well informed of the latest development in the profession by sharing
information and experience with other engineer, other professionals and students and
by contributing to engineering publications and participating in the activities of
engineering societies.

b. He shall cooperate in upholding the integrity and honour of the profession by avoiding
all conduct and practices that will be discrediting and injurious to the profession.
 c. c. He shall dignified in explaining and discussing his work and shall refrain from self-laudatory
advertising or propaganda.

ARTICLE V - Miscellaneous Provisions

Section 1. Records of the Board

All records of the board to include resolutions, minutes of meetings and deliberations, records of
administrative proceedings and investigations, examination papers, and other official documents shall
be kept as part of the records of the commission.

Section 2. Annual Report

Within sixty (60) days following the end of each calendar year, the board shall submit to the commission
Annual Report on its activities including appropriate recommendations.

Section 3. Roster of Aeronautical Engineers

There shall be a roster of aeronautical engineers showing their names, addresses, and places of practice.
To keep the roster updated, every registered aeronautical engineer will report to the Board any change
in address and practice, and the name(s) of person(s) authorized by his to receive notices,
communications, and other papers from the commission or the Board.

Section 4. Amendment

Any section of these rules and regulations may be amended by the Board, subject to the approval of the
Commission, as the need for such amendment.

Section 5. Effectivity

These Rules and Regulations including the Code of Professional Ethics, when approved by the
Commission, shall take effect fifteen(15) days following the date of their publication in the
official Gazette.

(November 15, 1982 Vol. 78 no.46,pp 6363-6369)

Adopted by the Board of Aeronautical Engineering at the Metropolitan Manila, Philippines, this
23rd day of September 1982.
PHILIPPINE CIVIL AVIATION REGULATIONS (PCAR)
* Part 1 - General Policies, Procedures, and Definitions

* Part 2 - Personnel Licensing

* Part 3 - Approved Training Organizations

* Part 4 - Aircraft Registration and Marking

* Part 5 - Airworthiness

* Part 6 - Approved Maintenance Organization

* Part 7 - Instruments and Equipment

* Part 8 - Operations

* Part 9 - Air Operator Certification and Administration

* Part 10 - Commercial Air Transport by Foreign Air Carriers with Republic of the
Philippines

* Part 11 - Aerial Work and Non-certificated Aircraft: Operating Limitations

The Civil Aviation Regulations (CAR) provide the regulatory requirements for aviation safety
Standards and Recommended Practices as prescribed in ICAO Annexes, particularly related to:

* Aircraft Operations (Annex 6),

* Airworthiness (Annex 8),

* Personnel Licensing (Annex 1), and;

* Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks (Annex 7).

PART 1 - GENERAL, POLICIES, PROCEDURES AND DEFINITIONS

Sets forth the:

* basic rules of construction;

* application of the regulations;

* definitions applicable to more than one Part;

* and the rules governing the administration of licenses and certifications.

PART 2 – Personnel Licensing

This part of the Civil Aviation Regulations presents detailed requirements for the general rules
of licensing and detailed requirements for the certification of airmen, pilots, non-pilot flight
crew members, and airmen, such as mechanics, who are not flight crew.

The part also presents medical standards for the granting of licenses and certification, and for
the administration of medical examinations.

PART 3 – Approved Training Organizations (APO)

This part of the Civil Aviation Regulations presents detailed requirements for the general rules
of approval for aviation training organizations on different kinds of trainings.

PART 5 - Airworthiness

This part presents regulatory requirements for the airworthiness of aircraft expected to operate
in the Republic of the Philippines using the standards and recommended practices in ICAO
Annexes 6 and 8.

Part 5 is designed to address the complex situation faced by most countries today respecting
the airworthiness of aircraft operating within the country and in international aviation.
PART 6 – Approved Maintenance Organizations (AMO)

CAR Part 6 provides regulations for the registration and monitoring of Approved Maintenance
Organizations (AMO) in Republic of the Philippines.

The proper maintenance of aircraft is fundamental to aviation safety, and requires meticulous
record-keeping.

