UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
A. ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
Earth Science?
field of study concerned with the planet
Earth or one or more of its parts.
BIG BANG THEORY
Astronomers based their new finding on
the beginning of the universe through
cosmic microwave background (CMB).
It is the thermal radiation used in
observational cosmology because it is
considered as the oldest light in the
universe.
CMB can be detected as a glow which is
believed to be the remnant of the from the
early stage of the development of the
universe. Scientist speculate through the
CMB evidence that when the universe was
young, before the stars and planets even
existed, the universe was denser and hotter.
Then the space expanded and cooled
because of the expansion. The CMB was
believed to have the been released 380 000
years after the Big Bang. Recent
measurement of the age of the universe
shows that it is actually older at 13.82 billion
years, rather than 13.7 billion years as
previously thought.
COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
The early universe went under rapid
expansion in space-time. The theory
states that the early universe was a rapidly
expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy.
It did not have any matter or radiation.
After the expansion and cooling due to
inflation, the potential energy was converted
into kinetic energy of matter and radiation.
Then the big bang occurred because of the
extremely hot dense condition of the matter.
Seconds after the explosion, matter began
to clump together. Eventually, stars were
formed, and then the galaxies.
A simple way of illustrating this is to
inflate the balloon with small bumps. As you
inflate the balloon continuously, its surface
reaches a point of flatness where the small
mumps could not be recognizing anymore.
This similar idea accounts for the
approximate flatness (lack of curvature) look
in the space-time universe.
STEADY STATE THEORY
States that the universe is always
expanding. It also states that new matter
constantly formed as the universe continues
to expand. The older bodies eventually
became out of sight as a consequence of
their increasing distance and rate of
recession. This theory further claim that the
universe has no beginning or end in time,
and even tough it is expanding, its
appearance remains the same over time.
STAR SYSTEM
♥ Is also called stellar system ♥ a small
number of stars that orbit each other.
Theories that explain the ORIGIN of the
STAR SYSTEM:
Nebular Hypothesis o It was developed by
Immanuel Kant an Pierre-Simon Laplace in
the 18th century
• It presupposes that around 4.6 billion
years ago, a star systems was formed from
a rotating Cloud of gas–or nebular-of
extremely hot gas. When the gas cooled,
the nebula began to shrink, and as it
became smaller, it rotated faster, casting off
rings of gas and forming a disk-like shape.
• The centrifugal force from the nebula’s
rotation and the gravitational force from the
mass of the nebula formed the rings of the
gas outside. As the nebula continued to
shrink, these rings condensed into various
densities of the planet and their satellites.
The remaining part of the nebula, which has
the most mass, formed the sun.
PlanetesimalTheory
Proposed by Victor Safronov and was
developed later by T.C. Chamberlin and
F.R. Moulton.
• Describe the formation of the planets as
asserted in the nebular hypothesis.
PlanetesimalTheory
• The theory states that in the early period
of the solar system, planets were formed
from the accretion of small space bodies.
The gravity due to the accretion which also
increased the size of the planetesimals.
TidalTheory
Developed by James Jeans and Sir Harold
Jeffreys in 1917.
A star passed close to the sun where the
tidal force or the secondary effect of
gravitational pull between the passing star
and the sun drew large amount of matter
out of the sun the passing star. Some of the
drawn out matter quickly cooled to become
solid bodies called planetesimals. Other
grew in size because of colliding and
sticking together with passing object in
space, eventually forming large clumps and
gathering more and more matter.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Minerals
naturally occurring, inorganic solid that
exhibits a crystalline structure and can
be represented by a chemical formula. •
These are the basic building blocks of
rocks.
5 CRITERIA TO BE CONSIDERED AS
A MINERAL
1. Naturally Occurring - It is a mineral if
it has been formed by geologic
processes without any human
intervention.
2. Inorganic -does not contain any
organic compounds. However, minerals
like calcite and other shell-forming
materials are formed through organic
processes but are still considered as
minerals if they become part of a rock.
3. Solid -A mineral should exhibit
stability at room temperature, which can
only be attained if it is solid.
4. Crystalline structure - minerals look
like crystals since the arrangement of
their atoms is ordered and repetitive.
