Work and Energy

What is work?

Work can be defined as transfer of energy. In physics we say that work is done on an object
when you transfer energy to that object. If one object transfers (gives) energy to a second object,
then the first object does work on the second object.

Work is the application of a force over a distance. Lifting a weight from the ground and
putting it on a shelf is a good example of work. The force is equal to the weight of the object, and
the distance is equal to the height of the shelf (W= Fxd).

What is Energy?

Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. The simplest case of mechanical
work is when an object is standing still and we force it to move. The energy of a moving object is
called kinetic energy. For an object of mass m, moving with velocity of magnitude v, this energy
can be calculated from the formula E= 1/2 mv^2.

Types of Energy

There are two types of energy in many forms:

Kinetic Energy = Energy of Motion

Potential Energy = Stored Energy

Forms of Energy

 Solar Radiation - Infrared Heat, Radio Waves, Gamma Rays, Microwaves, Ultraviolet
Light

 Atomic/Nuclear Energy - energy released in nuclear reactions. When a neutron splits an

atom's nucleus into smaller pieces it is called fission. When two nuclei are joined together
under millions of degrees of heat it is called fusion

 Electrical Energy - The generation or use of electric power over a period of time expressed
in kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (NM) or gigawatt-hours (GWh).
  Chemical Energy - Chemical energy is a form of potential energy related to the breaking
and forming of chemical bonds. It is stored in food, fuels and batteries, and is released as
other forms of energy during chemical reactions.

 Mechanical Energy - Energy of the moving parts of a machine. Also refers to movements
in humans

 Heat Energy - a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature

How are work, energy and power related?

Work and energy are measured in same units but there is an intuitive difference. Work is
calculated by F * S * cos (F, S) and shows how much work is done by F force to make some object,
on which this force was applied, displace in the surface.

Energy and work is measured in Joules. While work is the result of doing something,
energy is like objects feature. For example, the simplest energy types are kinetic (1/2*m*v^2) and
potential (m*g*h). Energy doesn't show you how much work you have done, but shows you how
much energy you have to do the same amount of work (training storm energy from one type to
another). Like when object is falling you have decrease in potential energy to to height gets smaller
and increase in kinetic energy (basic idea of energy conversion).

On the other hand, power tells someone what capacity of work can be done/energy can be
transformed during unit time (like 1 second, or hour). P = W / t, and its unit is watt. Generally, it
tells you how powerful thing is, if it's power is more than others it means that this thing can do
same amount of work faster than other.
Heat and Temperature

Heat, is thermal energy transferred from a hotter system to a cooler system that are in
contact. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in the
system.

What happens to solids, liquids or gases when they absorb or release heat?

Solids to Liquids

The change from the solid state to the liquid

state is called melting. The temperature at which a
substance changes from a solid to a liquid is called
the melting point. The melting point of water is 0°C.
Amorphous solids, such as rubber and glass, don’t
melt in the same way as crystalline solids.

Liquids to Solid

The change from the liquid state to the solid state is called freezing. As the liquid cools, it
loses thermal energy. As a result, its particles slow down and come closer together. Attractive
forces begin to trap particles, and the crystals of a solid begin to form. The temperature at which a
substance changes from the liquid state to the solid state is called the freezing point. The freezing
point of the liquid state of a substance is the same temperature as the melting point of the solid
state. For example, solid water melts at 0°C and liquid water freezes at 0°C. During freezing, the
temperature of a substance remains constant while
the particles in the liquid form a crystalline solid.
Because particles in a liquid have more energy
than particles in a solid, energy is released during
freezing. This energy is released into the
surroundings. After all of the liquid has become a
solid, the temperature begins to decrease again.
 Liquids to Gas

