Untitled 23

sensors
Article
Magnetic Flux Leakage Sensing and Artificial Neural
Network Pattern Recognition-Based Automated
Damage Detection and Quantification for Wire Rope
Non-Destructive Evaluation
Ju-Won Kim ID
and Seunghee Park *
School of Civil, Architectural Engineering and Landscape Architecture, Sungkyunkwan University,
Suwon 16419, Korea; malsi@nate.com
* Correspondence: shparkpc@skku.edu; Tel.: +82-031-290-7525
Received: 30 November 2017; Accepted: 27 December 2017; Published: 2 January 2018
Abstract: In this study, a magnetic flux leakage (MFL) method, known to be a suitable non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) method for continuum ferromagnetic structures, was used to detect local damage
when inspecting steel wire ropes. To demonstrate the proposed damage detection method through
experiments, a multi-channel MFL sensor head was fabricated using a Hall sensor array and magnetic
yokes to adapt to the wire rope. To prepare the damaged wire-rope specimens, several different
amounts of artificial damages were inflicted on wire ropes. The MFL sensor head was used to scan
the damaged specimens to measure the magnetic flux signals. After obtaining the signals, a series
of signal processing steps, including the enveloping process based on the Hilbert transform (HT),
was performed to better recognize the MFL signals by reducing the unexpected noise. The enveloped
signals were then analyzed for objective damage detection by comparing them with a threshold
that was established based on the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution. The detected
MFL signals that exceed the threshold were analyzed quantitatively by extracting the magnetic
features from the MFL signals. To improve the quantitative analysis, damage indexes based on the
relationship between the enveloped MFL signal and the threshold value were also utilized, along
with a general damage index for the MFL method. The detected MFL signals for each damage type
were quantified by using the proposed damage indexes and the general damage indexes for the
MFL method. Finally, an artificial neural network (ANN) based multi-stage pattern recognition
method using extracted multi-scale damage indexes was implemented to automatically estimate
the severity of the damage. To analyze the reliability of the MFL-based automated wire rope NDE
method, the accuracy and reliability were evaluated by comparing the repeatedly estimated damage
size and the actual damage size.
Keywords: magnetic flux leakage; steel wire rope inspection; signal processing; damage
quantification; artificial neural network
1. Introduction
Recently, elevators for convenience of movement and transportation have become essential
facilities inside of buildings, particularly with the development of high-rise buildings, and the
installation of elevators has been rapidly increasing all over the world. In addition, cranes and
lifts are essential pieces of equipment for transporting materials on construction sites.
In various industrial facilities, steel wire rope, which has a high strength and high flexibility, is a
key mechanical element used for power transmission and is widely used because it has the advantages
of reliability and efficiency.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109; doi:10.3390/s18010109 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 109 2 of 19
Wire ropes fully support the load of structures or cargo, so damage to a wire rope can lead to
great risks. However, local cross-sectional damage in a wire rope can occur due to aging caused by
long-term use, corrosion caused by the external environment, damage due to unexpected mechanical
movement, and local defects due to friction with peripheral devices, etc. These small defects can
expand quickly because of the tension in the wire rope, which can lead to the lifting structure falling
apart or other structural failure. However, such damage is not easily detected due to certain properties
of the wire rope, such as its complicated cross section and long length; and thus some wire ropes are
being used in very dangerous conditions in situ [1,2].
Additional, due to the features mentioned above, the remaining service life of wire ropes cannot
be accurately predicted, so the ropes are regularly replaced. In particular, it is estimated that more than
70% of ropes have been replaced despite the fact that there is no problem with the strength, and there
is a recurring economic loss as a result. Thus, it is very important to detect initial defects in wire ropes
at the early stages to prevent both accidents and avoid economic losses.
Currently, wire rope inspection relies almost entirely on manual inspection methods along with
visual inspection. This requires a lot of time and money, and there is a high probability of human
error because it is diagnosed is based on an individual’s decision. Visual inspection also has a fatal
disadvantage in that it cannot inspect local flaws or internal corrosion.
To overcome these drawbacks, non-destructive testing has recently been introduced to check the
state of wires, but only up to a limit. Techniques such as radiographic testing and ultrasonic testing
(referred to as representative non-destructive testing methods) have the potential to reduce the risk of
radiation exposure, but they are associated with low inspection efficiency and problems with wave
propagation due to the geometry of the complicated wire ropes [2].
Therefore, magnetic testing can be a very useful method for detecting defects in wire ropes because
such wire ropes are ferromagnetic materials that are easily magnetized, and most non-destructive
testing methods for wire rope inspections primarily use magnetic sensors. In this method, a magnetic
field is applied to a wire, and a magnetic sensor detects any changes in the magnetic flux or leakages
of the magnetic field from a defective portion of the wire [3–5].
Magnetic sensors have the advantages of excellent reliability and reproducibility, and excellent
diagnostic performance can be expected when combined with signal processing technology [6–9].
Magnetic sensors vary in type and are used in accordance with the characteristics of the target
structure considering any possible damage [10]. Wire ropes are ferromagnetic and continuous, and have
a complicated cross section in which several wires are twisted. In addition, the type of damage that
occurs in the wire rope is characterized by disconnection, corrosion, and collapse of the shape, most of
which occurs locally. Further, corrosion and abrasion damage, which can occur globally, the degree of
degeneration of the corrosion and abrasion damage is progressed to leads to disconnection of the wire.
Considering these characteristics, the magnetic flux leakage (MFL) method was selected as a
suitable test method for wire rope in this study. This is because the MFL method has been effectively
applied to diagnose local damage in continuous ferromagnetic structures such as pipes and rails, and it
has the advantage of high-speed non-contact diagnosis [11–13].
Currently, most wire rope diagnostic techniques using the MFL technique employ a
one-dimensional raw magnetic flux signal. However, there is a restriction in that the damage must be
judged via subjective signal analysis by a professional, and thus such methods are not widely used.
To overcome these limitations, this study aimed to develop an automatic damage assessment
method based on MFL that quantitatively assesses the degree of damage by objectively determining
whether or not the damage has occurred automatically without expert intervention.
To accomplish this, magnetic flux data measured from 8-channel MFL sensor heads were processed
by filtering and the Hilbert transform method, outlier analysis was performed by comparing the results
with a threshold using the GEV distribution, and the existence of damage was objectively determined.
Assuming damage was identified, damage indexes were created to quantify the MFL signals
by extracting the magnetic characteristics of the MFL signals. Finally, an artificial neural network
Sensors 2018,
Sensors 2018, 18,
18, 109
109 33 of
of 19
20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 3 of 20
(ANN)-based pattern recognition technique using extracted damage indexes was developed, and the
(ANN)-based pattern
size of the damage
(ANN)-based pattern recognition
inrecognition
the wire rope technique usingextracted
was automatically
technique using extracted damageindexes
and objectively
damage indexes wasdeveloped,
estimated.
was developed,and andthethe
size of the damage in the wire rope was automatically and objectively
size of the damage in the wire rope was automatically and objectively estimated. estimated.
2. Theoretical Background
2.2.Theoretical
TheoreticalBackground
Background
2.1. Magnetic Flux Leakage-Based Damage Detection Technique
Any magnetized ferromagnetic material can be considered as a magnet. The magnetic field
Any magnetized ferromagnetic material can be considered as a magnet. The magnetic field
spreads
Any out when it encounters
magnetized ferromagnetica small air gap
material cancreated by the defect,
be considered as the airThe
as a magnet. cannot support
magnetic fieldas
spreads out when it encounters a small air gap created by the defect, as the air cannot support as much
much magnetic
spreads out when field per unit volume
it encounters a smallwhen compared
air gap createdtobythe
themagnet.
defect, When
as the the
air field spreads
cannot support out,asit
magnetic field per unit volume when compared to the magnet. When the field spreads out, it starts to
starts magnetic
much to leak outfieldofper
theunitmaterial,
volume and thiscompared
when is called magnetic flux leakage.
to the magnet. When the Before measuring
field spreads out,theit
leak out of the material, and this is called magnetic flux leakage. Before measuring the magnetic flux
magnetic flux leakage, specimens must reach saturated magnetization conditions
starts to leak out of the material, and this is called magnetic flux leakage. Before measuring the by applying a field
leakage, specimens must reach saturated magnetization conditions by applying a field large enough
large enough
magnetic to cause specimens
flux leakage, the magneticmustflux to effectively
reach saturated leak out. To establish
magnetization the magnetic
conditions by applying fluxain the
field
to cause the magnetic flux to effectively leak out. To establish the magnetic flux in the material to
material
large to betoinspected,
enough cause theamagnetic
strong permanent magnet isleak
flux to effectively used to magnetize
out. To establish the specimen
the magnetic influx
this in
study.
the
be inspected, a strong permanent magnet is used to magnetize the specimen in this study. When no
When no
material to damage is present,
be inspected, thepermanent
a strong magnetic magnet
flux in the specimen
is used remainsthe
to magnetize uniform,
specimen asin
illustrated
this study.in
damage is present, the magnetic flux in the specimen remains uniform, as illustrated in Figure 1a.
Figureno
When 1a.damage
In contrast, flux leakage
is present, occurs when
the magnetic damage
flux in due to local
the specimen defects
remains has occurred,
uniform, as shown
as illustrated in
In contrast, flux leakage occurs when damage due to local defects has occurred, as shown in Figure 1b.
in Figure
Figure 1a. 1b.
In contrast, flux leakage occurs when damage due to local defects has occurred, as shown
in Figure 1b.
(a) Intact condition (b) Damaged condition

(a) Intact condition (b) Damaged condition
Figure 1. Schematic of the MFL method [9].
Magnetic flux leaks out of the metal specimen near the damaged areas. Sensors that can detect
Magnetic
this Magnetic
flux leakage fluxare
flux leaks outof
placed
leaks out of the
the metal
between metal specimen
thespecimen near
poles of the
near the damaged
magnet.
the damaged areas.then
The sensors
areas. Sensors thatcan
generate
Sensors that can detect
a voltage
detect
this
signal
this flux
flux leakage
proportional are placed
leakage aretoplaced between
the magnetic
betweenflux the poles
theleakage of the magnet.
[10,14].
poles of The
In this study,
the magnet. sensors then
Hall sensors
The sensors generate a
that operate
then generate voltage
based
a voltage
signal proportional
on theproportional
signal Hall effect weretothe
to the magnetic
used to capture
magnetic fluxleakage
flux leakage
the [10,14].
MFL[10,14].
signal,InInthis
as thisstudy,
study,Hall
illustrated Hall
in sensors
Figure
sensors thatoperate
2. that operatebased
based
onthe
on theHall
Halleffect
effectwere
were used
used to
to capture
capture thethe MFL
MFL signal,
signal, as
as illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 2.
2.
Figure 2. Schematic of the Hall effect [10].

