GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Lecture 3 – Stoichiometry and Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions
Atomic mass

By international agreement, atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is the

mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a
mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Carbon-12 is the
carbon isotope that has six protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic mass of
carbon-12 at 12 amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the
other elements.
Average Atomic Mass
Avogadro’s Number and the Molar
Mass of an Element
In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g
(or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope. The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12
is determined experimentally. This number is called Avogadro’s number (NA). The currently
accepted value is:

Molar mass (M), is defined as the mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as
atoms or molecules) of a substance.
One mole each of several common elements. Carbon (black charcoal powder), sulfur (yellow
powder), iron (as nails), copper (wires), and mercury (shiny liquid metal).
Example 1

Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in amking brass (with copper) and in plating
iron to prevent corrosion. How many moles of Zn are there in 23.3 g of Zn?
Example 1
Example 2

Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned, sulfur
is converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid
rain phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?
Example 2
Example 3

Silver (Ag) is a precious metal used mainly in jewelry. What is the mass (in grams) of
one Ag atom?
Example 3
Molecular Mass

If we know the atomic masses of the component atoms, we can calculate the mass of
a molecule. The molecular mass (sometimes called molecular weight) is the sum of the
atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule. For example, the molecular mass of H2O is:
2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O
or 2(1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu
In general, we need to multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of
atoms of that element present in the molecule and sum over all the elements.
Example 4

Calculate the molecular masses (in amu) of the following compounds: a) sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and b) caffeine (C8H10N4O2).
Example 4
Molar Mass

From the molecular mass we can determine the molar mass of a molecule or
compound. The molar mass of a compound (in grams) is numerically equal to its
molecular mass (in amu). For example, the molecular mass of water is 18.02 amu, so
its molar mass is 18.02 g. Note that 1 mole of water weighs 18.02 g and contains
6.022 × 1023 H2O molecules, just as 1 mole of elemental carbon contains 6.022 ×
1023 carbon atoms.
Percent Composition of Compounds

The percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.

Percent composition is obtained by dividing the mass of each element in 1 mole of the
compound by the molar mass of the compound and multiplying by 100 percent.
Mathematically, the percent composition of an element in a compound is expressed as:
Example 5

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) as a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents, fertilizers,

toothpastes, and in carbonated beverages for a „tangy” flavor. Calculate the percent
composition by mass of H, P and O in this compound.
Example 5
Reaction types

■ Synthesis,
■ Decomposition,
■ Single replacement,
■ Double replacement.
Synthesis reaction

In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more

complex substance. These reactions are in the general form:
A + B ⟶ AB
Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis
reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to
form iron(II) sulfide:
8 Fe + S8 ⟶ 8 FeS
Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce
a more complex substance, such as water.
Decomposition reaction

A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its
more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written
as:
AB ⟶ A + B
One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen
and hydrogen gas:
2H2O ⟶ 2H2 + O2
Single replacement

In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a

compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a
compound. These reactions come in the general form of:
A + BC ⟶ AC + B
One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen
in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
Mg + 2H2O ⟶ Mg(OH)2 + H2
Double replacement

In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places
and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:
AB + CD ⟶ AD + CB
For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) react, the
SO42− anion switches places with the 2Cl− anion, giving the compounds BaSO4 and MgCl2.

Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with
potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI ⟶ PbI2↓ + 2KNO3
Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formulas on the left side
and right side of the equation, respectively.
2. Begin balancing the equation by trying different coefficients to make the number of
atoms of each element the same on both sides of the equation. We can change the
coefficients (the numbers preceding the formulas) but not the subscripts (the
numbers within formulas). Changing the subscripts would change the identity of
the substance. For example, 2NO2 means “two molecules of nitrogen dioxide,” but
if we double the subscripts, we have N2O4, which is the formula of dinitrogen
tetroxide, a completely different compound.
Balancing Chemical Equations

