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The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at
12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip

Two ATmega microcontrollers

A microcontroller (MCU for microcontroller unit, or UC for �-controller) is a small
computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern terminology, it is similar to,
but less sophisticated than, a system on a chip (SoC); an SoC may include a
microcontroller as one of its components. A microcontroller contains one or more
CPUs (processor cores) along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals.
Program memory in the form of ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often
included on chip, as well as a small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed
for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal
computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete
chips.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls,
office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By
reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate
microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it
economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal
microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-
digital electronic systems. In the context of the internet of things,
microcontrollers are an economical and popular means of data collection, sensing
and actuating the physical world as edge devices.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4
kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit milliwatts or microwatts). They
generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such
as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock
and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited
for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve
performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal
processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

Contents
1 History
1.1 World's smallest computer
1.2 Volumes and cost
2 Embedded design
2.1 Interrupts
2.2 Programs
2.3 Other microcontroller features
3 Higher integration
4 Programming environments
5 Types
6 Interrupt latency
7 Memory technology
7.1 Data
7.2 Firmware
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History
The first microprocessor is usually claimed to be[1] the 4-bit Intel 4004 released
in 1972. It was followed by the 4-bit 4040, the 8-bit Intel 8008, and the 8-bit
Intel 8080. All of these processors required several external chips to implement a
working system, including memory and peripheral interface chips. As a result, the
total system cost was several hundred (1970s US) dollars, making it impossible to
economically computerize small appliances. MOS Technology introduced sub-$100
microprocessors, the 6501 and 6502, with the chief aim of addressing this economic
obstacle, but these microprocessors still required external support, memory, and
peripheral chips which kept the total system cost in the $100s of dollars.

One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the successful
creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS
1000, which became commercially available in 1974. It combined read-only memory,
read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded
systems.[2]

Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000,[3] Intel developed
a computer system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048,
with commercial parts first shipping in 1977.[3] It combined RAM and ROM on the
same chip with a microprocessor. Among numerous applications, this chip would
eventually find its way into over one billion PC keyboards. At that time Intel's
President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most
successful products in the company's history, and he expanded the microcontroller
division's budget by over 25%.

Most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants. One had EPROM program
memory, with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to
be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. These erasable chips were often used
for prototyping. The other variant was either a mask programmed ROM or a PROM
variant which was only programmable once. For the latter, sometimes the designation
OTP was used, standing for "one-time programmable". In an OTP microcontroller, the
PROM was usually of identical type as the EPROM, but the chip package had no quartz
window; because there was no way to expose the EPROM to ultraviolet light, it could
not be erased. Because the erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz
windows, they were significantly more expensive than the OTP versions, which could
be made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages. For the erasable variants, quartz
was required, instead of less expensive glass, for its transparency to ultraviolet
light�to which glass is largely opaque�but the main cost differentiator was the
ceramic package itself.

In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with

the Microchip PIC16C84)[4] to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive
package as required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and in-system
programming. (EEPROM technology had been available prior to this time,[5] but the
earlier EEPROM was more expensive and less durable, making it unsuitable for low-
cost mass-produced microcontrollers.) The same year, Atmel introduced the first
microcontroller using Flash memory, a special type of EEPROM.[6] Other companies
rapidly followed suit, with both memory types.

Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large
online communities around certain processors.

World's smallest computer

On 21 June 2018, the "world's smallest computer" was announced by the University of
Michigan. The device is a "0.04mm3 16nW wireless and batteryless sensor system with
integrated Cortex-M0+ processor and optical communication for cellular temperature
measurement." It "measures just 0.3 mm to a side�dwarfed by a grain of rice. [...]
In addition to the RAM and photovoltaics, the new computing devices have processors
and wireless transmitters and receivers. Because they are too small to have
conventional radio antennae, they receive and transmit data with visible light. A
base station provides light for power and programming, and it receives the
data."[7] The device is 1/10th the size of IBM's previously claimed world-record-
sized computer from months back in March 2018,[8] which is "smaller than a grain of
salt",[9] has a million transistors, costs less than $0.10 to manufacture, and,
combined with blockchain technology, is intended for logistics and �crypto-
anchors���digital fingerprints� applications.[10]

Volumes and cost

In 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers and
microprocessors.[11]

Over two billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 1997,[12] and according to
Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.[13] More
recently, Semico has claimed the MCU market grew 36.5% in 2010 and 12% in 2011.[14]

A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose

microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range
automobile has about 30 microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical
devices such as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.