Figure
Figure2.2.Schematic
Schematicof
ofthe
theHall
Halleffect
effect[10].
[10].
When a magnetic field (B) is applied to a plate, an electron moving through the magnetic field
experiences
When a amagnetic
force, known as is
field (B) theapplied
Lorentztoforce, which
a plate, is perpendicular
an electron to boththe
moving through to the direction
magnetic of
field
When a magnetic field (B) is applied to a plate, an electron moving through the magnetic field
motion andathe
experiences direction
force, known ofas
thethe
field. The response
Lorentz to this
force, which is force then creates
perpendicular a Hall
to both tovoltage [10]. This
the direction of
experiences a force, known as the Lorentz force, which is perpendicular to both to the direction of
Hall voltage
motion and thecandirection
be measuredof theusing
field.aThe
dataresponse
acquisition (DAQ)
to this system
force and canathen
then creates Hallbe used to[10].
voltage examine
This
motion and the direction of the field. The response to this force then creates a Hall voltage [10].
the condition
Hall voltage can ofbe
themeasured
target structure.
using a data acquisition (DAQ) system and can then be used to examine
This Hall voltage can be measured using a data acquisition (DAQ) system and can then be used to
the condition of the target structure.
examine
2.2. Signalthe condition
Processing forofImproving
the targetSignal
structure.
Quality
2.2. Signal Processing for Improving Signal Quality
SignalProcessing
2.2. Signal processing fortechniques, such Quality
Improving Signal as low-pass filtering and offset correction, were performed
to improve signal resolution after measuring
Signal processing techniques, such as low-pass the magnetic
filtering flux. After correction,
and offset the de-noising
wereprocess
performedwas
Signal processing techniques, such as low-pass filtering and offset correction, were performed
performed,
to the enveloping
improve signal resolution process was carriedthe
after measuring outmagnetic
to determineflux.flux leakage
After to improveprocess
the de-noising the accuracy
was
to improve signal resolution after measuring the magnetic flux. After the de-noising process was
of damage the
performed, detection usingprocess
enveloping the characteristics
was carriedofoutthetomagnetic
determine flux
fluxsignal [9]. to
leakage Samples
improveof the
the accuracy
raw MFL
performed, the enveloping process was carried out to determine flux leakage to improve the accuracy
signal
of damageanddetection
the enveloped
using MFL signal are shown
the characteristics in magnetic
of the Figure 3. flux signal [9]. Samples of the raw MFL
signal and the enveloped MFL signal are shown in Figure 3.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 4 of 19
of damage detection using the characteristics of the magnetic flux signal [9]. Samples of the raw MFL
Sensors and
signal 2018,the
18, 109
enveloped MFL signal are shown in Figure 3. 4 of 20
(a) Raw MFL signal (b) Enveloped MFL signal
Figure 3. Effect of the enveloping process [9].

Figure 3. Effect of the enveloping process [9].
This enveloping process based on the Hilbert transform was performed to bring out the MFL
signalThis enveloping
due to damageprocess based
[15]. The on theusing
envelope Hilbert
thetransform was performed
Hilbert transform to bring out
can be obtained theon
based MFL the
signal due to damage [15]. The envelope using the Hilbert transform can be obtained based
instantaneous amplitude, and it is useful for analyzing abnormal signals generated by defects in a on the
instantaneous amplitude,
time series signal. and it is useful
This enveloping processfor
cananalyzing abnormal
help reveal importantsignals generated
information by the
about defects
signalinbya
time series signal. This enveloping process can help reveal important information about
reducing meaningless information, which is used to improve damage detection. In addition, it is the signal
by reducing
helpful meaninglessthe
for comparing information,
damage withwhich is used to
a threshold improve
value damage making
for decision detection. In addition,
during damage
itdetection,
is helpfuland
for comparing the damage with a threshold value for decision making during
additional damage indexes can be extracted from envelope signals to quantify damage the
detection, and additional damage indexes can be extracted from envelope signals to quantify the
damage level.
damage level.
2.3. Establishing Threshold Levels Using the GEV Distribution for Damage Detection
2.3. Establishing Threshold Levels Using the GEV Distribution for Damage Detection
After obtaining the magnetic flux signal, the appropriate threshold that distinguishes between
After obtaining the magnetic flux signal, the appropriate threshold that distinguishes between
the normal and damaged conditions needs to be established. In this study, a 99.99% confidence level
the normal and damaged conditions needs to be established. In this study, a 99.99% confidence
threshold of the normal condition was established using the generalized extreme value (GEV)
level threshold of the normal condition was established using the generalized extreme value (GEV)
distribution. The GEV distribution is the limit distribution of the properly normalized maxima of a
distribution. The GEV distribution is the limit distribution of the properly normalized maxima of a
sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables according to the extreme value
sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables according to the extreme value
theorem [16]. The GEV distribution was therefore used as an approximation to model the maxima of
theorem [16]. The GEV distribution was therefore used as an approximation to model the maxima
long sequences of random variables. The generalized extreme value distribution has a cumulative
of long sequences of random variables. The generalized extreme value distribution has a cumulative
distribution function, that is shown in Equation (1):
distribution function, that is shown in Equation (1):
x 
F ( x;  ,  ,  )  exp{[1   (x − µ )]−1/1/ξ (1)
F ( x; µ, σ, ξ ) = exp{−[1 + ξ (  )] (1)
σ
for 1 + ξ(x − μ)/σ > 0, where μ  R is the location parameter, σ > 0 is the scale parameter, and ξ 
for
R is1 the
+ ξ(x − µ)/σ
shape > 0, where
parameter ∈ R isthe
[16].µWhen themagnetic
location parameter, σ > 0 is the
flux signal exceeds thescale parameter,
calculated ∈R
and ξvalue,
threshold
isthe
thesignal
shapeisparameter
determined[16]. When
to be thea magnetic
within damaged flux signal exceeds the calculated threshold value,
range.
the signal is determined to be within a damaged range.
2.4. Damage Quantification Using MFL Signal Based Damage Indexes
2.4. Damage Quantification Using MFL Signal Based Damage Indexes
Typically, two kinds of damage indexes that can be extracted from raw MFL signals have been
Typically, two kinds of damage indexes that can be extracted from raw MFL signals have been
used to quantify the MFL signal to estimate the amount of damage [17,18].
used to quantify the MFL signal to estimate the amount of damage [17,18].
The peak to peak value (P-P value: P-PV) shown in Figure 4a is used to represent the y-
The peak to peak value (P-P value: P-P ) shown in Figure 4a is used to represent the y-component
component (amplitude) of an MFL signalVand is known to represent the depth of damage. On the
(amplitude) of an MFL signal and is known to represent the depth of damage. On the other hand,
other hand, the x-component (width) of the MFL signal is represented by the peak to peak width (P-
the x-component (width) of the MFL signal is represented by the peak to peak width (P-P width:
P width: P-PW), as shown in Figure 4b. In this study, four types of new damage indexes were extracted
P-PW ), as shown in Figure 4b. In this study, four types of new damage indexes were extracted from the
from the relationship between the enveloped MFL signal and the threshold, which are utilized to
quantify the damage level [9].
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 5 of 19
relationship between the enveloped MFL signal and the threshold, which are utilized to quantify the
damage level
Sensors 2018, [9].
18, 109 5 of 20
(a) P-P value (P-PV) (b) P-P width (P-PW)
Figure 4. Common damage index for an MFL signal [9].
First, the maximum peak of the enveloped signal that exceeds the threshold was extracted and
was named the ‘peak value of envelope (EP)’ as shown in Figure 5a. This measurement more
effectively represents the level of damage when the MFL signal is saturated; this is because the
saturated part of an MFL signal can be restored using the enveloping process since the trends in the
remaining signal are reflected in the enveloped signal.
Also, the width
(a) P-Pof the envelope
value (P-PV) (EW) was extracted to supplement (b) P-P the
widthP-P width
(P-P W) by calculating
the range where the envelope exceeds the threshold, which was then used to represent the x-
component of the enveloped FigureMFL
Figure 4. Common
4. Common damage
signal,damage
as shownindex
index for
infor an MFL
Figure
an MFL signal
5b.signal [9].
The [9].
E W extracted from under the
peak is generally larger than the P-P width, in accordance with the triangular shape [9].
First, the maximum peak of the enveloped signal that exceeds the threshold was extracted and
However,
First, when thepeak
the maximum peakofisthetooenveloped
large or too small,
signal E Wexceeds
that cannot thereflect the magnetic
threshold properties
was extracted andof
was named the ‘peak value of envelope (EP)’ as shown in Figure 5a. This measurement more
thenamed
was peak due theto the fixed,
‘peak value relatively
of envelope low(Ethreshold.
P )’ as shown To deal
in with
Figure this
5a. limitation,
This the
measurement FWHM
more (full width
effectively
effectively represents the level of damage when the MFL signal is saturated; this is because the
at half maximum)
represents was
the level of applied
damage to stably
when represent
the MFL signal the width of this
is saturated; the peak. To extract
is because the FWHM,
the saturated the
part of
saturated part of an MFL signal can be restored using the enveloping process since the trends in the
width
an MFLvalue
signalatcan
half
beheight
restoredof using
the peak was indexedprocess
the enveloping when thesincepeak was obtained
the trends from a signal,
in the remaining signalas
remaining signal are reflected in the enveloped signal.
shown in Figure 5c [19].
are reflected in the enveloped signal.
Also, the width of the envelope (EW) was extracted to supplement the P-P width by calculating
the range where the envelope exceeds the threshold, which was then used to represent the x-
component of the enveloped MFL signal, as shown in Figure 5b. The EW extracted from under the
peak is generally larger than the P-P width, in accordance with the triangular shape [9].
However, when the peak is too large or too small, E W cannot reflect the magnetic properties of
the peak due to the fixed, relatively low threshold. To deal with this limitation, the FWHM (full width
at half maximum) was applied to stably represent the width of the peak. To extract the FWHM, the
width value at half height of the peak was indexed when the peak was obtained from a signal, as
shown in Figure 5c [19].
(a) Peak value of the envelope (EP) (b) Width of the envelope (Ew)
(a) Peak value of the envelope (EP) (b) Width of the envelope (Ew)
(c) Full width at half maximum (FWHM) (d) Area of the envelope (EA)
Figure 5. New damage indexes using the relationship between the envelope signal and the threshold [9].
Also, the width of the envelope (EW ) was extracted to supplement the P-P width by calculating the
range where the envelope exceeds the threshold, which was then used to represent the x-component of
the enveloped MFL signal, as shown in Figure 5b. The EW extracted from under the peak is generally
larger than the P-P width, in accordance with the triangular shape [9].
(c) Full width at half maximum (FWHM) (d) Area of the envelope (EA)
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 6 of 19
However, when the peak is too large or too small, EW cannot reflect the magnetic properties of the
peak due to the fixed, relatively low threshold. To deal with this limitation, the FWHM (full width at
half maximum) was applied to stably represent the width of the peak. To extract the FWHM, the width
value at half height of the peak was indexed when the peak was obtained from a signal, as shown in
Figure 5c [19].
In addition, the area of the envelope (EA ) was extracted by integrating the amplitude of the signal
in the excess range considering, the shape of the envelope signal, as shown in Figure 5d. Even if the
height and width are the same, the shape of the peak may change. Thus, the area of the envelope can
effectively represent the total energy of the magnetic flux leakage, as it can reflect the shape of the
enveloped MFL signal.
These extracted damage indexes can be independently used to quantify the damage. However,
since they have mutually complementary relationships, the accuracy of damage evaluation can
be improved by using different combination of these indexes, such as developing complex
multi-dimensional damage indexes or utilizing various parameters for pattern recognition.
2.5. ANN Based Pattern Recognition for Damage Quantification