3. First, look for elements that appear only once on each side of the equation with the
same number of atoms on each side: The formulas containing these elements must
have the same coefficient. Therefore, there is no need to adjust the coefficients of these
elements at this point. Next, look for elements that appear only once on each side of
the equation but in unequal numbers of atoms. Balance these elements. Finally,
balance elements that appear in two or more formulas on the same side of the
equation.
4. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have the same total number of
each type of atoms on both sides of the equation arrow.
Amounts of Reactants and Products

A basic question raised in the chemical laboratory is “How much product will be
formed from specific amounts of starting materials (reactants)?” Or in some cases, we
might ask the reverse question: “How much starting material must be used to obtain a
specific amount of product?” To interpret a reaction quantitatively, we need to apply
our knowledge of molar masses and the mole concept. Stoichiometry is the
quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Whether the units given for reactants (or products) are moles, grams, liters (for gases),
or some other units, we use moles to calculate the amount of product formed in a
reaction. This approach is called the mole method, which means simply that the
stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of
moles of each substance.
Example 6
Example 6
Review question

1. What’s an atomic mass?

2. What is the mass (in amu) of a carbon-12 atom?
3. Define the term “mole.” What is the unit for mole in calculations? What does the
mole have in common with the pair, the dozen, and the gross? What does
Avogadro’s number represent?
4. What is the molar mass of an atom? What are the commonly used units for molar
mass?
5. Reaction types, examples of synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and
double replacement reactions.
 REACTIONS IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substance

present in a smaller amount is called the solute, whereas the substance present in a
larger amount is called the solvent. A solution may be gaseous (such as air), solid
(such as an alloy), or liquid (seawater, for example). In this section we will discuss only
aqueous solutions, in which the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the solvent is
water.
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes
All solutes that dissolve in water fit into one of two categories: electrolytes and
nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a
solution that can conduct electricity. A nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity when
dissolved in water.
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes

A characteristic of strong electrolytes is that the solute is assumed to be 100 percent

dissociated into ions in solution. (By dissociation we mean the breaking up of the
compound into cations and anions.) Thus, we can represent sodium chloride dissolving
in water as
𝐻2 𝑂
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑠 𝑁𝑎+ 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
What this equation says is that all the sodium chloride that enters the aqueous
solution ends up as Na+ and Cl- ions; there are no undissociated NaCl units in
solution.
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes

Table lists examples of strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. Ionic
compounds, such as sodium chloride, potassium iodide (KI), and calcium nitrate
[Ca(NO3)2], are strong electrolytes. It is interesting to note that human body fluids
contain many strong and weak electrolytes.
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes

The process in which an ion is surrounded by water molecules arranged in a specific

manner is called hydration. Hydration helps to stabilize ions in solution and prevents
cations from combining with anions. Acids and bases are also electrolytes. Some acids,
including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3), are strong electrolytes. These
acids ionize completely in water; for example, when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in
water, it forms hydrated H+ and Cl- ions:
𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑔 𝐻+ 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
Thus, when we write HCl(aq), it is understood that it is a solution of only H+(aq) and
Cl-(aq) ions and there are no hydrated HCl molecules present. On the other hand,
certain acids, such as acetic acid (CH3COOH), which is found in vinegar, ionize to a
much lesser extent.
Electrolytes versus Nonelectrolytes

We represent the ionization of acetic acid as:

𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞)

in which CH3COO- is called the acetate ion. By writing the formula of acetic acid as
CH3COOH we indicate that the ionizable proton is in the COOH group. The double
arrow in an equation means that the reaction is reversible; that is, the reaction can
occur in both directions.
Precipitation Reactions
One common type of reaction that occurs in aqueous solution is the precipitation
reaction, which results in the formation of an insoluble product, or precipitate. A
precipitate is an insoluble solid that separates from the solution. Precipitation reactions
usually involve ionic compounds. For example, when an aqueous solution of lead(II)
nitrate [Pb(NO3)2] is added to an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (KI), a yellow
precipitate of lead iodide (PbI2) is formed:
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 𝑎𝑞 + 2𝐾𝐼 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2 𝑠 + 2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Precipitation Reactions movie