Historically, the 8-bit segment has dominated the MCU market [..] 16-bit
microcontrollers became the largest volume MCU category in 2011, overtaking 8-bit
devices for the first time that year [..] IC Insights believes the makeup of the
MCU market will undergo substantial changes in the next five years with 32-bit
devices steadily grabbing a greater share of sales and unit volumes. By 2017, 32-
bit MCUs are expected to account for 55% of microcontroller sales [..] In terms of
unit volumes, 32-bit MCUs are expected account for 38% of microcontroller shipments
in 2017, while 16-bit devices will represent 34% of the total, and 4-/8-bit designs
are forecast to be 28% of units sold that year. The 32-bit MCU market is expected
to grow rapidly due to increasing demand for higher levels of precision in
embedded-processing systems and the growth in connectivity using the Internet. [..]
In the next few years, complex 32-bit MCUs are expected to account for over 25% of
the processing power in vehicles.

�?IC Insights, MCU Market on Migration Path to 32-bit and ARM-based Devices[15]
Cost to manufacture can be under $0.10 per unit.

Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being
available for under 0.03 USD in 2018,[16] and some 32-bit microcontrollers around
US$1 for similar quantities.

In 2012, following a global crisis�a worst ever annual sales decline and recovery
and average sales price year-over-year plunging 17%�the biggest reduction since the
1980s�the average price for a microcontroller was US$0.88 ($0.69 for 4-/8-bit,
$0.59 for 16-bit, $1.76 for 32-bit).[15]

In 2012, worldwide sales of 8-bit microcontrollers were around $4 billion, while 4-

bit microcontrollers also saw significant sales.[17]

In 2015, 8-bit microcontrollers could be bought for $0.311 (1,000 units),[18] 16-
bit for $0.385 (1,000 units),[19] and 32-bit for $0.378 (1,000 units, but at $0.35
for 5,000).[20]

In 2018, 8-bit microcontrollers can be bought for $0.03,[16] 16-bit for $0.393
(1,000 units, but at $0.563 for 100 or $0.349 for full reel of 2,000),[21] and 32-
bit for $0.503 (1,000 units, but at $0.466 for 5,000).[22] A lower-priced 32-bit
microcontroller, in units of one, can be had for $0.891.[23]

In 2018, the low-priced microcontrollers above from 2015 are all more expensive
(with inflation calculated between 2018 and 2015 prices for those specific units)
at: the 8-bit microcontroller can be bought for $0.319 (1,000 units) or 2.6%
higher,[18] the 16-bit one for $0.464 (1,000 units) or 21% higher,[19] and the 32-
bit one for $0.503 (1,000 units, but at $0.466 for 5,000) or 33% higher.[20]

A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package

Embedded design
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor,
memory and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[24] The majority of
microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles,
telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems.

While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements
for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software
complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids,
LED's, small or custom liquid-crystal displays, radio frequency devices, and
sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems
usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O
devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind.

Interrupts
Microcontrollers must provide real-time (predictable, though not necessarily fast)
response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the
current instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or
"interrupt handler") which will perform any processing required based on the source
of the interrupt, before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible
interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an
internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level
change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a
communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery devices,
interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low-power sleep state where the
processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event.

Programs
Typically micro-controller programs must fit in the available on-chip memory, since
it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers
and assemblers are used to convert both high-level and assembly language codes into
a compact machine code for storage in the micro-controller's memory. Depending on
the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be
programmed at the factory, or it may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only
memory.

Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro-controllers in

order to help the hardware and software development of the target system.
Originally these included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the
device through which program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for
reprogramming after a programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM
versions are rare and have been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to
use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture.

Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device
rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming rare due to the
widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers.

The use of field-programmable devices on a micro controller may allow field update
of the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been
assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time
required for deployment of a new product.

Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts

programmed at the time of manufacture can be economical. These "mask programmed"
parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the
same time.

A customized micro-controller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be

personalized for additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that
are adapted to the requirements of the application. One example is the AT91CAP from
Atmel.

Other microcontroller features

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose
input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or
an output state. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often
used to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins
can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors, often indirectly, through
external power electronics.

Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to
interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do
anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog
to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the
processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog
signals or voltage levels.

In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of

timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the programmable interval
timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the
capacity of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends
an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is
useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature
around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.

A dedicated pulse-width modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to
control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU
resources in tight timer loops.

A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to

receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU.
Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with
other devices (chips) in digital formats such as Inter-Integrated Circuit (I�C),
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), Universal Serial Bus (USB), and Ethernet.[25]

Higher integration

Die of a PIC12C508 8-bit, fully static, EEPROM/EPROM/ROM-based CMOS microcontroller

manufactured by Microchip Technology using a 1200 nanometre process

Die of a STM32F100C4T6B ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller with 16 kilobytes flash

memory, 24 MHz central processing unit (CPU), motor control and Consumer
Electronics Control (CEC) functions. Manufactured by STMicroelectronics.
Micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they
integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer
pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.
Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a
unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of
the embedded system as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated
peripherals is slightly more than the cost of a CPU and external peripherals,
having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and
reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board, in addition to
tending to decrease the defect rate for the finished assembly.

A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following

features:

central processing unit � ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex
32-bit or 64-bit processors
volatile memory (RAM) for data storage
ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter storage
discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of
an individual package pin
serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
other serial communications interfaces like I�C, Serial Peripheral Interface and
Controller Area Network for system interconnect
peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
clock generator � often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC
circuit
many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog
converters
in-circuit programming and in-circuit debugging support
This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring
and circuit board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using
separate chips. Furthermore, on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may
interface to several internal peripherals, with the pin function selected by
software. This allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications than if
pins had dedicated functions.

Micro-controllers have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their

introduction in the 1970s.

Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for

instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a
Harvard architecture is used, instruction words for the processor may be a
different bit size than the length of internal memory and registers; for example:
12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers.

The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The

microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design
flexibility against time-to-market requirements from their customers and overall
lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size
against additional functionality.

Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose

microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto
the package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-
controller instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit
manipulation (bit-wise operations) to make control programs more compact.[26] For
example, a general purpose processor might require several instructions to test a
bit in a register and branch if the bit is set, where a micro-controller could have
a single instruction to provide that commonly required function.

Microcontrollers traditionally do not have a math coprocessor, so floating point

arithmetic is performed by software. However, some recent designs do include an FPU
and DSP optimized features. An example would be Microchip's PIC32 MIPS based line.

Programming environments
Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various
high-level programming languages, such as C, Python and JavaScript, are now also in
common use to target microcontrollers and embedded systems.[27] Compilers for
general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as
enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some
microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications.
Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to
adopt their hardware.

Microcontrollers with specialty hardware may require their own non-standard

dialects of C, such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such
as code libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware
features. Interpreters may also contain nonstandard features, such as MicroPython,
although a fork, CircuitPython, has looked to move hardware dependencies to
libraries and have the language adhere to a more CPython standard.

Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example,

BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel 8052;[28] BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog
Z8[29] as well as some modern devices. Typically these interpreters support
interactive programming.

Simulators are available for some microcontrollers. These allow a developer to

analyze what the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if
they were using the actual part. A simulator will show the internal processor state
and also that of the outputs, as well as allowing input signals to be generated.
While on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being unable to simulate
much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions that may otherwise be
hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be the quickest
way to debug and analyze problems.

Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when
accessed by an in-circuit emulator (ICE) via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware
with a debugger. A real-time ICE may allow viewing and/or manipulating of internal
states while running. A tracing ICE can record executed program and MCU states
before/after a trigger point.