An artificial neural network (ANN) can be used to make an approximation function by learning
from collected data, and it can objectively classify unknown data based on this approximation
function [20]. The ANN consists of a number of processing elements that are connected to form
layers of neurons, although the networks may be complex. The missing links between sets of inputs
and outputs were found by determining the optimal synaptic weights, based on the available training
data of the inputs and outputs [21]. In this research, various damage indexes were extracted from the
MFL signals and were used as training data to train the ANN classifier for the purposes of estimating
the damage in a wire rope.
A supervised multi-layer feed-forward ANN with backpropagation is typically employed.
The Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm, which is similar to the Newton method [22], is used for
back propagation in ANN learning. The root mean squared error (RMSE) was used as the performance
index in this study. In this research, various damage indexes were extracted from the MFL signal and
were used as training data to teach the ANN how to estimate the damage in a wire rope.
3. Experimental Study
3.1. Experimental Setup & Procedure

A series of experimental studies was carried out to examine the capabilities of the proposed
damage detection and quantification technique. To perform the experiments, five steel wire-rope
specimens with a 10 mm diameter and 800 mm length were prepared. An intact wire rope was prepared
and magnetic flux signals were measured from this wire rope, which were then used to establish the
threshold for the outlier analysis. Four kinds of artificial damaged steel wire specimens were prepared
for quantitative analysis according to the size of the damage, as shown in Figure 6 and Table 1.
damage detection and quantification technique. To perform the experiments, five steel wire-rope
specimens with a 10 mm diameter and 800 mm length were prepared. An intact wire rope was
prepared and magnetic flux signals were measured from this wire rope, which were then used to
establish the threshold for the outlier analysis. Four kinds of artificial damaged steel wire specimens
were2018,
Sensors prepared
18, 109 for quantitative analysis according to the size of the damage, as shown in Figure 6 and
7 of 19
Table 1.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 7 of 20

(a) Wire rope #1
(b) Wire rope #2
(c) Wire rope #3
(d) Wire rope #4
Figure 6. Specification of the wire rope specimens.

Figure 6. Specification of the wire rope specimens.
Table 1. Specification of the damage for wire ropes #1 and #2.
As shown
No.
in Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 6,Specification
Direction
stepwise formations
of the Damage
of various damage sizes were
considered for all wire ropes (#1 to
Damage #1-2 #4), for a total of
Damage #1-432 different types of local damage.
Damage #1-6 DamageIn each wire
#1-8
Location 150 mm Location 350 mm Location 550 mm
rope, eight types of damage with a width ranging from 0.5 mm to 9 mm were machined, with Location 750 mm four
Depth 0.5 mm Depth 0.5 mm Depth 0.5 mm Depth 0.5 mm
in the upper parts of the rope and four in the lower parts with a 10 cm spacing. The depths of the
Width 1 mm Width 3 mm Width 6 mm Width 9 mm
damage were 0.5 mm for wire rope #1, 1 mm for wire rope #2, 1.5 mm for wire rope #3, and 2 mm for
Upper
wire rope #4.
Wire
#1 Damage #1-1 Damage #1-3 Damage #1-5 Damage #1-7
Location 50 mm Location 250 mm Location 450 mm Location 650 mm
Depth 0.5 mm Depth 0.5 mm Depth 0. 5 mm Depth 0.5 mm
Width 0.5 mm Width 2 mm Width 4 mm Width 8 mm
Under
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 8 of 19
Table 1. Specification of the damage for wire ropes #1 and #2.
No. Direction Table 1.Table

