What is radioactivity?

Some isotopes of atoms can be unstable.

They may have:

a) Too much energy

or

b) The wrong number of particles in the nucleus.

We call these radioisotopes.

To make themselves more stable, they throw out particles and/or energy from the nucleus. We call this
process 'radioactive decay'. The atom is also said to disintegrate.

The atom left behind (the daughter) is different from the original atom (the parent). It is an atom of a
new element. For example uranium breaks down to radon which in turn breaks down into other
elements.

The particles and energy given out are what we call 'radiation' or 'radioactive emissions'.

Background radiation

There is a certain amount of radiation around us (and even inside us) all the time. There always has been
- since the beginning of the Earth. It is called Background radiation.

Background radiation comes from a huge number of sources.

The list below gives some of these sources:

See if you can number the sources listed here by the amount of background radiation they produce (1
= highest level of radiation):

In most areas, Background radiation is safe. It is at such a low level that it doesn't harm you. You need to
be exposed to many times the normal background level before you notice any symptoms.

However, some areas of the country have a higher level of background radiation than others because
the rocks near the surface contain more radioactive isotopes (for example, Cornwall).

Look at this example:

You use a radiation detector to record that a sample of rock produces 100 decays per minute. You then
remove the rock and record the background radiation in the room. It is 7 decays per minute.
Ionisation

The radiation emitted by radioactive substances has a huge amount of energy, which is why it is so
dangerous. The energetic radiation causes ionisation.

When radiation hits a neutral atom, some of the energy from the radiation is passed to the atom. This
energy can cause an electron from the atom to escape, leaving the atom with a positive charge. This
positively charged atom is called an ion, so the process is called ionisation.

As the radiation travels along it ionises atoms that are close enough. The more atoms the radiation
ionises the more energy the radiation gives away, until eventually there is no energy left. The radiation
is then said to have been absorbed.

Detecting radiation

You will see in the following quick learn that there is more than one type of radiation, but each sort
causes ionisation. This is how we are able to detect radiation.

It is hard to detect the actual particles or waves emitted by radioactive substances, but it is easy to
detect the positive and negative ions produced by the ionisation they cause. A device called a Geiger-
Muller tube collects the charged ions and can measure the amount of ionisation that is taking place in a
certain time. The greater the amount of ionisation the more radiation there must be.

Why is radiation harmful?

It is this process of ionisation that makes radioactive substances so dangerous. Living cells can be fatally
damaged if molecules in the cell are ionised. This damage can kill cells or cause cancers to form. The
greater the dose of radiation the more likely it is that cancer will occur.

Alpha, beta and gamma

There are three main types of radiation that can be emitted by radioactive particles. They are called
alpha, beta, and gamma. All three types of radiation come from the nucleus of the atom. All three types
of radiation will cause ionisation, but they behave slightly differently, because of the way they are made
up.
Type of Greek What is it? Charge
radiation symbol

Alpha α Particle - A highly energetic helium nucleus, containing 2 protons Positive

and 2 neutrons. 2+

Beta β Particle - A highly energetic electron, released from inside a Negative

nucleus. It has negligible mass. When a beta particle is produced a 1-
neutron in the nucleus divides into a proton and an electron. It is
the electron that is rejected from the nucleus at high speed that is
the beta particle.

Gamma γ Wave - from the high frequency end of the electromagnetic No

spectrum. Waves have no mass. charge

Absorption of Alpha, Beta and Gamma

The diagram below shows the penetration of alpha, beta and gamma rays.

The Table below explains why different types of radiation are absorbed by different things:

These are small particles with a negative charge. They can ionise fairly easily so can only travel
Beta
through thin materials before they are absorbed.

This is a wave that carries a huge amount of energy, but waves are not as good at ionising
Gamma atoms as particles are. It is therefore really difficult to absorb them and they can even travel
through thin lead and thick concrete.

