UNIVERSITY OF SINDH

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

Topic: Conceptualizing Leadership

Course Facilitator: Dr. Abida Sidiqui

Submitted: Mr. Karam Ali Kashif Ali

Roll No: 1239

 INTRODUCTION OF THE PRESENTER:

Name: Karam Ali Kashif Ali

S/o Khan Muhammad (late)

Roll Number: 1239

Designation: lecturer (Education) Education And Literacy Department, Government Of

Sindh.

Current Posting Place: Government Boys Degree College Sakrand

Address: Village & Post Office Ilyas Abrejo Taulka Saeedabad District Matiari

Email addresses:

abrejokashif@gmail.com

kashif.abrejo@hotmail.com

kashif_abrejo@yahoo.com
 CONCEPTUALIZING LEADERSHIP
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:
Conceptualize: (V) Concept (N)
According to Oxford Learner’s Dictionary: Conceptualize something (as
something) (formal) to form an idea of something in your mind.
According to C.V. Good: Concept is an idea or representation of the common elements or
attributes by witch groups or classes may be distinguished. Any general or abstract intellectual
representation of a situation, state of affairs or objects is called concept.
Conception is the formulation of a general idea representing common elements or attributes of a
group or class.
Leadership:
LEADERSHIP:

According to Oxford Learner’s Dictionary:

1. [uncountable] the state or position of being a leader

2. [uncountable] the ability to be a leader or the qualities a good leader should have
3. [countable + singular or plural verb] a group of leaders of a particular organization, etc.

According to Merriam Webster Dictionary:

: a position as a leader of a group, organization, etc.

: the time when a person holds the position of leader

: the power or ability to lead other people

According to C.V. Good:

(1) The ability and readiness to inspire, guide, direct, or manage others. (2) the role of
interpreter of the interest and objectives of a group. The group recognizing and accepting the
interpreter as a spokesman.

THEORY:
English word theory is taken from Latin theoria, from Greek theōria, from theōrein
First Known Use: 1592.
According to Oxford Learner Dictionary:
[countable, uncountable] a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something happens
or exists
[countable] theory (that…) an opinion or idea that somebody believes is true but that is not
proved I have this theory that most people prefer being at work to being at home.

Conceptual meaning: According to American dictionary of education: theory is the set of

assumptions or generalizations, supported by related philosophical assumptions and scientific
principles and serving as basis for projecting hypothesis which suggests a course of action. The
hypotheses are then subjected to scientific investigation, the findings of which are evaluated in
order to validate new symbolic construction.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT:

Leadership as a concept and a set of practices has been the subject of an enormous quantity of
popular and academic literature. Arguably, a great deal has been learned about leadership over
past century. Yukl argues that, ‘it is neither feasible nor desirable at this point in the development
of the discipline to attempt to resolve the controversies over the appropriate definition of the
leadership. Like all constructs in social sciences, the definition of leadership is arbitrary and very
subjective. Some definitions are more useful than others, but there is no correct definition (yukl
1994). This observation has been echoed by other respected students of leadership (such as
Bennis 1959). But others disagree. Clark and Clark, for example, argue that, ‘you cannot talk
about leaders with anyone until you agree on what you are talking about. That requires a
definition of leadership and a criterion for leadership acts that can be agreed on’ Clark and Clark
1990).In the same vein, Rost begins his analysis of leadership and leadership literature in non-
school organizations by arguing that lack of attention to definition has been one of the main
impediments to progress in the filed. Indeed, he notes that over 60% of the authors who have
written on leadership since about 1910 did not define leadership in their works (Rost 1991).
Yukl pointed to lack of consensus about the precise meaning of leadership, he did discern a core
of agreement across definitions very similar to Bass (1981) detected a decade earlier. Most
definitions of the leadership Yukl claimed , ‘ reflect the assumption that it involves a social
influence process whereby intentional influence is exerted by one person (one group) over other
people or group to structure the activities and relationships in a group or organization
(1994).Influence, then seems to be a necessary part of the most of conceptions of leadership.
This suggest that most of the variation in leadership concepts, types or models can be accounted
for by differences in who exerts influence, the nature of that influence, the purpose for the
exercise of influence and its outcomes.