TableSpecification
1. of theofdamage
Specification
1. Specification
Table the
of
1. Specification the fordamage
damage wire
damage
of the ropes
for for
Specification wire
ofwire#1
ropes
for
the and
ropes
wire #1 #2.
and
Damage#1 and
ropes #2.and
#1 #2. #2.
No. No.No.Direction
Direction
No. Direction
Direction
Damage #1-2 Specification
Damage Specification
#1-4 of theofDamage
Specification
Specification the
of the
Damage
of Damage
the Damage
Damage #1-6 Damage #1-8
TableTable
1.Table Table
1.
Specification 1. Specification
Specification of the
1. Specification of the
damage
of theof the
damage for
damage damage
for for
wire wire
ropesfor
wire wire
ropes
#1 and
ropes#1ropesand
#2.
#1 and #1
#2. and
#2. #2.
Damage
Location #1-2
Damage
Damage #1-2
150Damagemm #1-2#1-2 Damage
Location #1-4Damage
Damage
Damage #1-4#1-4
350 mm #1-4Damage #1-6Damage
Damage
Location Damage #1-6#1-6
550#1-6 mm Damage #1-8Damage
Damage
Damage
Location #1-8#1-8750#1-8 mm
No. No. No. No.
Direction Direction
DirectionLocation
Direction Location150
Location mm
Location mmLocation
150 150 mm
150 mm Location 350
Location mm
Location
Specification 350Specification
Specification350
mm Location
mm
350
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Table 1. Specification
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mm
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Depth
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mm
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mm
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No.No. No. Direction
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No.Direction
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Width
Location
Width
Location Width
150
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1 mmWidth
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350
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mm mm
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mm mm Width
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750
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mm 9 mmmm
9 mm
750 99 mm
750
mm mmmm
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1. Specification 1. Specification
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Depth Depth Damage
Depth
#1-4
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mm 0.5#1-4
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Depth Depth Damage
Damage Depth
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0.5 mm#1-8mm
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Upper
Upper
No.No. No. Location
Width
No.Direction
Direction
Direction Location
Location
Width
Direction 150
Width 1Width
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150
mmmm 1 mm150
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mm
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350 350
3 mmmm
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6 mm
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mm
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Width Location
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mm
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750
Width 750
mm
9 mm 9 mm 750
mm9 mmmm9750
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Depth
Depth
Damage Depth
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mm mm0.5 mm
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mm
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#1-4
Damage 0.5
mm mm
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mm
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Width
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150 mm
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350 mm
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350
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550 mm
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Damage Damage
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Wire Wire UnderUnderUnder Damage
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Damage #2-4#2-4#2-4 Damage
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Damage #1-3#1-3 #1-3
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750 750
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9 mm 9 mm
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mm
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450 450 mm
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mmmm 650 mm
Damage Damage
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#2-2 #2-2 #2-2
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#2-4 #2-4#2-4
Damage #2-4
Damage Damage
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#2-6 #2-6#2-6
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#2 #2 #2 #2 Depth
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#2-7
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mm 1 mm1 mm 1
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1 mm
#2-3 1Damage
mm
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1Damage
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mmDamage Depth
1 mm
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Damage mm 1 mm
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4 mm
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450 mm
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mmLocation 8Width
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650 mm
650 mm 8 mm
650 mm 8 mm
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Depth
DepthDepth 1Depth
mm1 mm1 mm 1Depth
1 mm1 mm1 mm 1Depth
1 mm 1 mm1 mm 1 mm
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mm1 mm1 mm1 mm
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Width 0.5 mm Width
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0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5
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Specification
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Table
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and
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No. No.No.
Direction
Direction
No. Direction
DirectionLocation
Location
Location Location
50 mm 50 Location
50 mm mm mmLocation
50 Location Location
250 250
mm 250
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2. Table
2.
Specification
Table
Depth 2.
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Specificationof the
Specification
1 #3-2
mm of
1 mm the
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and
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1 mm
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and and
1 mm#4. #4.
Depth1Depth 1 mm
DepthDepth
Damage #3-2
Damage 1#3-2
Damage mm
mmDamage Depth Depth
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mm
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Damagemm
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Damage
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Damage
Damage mm
#3-8 #3-81#3-8
mm
No. No. No. No. Width
Direction
Direction
Direction
Direction Width
Width
Location
LocationWidth
0.5 mm
150
Location 0.5
mm 0.5
mm
150
Location mm
150
mm 0.5
150mm
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mm Width
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550
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550
mm mm
550 Width
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750
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mm
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mmmm
mm 8 mm
750 mm
Table 2.Table
Table 2. Specification
2. Specification
Table
Specification of the ofdamages
2. Specification
of the theofdamages
damages the forwire
for damages
for
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wirethe
forwire
rope
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and #3 #4.
rope
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#3 #4.
and #4.
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Damage 1.5
Damage
Depth
Depth
#3-2
DamageDamage
mm#3-2mm
1.5
Depth 1.5 #3-2mm
Depth
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1.5 Depth
Damage 1.5
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DepthDepth
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DamageDamage
mm#3-4mm
1.5 1.5
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Depth
1.5 mm Depth
Damage 1.5
Damage
Depth Damage
mm
Depth
#3-6
Damage #3-6mm
1.5 1.5
#3-6mm #3-6
Depth
1.5 Depth
mm
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Damage
Depth Damage
mm
Depth
#3-8
Damage #3-8mm
1.5 1.5 #3-8mm
#3-8mm
1.5
Under Under
No.No. No. No. Direction
Direction
Direction Direction
WidthLocation
Width
Location Location
Width1Width
150
Locationmm 150
mm1 mmmm
1 mm
150 150
Width
1 mm
Location
mm mm
Width Location
Width 3 mm
Width
350
Location Specification
Specification
Specification
Location mm350
3 mm of
mm
3 mm
350 350
Width
the
3 mm mm
Specification
of the
Location
mm of
Damagethe
Damage
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750
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mm 9 mmmm
9 mm
750 750
9 mm
mm mm
Table 2.Table
Table Table
Specification 2. Specification
2. Specification of the
of the
2. Specification theofdamages
damages
ofdamages the damages
for for
thethe wire
forwire forwire
rope
the the
#3 wire
rope and
#3 and
rope rope
#4.
#3 #4.
and #3 #4.
and #4.
Depth Damage
Damage
Depth Damage
1.5
DepthDepth
#3-2 #3-2
mm1.5 #3-2
Damage
mm 1.5
Depth
1.5 mm mm
#3-2 Damage
Damage
Depth Damage
Depth
#3-4
1.5
Depth #3-4
mm1.5 #3-4
Damage
mm
1.5 mm1.5
#3-4
Depthmm Damage
Damage
Depth Damage
Depth
#3-6
1.5
Depth #3-6
mm Damage
1.5 #3-6
mm
1.5 mm1.5
Depth mm
#3-6 Damage
Damage
Depth Damage
Depth
#3-8
1.5
Depth #3-8
mmDamage
1.5 #3-8
mm 1.5
1.5 mm mm
#3-8
Upper Upper
UpperUpper
No.No. No. No. Direction
Direction
Direction Location
Width
Direction Location
Location
Width 1Width
150
WidthLocation
150
mm
mm 150
1 mm
mm mmmm
1150
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Location
1 Location mm
WidthWidthWidth
Location
350 350
3 mmmm
Specification 3 mm
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mm mm3350
mm
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3 mm Width
Specification
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Specificationof Location
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550
mm
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Damage550
mm mm6550
mm
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mm
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750
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mm
mm 9 mm750
mm9 mmmm
9750
mm mm
Wire Wire Table 2. Specification of the damages for the wire rope #3 and #4.
WireWire
Upper Upper Upper
Upper
Depth
Depth
Damage Depth
Damage1.5
#3-2Depth
1.5
mm mm 1.5
#3-2mm
Damage
#3-2
Damage 1.5
DepthDepth
#3-2 mm
Damage Depth
Damage 1.5
#3-4Depth
1.5
mm
Damage mm 1.5
#3-4mm
Damage
#3-4 1.5
Depth
#3-4Depth
mm
Damage Depth
Damage 1.5
#3-6Depth
1.5
mm mm
Damage
#3-6
Damage 1.5
#3-6mm 1.5
Depth Depth
#3-6mm
DamageDepth
Damage1.5
#3-8Depth
1.5
mm mm
Damage
#3-8
Damage 1.5
#3-8mm 1.5
#3-8mm
#3 #3 #3 #3 Width
Width
Location Width
Location
LocationWidth
1 mm
1Location
150 mm
mm
150 mm 1 Location
150 mmmm 1Width
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150 mmmm
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mm 3 mm
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350
Location mm
350 mm 3 mm
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350 mm
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550
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mm Width
Location 750
Location Width
9 mm
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mm
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750 mm 9 mm
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Wire WireWireWire Depth 1.5Depth
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mm
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mm
1.5 mm 1.5 mm 1.5 mm
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#3 #3
No. #3 #3Direction Table Width
2.Width
2.Width
Table
Table Table Width
2.1 Specification
mm12.mmof1 mm of1damages
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Specification the mm
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rope
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and 6Width
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Damage
Damage
Damage
Damage #3-5#3-5#3-5 Damage #3-7Damage
Damage
Damage #3-7#3-7#3-7
Upper
UpperUpper Upper
No. #3 No.
#3 No. #3 No. #3Direction
Direction
Direction Direction
Damage
Location
Location#3-2
50
Location mm
Location50 mm Location
50 mm50 mm Damage
Location 250
Specification
Specification #3-4
mm
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250 250 the
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Damage
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Location the
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450
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Location #3-6
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650 650
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UnderUnder
Damage Damage
Damage
#3-2 #3-2#3-2
Damage #3-2
Damage Damage
Damage
#3-4 Damage
#3-4 #3-4 #3-4
Damage Damage
Damage
#3-6 Damage
#3-6 #3-6 #3-6 Damage
Damage
Damage #3-8 #3-8
Damage
#3-8 #3-8
WireWire Wire Wire Depth
Location Damage 1.5
Damage
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Depth
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Damage
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mm#3-1
1.5
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Damage
Location 1.5
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DepthDepth
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mm
350#3-3
1.5 mm
1.5
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mm #3-3
Depth
1.5 mm Depth
Damage 1.5
Damage
Depth
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mm
Depth
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Damage #3-5
1.5 mm
1.5
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550 #3-5
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1.5
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mm
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Location #3-7
1.5 mm
1.5 #3-7mm
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750 mm
#3 #3 #3 #3 Width Location
Location
Location Location
Width Location
150
0.5
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Location
50150
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Location 550
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550
mm
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750
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mm
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650 mm 8mm
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8 mmmm
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Depth 50
Location
1.5 mm
mm 50 Location
mm 250
Location mm
1.5 250
mm Location
mm 450
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Depth mm 450
1.5 Location
mm
mm 650
Location
Depth mm 650 mm
1.5 mm
Under Under Under
UnderDepth Depth
Depth 1.5 Depth
mm1.5 1.5
mm mm1.5
Depth mm Depth
Depth Depth
1.5 mm 1.5 1.5
mm mm 1.5
Depth mmDepthDepth
1.5 Depth
mm1.5 1.5
mm mm1.5
Depth mm Depth
Depth 1.5Depth
mm1.5 1.5
mm mm1.5 mm
DamageDamage
Depth
#3-1 #3-1
Damage 1.5 mm
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Depth#3-3 #3-3mm
Damage 1.5
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Depth
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Damage #3-5mm1.5 mm
#3-5 DamageDamage
Depth
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Damage#3-7mm
1.5 mm
Width
Width
Damage
DepthDepth
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Width
#3-1
1.5
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10.5
mm
mm
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1.5 mm
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1.5
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9mmmmmm 9#3-7
98650
mm mm
Location
Width Location
Location
Width 50
WidthWidth
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50
mm
mm mm 50
0.5 mm
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Width
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Location
mm
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2 mmmm mm250 mm2250
mm
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2 mm Location
Location
mm
WidthWidth 4Width
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450
mm
mm mm4504Width
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mm
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8Location
650
mm
mm 650
mm 8 mm mm mm
Under
Upper UnderUnderUnder
Upper Upper
Upper Upper Depth
Depth
Damage Depth
Damage1.5
#3-1Depth
1.5
mm mm 1.5
#3-1mm
Damage
#3-1
Damage 1.5
DepthDepth
#3-1 mm
Damage Depth
Damage 1.5
#3-3Depth
1.5
mm
Damage mm 1.5
#3-3mm
Damage
#3-3 1.5
Depth
#3-3Depth
mm
Damage Depth
Damage 1.5
#3-5Depth
1.5
mm mm
Damage
#3-5
Damage 1.5
#3-5mm 1.5
Depth Depth
#3-5mm
DamageDepth
Damage1.5
#3-7Depth
1.5
mm mm
Damage
#3-7
Damage 1.5
#3-7mm 1.5
#3-7mm
Sensors 2018,
Sensors 18, 2018,
Sensors
2018,109;
Sensors doi:10.3390/s18010109
18,2018,
18, 109;
109; 18,
doi:10.3390/s18010109
doi:10.3390/s18010109
109; doi:10.3390/s18010109 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Width
Width
Location Width
Location 0.5 Width
0.5
mm mm
50Location
Location mm
50 mm 0.5 mm
mm 0.5
Width
50
50LocationWidth
mm
mm
Location Width Width
2 mm 2
Location
250
Location mmmm
250 mm 2 mm
mm 2
Width
250
250 Locationmm
Width Width
mmLocation
Location Width
4
4Location
450 mm
mmmm
450 mm 4 mm 4
Width
mm 450
450Location Width
mm
mm Width
Location Width
8 mm
8Location
650
Location mm
mmmm
650 8 mm
650 mm 8 mm
650 mm
Wire WireWire Wire UnderUnderUnder
Under
Depth 1.5Depth
DepthDepth mm
Depth mmDepth 1.5Depth
mm
mm
Depth mmDepth1.5Depth
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1.5 mm 1.5 mm 1.5 mm
#3 Sensors
Sensors
#32018, Sensors
#3 2018,
18,
Sensors 18,2018,
109;
#32018, 109; 18, 109; doi:10.3390/s18010109
doi:10.3390/s18010109
doi:10.3390/s18010109
18, 109; doi:10.3390/s18010109 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Width 0.5Width
WidthWidth mm
0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5Width
Width mmWidth 2Width
mm 2 mm2 mm 2 mm
WidthWidthWidth Width
4 mm 4 mm4 mm 4Width
Width mm Width 8 Width
mm8 mm8 mm8 mm
Sensors Sensors
Sensors
2018, 18, 2018,
Sensors
2018, 109; 18,doi:10.3390/s18010109
18, 109; 109;
2018, 18,doi:10.3390/s18010109
109; doi:10.3390/s18010109
doi:10.3390/s18010109 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Damage Damage
Damage #3-1#3-1 #3-1
#3-1 Damage Damage
Damage
Damage #3-3#3-3 #3-3
#3-3 Damage Damage Damage
#3-5#3-5 #3-5
#3-5 Damage
Damage Damage#3-7#3-7 #3-7
#3-7 Damage
Damage
Damage
Wire #3
Sensors 2018,
Sensors Sensors
18,
Sensors
2018, 109; 2018,
18, 109;
2018, 18, 109; doi:10.3390/s18010109
doi:10.3390/s18010109
18,doi:10.3390/s18010109
Location
Location
Location
Damage 50Location
mm
#3-1 50 Location
50 mm mm Location
50 Location
mm
Damage250 250
mm 250
Locationmmmm
#3-3 mmLocation
250 Location
Location 450 450www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
mm
Damage 450
Locationmm www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
mm
Location
#3-5 Location
450Location
mm 650 650650
Location
mm
Damagemmmm 650 mm
#3-7
Under UnderUnder
Under
Location Depth
DepthDepth 1.5
50mm1.5 1.5
Depth
mm mmmm 1.5
Depthmm Depth
Depth
Location 1.5 1.5 1.5
Depth
mm
250 mmmmmm
1.5 mm
Depth Depth
Depth
Location 1.5 1.5
1.5Depth
mm mm
450mm
1.5
Depth
mm mm Depth
Depth mm1.5 1.5
1.5Depth
Location mmmm 1.5
650mm mm
Width
WidthWidth mm0.5 0.5
0.5Width mmmm 0.5 mm
Width Width
Width 2Width
mm2 mm 2 mm 2 mm
Width Width
Width 4 Width
mm4 mm 4 mm 4 mm
Width Width
Width 8 Width
mm8 mm 8 mm8 mm
Sensors
Sensors 2018, 2018,
18, 18, 2018,
Sensors
Sensors 109
2018, 109
Depth
18, 109
18, 109
1.5 mm Depth 1.5 mm Depth 1.5 mm Depth 1.5 mm
2 of 22 of22of 22 of 2
Width 0.5 mm Width 2 mm Width 4 mm Width 8 mm
Sensors
Sensors 2018,Under
Sensors
18, 2018,
Sensors
2018, 18,
109;109;
2018, 18,doi:10.3390/s18010109
109; doi:10.3390/s18010109
18,doi:10.3390/s18010109
DamageDamage #4-2#4-2 #4-2

