Module 6 (Materials - Hardware) SubModule 6.2 (Aircraft Materials - Non-Ferrous)

PIA
Training Centre (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals
MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.2
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –NON‐FERROUS METALS
ISO 9001 : 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M6/01 Rev. 00
6.2 Mar, 2014
PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Contents
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS AIRCRAFT
MATERIALS;.............................................................................. 1
HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ........................ 4
TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS .................................. 9
6.2.i Mar, 2014
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND PURE ALUMINIUM

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS AIRCRAFT
MATERIALS; Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite
(named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS found) .It is a soft, weak, ductile and malleable metal.
Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and
A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non- has approximately one third the stiffness of steel. While its
ferrous. The list of non-ferrous metals is quite impressive – and strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-
their uses make very interesting reading, if it is intended to
strength material. Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to
follow a career in metallurgy – but, for the purposes of this
course, the topics must be confined to the more common non- the rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film,
ferrous metals, their qualities and their uses in aerospace which limits further corrosion and it is an excellent conductor of
engineering. electricity (and heat).
PURE METALS PURE COPPER
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and Copper with a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only
lead, are used in the commercially ‘pure’ state for engineering to silver, and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn,
purposes – usually in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin forged, pressed, rolled or spun into many different (and often
coatings on other metals. complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper’s ductility and
provide protective coatings on other metals in order to retard the malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars,
effects of corrosion. bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.), though neither copper,
nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among construction of aircraft.
the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft
construction and repair.
6.2.1 Mar, 2014
PURE MAGNESIUM IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of Various national Standards Institutions have evolved their
1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as individual systems for identifying the many variants of
magnesium – provided that certain precautions are taken to aluminium alloys (in a similar manner to that shown with
prevent it over-heating. SAE Steels).
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. American aluminium alloys are classified by a code, which
Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal refers to the element that makes up the major percentage
and, if a fire should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand of the alloy
or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT
BE USED. As previously stated, the elements most commonly used
for alloying with aluminium are copper, manganese,
PURE TITANIUM silicon, magnesium, and zinc.
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel Table 1 shows a four-digit number, which identifies
has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to aluminium, either in its commercially ‘pure’, or in its alloyed
corrosion, non-magnetic and is readily shaped by all of the state.
methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft and ductile.
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Because pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for

aircraft construction and, to achieve medium/high-strength
properties, aluminium must be alloyed with other elements. The
most common alloying elements in the wrought aluminium
alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium and zinc. A
common element used when casting aluminium is silicon.
6.2.2 Mar, 2014
In the 1xxx group, commercially ‘pure’ aluminium (over 99%