5. Can be presented by a chemical
formula -most minerals are chemical
compounds and can therefore e
presented using a fixed or variable
chemical formula. Eg. Quartz (SiO2)
Olivine (Mg2SiO4) or (Fe2SiO4)
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS:
1. LUSTER - quality of light being
reflected by the surface of a mineral. a.
Metallic Luster - (minerals that look like
metals and are shiny)
b. Submetallic Luster- (minerals that
develop a dull coating and are not as
shiny)
c. Nonmetallic Luster- (minerals that are
described as glassy, earthy, pearly, or
greasy).
2. COLOR • Usually the property used
to identify minerals easily.
• It is a result of the way minerals absorb
light.
• Considered to be the least reliable
means in identifying minerals.
3. Streak • The color of mineral in
powder form.
MINERAL STRENGTH - determines
how easy the minerals breaks or
deforms when exposed to stress.
4. Tenacity • Level of the resistance or
action or minerals to stress such as
crushing, bending, breaking or tearing.
• It can tell if a mineral is brittle,
malleable, elastic, etc.
5. Hardness • it is a measure of the
resistance of a mineral (not specifically
surface) to abrasion.
• To measure the relative hardness of
the minerals, Mohs scale is used.
Mohs Scale • Developed by a German
mineralogist named Frederick Mohs.
• It grades 10 fairly common minerals on
scale from 1 being the softest to 10
being the hardest.
Cleavage and Fracture
• Used to describe how minerals break
into pieces
3. Cleavage
• It is the property of some minerals to
break along parallel repetitive planes of
weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces.
4. Fracture
• Breaks in a direction where there is no
cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces
that are irregular and non-planar.
5. Specific Gravity
• Measure the density of a mineral. •
Determines how heavy the minerals is
by its weight to water
COMMON ROCKFORMING MINERALS
WHAT ARE ROCKS?
• Is any solid that is naturally found on
earth. • Are natural substances
consisting of aggregate minerals
clumped together with other Earth
materials through natural processes.
3 types of Rocks
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Igneous Rocks
• Derived from the Latin word ignis
meaning “FIRE”. • Are crystallized from
magma or molten or partially molten
volcanic materials that came from within
Earth.
What is the difference between magma
and lava?
• Magma is a molten rock material
beneath the surface of the earth. • Lava
is molten rock material extruded to the
surface of the earth through a central
vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.
2 Types of Igneous Rocks
1. Extrusive (Volcanic)- cool quickly and
as a result this rocks are fine grained or
has lack of crystal growth
2. Intrusive (Plutonic)- formed from
magma that cools slowly and as a result
these are coarse-grinded.
• Some examples of igneous rocks are
obsidian, pumice, scoria, and granite
Sedimentary Rocks • From the root
word sediments which means
“remaining particles” • Rocks that have
formed from the deposition of the
different materials on Earth’s surface.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Clastic
2.Non-Clastic/(crystalline/organic)
Evaporites Precipitates Biological
Matter
Clastic • describes rock that is
composed of fragments of other rocks
• Classified by size
Non-Clastic
Crystalline
• Evaporites • Precipitate
Organic
• Biological Matter
• Some types of sedimentary rocks are
gypsum, conglomerate, shale,
sandstone, and limestone.
Metamorphic Rocks • Meta means
“change”
• formed below the surface of the earth
through the process of metamorphism
with the recrystallization of minerals in
rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature conditions
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphism
2. Regional Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism • Happens when
magma intrudes a cooler rock, hence
exposing the rocks to a high
temperatures but not a higher pressure.
• Occurs when rocks are contact with
magma.
• creates non-foliated metamorphic
rocks • Eg. Hornfels
Regional Metamorphism • it is during
mountain building
• occurs on large masses of rocks is
exposed to differential stress.
• The main metamorphic agent is
pressure. • Eg. schist, gneiss
• Some other examples of metamorphic
rocks are schist and gneiss.