#4-2 Damage
Damage Damage
Damage #4-4#4-4 #4-4
#4-4 Damage
Damage Damage
Damage #4-6#4-6 #4-6
#4-6 Damage
Damage Damage
Damage #4-8#4-8 #4-8
#4-8 Damage
Damage
Location
Location 150 150 150
mm
Location
Locationmm 150Location
Location
mm mm 350 350 350
Location
Location mm mmLocation
350 Location
mm mmLocation
550 550 550
mm
Location
mm 550Location
Location
mm mm 750 750 750
Location
Locationmm mmmm 750 mm
DepthDepth 2 mm
Depth 2 mm
Depth Depth
2 mm Depth
2 mm Depth mm2 mm
2Depth 2 mmDepth
2 mmDepth 2 mm
Depth 2 mm
Depth Depth
2 mm Depth
2 mm mm2 mm
2 Depth
Depth 2 mm2 mm
WidthWidth mm1 mm
1 Width
Width Width
1 mm Width
1 mm Width mm3 mm
3Width 3 mmWidth
3 mmWidth mm6 mm
6 Width
Width Width
6 mm Width
6 mm mm9 mm
9 Width
Width 9 mm9 mm
Wire Wire
Wire Wire
UpperUpper
UpperUpper
#4 #4 #4 #4
DamageDamage #4-1#4-1 #4-1

#4-1 Damage
Damage DamageDamage #4-3#4-3 #4-3
#4-3 Damage
#4-5 Damage
#4-7 Damage
Damage
Location
Location 50 50 mm
Location
mm
Location Location
Location
50 mm50 mm 250 250 250
Location
Location mm mm 250Location
Location
mm mm 450 450 450
mm
Location
Locationmm 450Location
Location
mm mm 650 650 650
mmmm
Location
Locationmm 650 mm
DepthDepth 2 mm
Depth 2 mm
Depth 2 mmDepth
2 mmDepth
Depth mm2 mm
2Depth Depth
2 mm Depth
2 mm 2 mm
Depth 2 mm
Depth Depth
2 mm Depth
2 mm 2 mm
Depth 2 mm
Depth 2 mm2 mm
WidthWidth 0.5 mm
0.5Width
Width mm Width
0.5 mm
0.5 mm Width
Width mm2 mm
2Width Width
2 mm Width
2 mm mm4 mm
4 Width
Width Width
4 mm Width
4 mm mm8 mm
8 Width
Width 8 mm8 mm
Under
Under UnderUnder
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 9 of 19
Sensors
Sensors 2018, Sensors
Sensors
18,
2018, 18, 2018,
2018,
109 18,
10910918, 109 2 of 22 of22of 22 of 2
Sensors Sensors
2018,
Sensors Sensors
18, 2018,
109
2018, 18,
109109
18, 2018, 18, 109 2 of 22 of22of 2 2 of 2
Table 2. Cont.
No. Direction Specification of the Damage

Damage #4-2 Damage #4-4 Damage #4-6 Damage #4-8
Damage
Location 150Damage
Damage
Damage
#4-2 #4-2
mm #4-2 #4-2 Damage
Damage
Location Damage
#4-4#4-4
Damage
#4-4 350 mm#4-4 #4-6 Damage
Damage
Damage
Location 550 #4-6
#4-6#4-6
Damage mm #4-8 Damage
Damage
Damage Damage#4-8#4-8 #4-8
Location 750 mm
Location
Location Location
Location
150 150150
mm mm 150Location
mm mm
Location Location
Location
350 350350
mm mmmm350 mm
Location
Location Location
Location
550 550550
mm mm mm550Location
mm
Location Location
Location
750 750750
mm mmmm 750 mm
Depth 2 mm
Damage #4-2
Damage
Depth
#4-2 Damage
2 mm
#4-4
Damage #4-4
Depth
Damage
2
#4-6
Damage
mm
#4-6
Depth
Damage #4-8
Damage
2 mm
Damage
DepthDepth #4-2
2 Depth
Damage
Depth mm#4-2
2 mm2 mm 2 Damage
mm
DepthDepth #4-4
Depth2Depth
Damage mm#4-4
2 mm2 mm 2 Damage
mm
DepthDepth #4-6
2 Depth
Damage
Depth mm#4-6
2 mm2 mm 2Damage
mm
DepthDepth #4-8
2 Depth
Damage
Depth mm #4-8
2 mm2 mm#4-8
2 mm
Width
Location 150
Location
WidthWidth
Width 1Width
Location mm
mm
mm150150
1Locationmm
1 mm mm
1 mm 1 Width
150 mm
Location
mm Location
350
Location
WidthWidth
Width mm33mm
Location
3Width
mm350 mm
350
mm mm
3 mm350 mm
Location
3 mm Width
Location
550
Location
WidthWidth
Width mm
Width
mm550
6 mm66
550
6Locationmm mm
mm550 mm
Location
mm 6 mm
WidthWidth Width
Location
750
Location
Width mm
Width
mm750 750
9Locationmm
9 mm mm
9 mm 99mm
750 mm
mm
Wire Wire
Wire Wire
Upper Depth
DepthDepth Depth
2 mm 2 mm
2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth 2Depth 2 mm
mm2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth Depth
2 mm 2 mm
2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth 2 Depth
mm2 mm2 mm2 mm
UpperUpper
Upper
Upper
#4 #4 #4 #4 Width
WidthWidth Width
1 mm 1 mm
1 mm 1 mm
Width Width
Width 3Width 3 mm
mm3 mm 3 mm
Width Width
Width Width
6 mm 6 mm
6 mm 6 mm
Width Width
Width 9 Width
mm9 mm9 mm9 mm
Wire Wire
Wire Wire
UpperUpper
UpperUpper
#4 #4 #4 #4
Wire #4 Damage #4-1 Damage

Damage #4-1#4-1 #4-1
Damage #4-3 Damage
Damage
Damage #4-3#4-3 #4-3
Damage #4-5 Damage
Damage
Damage #4-5#4-5 #4-5
Damage #4-7 Damage
Damage
Damage #4-7#4-7 #4-7
Damage
Location
Location
Damage Location
Location
50 mm
#4-150 mm
50 mm50 mm
Location
Location
Damage Location
Location
250 250
mm
#4-3 mm
250 250Location
mm mm
Location Location
Location
450
Damage450450
mm mm 450Location
mm mm
Location
#4-5 Location
Location
650 650650
mm
Damagemmmm650 mm
#4-7
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 Damage
DepthDepth
Location Damage
#4-1
Damage
Depth Depth
250
mm#4-1
mm #4-1
Damage
2 mm
2 mm#4-1
Damage
2Location
mm
DepthDepth Damage
#4-3
Depth2Depth
Damage 2 #4-3
Damage
#4-3
mm
250 mm #4-3
2 mm
mm 2Damage
mm
Depth Damage
#4-5
2 Depth
Damage
Depth
Depth
Locationmm#4-5#4-5
Damage
2 mm2 mm
450 #4-5
2Damage
mm
Depth
mm Damage
#4-7
2 Depth
Damage
Depth
Depth mm#4-7#4-7
Damage
2 mm
Location 2 mm#4-7
2 mmmm
650 9 of 20
Location
Width Location
Width 50
Location
Width
0.5 mm
0.5
mm 50 mm
Location
50 mm
Width mm
0.5 mm50 mm
Location
0.5
Width Location
Location
mm
Width
WidthLocation
250 mm
mm250
2Width 250
2 mmmm mm
2 mm250 mm
LocationLocation
450
Location
2 mm
WidthWidth
Width mm
mm450
Width 450
4Location
4 mmmm mm
4 mm450 mm
LocationLocation
650
Location
4 mm
WidthWidth
Width mm
mm650
Width 650
8Location
8 mmmm mm
8 mm650 mm
8 mm
Depth
DepthDepth Depth
2 mm 2 mm2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth 2Depth
mm2 mm 2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth Depth
2 mm 2 mm2 mm 2 mm
Depth Depth
Depth Depth
2 mm 2 mm2 mm2 mm
Under
Under UnderUnder
Width 0.5 mm
Width
WidthWidth 0.5 0.5 0.5
Width
mm mmmm 0.5Width
mm
Width Width
Width mm22 mm
2Width mm2 mm 2 mm
Width Width
Width
Width Width
4 mm 4 mm44mmmm
4 mm
Width 8Width
Width
Width Width
mm 8 mm8 mm8 8mmmm
Under UnderUnder
UnderUnder
In
In other
other words,
words, the
the change
change in
in MFL
MFL signal
signal was
was determined
determined according
according to
to the
the change
change inin damage
damage
width.
width. The changes in MFL signal were also analyzed for various damage depths, which was
The changes in MFL signal were also analyzed for various damage depths, which was
accomplished by comparing the wire ropes (#1–#4) with different depths. The test setup
accomplished by comparing the wire ropes (#1–#4) with different depths. The test setup for for measuring
MFL signalsMFL
measuring wassignals
composed
was of an MFL sensor
composed head,
of an MFL a compact
sensor head, aDAQ, and DAQ,
compact a terminal
and aboard, as shown
terminal board,
in Figure 7.
as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Experimental setup.