In the Republic of the Philippines, persons have to be individually licensed in accordance with
Part 2 to perform any maintenance task and to sign the maintenance release to return to
service any aircraft or component.

An AOC holder must use the services from an AMO with the appropriate ratings, through
administrative arrangements.

This means that the maintenance organization of an AOC holder must qualify as an AMO in its
own right and obtain a separate certificate as an AMO.

As per the ICAO provisions, there is a need for oversight and regulation of AMO's from the
Authority.

PART 8 – OPERATIONS

The Standards and Recommended Practices contained in Annex 6 Part I shall be applicable to
the operation of airplanes by operators authorized to conduct commercial air transport
operations (international and domestic).

The Standards and Recommended Practices contained in Annex 6, Part II (airplanes), and Annex
6 Part III Section III (helicopters) shall be applicable to general aviation operations (international
and domestic).

CAR Part 8 prescribes the requirements for:

(1) Operations conducted by airman certified in Republic of the Philippines while

operating aircraft registered in Republic of the Philippines.

(2) Operations of foreign registered aircraft by Republic of the Philippines Operators.

(3) Operations of aircraft within Republic of the Philippines by airman or Operators of a

foreign State.
PART 9 – AIR OPERATION AND ERTIFICATION AND ADMINISTRATION

(a) Part 9 applies to the carriage of passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire by persons whose
principal place of business or permanent residence is located in Republic of the Philippines.

(b) This Part of the regulations prescribes requirements for the original certification and continued
validity of air operator certificates (AOC) issued by Republic of the Philippines.

(c) Except where specifically noted, Part 9 applies to all commercial air transport operations by AOC
holders for which Republic of the Philippines is the State of the Operator under the definitions provided
in Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.

(d) Republic of the Philippines shall recognize as valid an AOC issued by another Contracting State,
provided that the requirements under which the certificate was issued are at least equal to the
applicable Standards specified in these Civil Aviation Regulations.

CODE OF ETHICS
Section 1 – Foreword

Honesty, Justice and Courtesy form of moral philosophy which, associated with mutual interest among
men, constitutes the foundation of ethics. The engineer should recognize such a standard not in passive
observance but as a set of dynamic principles guiding his conduct and way of life. It is his duty to
practice his profession according to a Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.

The keystone of professional conduct is integrity, it behaves the engineer to discharge his duties with to
the public, his employers and clients, and to be ready to apply his special knowledge for the benefit of
mankind.

He should uphold the honour and dignity of his profession and avoid association with any enterprise or
individual of questionable character. In his dealings with fellow engineers. He should be fair and
tolerant.

Section 2 – relation with the State

Each and every engineer shall recognize and respect the supreme authority of the State as expressed
through its laws implemented by its agencies, whenever and wherever such laws do not fringe upon the
rights and privileges of citizens as guaranteed by the Constitution.
Section 3 – Relations with the public

He shall interest himself in public welfare and be ready to apply his special knowledge for the benefit of
mankind

Section 4- Relations with the Clients and Employers

He shall act in professional matters as a faithful agent or trustee and treat as confidential all matters and
information concerning business affairs, technical processes, and others, of his clients and or employers.

Section 5 – Relations with the Engineers

He shall individually or collectively with others in the profession protect the profession from
misunderstanding and/or misrepresentations.

Section 6- Relations with the Profession

He shall cooperate in extending the effectiveness of the engineering profession and endeavor to be well
informed of the latest development in the profession by sharing information and experience with other
engineer, other professionals and students and by contributing to engineering publications and
participating in the activities of engineering societies.

AIRPORT ENGINEERING

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and
land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport.

An airport consists of at least one surface such as a runway, a helipad, or water for takeoffs and
landings, and often includes buildings such as hangars and terminal buildings.

STOL Port

The most prevalent application of STOL aircraft is for commuter aircraft feeding major airline
hub airports from outlying airports in smaller communities.

A transport category aircraft requiring less than 3000 ft runway is usually considered a STOL
aircraft.