Major Rock Groups
• Sedimentary –Formed at the Earth’s
surface
 –Clastic (Mineral Fragments or grains,
clays)
–Non-Clastic •Crystalline (chemical
precipitates and evaporites)
•Bioclastic (formed organically from
shells or plants)
• Igneous –Formed from magma (molten
rock)
–Plutonic (intrusive):slow cooling,
coarse/very coarse crystals
–Volcanic (extrusive): quick cooling at
the surface, glassy/fine crystals •
Metamorphic –Changed by heat and
pressure
EXOGENIC PROCESSES OF THE
EARTH
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
1.Weathering
a.Physical Weathering b.Chemical
Weathering
2. Erosion
3. Mass Wasting
a. Fall b. Slide c. Avalanches d. Flow
Weathering: It is the disintegration of
rocks, soil, and minerals together with
other materials through contact with
Earth’s subsystems.
Physical weathering is the breakdown of
rocks by mechanical forces
concentrated along rock fractures.
PROCESSES AND AGENTS OF
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
These are actions or things that break
down Earth materials
1. Frost wedging
2. Thermal expansion and contraction
3. Mechanical exfoliation
4. Plant growth
1. Frost Wedging
cracking of rock mass by the expansion
of water as it freezes in crevasses and
cracks Expansion and contraction of
rocks eventually breaking them apart.
2. Thermal expansion and contraction
(Temperature) –repeated heating and
cooling of materials cause rigid
substances to crack and separate.
3. Mechanical Exfoliation –Due to
unloading, the sudden release from
pressure causes the formation of
fractures on rocks. –Outer rocks
generate onion-like layers called sheet.
4. Plant Growth • As plants such as
trees send out root systems, the fine
roots find their way into cracks in the
rocks. As the roots increase in size,
they force the rock sections apart,
increasing the separation and
weathering.
Chemical Weathering Is the process by
which rocks break down by chemical
reactions.
AGENTS OF CHEMICAL
WEATHERING
1. Oxidation – Oxygen combines with
minerals to form oxides. (iron + oxygen
= Rust)
Oxidation weakens the bedrock making
it softer.
- Oxidation of pyrite to limonite
 - 2. HYDROLYSIS • minerals
absorb water and chemically
change the composition of the
material • these are generally not
as hard as the original material.
Hydrolysis of Feldspar to a clay called
Kaolinite.
CARBONATION-When pollutants like
Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen & Sulfuric
Oxides mix with rain water creating acid
rain, which can dissolve limestone and
harm the living environment.
Mass Wasting • This refers to the
movement of large masses of materials
down slope or a steep-sided hill or
mountain due to the pull of gravity.
MASS WASTING a. Fall
b. Slide c. Avalanche d. Flow
a. Falls •Occur when materials located
in a steep slope move downward
without contact with the ground until
they reach the foot of the slope.
b. Slides • Move the materials as one
following a near straight line down the
slope.
Slumps • Is a slow movement of soil
along a curved surface. • In time, the
area would look curved because of the
depression formed by the sinking land
c. Avalanches • Are the most rapid
moving type of mass wasting where
loose materials move incoherently or in
chaotic fashion.
d. Flows •Are the movement of materials
when they become saturated with water
thus moving like a liquid.
EROSION
• It is the process by which earth’s
surface is worn away by wind, water, or
ice. • Moves rock debris or soil from one
place to another
• Erosion by different agents: winds
carry smaller particles through saltation
and bigger particles by creeping.
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES OF THE
EARTH
Endogenic Processes: Cause by forces
from within or in the interior of the Earth.
2 categories of Heat in Earth’s Interior
1.Primordial heat
2.Radioactive heat
Heat in Earth’s Interior
1. Primordial heat : Heat generated
during Earth’s formation
o Sources:
o Accretion energy
o Adiabatic compression
o Core formation energy
o Decay of short-lived radio isotopes
Accretion energy
• Heat released from collision of
planetary objects during the early
formation of planets. Adiabatic
compression
• Heat generated as materials are
compressed.
2.Radioactive heat :Heat generated by
long-term radioactive decay
o Source s: o K40 o Th232 o U235 o
U238
How the earth’s internal heat
redistributed?
Consider convection and conduction.
Convection - This is the process by
which material circulates through a
region that is unevenly heated.
• Convection occurs in the mantle but
not between the core and mantle or
asthenosphere and lithosphere (except
at sea-floor spreading zones). Thus, at
these transitions, heat must travel by
conduction alone.
How do magmas form?