Leadership: we are coming to believe that leaders are those people who ‘walk ahead’, people
who are genuinely committed to deep change in themselves and in their organizations. They lead
through developing new skills, capabilities and understandings. And they come from many
places within the organization. (Senge 1996)

THEORIES OF THE LEADERSHIP IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Great Man Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate
Theories qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since
until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a
concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the
next school of Trait Theory
Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in
1930's - 1940's) abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the
adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous
human attribute, from ambition to zest for life
Behaviourist These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their
Theories qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and categorised as
(1940's - 1950's) 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from
practising managers
Situational This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is
Leadership being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an
autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also
proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at
different levels in the same organisation
Contingency This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on
Theory identifying the situational variables which best predict the most
(1960's) appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular
Transformational The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in
Theory envisioning and implementing the transformation of organisational
(1970's) performance

The Great Man Theory

The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no one was able to
identify with any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were
responsible for identifying great leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests;
only a man could have the characteristic (s) of a great leader. The Great Man theory assumes that
the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that great leaders are born. They are not
made. This theory sees great leaders as those who are destined by birth to become a leader.
Furthermore, the belief was that great leaders will rise when confronted with the appropriate
situation. The theory was popularized by Thomas Carlyle, a writer and teacher. Just like him, the
Great Man theory was inspired by the study of influential heroes. In his book "On Heroes, Hero-
Worship, and the Heroic in History", he compared a wide array of heroes. In1860, Herbert
Spencer, an English philosopher disputed the great man theory by affirming that these heroes are
simply the product of their times and their actions the results of social conditions.

Trait Theory (1930's - 1940's)

The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain qualities
that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense
of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader. In
fact, Gordon Allport, an American psychologist,"...identified almost 18,000 English personality-
relevant terms" (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3). The trait theory of leadership
focused on analyzing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain more
understanding of what is the characteristic or the combination of characteristics that are common
among leaders. There were many shortfalls with the trait leadership theory. However, from a
psychology of personalities approach, Gordon Allport's studies are among the first ones and have
brought, for the study of leadership, the behavioural approach.
  In the 1930s the field of Psychometrics was in its early years.
 Personality traits measurement weren't reliable across studies.
 Study samples were of low level managers
 Explanations weren't offered as to the relation between each characteristic and its impact
on leadership.
 The context of the leader wasn't considered.
 Many studies have analyzed the traits among existing leaders in the hope of uncovering
those responsible for ones leadership abilities! In vain, the only characteristics that were
identified among these individuals were those that were slightly taller and slightly more
intelligent!

The table below lists the main leadership traits and skills identified by Stogdill in 1974

Traits - Adaptable to situations - Alert to social Skills - Clever (intelligent) -

environment - Ambitious and achievement-
orientated - Assertive - Cooperative - Decisive -
Dependable - Dominant (desire to influence others) -
Energetic (high activity level) - Persistent - Self-
confident - Tolerant of stress - Willing to assume
responsibility
Conceptually skilled - Creative -
Diplomatic and tactful - Fluent in
speaking - Knowledgeable about group
task - Organised (administrative ability) -
Persuasive - Socially skilled

Behavioural Theories (1940's - 1950's)

In reaction to the trait leadership theory, the behavioural theories are offering a new perspective,
one that focuses on the behaviours of the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical or social
characteristics. Thus, with the evolutions in psychometrics, notably the factor analysis,
researchers were able to measure the cause an effects relationship of specific human behaviours
from leaders. From this point forward anyone with the right conditioning could have access to
the once before elite club of naturally gifted leaders. In other words, leaders are made not born.
The behavioural theories first divided leaders in two categories. Those that were concerned with
the tasks and those concerned with the people. Throughout the literature these are referred to as
different names, but the essence are identical.
Directive Behaviour Supportive Behaviour
One-Way Communication • Followers' Two-Way Communication • Listening, providing
Roles Clearly Communicated • Close support and encouragement • Facilitate interaction
Supervision of Performance Involve follower in decision-making

Contingency Theories (1960's)

This leadership approach assumes that what is important is how leaders respond to the unique
organizational circumstances or problems that they face as a consequence. This theory also
argues that there are wide variations in the contexts for leadership and that to be effective these
contexts require different leadership responses. The Contingency Leadership theory argues that
there is no single way of leading and that every leadership style should be based on certain
situations, which signifies that there are certain people who perform at the maximum level in
certain places; but at minimal performance when taken out of their element. To a certain extent
contingency leadership theories are extensions of the trait theory, in the sense that human traits
are related to the situation in which the leaders exercise their leadership. It is generally accepted
within the contingency theories that leader are more likely to express their leadership when they
feel that their followers will be responsive

Transactional leadership Theories (1970's)

Transactional theories, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are characterized by a

transaction made between the leader and the followers. In fact, the theory values a positive and
mutually beneficial relationship.