These are large particles with a positive charge. They can ionise atoms really easily so quickly
Alpha lose their energy by ionising nearby atoms. This means they can be absorbed by just a few
centimetres of air, a sheet of paper or by skin.

Dangers of handling radioactive substances

Each type of radiation that can be emitted can be absorbed by different materials and ionises different
amounts. They are equally dangerous but for different reasons.

Alpha particles:

Although alpha particles cannot penetrate the skin, if it gets into the body it can ionise many atoms in a
short distance. This makes it potentially extremely dangerous. A radioactive substance that emits just
alpha particles can therefore be handled with rubber gloves, but it must not be inhaled, eaten, or
allowed near open cuts or the eyes.

Beta particles:

Beta particles are much more penetrating and can travel easily through skin. Sources that emit beta
particles must be held with long handled tongs and pointed away from the body. Inside of the body beta
particles do not ionise as much as alpha particles but it is much harder to prevent them entering the
body.

Gamma waves:

These waves are very penetrating and it is almost impossible to absorb them completely. Sources of
gamma waves must also be held with long handled tongs and pointed away from the body. Lead lined
clothing can reduce the amount of waves reaching the body. Gamma waves are the least ionising of the
three types of radiation but it is extremely difficult to prevent them entering the body.

Decay equations

When atoms disintegrate by radioactive decay, new daughter atoms are produced. We can work out
which elements will be produced using decay equations. These are like the equations you may have
used for chemical reactions. Each type of radiation has a chemical symbol that is used in the equation.

Note: the equations must always balance, so there are the same number of protons and neutrons on
each side of the equation.

These equations are not likely to happen in real life, as usually a combination of alpha, beta and gamma
are released rather than just one.
The Ionizing and Penetration Power of Radiation

The increased use of radioisotopes has led to increased concerns over the effects of these materials on
biological systems (such as humans). All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or
electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical
bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive
emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, alpha and beta particles emitted from nuclear
decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these
particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions and molecular fragments that are extremely
reactive. The damage this does to biomolecules in living organisms can cause serious malfunctions in
normal cell processes, taxing the organism’s repair mechanisms and possibly causing illness or even
death (Figure 5.4.1).

The ability of radiation to damage molecules is analyzed in terms of what is called ionizing power. When
a radiation particle interacts with atoms, the interaction can cause the atom to lose electrons and thus
become ionized. The greater the likelihood that damage will occur by an interaction is the ionizing
power of the radiation. Ionizing radiation could affect either the whole body (somatic damage) and/or
eggs and sperm (genetic damage).

Figure 5.4.1

: Radiation can harm biological systems by damaging the DNA of cells. If this damage is not properly
repaired, the cells may divide in an uncontrolled manner and cause cancer.

Much of the threat from radiation is involved with the ease or difficulty of protecting oneself from the
particles or the gamma ray. How thick of wall do you need to hide behind to be safe? The ability of each
type of radiation to pass through matter is expressed in terms of penetration power. The more material
the radiation can pass through, the greater the penetration power and the more dangerous they are. In
general, the greater mass present the greater the ionizing power and the lower the penetration power.
When comparing the most common forms of ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma), alpha
particles have the greatest mass. Alpha particles have approximately four times the mass of a proton or
neutron and approximately ~8,000 times the mass of a beta particle (Figure 5.4.1

). Because of the large mass of the alpha particle, it has the highest ionizing power and the greatest
ability to damage tissue. That same large size of alpha particles, however, makes them less able to
penetrate matter. They collide with molecules very quickly when striking matter, add two electrons, and
become a harmless helium atom. Alpha particles have the least penetration power and can be stopped
by a thick sheet of paper or even a layer of clothes. They are also stopped by the outer layer of dead skin
on people. This may seem to remove the threat from alpha particles but only from external sources. In a
situation like a nuclear explosion or some sort of nuclear accident where radioactive emitters are spread
around in the environment, the emitters can be inhaled or taken in with food or water and once the
alpha emitter is inside you, you have no protection at all.