pure) is good for corrosion resistance, has good electrical and
thermal conduction properties, is easy to work but is not very
strong.
The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The
major benefit of copper is a large increase in strength, although
if the alloy is not correctly heat- treated, intergranular corrosion
can occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the
metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys
used in aircraft construction.
The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and
it is not possible to heat-treat.
Table 01
The 4xxx series utilizes silicon as its major element. This lowers
The first digit of the designating code represents the major its melting point and improves its welding and brazing
alloying element, while the second digit of the code capabilities.
indicates a specific alloy modification, such as controls
over impurities. The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element.
This is good for welding and corrosion resistance although, if
The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths exposed to high temperature or cold working, it can corrode
of 1% above the 99% of pure aluminium. for example, if 75 were quite badly.
the last two digits, the metal would be 99.75%pure.
The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the
aluminium. This makes the alloy heat-treatable and with good
The 2xxx to 8xxx groups use the last two digits to identify the
forming and corrosion resistance properties.
different alloys in the group.
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of
zinc. These are difficult to bend and are more often used where
flat plates are required.
6.2.3 Mar, 2014
HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS temperature, but become liquid when they are electrically
heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating spattering or spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to
and subsequent cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose avoid spattering) can then be submerged within the heated
is to make the metal harder, stronger and more resistant to liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is to avoid any
impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for
adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.
working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are Accurate thermostatic control is vital, as narrow tolerances on
achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a temperatures are specified (typically plus or minus 5ºC).
hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it avoid delay between removing from the heating source and
is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys quenching. Most quench tanks contain cold water but hot water
have two main heat-treatments, which are referred to as
is sometimes specified (especially for heavy sections e.g. large
solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
forgings). Limits are also stipulated for the permissible period
The procedures for heat-treating aluminium alloys are critical if between heating and quenching which is known as the lag-time
correct properties are to be obtained. (typically 10 seconds max.). If these lag-times are exceeded,
material properties or corrosion resistance may be adversely
Uniform heating is absolutely essential and two methods are affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too slow this
used: may also affect the corrosion resistance.
 a muffle furnace
 or a salt bath Thorough washing of the material is essential after salt bath
heat-treatment to remove any salt residue.
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an
inner chamber in which the aluminium alloy is placed.
There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may
be carried out on normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would
material is clad with pure aluminium, for corrosion resistance
evaporate long before the required temperatures were reached.
(Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is imposed.
The salts (usually nitrate of soda or similar) are solid at room
6.2.4 Mar, 2014
This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material, (in the ‘2000 series’ alloys) other elements, including
into the pure aluminium cladding, which would significantly magnesium and manganese can also be present.
reduce its corrosion resistance.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common
age-hardened, high-strength metals, they are not unique.
SOLUTION TREATMENT Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc, is also able to be
age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/
Solution treatment is sometimes called ‘re-crystallization H.T’. copper type and is the highest-strength aluminium alloy in
This operation serves to distribute the copper uniformly general use. This alloy is used in heavy loaded applications
throughout the aluminium (i.e. to create a solid solution). The such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and Mainplane Attachment
heating may be achieved (as previously stated) in an oven or, brackets etc.
more commonly (to obtain better overall heating), in a bath of
special, molten salts. However, although the aluminium can ANNEALING
accommodate 5% or so of copper in solid solution at high
temperature, this condition is unstable at lower temperatures Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to
and, after the alloy has cooled to room temperature, most of the
enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition,
copper slowly comes out of solution and separates into local
`islands' of copper aluminide. ageing will gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for
working after annealing, although this can be extended if the
By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the
copper becomes trapped' in solution', making the aluminium ageing process. A temperature of -5ºC will provide
very strong. approximately 2 days’ delay while one of -20ºC will provide
approximately 1 week’s delay in the age-hardening process
AGE-HARDENING
The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -
20°C.
The gradual formation of the copper alumide ‘islands’ (also
referred to as ‘slip’), causes an increase in hardness and
strength and these properties reach maximum values after Typical annealing procedure may be achieved by raising the
several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time temperature of the alloy to between 340°C and 410C. The alloy
lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed ‘age- is then cooled slowly at about 10C per hour (rates will differ
hardening’. Although copper may be the major alloying element
6.2.5 Mar, 2014
with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined Table 2

temperature. At this point it is allowed to cool naturally. IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS OF HEAT-TREATED
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
These, heat-treatable type, alloys must never be installed in an
BS Meaning
aircraft structure while in the annealed state, since material System
properties and corrosion resistance will be severely affected. M As manufactured state
O Annealed state
Note: Alloys, in the annealed state, are very prone to corrosion. OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
PRECIPITATION TREATMENT
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
Solution-treated aluminium alloys are comparatively soft,
immediately following quenching although, with time, the metal MoS Meaning
gradually becomes harder and gains strength. System
A Annealed state
When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching, N Solution-treated, no precipitation required
the hardening process (natural ageing), and can take from W Solution-treated, and requires precipitation
several hours to several weeks. An aluminium/copper alloy, for
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of quench,
but is at maximum strength after four or five days. America
n System Meaning
T3 Solution-treated and cold worked
IDENTIFICATION OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS T4 Solution-treated only (naturally aged)
T6 Solution-treated and artificially aged
Aluminium alloys that have been subjected to heat-treatment T8 Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially aged
are usually identified by markings that indicate the heat- T9 Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold worked
treatments involved. Three typical identification systems are
those of the British Standards Institute (BS), the Ministry of
Supply (MoS), and the American systems as can be seen in
Table 2.
6.2.6 Mar, 2014
DURAL is, actually, a Trade name for an Al/Cu/Mg/Si/Mn alloy, be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust
originally manufactured by the Duren Aluminium Company castings of adequate stiffness.
(Germany), but it tends to be used as a generic name for similar
alloys, regardless of source of manufacture. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
 D.T.D. Specifications: - these are material identification Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought
numbers issued by the Directorate of Technical form, are available as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They
Development (a Ministry Department) for specialised are among the lightest metals having sufficient strength and
applications. i.e. when widespread use is not anticipated. suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.
If such a material finally becomes commonly used, a British There are some serious disadvantages to using magnesium
Standards specification is compiled and issued. alloys in aircraft construction. These include a high susceptibility
to corrosion and cracking.
CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will
improve their tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock.
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their
To improve their hardness and yield strength they can also be
lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat- treatment.
elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys.
COPPER ALLOYS
The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature
of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses,
without cracking. and various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium,
iron, lead and other elements such as manganese, nickel (and
aluminium alloys are used extensively on engines, where there
even very small amounts of tin!). Depending on the percentage
is a need to produce complex cored shapes such as content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-35% Zn) or
crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method strong (45% Zn).
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can
6.2.7 Mar, 2014
Bronze is a copper alloy that contains comparatively higher In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel. Two
percentages of tin and is usually found in the form of castings. A practical methods of identification apart from weight are:
true bronze contains up to 25% tin, and bronze, along with
brass, is used in bushings, bearings, valves and valve seats.
 Spark test - a light touch of a grinding wheel will produce a
Bronzes with less than 11% tin are normally used for tubes and
brilliant white trace, ending in a brilliant white burst.
pipes.
TITANIUM ALLOYS
 Moisten the titanium and draw a line on a piece of
glass - this will leave a dark line similar to a pencil
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have mark.
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden
atmosphere. To prevent reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in
its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.
When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-

treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-
hardening material.
Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines,

but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners,
and high temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields,
hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.
6.2.8 Mar, 2014
TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS
HARDNESS TESTING
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
The Brinell hardness test gives the largest indentation of all the
hardness tests and is able to reflect the full feature of the
material being tested. The test is unaffected by the un-
evenness of the material and is hence an accurate test of
hardness.
Brinell hardness testing is used commonly in metallurgy,

forging, casting, un-tempered steel and in the non-ferrous
metals industry.
The typical test uses a 10 millimeters (0.39 in) diameter steel

ball as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf(29 kN; 6,600 lbf) force.
For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder

materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
The indentation is measured and hardness calculated as:
6.2.9 Mar, 2014
where: VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
P = applied force (kgf) The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L.
Smith and George E. Sand land at Vickers Ltd as an alternative
D = diameter of indenter (mm) to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The
d = diameter of indentation (mm) Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
since the required calculations are independent of the size of
the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials (
ferrous, non- ferrous) irrespective of hardness.
The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness,

is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source.
The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the
widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given
by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH).
The hardness number can be converted into units of Pascals,

but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has
units of Pascals. The hardness number is determined by the
load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area
normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.
Fig. 01 Brinell hardness test
6.2.10 Mar, 2014
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING
Rockwell hardness testing is suitable for measuring the

hardness of ferrous, non-ferrous and plastic materials.
The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material

involves the application of a minor load followed by a major
load, and then noting the depth of penetration from a dial, on
which a harder material gives a higher number.
The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to

display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious
calculations involved in other hardness measurement
techniques.
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece

should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.
Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular

surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A
correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex
surface is to be measured.
Fig. 02 Vickers tester
6.2.11 Mar, 2014
any position and in any space that will allow for the operator’s
hand. It is of great value in the hardness testing of assembled
or installed parts, especially to check for proper heat treatment.
The hardness is indicated on a dial conveniently divided into
100 graduations.
The design of the Barcol tester is such that operating

experience is not necessary. It is only necessary to exert a light
pressure against the instrument to drive the spring loaded
indenter into the material to be tested. The hardness reading is
instantly indicated on the dial.
Several typical readings for aluminum alloys are listed in table.

Note that the harder the material is, the higher the Barcol
number will be. To prevent damage to the point, avoid sliding or
Fig. 03Rockwell Hardness Test scraping when it is in contact with the material being tested. If
the points should become damaged, it must be replaced with a
new one. Do not attempt to grind the point.
Clad aluminum alloy sheets cannot be tested directly with any Each tester is supplied with a test disk for checking the
accuracy with a Rockwell hardness tester. Ifthe hardness value condition of the point. To check the point, press the instrument
of the base metal is desired, the pure aluminum coating must be down on the test disk. When the downward pressure brings the
removed from the area tube checked prior to testing. end of the lower plunger guide against the surface of the disk,
the indicator reading should be within the range shown on the
BARCOL TESTER test desk.
The Barcol tester is a portable unit designed for testing