Melting due to decrease in pressure
(decompression melting)
• The decrease in pressure affecting a
hot mantle rock at a constant
temperature permits melting forming
magma.
Melting as a result of the addition of
volatiles (flux melting)
• When volatiles mix with hot, dry rock,
the volatile decreases the rock’s melting
point and they help break the chemical
bonds in the rock to allow melting.
Melting resulting from heat transfer from
rising magma (heat transfer melting)
• A rising magma from the mantle brings
heat with it that can melt the
surrounding rocks at the shallower
depths.
Where does magma form?
Tectonic setting where magma is
formed:
1.Mid-oceanic ridges
2.Mantle plumes
3.Subduction zones
Mid-oceanic ridges • The rising magma
in mantle convection cell brings heat to
the surface, transferring heat to the
overlying rocks.
• The transfer of heat due to the
convection is accompanied by a
decrease in pressure or decompression
associated with the spreading of the
lithospheric plates.
Mantle plumes (hot spots) • The transfer
of heat and the compression result to
magma generation. • The source of heat
for mantle plumes is much deeper.
Subduction zones • Oceanic crustal
rocks are formed along spreading
centers, typically beneath several
kilometers of seawater.
Endogenous processes that played a
role in the evolution of the landforms on
the Earth are: 1.Magmatism
2.Volcanism or Plutonism
3.Metamorphism
Magmatism
• Is originated material that make up
igneous rock
• Happens when magma generated and
develops into igneous rocks the process
can take place either under the
weathering
VOLCANISM or PLUTONISM
• Usually happens after magma is
formed • Magma comes out with
extreme heat and pressure and may
cause destructive explosion

METAMORPHISM
• Processes of changing materials that
make up the rock.
• The chemical components and
geologic characteristics of the rock
change due to heat, fluids, and pressure
that is increasing and decreasing.
TYPES OF STRESS INFLUENCING
ROCK BEHAVIOR
1.Compression
2.Tension
3.Shearing
4.Confining
Compression • Rocks push or squeeze
against one another where the stress
produced is directed toward the center.
Tension • Rocks pulled apart • Rocks
may separate in opposite direction
Shearing • Some of the portion of a
plate at the edge may break away in
different directions of plate. • eventually
making the plate smaller inside
Confining • The crust become compact,
thus making it look smaller.
DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST
Deformation – the breaking, tilting, and
folding of crustal rock due to crustal
movement
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
• He claimed that Earth used to have
only one supergiant and land mass
where all continents came from.
•He called this massive land mass
Pangaea •surrounded by an ocean
mass called Panthalassa
2 giant continents
1. Laurasia - comprised the northern
continents of today’s times.
2. Gondwanaland - comprised the
continents in the present southern
hemisphere.
Eduard Suess (1831-1914)
• Recognized the existence of
Gondwanaland • Known to have
proposed the existence of Tethys Sea,
the only recognized body of water
during those ancient times.
Evidence to Continental Drift theory:
1. Similarity of fossils found across
continents.
a.Glossopteris
• A Late Paleozoic plant found in rocks
on all five continents.
b.Mesosaurus
• A freshwater carnivorous reptile; •
Fossils found in Permian-aged rocks in
Brazil and Africa
c.Lystrosaurus
• Early Triassic terrestrial mammal-like
reptile • About 1 meter long with two
long teeth protruding from the upper jaw
• Fossils found in Africa, India, and
Antarctica
d.Cynognathus
• Early Triassic terrestrial mammal-like
reptile • About 1 meter in length • Fossils
found in Brazil and Africa
2. Presence of tillites on places whose
present climate do not suggest glacial
formation
Tillites ♥are glacial deposits from rock
strata in areas that were once covered
with snow.
These deposits found in South America,
Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India,
Antarctica and Australia.
3. Presence of coal seams in polar
regions
COAL ♥Is a fossil fuel that originated
from the chemically altered remains of
prehistoric vegetation.
COAL ♥Usually found in tropical areas
because the climate is warm and ideal
for propagation of organism.
♥Glossopteris proliferated in certain
areas of each continent. ♥North Pole
and Antarctica
4. Continuity of rock layers found in
different continents
♥The similarity of rock layers found in
mountains that are on the opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
♥The Appalachian Mountains, Scandes
Mountains of Norway and Caledonian
Mountains of Scotland were thought to
be one mountain rage in Pangaea.