Figure 7. Experimental setup.
The MFL sensor head moves linearly along the fixed wire rope specimen with a constant velocity
of 2 The
m/s MFL sensor head
to measure MFLmoves
signalslinearly
using aalong themoving
linear fixed wire rope specimen
machine. The data with a constantequipment,
acquisition velocity of
2which
m/s toconsists
measureofMFL signals using a linear moving machine. The data acquisition
a terminal board and a compact DAQ, measures 8 magnetic flux signals equipment, which
consists of a terminal
simultaneously at theboard and a compact
MFL sensor head. DAQ, measures 8 magnetic flux signals simultaneously at
the MFL sensor head.
The MFL sensor head is composed of 8 channels of the sensor module, and each sensing module
contains MFL
The a Hallsensor
sensorhead
andisa composed
permanentofmagnet
8 channels
yokeofthat
thecan
sensor module, andmeasure
independently each sensing module
the magnetic
contains a Hall
flux signal. sensor
Eight and modules
sensing a permanentwere magnet yoke that can
circumferentially independently
arranged measure
in a circular the magnetic
configuration to
flux signal. Eight sensing modules were circumferentially arranged in
measure signals from the entire cross section of the wire rope, as shown in Figure 8. a circular configuration to
measure signals
Signals were from the entire
repeatedly cross section
measured of the
40 times wirespecimen,
at each rope, as shown
and thein sampling
Figure 8. rate was 10 kHz.
Signals were repeatedly measured 40 times at each specimen, and the sampling
The measured signals were then processed to facilitate effective damage detection throughout rate was 10signal
kHz.
The measured signals were then processed to facilitate effective
processing and the enveloping process based on the Hilbert transform (HT). damage detection throughout signal
processing and the enveloping process based on the Hilbert transform (HT).
contains a Hall sensor and a permanent magnet yoke that can independently measure the magnetic
flux signal. Eight sensing modules were circumferentially arranged in a circular configuration to
measure signals from the entire cross section of the wire rope, as shown in Figure 8.
Signals were repeatedly measured 40 times at each specimen, and the sampling rate was 10 kHz.
The measured
Sensors 2018, 18, 109signals were then processed to facilitate effective damage detection throughout10
signal
of 19
processing and the enveloping process based on the Hilbert transform (HT).
Figure 8. 8-channel MFL sensor head.

Figure 8. 8-channel MFL sensor head.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 10 of 20
3.2. MFL Based Damage Detection Results

3.2. MFL Based Damage Detection Results
After signal processing, the enveloped MFL signals measured from wire ropes #1–#4 are displayed
After signal processing, the enveloped MFL signals measured from wire ropes #1–#4 are
by overlapping in Figure 9.
displayed by overlapping in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Overlapped graphs of the enveloped MFL signals for wire ropes #1–#4.
Figure 9. Overlapped graphs of the enveloped MFL signals for wire ropes #1–#4.
Figure 9 shows that leakage signals exceeding the threshold were generated at 150, 350, 550 and
Figure
750 mm, 9 shows
where the that
actualleakage
damagesignals exceeding
is located. the threshold
It was were generated
also confirmed at 150,
that leakage 350, 550
signals and
were
750 mm, where the actual damage is located. It was also confirmed that leakage
generated at 50, 250, 450 and 650 mm, where damage was located. This shows that the detection ofsignals were generated
at 50, 250,
damage 450wire
in the and rope
650 mm, where damage
is possible through was located.
detection This
of the shows
MFL that the detection of damage in
signal.
the wire rope is possible through detection of the MFL signal.
The most sensitive sensing channel for upper damages is channel 3, which is nearest to the upper
Theand
damage, mostchannel
sensitive sensing
7 is most channel
sensitivefor forupper
lowerdamages
damages. is channel 3, which
A relatively is nearest
weaker MFL to the upper
signal was
damage, and channel 7 is most sensitive for lower damages. A relatively weaker
detected in the neighboring sensing channels. This shows that the closer the damage is to the sensing MFL signal was
detected in the neighboring sensing channels. This shows that the closer the damage is
channel, the better the detection capability of the signal, indicating that the circumferential direction to the sensing
ofchannel, the better
the damage can bethededuced
detection capability
using of the signal, indicating that the circumferential direction of
this method.
the damage can be deduced using this method.
3.3. Quantitative MFL Signal Analysis Using Damage Indexes
3.3.1. Analysis and Quantification of the Leakage Flux Signal with Increasing Damage Depth
MFL signals collected from wires #1–#4 with different depths of damage were compared to
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 11 of 19
3.3. Quantitative MFL Signal Analysis Using Damage Indexes
3.3.1. Analysis and Quantification of the Leakage Flux Signal with Increasing Damage Depth
MFL signals collected from wires #1–#4 with different depths of damage were compared to
analyze the change in patterns of the MFL signals with increasing damage depth. In this research,
a quantitative analysis was conducted using the MFL signals measured from the top four damaged
regions by utilizing the most sensitively measured signals from channel 3.
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the magnitude of the envelope signal increases with the depth
of the defects in all peaks sections. In general, the height of the peak, which is known to be affected
by the depth, increased stepwise with increasing depth, while the width of the envelope, which is
known to be closely correlated with the damage width, increased with increasing depth. Comparing
each peak section, however, it is seen that the size of the peak varies with the width, even though the
depth damage is the same; therefore, it is confirmed that the height of the peak is not determined by
the depth of the damage.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 11 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 11 of 20
(a) Section of peak #1 (Width: 1 mm) (b) Section of peak #2 (Width: 3 mm)
(a) Section of peak #1 (Width: 1 mm) (b) Section of peak #2 (Width: 3 mm)
(c) Section of peak #3 (Width: 6 mm) (d) Section of peak #4 (Width: 9 mm)
Figure 10. Variation of the enveloped MFL signal according to damage depth.
(c) Section of peak #3
Figure 10. Variation of(Width: 6 mm)
the enveloped (d) Section
MFL signal of peak
according to #4 (Width: 9depth.
damage mm)
Figure in
Next, the changes 10. envelope
Variation ofsignal
the enveloped MFL signal according
were quantitatively to damage
extracted depth. to the damage
according
depth by using
Next, the changes the damage indexes introduced in Section 2.4. First, the most
in envelope signal were quantitatively extracted according to the damage representative index of depth
the MFLNext, the changes in envelope signal were quantitatively extracted according to the damage
signal, the P-P value (P-PV), is presented in Figure 11. As previously seen in the peak signal
by using thedepth
damage indexes
by using introduced
the damage in Sectionin2.4.
indexes introduced First,
Section 2.4.the most
First, representative
the most representativeindex
index of
of the MFL
in Figure 10, the P-P value increased as the damage depth increased in accordance with the width of
signal, the P-P
the value (P-P
MFL signal,
the damage.
),
the
V is
P-Ppresented
value (P-PVin), isFigure 11.
presented inAs previously
Figure seen
11. As previously in the
seen peak
in the signal in
peak signalFigure 10,
in increased
the P-P value Figure 10, the
asP-P
thevalue increased
damage as the
depth damage depth
increased increased inwith
in accordance accordance with the
the width of width of
the damage.
the damage.
Figure 11. Variation of the P-P value (P-PV) according to the damage depth.
Figure 11. Variation of the P-P value (P-PV) according to the damage depth.
Figure 11. Variation of the P-P value (P-PV ) according to the damage depth.
Figure 12 shows the extraction results of the peak value of the envelope using the relationship
between the envelope signal and the threshold value. The peak value of envelope (EP), which is
between the envelope signal and the threshold value. The peak value of envelope (EP), which is
similar to the P-P value, steadily increased with increasing damage depth.
similar to the P-P value, steadily increased with increasing damage depth.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 12 of 19
between the envelope signal and the threshold value. The peak value of envelope (EP ), which is similar
to the P-PSensors
value, steadily increased with increasing damage depth.
2018, 18, 109 12 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 12 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 12 of 20
Figure 12. Variation of the peak value of envelope (EP) according to the damage depth.
Figure 12. Variation of the peak value of envelope (EP ) according to the damage depth.
FigureFigure
13 below shows the
12. Variation results
of the of extracting
peak value the(E
of envelope width of envelope
P) according (EW), which
to the damage depth.is a damage
index
Figure 13developed to estimate
below shows the original
the results damage width.
of extracting the The
widthwidth
of of the envelope
envelope (EWexhibits
), whicha positive
is a damage
Figure 13
relationship below shows the results of extracting
was the width determined
of envelopeto(Ebe W),appropriate
which is a damage
index developed to with increasing
estimate damage
the original depth,
damage andwidth. therefore
The width of the envelope bothafor
exhibits positive
index developed
estimating to estimate
the damage width,theand
original damagedepth.
the damage width. The width of the envelope exhibits a positive
relationship with increasing
Figure
relationship with
damage
12. Variation
increasing damage
depth,
of the peak and
value
depth, ofwas
and
therefore
envelope determined
(EP) according
was therefore
to be
to the damage
determined
appropriate
depth.
to be appropriate
both for
both for
estimating the damage width, and the damage
estimating the damage width, and the damage depth. depth.
Figure 13 below shows the results of extracting the width of envelope (EW), which is a damage
index developed to estimate the original damage width. The width of the envelope exhibits a positive
relationship with increasing damage depth, and was therefore determined to be appropriate both for
estimating the damage width, and the damage depth.
Figure 13. Variation of the width of envelope (EW) according to the damage depth.
The areaFigure
of the13.
envelope
Variation(E ) is width
ofAthe shownofin Figure (E
envelope 14.W) The peak to
according value of envelope
the damage depth.and the width
Figure 13. Variation of the width of envelope (EW ) according to the damage depth.
of the envelope were determined based on how the envelope increased with increasing damage
depth.TheTherefore,
area of the theenvelope (EAenvelope
area of the ) is shownalso
in Figure
increased14. with
The peak value damage
increasing of envelope andexhibiting
depth, the widtha
Figure 13. Variation of the width of envelope (EW) according to the damage depth.
Theof
area of the envelope
the increase
large envelope in were (EA )close
determined
magnitude is shown
tobased in
onFigure
howofthe
the product 14.envelope
the Theexponents.
two peak value of
increased envelope
with anddamage
increasing the width of
depth.were
the envelope Therefore,
The area of the envelope (EA) is shown in Figure 14. The peak value of envelope and the width a depth.
the
determined area of the
based envelope
on howalso
theincreased
envelope with increasing
increased damage
with depth,
increasing exhibiting
damage
large
of increase
Therefore, the area
the ofinthe
envelope magnitude
envelope
were close
determined to based
also the product
increased
on how of the envelope
with
the two exponents.
increasing damage
increased with depth,
increasingexhibiting
damage a large
increase in depth. Therefore,
magnitude the area
close of the
to the envelope
product ofalso
theincreased with increasing damage depth, exhibiting a
two exponents.
large increase in magnitude close to the product of the two exponents.
Figure 14. Variation of the area of envelope (EA) according to the damage depth.
Figure 14. Variation of the area of envelope (EA ) according to the damage depth.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 13 of 19
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 13 of 20
An analysis
An analysis of
of the
the changes
changes inin the
the damage
damage indexes
indexes according
according toto damage
damage depth
depth showed
showed that
that all
all
four indexes,
four indexes, i.e., the P-P value,
value, peak
peak value of the
the envelope,
envelope, width of the envelope, and area of the
envelope, increased
envelope, increasedwithwithincreasing
increasing damage
damage depth.
depth. Therefore,
Therefore, these
these indexes
indexes werewere used the
used with with the
ANN
ANN
to to estimate
estimate the damage
the damage depth.depth.
3.3.2.
3.3.2. Analysis and Quantification
Quantification of
of the
the Leakage
Leakage Flux
Flux Signal
Signal with
with Increasing
Increasing Damage
Damage Width
Width
Figure showsdata
Figure 15 shows datafor
forwire
wirerope
rope specimens
specimens with
with four
four different
different widths
widths overlaid
overlaid on of
on top top of
each
each specimen. These data were used to examine the characteristics of the MFL signal according
specimen. These data were used to examine the characteristics of the MFL signal according to damage to
damage
width. width.
(a) Wire rope #1 (Depth: 0.5 mm) (b) Wire rope #2 (Depth: 1 mm)
(c) Wire rope #3 (Depth: 1.5 mm) (d) Wire rope #4 (Depth: 2 mm)
Figure 15. Variation of the enveloped MFL signals according to the damage width.
Figure 15. Variation of the enveloped MFL signals according to the damage width.
In the case of wire rope #1, the peak was not clear because the damage depth was very small (0.5
In
mm), and thetherefore
case of wire rope #1,pattern
no intuitive the peak
forwas not clear
the height andbecause
width ofthe
thedamage
peak due depth
to thewas very width
damage small
(0.5 mm), and therefore no intuitive pattern for the height and width of the peak
was identified. However, for a damage depth of 1 mm, the width of the peak increased gradually due to the damage
width
from 1was mmidentified. However,
to 6 mm with for a damage
increasing damage depth
width.of 1 mm, thewhen
However, width ofdamage
the the peakwidth
increased
was gradually
extended
from 1 mm to 6 mm with increasing damage width. However, when the damage
from 6 mm to 9 mm, the peak was distorted and the height of the peak decreased. Additionally, thewidth was extended
from
width6 of mm thetopeak
9 mm,didthe
notpeak was distorted
significantly and either,
increase the height
and of the peak
unlike damagedecreased. Additionally,
depth, there was no
the width of
consistent the peak
pattern, thusdid not significantly
confirming that the increase either,vary
characteristics and slightly
unlike damage
dependingdepth, there
on the was
size no
of the
consistent
peak. pattern, thus confirming that the characteristics vary slightly depending on the size of
the peak.
The change in leakage flux signal with increases in the damage width was investigated by
The
quantifying change in leakage
the damage index flux signal with
determined increases
using variousin the damage of
characteristics width was investigated by
the peak.
quantifying the damage index determined using various characteristics of the peak.
First, the P-P width (P-PW), commonly known as a representative index that reflects the width
of theFirst, the P-P
damage, width
was (P-PWand
extracted ), commonly
is shown known
in Figureas 16.
a representative index that reflects the width of
the damage, was extracted and is shown in Figure 16.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 14 of 19
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 14 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 14 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 14 of 20
Figure 16. P-P width (P-PW) according to the damage width.