Figure 5.4.1

: Properties of the three Primary Radiation Types

Beta particles are much smaller than alpha particles and therefore, have much less ionizing power (less
ability to damage tissue), but their small size gives them much greater penetration power. Most
resources say that beta particles can be stopped by a one-quarter inch thick sheet of aluminum. Once
again, however, the greatest danger occurs when the beta emitting source gets inside of you.

Gamma rays are not particles but a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation (like x-rays except
more powerful). Gamma rays are energy that has no mass or charge. Gamma rays have tremendous
penetration power and require several inches of dense material (like lead) to shield them. Gamma rays
may pass all the way through a human body without striking anything. They are considered to have the
least ionizing power and the greatest penetration power.

Figure 5.4.3

: The ability of different types of radiation to pass through material is shown. From least to most
penetrating, they are alpha < beta < neutron < gamma. Image used with permission (CC BY-SA,
OpenStax).

The safest amount of radiation to the human body is zero. It isn't possible to be exposed to no ionizing
radiation so the next best goal is to be exposed to as little as possible. The two best ways to minimize
exposure is to limit time of exposure and to increase distance from the source. The image below
summarizes the key concepts of ionization and penetration abilities of alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation.
Figure 5.4.4 : Ionization and penetrations abilities of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Image used with
permission (CC BY-NC-ND, CompoundChem.com).

Nonionizing Radiation

There is a large difference in the magnitude of the biological effects of nonionizing radiation (for
example, light and microwaves) and ionizing radiation, emissions energetic enough to knock electrons
out of molecules, for example, α

and β particles, γ rays, X-rays, and high-energy ultraviolet radiation (Figure 5.4.2=

Figure 5.4.5

: Lower frequency, lower-energy electromagnetic radiation is nonionizing, and higher frequency, higher-
energy electromagnetic radiation is ionizing. Image used with permission (CC BY-SA, OpenStax).

Energy absorbed from nonionizing radiation speeds up the movement of atoms and molecules, which is
equivalent to heating the sample. Although biological systems are sensitive to heat (as we might know
from touching a hot stove or spending a day at the beach in the sun), a large amount of nonionizing
radiation is necessary before dangerous levels are reached. Forms of nonionizing radiation would
include wave-like radiation shown on the left side of the image. This type of radiation would include the
visible spectrum through radio waves.

Everyday Exposure to Radiation

Natural radiation provides the majority of exposure to the average person. Looking at the pie chart
below, the largest sources of exposure to radiation is from radon gas (Rn-222). This isotope is an α
emitter with a half–life of 3.82 days. Radon is produced through the radioactive decay of U-238, which is
found in trace amounts in soil and rocks. In the environment, radon concentrations can vary depending
upon a geographical location. Once the soil of a particular region is disturbed, this element can escape
and cause serious health issues. Please be aware that radon, and not nuclear reactors, affect more
people in the United States.

Figure 5.4.6

: Sources of exposure to radiation. Image used with permission from Nuclear Science Division of
Lawrence Berkeley Natioanl Lab and with CPEP (the Contemporary Physics Education Project).

Radon gas escapes from the ground and gradually seeps into homes and other structures above. Since it
is about eight times more dense than air, radon gas accumulates in basements and lower floors, and
slowly diffuses throughout buildings (Figure 5.4.5
). Once airborne, the radon enters the body through inhalation or ingestion. Through alpha emission,
Rn-222 decays to produce large particles. These radioactive species travel to the respiratory tract where
they will ionize lung tissue. Exposure to radon increases one’s risk of getting cancer (especially lung
cancer), and high radon levels can be as bad for health as smoking a carton of cigarettes a day. Radon is
the number one cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer
overall. Radon exposure is believed to cause over 20,000 deaths in the US per year.