For the transactional theories to be effective and as a result have motivational value, the leader
must find a means to align to adequately reward (or punish) his follower, for performing leader-
assigned task. In other words, transactional leaders are most efficient when they develop a
mutual reinforcing environment, for which the individual and the organizational goals are in
sync.
The transactional theorists state that humans in general are seeking to maximize pleasurable
experiences and to diminish un-pleasurable experiences. Thus, we are more likely to associate
ourselves with individuals that add to our strengths

Transformational Leadership Theories (1970s)

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a person interacts
with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results in a high percentage of trust, that
will later result in an increase of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, in both leaders and
followers. The essence of transformational theories is that leaders transform their followers
through their inspirational nature and charismatic personalities. Rules and regulations are
flexible, guided by group norms. Moreover transformational leadership assumes that the central
focus of leadership ought to be the commitments and capacities of organizational members.
Higher levels of personal commitment to organizational goals and greater capacities for
accomplishing those goals are assumed to result in extra effort and greater productivity. These
attributes provide a sense of belonging for the followers as they can easily identify with the
leader and its purpose. The most fully developed model of transformational leadership in schools
has been provided by Leithwood and his colleagues. This model conceptualizes such leadership
along seven dimensions. Building school vision, establishing school goals, providing intellectual
stimulation, offering individualized support, modeling bets practices, and organizational values,
demonstrating high performance expectations, creating a productive school culture and
developing structure to foster participation in school decision (Leithwood 1994).

Comparison Between Transactional And Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership

Builds on man’s need to get a job done and
make a living • Is preoccupied with power
and position, politics and perks • Is mired in
daily affairs • Is short-term and hard data
orientated • Focuses on tactical issues •
Builds on a man’s need for meaning • Is
preoccupied with purposes and values, morals,
and ethics • Transcends daily affairs • Is
orientated toward long-term goals without
compromising human values and principles •
Relies on human relations to lubricate human
interactions • Follows and fulfils role
expectations by striving to work effectively
within current systems • Supports structures
and systems that reinforce the bottom line,
maximize efficiency, and guarantee short-
term profits
Focuses more on missions and strategies •
Releases human potential – identifying and
developing new talent • Designs and redesigns
jobs to make them meaningful and challenging •
Aligns internal structures and systems to
reinforce overarching values and goals

CURRENT STATUS
We are living in a developing country, where due to the lack of resources our productivity is
comparatively low with developing countries. We need skillful, artful, capable and
transformational leaders. Who can exert a positive social influence on the people. As ours is a
conservative and traditional society so accepting change suddenly for us is bit difficult. We need
transformational leaders who can slowly bring change and transform society from one mode to
another productive mode. It is my personal experience that only transformational leaders can
exert positive social influence. This positive social influence is the base of positive change.

Contemporary leadership models vary in who is assumed to exercise influence, from only those
in formal administrative roles, through typically, but not necessarily those in formal leadership
roles, to the group potentially including all those with a stake in the organization.
References:

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and

research. New York: Free Press.

Bennis, W. (1959). Leadership theory and administrative behavior. Administrative Science

Quarterly, 4, 259–301.Church, A. H. (1993), Leadership for the Twenty-First Century, by Joseph

C: Rost. (1991). New York: Praeger. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 4: 197–206.

Leithwood, K. , Begley, T.P., and Cousins, J.B. (1994). Developing Expert Leadership for

Future Schools. London: The Falmer Press.

Rost, J. C. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. Westport, CO: Praeger

Senge, P. M. (1996). Leading Learning Organizations: The Bold, The Powerful, and The

Invisible. Jossey Bass, Inc., a subsidiary of John Wiley & Sons Company.

Stogdill, R. M.(1989). Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research.

Bass, B. (ed.) New York: Free Press.

http://www.merriam-webster.com/

http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com

Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organizations, (3rd ed).. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.