Figure 16. P-P width (P-PW ) according to the damage width.
Figure 16 shows that Figure 16. width
the P-P P-P width (P-PWdepth
at each ) according to the damage
experienced width.
a gradual increase with increasing
Figure
damage 16 shows that the P-P
width. However, widthseparation
complete at each depth does experienced
not occur because a gradual
the P-Pincrease witha increasing
width has value
Figure 16 shows that the P-P width at each depth experienced a gradual increase with increasing
damagesimilar
width. to However,
the P-P widths at damage
complete
Figure P-Pwidths
separation
16. andW)depths
does
width (P-P of (i)
not occur
according 1 mm
to because
the and
damagethe1width.
mm, and (ii)has
P-P width 3 mm and 0.5
a value similar
damage width. However, complete separation does not occur because the P-P width has a value
mm,widths
to the P-P respectively.
at Figure 17
damage showsand
widths the width
depths of the
of envelope
(i) 1 mm (E W) as a function of the damage width
and 1 mm, and (ii) 3 mm and 0.5 mm,
similar to the P-P widths at damage widths and depths of (i) 1 mm and 1 mm, and (ii) 3 mm and 0.5
variation.
Figure 16 shows that the P-P width at each depth experienced a gradual increase with increasing
respectively. Figure 17 shows
mm, respectively. the
Figure 17width
shows ofthethe envelope
width (EW ) as a(Efunction
of the envelope of the damage width variation.
W) as a function of the damage width
damage width. However, complete separation does not occur because the P-P width has a value
variation.
similar to the P-P widths at damage widths and depths of (i) 1 mm and 1 mm, and (ii) 3 mm and 0.5
mm, respectively. Figure 17 shows the width of the envelope (EW) as a function of the damage width
variation.
Figure 17. Width of the envelope (EW) according to damage width.
The index Figure Figure

decreased 17. Width ofof the envelope (EW) increasing
according tostepwise
damage width.
17. at a depth
Width of the 0.5 mm without
envelope (EW ) according to damageatwidth.a width of 6 mm. This
is because the peak size itself is too small, as can be seen by comparing with the peaks in Figure 15.
The index decreased at a depth of 0.5 mm without increasing stepwise at a width of 6 mm. This
In addition, the index decreased
Figure in the section
17. Width of the where the
envelope (EWdepth increased
) according from 6width.
tostepwise
damage mm to 9 mm at a damage
Theisindex
because decreased at a itself
the peak size depth is of
too0.5 mm
small, aswithout increasing
can be seen by comparing withatthe
a width
peaks of 6 mm.15.
in Figure This is
depth of 2 mm; this was concluded to be an error caused by peak distortion. In addition, the overall height
becauseofInthe peakdecreased
addition,
the The
size
the
peakindex
itself
index is too
decreased
and the
small, as can
in the section besmaller
where seen by comparing
the depth increased from with
6 mmthe to 9peaks
mm at aindamage
Figure 15.
decreased at threshold
a depth ofvalue
0.5 mm waswithout than the height
increasing of theatpeak.
stepwise a width of 6 mm. This
depth
In addition, of 2index
the mm; this was concluded
decreased in the to be an where
section error caused
the by peak
depth distortion.
increased In addition,
from 6 mm the
to 9 overall
mm atheight
To compensate
is because for the
the peak size effects
itself is tooofsmall,
size reduction, the FWHM
as can be seen extracted
by comparing withat the
the peaks
half height ofa the
in Figure damage
15.
depth ofof2themm;peakthis
decreased
was and the threshold
concluded to be value
an wascaused
error smaller than
by the height
peak of the peak.
distortion. In addition, the overall
peak was used
In addition, theinstead, as shown
index decreased inin
theFigure
section18.where the depth increased from 6 mm to 9 mm at a damage
To compensate for the effects of size reduction, the FWHM extracted at the half height of the
height ofdepth
the peak
of 2 mm;decreased and the threshold
this was concluded to be an errorvalue wasbysmaller
caused than theInheight
peak distortion. addition,of the
theoverall
peak.height
peak was used instead, as shown in Figure 18.
To of the peak decreased
compensate for theand the threshold
effects value was smaller
of size reduction, the FWHM than the height ofat
extracted thethe
peak.
half height of the peak
To compensate
was used instead, as shown forinthe effects18.
Figure of size reduction, the FWHM extracted at the half height of the
peak was used instead, as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18. FWHM according to the damage width.

Sensors 2018, 18, 109 15 of 19
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 15 of 20
Extracted FWHM values

Extracted FWHM values exhibited
exhibitedaapositive
positivecorrelation
correlation with
with increasing
increasing width,
width, similar
similar to P-P
to the the
P-P value. However, the values for the 1 mm width index and 3 mm width index were
value. However, the values for the 1 mm width index and 3 mm width index were still not completely still not
completely separated.
separated. However, However,
since since it was
it was confirmed thatconfirmed
changes in that changes
the index in the
follow indexpattern,
a certain follow this
a certain
index
pattern, this index can be effectively used when constructing the pattern
can be effectively used when constructing the pattern recognition algorithm. recognition algorithm.
3.4.
3.4. ANN
ANN Based
Based Wire
Wire Rope
Rope Damage
Damage Size
Size Estimation
Estimation
3.4.1. Procedure of ANN Based Damage Size Estimation
3.4.1. Procedure of ANN Based Damage Size Estimation
To estimate the depth and width of damage in the wire ropes, an ANN based pattern recognition
To estimate the depth and width of damage in the wire ropes, an ANN based pattern recognition
technique was applied in this study. Estimation of the damage size was performed using a two-step
technique was applied in this study. Estimation of the damage size was performed using a two-step
ANN pattern recognition process as shown in Figure 19. After estimating the depth of the damage
ANN pattern recognition process as shown in Figure 19. After estimating the depth of the damage
using the 1st ANN classifier, the width was estimated by re-reflecting the estimated depth value.
using the 1st ANN classifier, the width was estimated by re-reflecting the estimated depth value.
Among the various ANN algorithms, the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm was used to estimate the
Among the various ANN algorithms, the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm was used to estimate the
damage size in this study.
damage size in this study.
Figure 19. Two-step ANN pattern recognition process.

Figure 19. Two-step ANN pattern recognition process.
3.4.2. Depth Estimation of Wire Rope Damage Using the ANN
3.4.2. Depth Estimation of Wire Rope Damage Using the ANN
Various damage indexes were used for training the ANN classifier for damage depth estimation.
Based on thedamage
Various previousindexes
section,were used
it was for training
confirmed thatthe
theANN classifier
P-P value, peakforvalue
damage depth
of the estimation.
envelope, area
Based
of the envelope, and width of the envelope have positive relationships with increasing damage area
on the previous section, it was confirmed that the P-P value, peak value of the envelope, of
depth.
the envelope,
Therefore, theand
ANN width of thewas
classifier envelope
trainedhave
usingpositive
all fourrelationships withindexes.
kinds of damage increasing damage depth.
Therefore, the ANN classifier was trained using all four kinds of damage indexes.
The distribution of the learning data obtained by mapping it into three-dimensional space is
The distribution
displayed in Figure 20.ofInthe learning
reality, fourdata obtained
damage indexesby were
mapping
used,itbut
into three-dimensional
only space
three indexes were is
used
displayed in Figure
in the following 20. Indue
graphs reality, four damage
to dimensional indexes were
restrictions used, but only three indexes were used in
of visualization.
the following graphs due to dimensional restrictions of visualization.
As shown in Figure 20, each of the damage indexes reflected the change in depth, and even when
the damage indexes were mapped into three-dimensional space, they were clearly classified according
to the damage depth.
As mentioned above, the ANN classifier was trained using four kinds of damage indexes,
each extracted from 40 data points according to the damage depth.
To verify the performance of the ANN classifier, the damage indexes were extracted in the same
way using the 40 test data collected under the same conditions, which were then substituted into
the learned ANN classifier to estimate the depth of the damage. Figure 21 shows the results of the
estimated damage depth according to the ANN classifier.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 16 of 20
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 16 of 19
Figure 20. Three-dimensional distribution of the damage indexes for training the ANN for depth
estimation.
the damage indexes were mapped into three-dimensional space, they were clearly classified
according to the damage depth.
As mentioned above, the ANN classifier was trained using four kinds of damage indexes, each
extracted from 40 data points according to the damage depth.
way using the 40 test data collected under the same conditions, which were then substituted into the
Figure 20. Three-dimensional distribution of the damage indexes for training the ANN for depth
Figure
learned ANN Three-dimensional
20. classifier to estimatedistribution
the depth of of the
the damage
damage.indexes
Figurefor
21 training the results
shows the ANN for of the
estimation.
depth damage
estimated estimation.
depth according to the ANN classifier.
the damage indexes were mapped into three-dimensional space, they were clearly classified
according to the damage depth.
As mentioned above, the ANN classifier was trained using four kinds of damage indexes, each
extracted from 40 data points according to the damage depth.
way using the 40 test data collected under the same conditions, which were then substituted into the
learned ANN classifier to estimate the depth of the damage. Figure 21 shows the results of the
estimated damage depth according to the ANN classifier.
Figure 21. Estimated depth value using the ANN classifier.