Within a liquid some particles have more

energy than other. These "more energetic
particles" may have sufficient energy to escape
from the surface of the liquid as gas or vapour.
This process is called evaporation and the result of
evaporation is commonly observed when puddles
or clothes dry. Evaporation takes place at room temperature which is often well below the boiling
point of the liquid. Evaporation happens from the surface of the liquid. As the temperature
increases the rate of evaporation increases. Evaporation is also assisted by windy conditions which
help to remove the vapour particles from the liquid so that more escape. Evaporation is a complex
idea for children for a number of reasons. The process involves the apparent disappearance of a
liquid which makes the process difficult for them to understand. It is not easy to see the water
particles in the air. Also, evaporation occurs in a number of quite differing situations - such as
from a puddle or bowl of water where the amount of liquid obviously changes, to situations where
the liquid is less obvious - such as clothes drying or even those where there is no obvious liquid at
all to start with - such as bread drying out. A further complication is that evaporation may be of a
solvent from a solution e.g. water evaporating from salt water to leave salt. These situations are
quite different yet all involve evaporation.

Does heat affect all kinds of materials in the same way?

Heat effects all the different kinds of matter except for plasma, because it is the highest amount of
energy.

Heat turns:

 Solid to Liquid (Melting Point)  Cold does the opposite

 Liquid to Gas (Boiling Point)  Liquid to Solid (Ice

Are heat and temperature one and the same?

Heat and temperature are two different but closely related concepts. Note that they have
different units: temperature typically has units of degrees Celsius (^\circ\text C∘C degree, C) or
Kelvin (\text KKK), and heat has units of energy, Joules (\text JJJ). Temperature is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in the system. The water molecules in a cup
of hot coffee have a higher average kinetic energy than the water molecules in a cup of iced tea,
which also means they are moving at a higher velocity. Temperature is also an intensive property,
which means that the temperature doesn't change no matter how much of a substance you have (as
long as it is all at the same temperature!). This is why chemists can use the melting point to help
identify a pure substance – minus the temperature at which it melts is a property of the substance
with no dependence on the mass of a sample.

On an atomic level, the molecules in each object are constantly in motion and colliding
with each other. Every time molecules collide, kinetic energy can be transferred. When the two
systems are in contact, heat will be transferred through molecular collisions from the hotter system
to the cooler system. The thermal energy will flow in that direction until the two objects are at the
same temperature. When the two systems in contact are at the same temperature, we say they are
in thermal equilibrium.

It is heat that will increase or decrease the temperature. If we add heat, the temperature will
become higher. If we remove heat the temperature will become lower. Higher temperatures mean
that the molecules are moving, vibrating and rotating with more energy.

If we take two objects which have the same temperature and bring them into contact, there
will be no overall transfer of energy between them because the average energies of the particles in
each object are the same. But if the temperature of one object is higher than that of the other object,
there will be a transfer of energy from the hotter to the colder object until both objects reach the
same temperature. Temperature is not energy, but a measure of it. Heat is energy.
Electricity

Electricity is all around us, powering technology like our cell phones, computers, lights,
soldering irons, and air conditioners. It's tough to escape it in our modern world. Even when you
try to escape electricity, it's still at work throughout nature, from the lightning in a thunderstorm
to the synapses inside our body. But what exactly is electricity? This is a very complicated
question, and as you dig deeper and ask more questions, there really is not a definitive answer,
only abstract representations of how electricity interacts with our surroundings.

How do voltage and resistance affect electric current?

The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is described by Ohm's law. This
equation, i = v/r, tells us that the current, i, flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the
voltage, v, and inversely proportional to the resistance, r. In other words, if we increase the voltage,
then the current will increase. But, if we increase the resistance, then the current will decrease. We
saw these concepts in action with the garden hose. Increasing the pressure caused the flow to
increase, but getting a kink in the hose increased the resistance, which caused the flow to decrease.

What are the safety precautions needed in using electricity?

To play it safe around your home, just remember the rules for using electricity the right way.

1. DON'T plug a bunch of stuff into one outlet or extension cord.

It could damage the electrical system in your house or even cause a fire.

2. DO ask grown-ups to put safety caps on all unused electrical outlets.

Covering outlets will also help save energy by stopping cold drafts.
3. DON’T yank an electrical cord from the wall.

Pulling on a cord can damage the appliance, the plug or the outlet.

4. DO make sure all electric cords are tucked away, neat and tidy.

Pets might chew on electrical cords, and people might trip and fall.