5. Similarity of rock types in different
continents.
The rock types found in Brazil, India,
South Africa and Antarctica seem to
have similar layers and sequence
♥Glossopteris fossils were found in the
rock of each continent.
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Arthur Holmes (1890-1965)
• Suggested the idea of thermal
convection as the driving force for the
movement of the continents.
• Suggested that the thermal convection
works like a “conveyor belt” where the
pressure that goes up could break apart
a continent.
• While the basis for the movement of
continents progresses, geologists
started to use a more precise term to
refer the moving piece of crust as “plate”
because it is believed that continents
are not the only ones moving.
7 major plates
1. Pacific Plate
2. Eurasian Plate
3. North American Plate
4. South American Plate
5. Indo-Australian Plate
6. Antarctic Plate
7. African Plate
3 Major Types of Plate Boundaries:
a.Divergent Plate Boundaries
b.Convergent Plate Boundaries
c.Transform Plate Boundaries
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
Tectonic movement of the crust
Folding/faulting of the Earth’s crust
A. FOLDING
Is a type of earth movement resulting
from the compression of rock strata
(rock layers).
A. FOLDING
Bending, curving, crumpling, or buckling
of rocks into folds is usually visible on
rock strata.
B. FAULTING
Type of earth movement that forms
cracks or fractures on the rocks.
B. FAULTING The movements is
caused by low temperatures that make
rocks brittle. Instead of folding, rocks
break into large chunks.
PARTS OF FAULT
Hanging Wall Which is a block of rock
above the fault line or above the crack
of the rock.
Footwall Which is the block of rock
below the fault line.
TYPES OF FAULT
NORMAL FAULT REVERSE FAULT or
THRUST FAULT STRIKE SLIP FAULT
1. Normal Fault – fault caused by
tension stress that moves the hanging
wall down relative to the foot wall.
2. Reverse Fault – fault caused by
compression forces where the hanging
wall will move up relative to the foot
wall.
Thrust Fault – is formed when
compression causes the hanging wall to
slide over the foot wall. (almost
horizontal movement)
3. Strike-slip Fault - the two blocks move
either to the left or to the right relative to
one another. Strike-slip faults are
associated with crustal shear.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING
Harold Hess (1895-1982) and Robert
Dietz (1914-1995)
They coined the term “seafloor
spreading”
Seafloor Spreading Is a continuous
process where tensional forces on both
sides of the plates cause them to
constantly move apart. Happens along
Mid-oceanic ridges.
HISTORY OF THE EARTH
Stratification of Rocks
Stratification
• Crustal movement, displacement of
soils, and distortion of terrains lead to
layering of rocks • Sedimentary rocks
form as sediments are deposited on the
bottom of a body of water
Nicholas Steno (1638-1686) • In late
17th century, he introduced the principle
of geologic timescale • Each layer of the
rock could represent a “slice” of time.
How do geologists determine how old
rocks are?
Dating Methods
Relative Dating
Absolute Dating
Relative dating • This method does not
provide actual numerical dates for the
rocks but all are just estimates based on
the profile of the strata
PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE DATING
Principle of Superposition • Rock layer
above is younger than the ones below it.
(Oldest on bottom, youngest on top)

Principle of Original Horizontality •
Sedimentary layers are deposited in
approximately horizontal sheets. • If
layers are folded, episode of
deformation must have occurred after
rocks formed. Age of folding is younger
than youngest deformed rock unit.
Principle of Crosscutting Relationships
• Any feature (e.g. fault or intrusion) that
cuts across rocks is younger than the
youngest rock that is cut.