Figure 5.4.7 : Radon-222 seeps into houses and other buildings from rocks that contain uranium-238, a
radon emitter. The radon enters through cracks in concrete foundations and basement floors, stone or
porous cinderblock foundations, and openings for water and gas pipes.

Radon is found in buildings across the country, with amounts depending on where you live. The
average concentration of radon inside houses in the US (1.25 pCi/L) is about three times the levels found
in outside air, and about one in six houses have radon levels high enough that remediation efforts to
reduce the radon concentration are recommended. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) tests
homes throughout the United States. This agency classifies their test results into three different zones.
Using color-coded keys, an individual can access their probability of being exposed to this deadly
isotope. The EPA recommends an individual alter their home if the radon level exceeds 4 pCi/L. Click on
this link to see your state and even county's radon level. Red-shaded areas of the EPA map indicate that
tested radon levels exceed the 4 pCi/L concentration.

Radon tests can be purchased through the EPA or at most hardware stores. If you are a resident of
South Carolina, you can request a free radon test kit through DHEC (Department of Health and
Environmental Control). If a consumer finds excessive radon in their home, then alterations to the
existing construction can be made. Some of these changes include installing barriers between the soil
and the home and placing ventilation on the group floor to release radon outside. For more information
regarding these types of alterations, click on this link.

Other sources of radiation in consumer products include smoke detectors, antique watches/clocks, and
older ceramics/glass. Smoke detectors emit alpha particles of Am-241 (Amercium). Antique watches and
clocks use H-3 (tritium), Pm-147 (promethium), or Ra-226 (radium) as a fluorescent light source. Antique
ceramics (dating before 1970) could contain U-238 if color is an orangy-red. If antique glassware is
yellow or green in color, it could contain U-238 as well. Glassware with this isotope will glow under a
blacklight.

Concrete, fertilizers, and even food (bananas) can contain trace amounts of different types of
radioactivity. K-40 (potassium) is fairly common in all of these substances.

Summary

We are constantly exposed to radiation from a variety of naturally occurring and human-produced
sources. This radiation can affect living organisms. Ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can
ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damages the molecule and causes malfunctions in cell
processes. Radiation can cause somatic or genetic damage, and is most harmful to rapidly reproducing
cells. Types of radiation differ in their ability to penetrate material and damage tissue, with alpha
particles the least penetrating but potentially most damaging and gamma rays the most penetrating.
The electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic waves can be classified and arranged according to their various

wavelengths/frequencies; this classification is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The following
table shows us this spectrum, which consists of all the types of electromagnetic radiation that exist in

our universe.

The electromagnetic spectrum is comprised of all the varieties of radiation in the universe. Gamma rays
have the highest frequency, whereas radio waves have the lowest. Visible light is approximately in the
middle of the spectrum, and comprises a very small fraction of the overall spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum. Image from UC Davis ChemWiki, CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0

As we can see, the visible spectrum—that is, light that we can see with our eyes—makes up only a small
fraction of the different types of radiation that exist. To the right of the visible spectrum, we find the
types of energy that are lower in frequency (and thus longer in wavelength) than visible light. These
types of energy include infrared (IR) rays (heat waves given off by thermal bodies), microwaves, and
radio waves. These types of radiation surround us constantly, and are not harmful, because their
frequencies are so low. As we will see in the section, “the photon,” lower frequency waves are lower in
energy, and thus are not dangerous to our health.

To the left of the visible spectrum, we have ultraviolet (UV) rays, X-rays, and gamma rays. These types of
radiation are harmful to living organisms, due to their extremely high frequencies (and thus, high
energies). It is for this reason that we wear suntan lotion at the beach (to block the UV rays from the
sun) and why an X-ray technician will place a lead shield over us, in order to prevent the X-rays from
penetrating anything other than the area of our body being imaged. Gamma rays, being the highest in
frequency and energy, are the most damaging. Luckily though, our atmosphere absorbs gamma rays
from outer space, thereby protecting us from harm.