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73dw6w0zNXA
Solubility

How can we predict whether a precipitate will form when a compound is added to a
solution or when two solutions are mixed? It depends on the solubility of the solute,
which is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
quantity of solvent at a specific temperature. Chemists refer to substances as soluble,
slightly soluble, or insoluble in a qualitative sense. A substance is said to be soluble if
a fair amount of it visibly dissolves when added to water. If not, the substance is
described as slightly soluble or insoluble. All ionic compounds are strong electrolytes,
but they are not equally soluble.
Solubility rules for common ionic
compounds in water at 250C
 Acid-Base Reactions
Acids:
• Acids have a sour taste; for example, vinegar owes its sourness to acetic acid, and lemons and
other citrus fruits contain citric acid.
• Acids cause color changes in plant dyes; for example, they change the color of litmus from blue to
red.
• Acids react with certain metals, such as zinc, magnesium, and iron, to produce hydrogen gas. A
typical reaction is that between hydrochloric acid and magnesium:
2𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑀𝑔 𝑠 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
• Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates, such as Na2CO3, CaCO3, and NaHCO3, to produce
carbon dioxide gas:
2𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝑠 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑠 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
• Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity.
Acid-Base Reactions

Bases
• Bases have a bitter taste.
• Bases feel slippery; for example, soaps, which contain bases, exhibit this property.
• Bases cause color changes in plant dyes; for example, they change the color of
litmus from red to blue.
• Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.
Acid-Base Neutralization

A neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base. Generally, aqueous

acid-base reactions produce water and a salt, which is an ionic compound made up of
a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH- or O2-:
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
For example, when a HCl solution is mixed with a NaOH solution, the following
reaction occurs:
𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
However, because both the acid and the base are strong electrolytes, they are
completely ionized in solution. The ionic equation is:
𝐻+ 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶𝑙 − 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑁𝑎+ 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑂𝐻− 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑁𝑎+ 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶𝑙 − 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Therefore, the reaction can be represented by the net ionic equation:
𝐻 + 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑂𝐻− 𝑎𝑞 → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVOZe3fnoX0
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Whereas acid-base reactions can be characterized as proton-transfer processes, the
class of reactions called oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions are considered
electrontransfer reactions. Oxidation-reduction reactions are very much a part of the
world around us. They range from the burning of fossil fuels to the action of household
bleach. Additionally, most metallic and nonmetallic elements are obtained from their
ores by the process of oxidation or reduction.
2𝑀𝑔 𝑠 + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠)
Magnesium oxide (MgO) is an ionic compound made up of Mg2+ and O2- ions. In this
reaction, two Mg atoms give up or transfer four electrons to two O atoms (in O2). For
convenience, we can think of this process as two separate steps, one involving the loss
of four electrons by the two Mg atoms and the other being the gain of four electrons by
an O2 molecule:
2𝑀𝑔 → 2𝑀𝑔+ + 4𝑒 −
𝑂2 + 4𝑒 − → 2𝑂2−
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnbuTl2ariI
Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of
solution. Molarity (M), or molar concentration is the number of moles of solute per liter
of solution. Molarity is defined as:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ; 𝑀=
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉
Example 7

How many grams of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are required to prepare 250-mL
solution whose concentration is 2.16M?
Example 7
Example 8

In a biochemical essay, a chemist needs to add 3.81 g of glucose to a reaction

mixture. Calculate the volume in milliliters of a 2.53 M glucose solution she should
use for the addition.
Example 8
Dilution of Solutions

Concentrated solutions are often stored in the laboratory stockroom for use as needed.
Frequently we dilute these “stock” solutions before working with them. Dilution is the
procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.
Dilution of Solutions
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
× 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
M V

𝑀𝑉 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Example 9

How you would prepare 5.00 × 102 mL of a 1.75 M H2SO4 solution, starting with an
8.61 M stock solution of H2SO4.
Example 9
Review questions

1. Define solute, solvent, and solution by describing the process of dissolving a solid in
a liquid.
2. What is the difference between a nonelectrolyte and an electrolyte? Between a weak
electrolyte and a strong electrolyte?
3. Describe hydration. What properties of water enable its molecules to interact with
ions in solution?
4. List the general properties of acids and bases.
5. Write the equation for calculating molarity.