aluminum alloys, copper, brass, or other relatively soft
materials. It should not be used on aircraft steels. Approximate
range of the tester is 25 to100 Brinell. The unit can be used in
6.2.12 Mar, 2014
Table 03 Typical Barcol Readings For Aluminium Alloy:
Fig. 04 Barcol Portable Hardness tester
6.2.13 Mar, 2014
TENSILE TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIALS The strength of a material under tension has long been
regarded as one of the most important characteristics required
Electromechanical testing instruments are widely used for design, production quality control and life prediction of
throughout the metals industry for evaluating important industrial plants. The uni-axial tensile test is the primary method
properties such as Tensile strength, Young’s modulus of used for quality control and certification of virtually all metallic
elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio, elastic and plastic materials produced by casting, rolling and forging processes.
deformation, and strain hardening behavior.
The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s FATIGUE TESTING
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions. Fatigue is the loss of strength and energy resulting from
physical work. Fatigue testing is the applying of continuous
Steel, aluminum, iron, titanium, tin, copper and zinc and their loading to a test specimen in order to determine how it performs
alloys are metals that are mostly used for the production of under repeated vibration or strain conditions. The fatigue life of
appliances, devices, machinery and buildings. The wide the specimen is the number of cycles of fluctuating stress and
spectrum of metal properties also determines the essential need strain that a specimen can withstand before failure occurs.
for a wide range testing. The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
Tensile testing is the most commonly used test to determine specimen geometry and testing conditions. Fatigue behavior is
mechanical properties of metals. Electromechanical testing classified into two domains, high cycle and low cycle fatigue.
instruments are widely used throughout the metals industry for High cycle fatigue is associated with low strain conditions and a
evaluating important properties such as Tensile strength, fatigue life greater than 104 to 105 cycles.
Young’s modulus of elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio,
elastic and plastic deformation, and strain hardening behavior. High cycle fatigue creates stress levels that are under the yield
Also many components such as springs, pipes, containers, etc. strength of a given material. It results from vibrations or strain
rely on compression tests that provide data on force versus from high cycles that can reach thousands of cycles per second,
deformation. The mechanical requirements for many metals are at frequencies that can be induced by many sources. Low cycle
typically specified as “tensile strength”, “yield point” and fatigue is associated with high vibration or strain conditions. Low
“%elongation” in addition to other properties.
6.2.14 Mar, 2014
cycle fatigue failure generally occurs in a relatively small horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an infinite
number of fatigue cycles. number of cycles at a particular stress level.
Endurance limit is the limit below which repeated stress does This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels,
not induce failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the
of load. value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.)
Tensile or axial fatigue testing is a common method used to

determine mechanical properties of metals, such as young’s
modulus, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and other
Stress
tensile properties. tensile loading is used to determine how a
material will behave under axial stretch loading. in tensile
fatigue testing a continuous small axial load is applied
constantly so that the fatigue limit of a specimen can be
determined.
S-N CURVES Fatigue Limit

40 – 60 %
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an UTS
S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between

the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number
of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the Number of
material. C l (N)
S-N CURVE FOR A STEEL MATERIAL
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material. It can be seen
that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater
number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is
eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually
6.2.15 Mar, 2014
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.
It follows that components made from such materials must be

designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.
Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel . In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.
An S-N Curve for an Aluminium Alloy
It follows that components made from such materials must be
designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.
6.2.16 Mar, 2014
CAUSES OF FATIGUE FAILURE In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of
cycles to cause cracking of a given material, are affected by
As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known many other variables, such as stress concentration points
(or can be ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface
that fatigue failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in design, finish, material imperfections etc.
should not occur.
Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the

most sophisticated engineering product does not possess
immunity from this mode of failure. Such failures are often due
to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating
conditions, material, and manufacturing processes.
Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a

material are:
 An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or
without an applied steady stress).
 A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress.
The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time

intervals, as experienced in aircraft cabin pressurization, during
each take-off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively short
time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic
buffeting/vibration of a wing panel. The former example would
be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-
cycle fatigue.
6.2.17 Mar, 2014

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PIA

Training Centre (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –NON‐FERROUS METALS

CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND

CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND PURE ALUMINIUM

PURE METALS PURE COPPER

PURE MAGNESIUM IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Because pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for

In the 1xxx group, commercially ‘pure’ aluminium (over 99%

with each particular alloy), until it reaches a pre-determined Table 2

When suitably alloyed, titanium based materials are heat-

Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines,

TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Brinell hardness testing is used commonly in metallurgy,

The typical test uses a 10 millimeters (0.39 in) diameter steel

For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder

The indentation is measured and hardness calculated as:

where: VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness,

The hardness number can be converted into units of Pascals,

Fig. 01 Brinell hardness test

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Rockwell hardness testing is suitable for measuring the

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material

The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to

In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece

Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular

Fig. 02 Vickers tester

The design of the Barcol tester is such that operating

Several typical readings for aluminum alloys are listed in table.

The Barcol tester is a portable unit designed for testing

Table 03 Typical Barcol Readings For Aluminium Alloy:

Fig. 04 Barcol Portable Hardness tester

Tensile or axial fatigue testing is a common method used to

S-N CURVES Fatigue Limit

S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

It follows that components made from such materials must be

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the

Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a

The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time

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