Figure 21. Estimated depth value using the ANN classifier.
Estimation of the damage using the ANN is shown in Figure 21, which accurately estimates the
depthEstimation
of damageoffor
theeach
damage
of theusing
four the ANN
types, is with
each shown in Figure 21,
a difference which
of 0.5 mmaccurately estimates
at every step. the
The error
depth of damage for each of the four types, each with a difference of 0.5 mm at every step. The
between the 40th estimated times of each step was also close to zero. Therefore, this ANN based depth error
between the
estimation 40th estimated
algorithm times the
can estimate of each stepdepth
damage was also close
with hightoaccuracy
zero. Therefore, this ANN
for evaluating based depth
the condition of
estimation
the algorithm can estimate the damage depth with high accuracy for evaluating the condition
wire rope.
of the wire rope.
3.4.3. Width Estimation ofFigure

Wire21. Estimated
Rope Damagedepth valuethe
Using using
ANNthe ANN classifier.
Next, an algorithm
Estimation for estimating
of the damage using thethe width
ANN of the in
is shown damage
Figure via pattern
21, which recognition
accurately techniques
estimates the
using theofANN
depth damageas well as damage
for each depth
of the four estimation
types, each withwas investigated.
a difference The at
of 0.5 mm learning method
every step. for the
The error
between
ANN the 40th
is similar estimated
to the method times of each step
of damage wasestimation.
depth also close toPreviously,
zero. Therefore, this ANN
the depth andbased depth
width of the
estimation
damage algorithm
already can estimate
confirmed thedamage
that the damage depth
indexeswith
arehigh accuracy
sensitive tofor evaluating
each the condition
other. Thus, of
the damage
the wire
indexes rope.
used for depth estimation as well as other combinations of damage indexes were used for
ANN learning for width estimation.
The FWHM and P-P width showed clear increasing patterns as the damage width increased.
Therefore, this combination is a useful index for ANN classifier learning for the estimation of
damage width.
using the ANN as well as damage depth estimation was investigated. The learning method for the
ANN is similar to the method of damage depth estimation. Previously, the depth and width of the
damage already confirmed that the damage indexes are sensitive to each other. Thus, the damage
indexes used for depth estimation as well as other combinations of damage indexes were used for
ANN learning for width estimation.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 17 of 19
The FWHM and P-P width showed clear increasing patterns as the damage width increased.
Therefore, this combination is a useful index for ANN classifier learning for the estimation of damage
width.
In addition, for the MFL signal, it was already confirmed that the depth of damage can also
In addition, for the MFL signal, it was already confirmed that the depth of damage can also affect
affect the damage index in terms of the damage width. Therefore, the ‘estimated depth value’, which
the damage index in terms of the damage width. Therefore, the ‘estimated depth value’, which was
was previously constructed during the damage depth estimation step using the ANN, was used as
previously constructed during the damage depth estimation step using the ANN, was used as an
an auxiliary index for considering the damage depth. Therefore, P-P width, FWHM, and estimated
auxiliary index for considering the damage depth. Therefore, P-P width, FWHM, and estimated
depth
depthvalue
value were
wereused
used as theANN
as the ANNlearning
learning data
data for width
for width estimation.
estimation. These
These are are presented
presented in three- in
three-dimensional
dimensional space space in Figure
in Figure 22. 22.
Figure
Figure 22.22. Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional distribution
distributionof the
of damage indexes
the damage for training
indexes the ANNthe
for training for width
ANN for
estimation.
width estimation.
Figure 22 shows the distribution of the damage indexes for training the ANN for width
Figure 22 shows the distribution of the damage indexes for training the ANN for width estimation.
estimation. There is an ambiguous boundary between the widths of 1 mm and 3 mm, but it is
There is an ambiguous
generally boundary
clustered according to between
increasingthe widths
damage of 1 mm and 3 mm, but it is generally clustered
width.
according to increasing damage width.
As shown above, 40 sets of learning data were used for each damage width, and the ANN
As shown
classifier was above,
trained 40for sets
widthofestimation.
learning data were used for each damage width, and the ANN
classifierSubsequently,
was trained for widthtoestimation.
in order verify the performance of the ANN classifier with regard to width
estimation, 40 data
Subsequently, inper damage
order widththe
to verify were collected under
performance the same
of the ANNexperimental conditions
classifier with regardastothewidth
training data used to the classifier. The results of the damage width estimation by the
estimation, 40 data per damage width were collected under the same experimental conditions as theANN classifier
are shown
training in Figure
data used 23.classifier. The results of the damage width estimation by the ANN classifier
to the
are shown in Figure
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 23. 18 of 20
Figure 23. Estimated width value using the ANN classifier.

Figure 23. Estimated width value using the ANN classifier.
All 40 of the estimates for damage width closely matched the damage width of the actual wire
rope. There was an error of less than 0.1 between the measurement intervals, as can be confirmed by
Figure 23, and such a small estimation error is negligible. Therefore, we confirmed that highly
accurate damage width estimation was possible through an ANN based pattern recognition
algorithm.
Therefore, it is expected that effective quantitative wire rope inspection can be provided through
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 18 of 19
All 40 of the estimates for damage width closely matched the damage width of the actual wire
rope. There was an error of less than 0.1 between the measurement intervals, as can be confirmed by
Figure 23, and such a small estimation error is negligible. Therefore, we confirmed that highly accurate
damage width estimation was possible through an ANN based pattern recognition algorithm.
Therefore, it is expected that effective quantitative wire rope inspection can be provided through
application of the MFL based NDE technique and the ANN pattern recognition technique presented in
this research.
4. Conclusions
The MFL-based NDT technique was used to detect damage in steel wire ropes. An MFL sensor
head was fabricated and a series of experimental studies were performed to verify the feasibility
of the proposed technique. In addition, damage indexes were extracted to quantify the size of the
damage. An ANN-based pattern recognition method using the extracted damage indexes was used
to automatically estimate the amount of damage. This approach to wire rope NDE was confirmed
through the following observations:
(1) Magnetic flux leakage was detected at locations with actual damage by using a Hall sensor
located near the damage.
(2) The MFL signals at the damaged areas became more apparent via the enveloping process based
on the Hilbert transform.
(3) Envelopes of the MFL signal exceeded the thresholds based on the GEV distribution around areas
with actual damage.
(4) Damage indexes were extracted to quantify the MFL signals; these damage indexes can classify
the damage size according to increases in damage size.
(5) Four types of damage indexes based on the relationship between the envelope signal and the
threshold were proposed. These damage indexes can improve the accuracy of quantification of
the damage size.
(6) Two-step ANN based pattern recognition was applied to estimate the depth and width of the
damage. The ANN classifier was trained using multi-dimensional damage indexes extracted
from the MFL signals; the trained ANN classifier can successfully estimate the size of damage
with little error.
Overall, these results demonstrated that the proposed damage detection and quantification
method using MFL sensors and an ANN classifier is capable of diagnosing defects in steel wire ropes.
This approach will be complemented and validated by further research performed on various types of
damage and environments.
In addition, it is expected that the proposed wire rope NDE method can be utilized as an advanced
inspection tool for real-time in situ wire rope monitoring in combination with the Internet of Things
and robot technologies.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education [NRF-2017-R1A6A3A04011933] and
[NRF-2017R1A2B3007607], and the Disaster Safety Technology Development & Infrastructure Construction
Program funded by the Ministry of Public Safety and Security [MPSS-IS-2014-0115], and the Korea Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) as the ‘u-City Master and Doctor Course Grant Program’.
Author Contributions: Ju-Won Kim and Seunghee Park conceived and designed the experiments; Ju-Won Kim
performed the experiments; Ju-Won Kim and Seunghee Park analyzed the data; Seunghee Park contributed
reagents/materials/analysis tools; Ju-Won Kim wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sensors 2018, 18, 109 19 of 19
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Technology. J. KOSHAM 2014, 14, 275–282. [CrossRef]
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Characterization of Materials VIII; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 1998.
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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sensors

Received: 30 November 2017; Accepted: 27 December 2017; Published: 2 January 2018

Sensors 2018, 18, 109; doi:10.3390/s18010109 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

(a) Intact condition (b) Damaged condition

Figure 2. Schematic of the Hall effect [10].

(a) Raw MFL signal (b) Enveloped MFL signal

Figure 3. Effect of the enveloping process [9].

(a) P-P value (P-PV) (b) P-P width (P-PW)

Figure 4. Common damage index for an MFL signal [9].

2.5. ANN Based Pattern Recognition for Damage Quantification

3.1. Experimental Setup & Procedure

Sensors 2018, 18, 109 7 of 20

(b) Wire rope #2

(c) Wire rope #3

(d) Wire rope #4

Figure 6. Specification of the wire rope specimens.

Table 1. Specification of the damage for wire ropes #1 and #2.

No. Direction Table 1.Table

DamageDamage #4-2#4-2 #4-2

DamageDamage #4-1#4-1 #4-1

No. Direction Specification of the Damage

Wire #4 Damage #4-1 Damage

Figure 7. Experimental setup.

Figure 8. 8-channel MFL sensor head.

3.2. MFL Based Damage Detection Results

3.3. Quantitative MFL Signal Analysis Using Damage Indexes

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Figure 16. P-P width (P-PW) according to the damage width.

Figure 17. Width of the envelope (EW) according to damage width.

The index Figure Figure

Figure 18. FWHM according to the damage width.

Figure 18. FWHM according to the damage width.

Figure 18. FWHM according to the damage width.

Extracted FWHM values

Figure 19. Two-step ANN pattern recognition process.

Figure 21. Estimated depth value using the ANN classifier.

3.4.3. Width Estimation ofFigure

Figure 23. Estimated width value using the ANN classifier.

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