Absolute dating • use radiometric dating
techniques to determine how long ago
the rock formed in the exact number of
years
• Uses radioactive decay and the Half-
life of certain elements • Half-life - time it
takes for onehalf of the radioactive
material to decay
• Half-Life: the time it takes for 50% (1/2)
of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to
decay to its stable isotope • Multiply the
number of half-lives by the half-life time
to get the age of a fossil
Radiometric dating Radioactive
elements (isotopes) used for dating: •
Carbon (C14) - Halflive: 5730 years
• Potassium (K40) - Halflive: 1.25 billion
years
• Uranium (U235) - Halflive: 0.71 billion
years
• Thorium (Th 232) - Halflive: 14.1 billion
years
• Mainly igneous and metamorphic rocks
contain Potassium, Uranium, Thorium •
C14 method to date charcoal, shells,
other organic materials carbon
The Age of the Earth
The earth’s 4.6 billion year history is
divided into major units of time:
Cenozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Paleozoic Era
Precambrian Eon Phanerozoic Eon
Precambrian Eon • 4.6 billion years
before present to 544 million years
before present
• Longest era with a sparse fossil record
• Origin of earth’s crust, first
atmosphere, and first seas
Precambrian Eon • Earliest fossils of
cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to
produce oxygen
• Ozone layer in the atmosphere is
formed from oxygen
Phanerozoic Eon
Paleozoic era (The Era of Old Life)
Paleozoic era • 544 million years before
present to 245 million years before
present • Marine communities flourish •
Early fishes develop
Paleozoic era • Origin of amphibians,
insects & reptiles • Recurring ice ages/
Appalachians mountains form • Spore-
bearing plants dominate
Paleozoic era (continued)… • 286 - 248
million years before present:
Supercontinent of Pangaea forms • 248
million years before present: MASS
EXTINCTION-90 % of all known families 1. Hydro Meteorogical Hazards 2.
lost! Geological Hazards
3. Astronomical Hazards
Mesozoic Era (The age of reptile)
a. Earthquake - An earthquake is a
Mesozoic Era • 245 million years before
shaking of the ground caused by
present - 65 million years before present
sudden slippage of rock masses bel ow
• The age of the dinosaurs! •
or at the surface of the earth. - It is a
Gymnosperms dominate land plant/
wave-like movement o f the earth’s
origin of angiosperms - flowering plants
surface.
Mesozoic Era • Origin of mammals &
TSUNAMI - Tsunamis are giant sea w
birds • 145 million years before present -
aves generated by under-the s ea
asteroid impact? MASS EXTINCTION •
earthquakes and volcanic er uptions.
Pangaea begins to separate/ Rocky
Not all submarine earthquakes ,
mountains form
however, can cause the occurrenc e of
65 million years before present…. • tsunamis.
ASTEROID IMPACT! • Mass extinction
c. Landslide
of ALL dinosaurs and many marine
organisms • End of the Mesozoic era San Francisco, S. San Francisco, S.
Leyte Leyte, ,
Cenozoic Era
Dec.15 Dec.15-23, 2003 23, 2003
• 65 million years before present -today •
207 dead 207 dead – –54 injured 54
Present era we live in • Continued
injured – –1 missing 1 missing P508.4M
evolution and adaptations of flowering
P508.4M -cost of damage cost of
plants, insects, birds, mammals
damage
Cenozoic Era (The age of mammals)
•A landslide is a massive outwa rd and
“Era of recent life”
downward movement of slope-forming
Cenozoic Era • Mammals dominant • materials.
Major crustal movements & mountain
•The term landslide is restricted to
building (Alps & Himalayan mountains
movements of rocks and soil masses.
form)
These masses may ra nge in sized from
NATURAL HAZARDS (GEOLOGICAL) card to entire mountainsides.

Natural Hazard •Their movements may vary in v

Natural hazards are potenti ally
damaging natural phenom ena that may
occur within spe cific period of time in a
given area that may cause danger to
people, structures or economi c assets
and which may lead t o a disaster.
KINDS OF NATURAL HAZAR DS
elocities
•Landslide as a geological haza rd is
caused by earthquake or v olcanic
eruption.
•This initiated when a section of a hill
slope or sloping section of a sea bed is
rendered weak to s upport its own
weight
d. Volcanic Eruption Volcanic Eruption is
a process wher ein volcanic materials
such as molten o r hot fragmented rocks
or gaseous mat erials are ejected from a
volcano. Hazards from volcanoes may
be of different nature. These hazards
include flowing of fast-moving molten
rocks and other e jected.
Three Phases of Strategy
1. Preparedness and Mitigation ( what to
do before)
2. Response (what to do during)
3. Rehabilitation (what to do afte r)
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
HAZARDS