5. DO ask a grown-up for help when you need to use something that uses
electricity.

6. DO look up and look out for power lines before you climb a tree.

The electricity can go right through the tree branch - and right through you!

7. DON'T ever climb the fence around an electrical substation.

If a ball or pet gets inside the fence, ask a grown-up to call the electric
company - they'll come and get it out for you.
8. DO remind your mom or dad to watch out for power lines when they're
using a ladder, chainsaw or other outdoor equipment.

9. DO keep electrical stuff far away from water.

Most electrical accidents around the house happen when people use electricity
near water.

10. DON’T fly a kite near power lines.

The kite and the string may conduct electricity – sending it right through you
to the ground.
Sounds

Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure which propagates through compressible media

such as air or water. (Sound can propagate through solids as well, but there are additional modes
of propagation). During their propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the
medium. The purpose of this experiment is to examine what effect the characteristics of the
medium have on sound.

Propagation and Characteristics of Sound

Sound is pictorially represented by a continuous succession of peaks and valleys. The

distance between two consecutive peak or trough is termed as the wavelength of the wave or the
period. The number of cycles per unit time is termed as the frequency of that sound. Frequency is
measured in cycles per second, or Hertz. The faster an object vibrates, i.e. the higher the frequency,
then the higher the pitch of the sound. The difference between a man’s voice and woman’s must
be clearly evident to you. The voice of a man
has a lower frequency which contributes to the
deepness or the bass in the voice. Women, in
contrast, have a voice with higher frequency
resulting in a higher shrillness or pitch.

Sound waves rely on the medium for

propagation. The propagation of sound wave is
not possible through vacuum. The medium here
can be gas, liquid or solid. The speed of sound
when it is travelling through a medium depends
on the type of medium. The speed of sound
when travelling through air is 343 m/s or 1,235
km/h.
 Sound propagates through air as a longitudinal wave. The speed of sound is determined
by the properties of the air, and not by the frequency or amplitude of the sound. Sound waves, as
well as most other types of waves, can be described in terms of the following basic wave
phenomena.

Properties of Sounds

Amplitude

Amplitude is the degree of change in compression or rarefaction of air molecules caused by sound
waves moving through air. The amplitude of a wave shows how much energy it is carrying, and
determines the sound’s perceived volume.
Amplitude is measured in decibels, which is a
relative measure as there is no definite set point
where zero is. Amplitude and loudness are
different things. Amplitude is measured by a
computer, and loudness is the human perception
of that, related to duration and frequency.
 Frequency

Frequency is the speed of the sound vibration and determines the pitch of the sound. Frequency
can be measured by computers, while pitch is something that human ears perceive. A low
frequency sound wave has rare pulses, while a high frequency one contains many rapid pulses.
Doubling the frequency raises the pitch one octave. Frequency is measured as the number of wave
cycles that occur in one second. The unit
of frequency measurement is Hertz (Hz).
A frequency of 1 Hz means one wave
cycle/one vibration per second. A
frequency of 10 Hz means ten wave cycles
per second, where the cycles are much
shorter and closer together.

Timbre

Timbre is the collection of sounds in multiple frequencies, the relative levels of the partials in a
sound. Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, and helps
distinguishing between different types of sound production.

Some objects or musical instruments, like the flute, tend to vibrate at a single frequency and they
produce a pure tone called a sine wave. But the human voice and most instruments vibrate and
produce more complex waves that can be expressed as a sum of more sine waves.

The lowest frequency in a complex wave is called the fundamental frequency. It determines the
pitch of the sound. Higher frequencies in the complex wave are called overtones or upper partials.
If the overtones are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency, they are called harmonics.
For example, if the fundamental frequency is 200 Hz, the second harmonic is 400 Hz (2 x 200);
the third harmonic is 600 Hz (3 x 200), and so on. We say sounds with stronger upper partials
sound “brighter,” and those with weaker higher partials sound “duller.”
Colors of Light

Light is a kind of energy called electromagnetic radiation? There are many different forms of
electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays. Each
form is characterized by a different wavelength. For example, radio waves can be several miles
long, while gamma rays are smaller than atoms. The light that we see — visible light — falls
somewhere in the middle of this "electromagnetic spectrum."