AIRBASE

An airbase, sometimes referred to as a military airport or airfield, provides basing and support of
military aircraft. Some airbases provide facilities similar to their civilian counterparts.
 Military airbases may also be co-located with civilian airports, sharing the same tower/air traffic
control facilities, runways, taxiways and emergency services, but with separate terminals,
parking areas, hangars and shelter areas. Examples of this are Bardufoss Airport/Bardufoss Air
Station and Gardermoen Airport/Gardermoen Air Station, both in Norway.

AIRBASE

The aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a floating airport for military aircraft. Aircraft
carriers allow a naval force to project air power great distances without having to depend on
local bases for land-based aircraft

Unescorted carriers are considered vulnerable to missile or submarine attacks and therefore
travel as part of a carrier battle group that includes a wide array of other ships with specific
functions.

AIRSTRIP

An airstrip or airfield is a kind of airport that consists only of a runway with perhaps fuelling
equipment.

Types of airports

There are two types of airport – towered and nontowered.

These types can be further subdivided to:

Civil airports – airports that are open to the general public

Military/Federal Government airports – airports operated by the military, national aeronautics and
space administration, or other agencies of the federal government.

Private Airports- airports designated for private use or restricted use only, not open to the general
public.

Sources of Airport DATA

When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to review the current data for that airport. This
data provides the pilot with information, such as communication frequencies, service available, closed
runways, or airport construction.

Three common sources of information are:

1. Aeronautical charts
2. Airport/facility Directory (A/FD)
3. Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs)
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

at particularly busy airports, or airports with other special requirements, there is an air traffic
control (ATC) system whereby controllers (usually ground-based) direct aircraft movements via
radio or other communications links.

This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in complex operations where traffic
moves in all three dimensions.

Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into at least two main areas:
ground and tower, though a single controller may work both stations.

The busiest airports also have clearance delivery, apron control, and other specialized ATC
stations

- Ground Control
o Ground Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated
"movement areas", except the traffic on runways.
o This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, and a
wide array of other vehicles.
o Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which
runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is
safe to cross runways.
o When a plane is ready to take off it will stop short of the runway, at which point it
will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the
runway and be returned to Ground Control.

- Tower Control
o Tower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace
immediately surrounding the airport.
o Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in three-
dimensional space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual
observation.
o They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft
on how to safely join and leave the circuit.
o Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact Tower
Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPORT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Airports in the Philippines have used two different types of classification: one previously by the Air
Transportation Office (ATO) and another being used by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines
(CAAP), the successor body to the ATO.
 ATO SYSTEM

The ATO system divided airports into five classifications under two broad categories: international
and domestic airports. These two broad categories were further divided into the following airport types:

Primary international airports are the primary international gateways into the Philippines.
Examples: Clarkfield (CRK), Subic Bay (SFS), Metropolitan Manila (MNL)

Secondary international airports are airports that are capable of handling international flights
but are not designated as primary international gateways. These airports may or may not
service actual international flights and may or may not have active customs and immigration
facilities. Examples: Laoag (LAO), Zamboanga (ZAM), General Santos (GES)

Trunkline airports or major commercial domestic airports are domestic airports in major cities
around the Philippines that are capable of supporting large aircraft. These are, in most cases,
the only domestic airports with an instrument landing system. Example: Baguio (BAG), Legazpi
(LGP), Tacloban (TAC)

Secondary airports or minor commercial domestic airports are domestic airports in smaller
cities and municipalities usually capable of handling smaller propeller aircraft. Some airports in
this classification are capable of supporting jet aircraft. However, these airports are only open
from sunrise until sunset, usually requiring notification of airport authorities if night-time
landing is a necessity. Examples: Tuguegarao (TUG), Plaridel (PRB), Kalibo (KLO)

Feeder airports are domestic airports capable only of handling small propeller aircraft. Many of
these airports are small airstrips serving far-flung islands. Examples: Lingayen (LGN), Lucena
(LCN), Siargao (SIA), Catbalogan (CSM), Busuanga-Coron (USU)