How are refraction and dispersion demonstrated in light?

Using a glass of water, you can demonstrate both principles.

1. Place a spoon halfway submerged in the water. Note that when you look through the side surface
of the water, the spoon appears to be bent, or disjointed, at the surface of the water. This is due to
refraction of the light passing through the water to your eye.

2. Place the glass of water several inches in front of a white background. place a bright a light
source in front of the glass/background. Note that the area behind the glass is not as brightly lit as
the rest of the background. This is because the light passing the water is dispersed and fewer
Photons/Area are hitting the background. That is to say, there is less light density behind the glass
where the light was dispersed. Note that the opposite effect (brighter behind the glass) can occur,
if the glass of water acts as a "Focusing lens" due to its shape!

Among the different colors of light, which is bent the most and the last?

Refraction is the bending of a light ray

as it passes at an angle from one
transparent medium to another. As a
beam of light enters glass at an angle, it
is refracted or bent. The part of the light
beam that strikes the glass is slowed
down, causing the entire beam to bend.
The more sharply the beam bends, the
more it is slowed down. Each color has a different wavelength, and it bends differently from all
other colors. Short wavelengths are slowed more sharply upon entering glass from air than are
long wavelengths. Red light has the longest wavelength and is bent the least. Violet light has the
shortest wavelength and is bent the most. Thus violet light travels more slowly through glass than
does any other color.

Why do we see spectacular events in the sky like rainbows, red sunset and blue sky?

Far off in our sun, where nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium generates temperatures of around
5,500 °C on its surface, radiation is emitted over a wide range of wavelengths, from gamma rays
to x-rays to radio waves. It takes sunlight around 8.5 minutes to cover the 150-million kilometre
journey to Earth, travelling at 300,000 km per second. Around 50% of this radiation reaching
the Earth’s atmosphere is infra-red (longwave), around 40% is visible (white light) and around
10% ultra-violet (shortwave). Much of the ultra-violet is absorbed by the ozone layer but enough
still makes it to the surface, where it is absorbed and re-emitted as longwave radiation, warming
the air above the surface. Of course it also affects humans, causing skin-ageing, sunburn, cataracts,
etc.

Taking the visible portion of sunlight, this

has a range of wavelengths of around 380-
720 nanometres (a nanometre is one-
millionth of a millimetre), and appears
white to our eyes. The violets, indigos and
blues are at the short-wavelength end
whereas the yellows, oranges and reds are
at the long-wavelength end.

Our eyes are most sensitive to the blue, green and red wavelengths. As sunlight passes through
the atmosphere the tiny air molecules (mostly nitrogen and oxygen) scatter the blue wavelengths
through what is known as Rayleigh Scattering. Because this scattering is inversely proportional to
the 4th root of the wavelength (if you halve the wavelength the scattering is 24=16 times stronger),
blue is scattered much more than the red (by about a factor of 10). We therefore see this blue light
and is this is the reason why the sky is “blue”.

So why does it appear orange or red at

dawn and sunset? If you think of it, the
sunlight is now passing through a lot
more atmosphere along its shallow path
to your eyes than if it were higher in the
sky. By the time it reaches you most of
blue has already been scattered out of it
whereas the longer wavelengths have
not. We therefore see these longer
wavelengths as red, orange and yellow.

Of course definition of the word “sky” depends on what you mean. If you’re in space then the sky
is black as there is no atmosphere to scatter light and no particles to reflect any. And back on Earth,
you may notice that the sky looks increasingly paler blue or even white the lower down towards
the horizon you look. This is due to Mie Scattering, which is like Rayleigh Scattering but is caused
by much larger particles (dust, haze, etc.) in the atmosphere. It is not so wavelength-dependent,
therefore all the wavelengths are scattered fairly equally, giving a white appearance. This white
effect is most noticeable if you look towards the sun, as Mie scattering is greatest in the forward
direction.
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