CAAP SYSTEM

The CAAP system revises the previous ATO system, while maintaining the current classification of
airports into international and domestic airports. The change was made pursuant to the Philippine
Transport Strategic Study and the 1992 Civil Aviation Master Plan. The new system rationalizes the
system of airport classification, represented by the following types:

International airports - are airports capable of handling international flights. Airports in this category
include airports that currently have or have previously served international destinations. There are
currently ten airports in this category, including all primary international airports, most secondary
international airports, and Puerto Princesa Airport and Kalibo Airport, both trunkline and secondary
airports, respectively.
 Class 1 principal airports are airports capable of serving jet aircraft with a capacity of at
least 100 seats. Most airports previously classified as trunkline airports, as well as some
secondary airports, are placed in this category. Two airports built to handle
international traffic but not yet receiving international flights — the New Bacolod-Silay
Airport and the New Iloilo Airport — are also in this category.

Class 2 principal airports are airports capable of serving propeller aircraft with a
capacity of at least 19 seats. Loakan Airport in Baguio City, previously a trunkline airport,
some secondary airports, and Godofredo P. Ramos Airport in Malay, Aklan; Camiguin
Airport, Cuyo Airport and Sayak Airport in Del Carmen, Surigao del Norte (on Siargao
Island), all feeder airports, are in this category.

Community airports - are airports that are used primarily for general aviation. Most feeder airports are
in this category and only four airports: Baler Airport, a feeder airport, and Cauayan Airport, Labo Airport
in Ozamiz City and Mindoro Airport in Vigan City, formerly secondary airports, have regular air service.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIRPORTS

Commercial Service (CS)

Reliever (RL)

General Aviation Regional (GR)

General Aviation Community (GC)

Local Service (LO)

HELIPORTS

A heliport is an identifiable area on land or water structures, including buildings or facilities

thereon, used or intended to be used for the landing and take off of helicopters or other rotary
wing aircraft.

A helideck is a heliport located on a floating or an offshore structure.

A helistop is an area developed and used for helicopter landings and take offs to drop off or
pick up passengers or cargo.

A helipad is a paved or other surface used for parking helicopters at a heliport.

Classifications of Heliports

Military Heliport - facilities are operated by one of the branches of the armed services. The
design criteria are specified in the branch of the service and usually prohibit non military uses.

Federal Heliport – facilities are operated by a non military agency or department of the federal
government. They are used to carry out the functions appropriate to the agency.

Private Use Heliport facilities are restricted in use by the owner. These may be publicly
owned, but their use is restricted, as in police of fire department use.

Public Use Heliport - facilities are open to the general public and do not require the prior
permission of the owner to the land. The extent of the facilities available may limit operations to
helicopters of specified sizes or weights.

Commercial Service Heliport - these public use and public owned facilities are designed for the
use of helicopters in commercial passenger or cargo service which enplane 2500 passengers
annually and receive scheduled passenger service with helicopters.

Personal Use Heliport - facilities are used exclusively by the owner.

Principal Components of a Heliport

final approach and touchdown area,

the touchdown and liftoff area,

for large heliports, taxiways, helicopter parking areas, and the terminal building area.

Marking of airports

The primary purpose for marking heliports is to identify the area clearly as a facility for the use
of helicopters.

The requirements for marking heliports are specified by the FAA and the ICAO.

Essentially these requirements consists of painting an equilateral square with an “H” in the
center of the touchdown and liftoff area.

For hospital heliports a white cross is also inscribed within the square along with the letter “H”.

Marking delineating the edges of the final approach and takeoff area should be broken white
lines whereas on the touchdown and liftoff area the edges should be delineated by continuous
white lines.
 Taxiway centerlines are delineated by solid yellow lines and taxi route centerline and apron
edge markings should be solid yellow lines.

Taxiway edges should be marked by a double solid yellow line.

Lighting of Heliports

For operation during hours of darkness various types of lights are suggested.

The amount of lighting depends on the character and volume of operations.

More lighting is required for scheduled air carrier operations than for private heliports with
occasional use.