A REPORT

ON
VGETATION ANALYSIS, BIOMAS AND CARBON STOCK

FOR DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF BO
ANY
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
BIRATNAGAR, MORANG, NEPAL
FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR
B.Sc. DEGREE IN BOTANY

By:
PRIYANKA THAKUR
Symbol No. 500030027
T.U. Regd. No. : 5-2-0003-0390-2015

May 2019

i
 DECLARATION

Report entitled “VGETATION ANALYSIS, BIOMAS AND CARBON STOCK” which is

being submitted to the Central Department of Botany, Mahendra Morang Adarsh Multiple
Campus (MMAMC), Tribhuvan University, Nepal for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc.), is a research work carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Tilak
Prasad Gautam, MMAMC of Botany, Tribhuvan University. This research is original and has
not been submitted earlier in part or full in this or any other form to any university or
institute, here or elsewhere, for the award of any degree.

Date: ………………………………

Priyanka Thakur
Symbol No.500030027
T.U.Regd No.: 5-2-0003-0390-2015
B.Sc. 4th Year
MMAMC, Biratnagar

ii
 RECOMMENDATION

This is to recommend that Priyanka Thakur has carried out research entitled “VGETATION
ANALYSIS, BIOMAS AND CARBON STOCK” for the award of Bachelor of Science in
Botany under my supervision. To my knowledge, this work has not been submitted for any
other degree. She has fulfilled all the requirements laid down by the Mahendra Morang
Adarsh Multiple Campus (MMAMC), Tribhuvan University, Biratnagar for the submission
of the report for the award of B.Sc. degree.

Date: ……………………
Dr. Tilak Prasad Gautam
Supervisior
Professor
MMAMC
Tribhuvan University
Biratnagar, Nepal

iii
 TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
MAHENDRA MORANG ADARSH MULTIPLE CAMPUS
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
B.Sc. Program
F/Y: Date:

Ref. No.:-

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
The dissertation work entitled “VGETATION ANALYSIS, BIOMAS AND CARBON
STOCK” submitted by Priyanka Thakur (Symbol No. 500030027; T.U. Regd No.: 5-2-0003-
0390-2015) has been accepted as a partial fulfillment for B.Sc. degree in Botany, Tribhuvan
University.

Expert Committee

Dr. Tilak Prasad Gautam

Supervisor ………………………

Dr. Kishor Kumar Mishra

Chairman ………………………

Depart of Botany

Dr. Pramod Kumar Kherwal

Asst. Campus Chief (Science) ………………………

M.M.A.M Campus

Biratnagar

Date of examination ………………………

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Dr. Tilak Prasad Gautam for being kind, supportive
and providing proper guidance to this research work starting with proposal writing. His ideas
and the way of dealing with problems has always been a source of inspiration for me.

I am grateful to Dr. Kishor Kumar Mishra Head of Department of Botany MMAMC for
providing all available facilities, administrative support and constant encouragement. I would
like to express my hearty gratitudes to Mr. Ram Kumar Rai, Mr. Shree Krishna Yadav, Mrs.
Eliza Acharya etc. of MMAMC for his kind cooperation and valuable suggestion.

I would like to express my gratefulness to Dr. Pramod Kumar Kherwal, Assistant Campus
Chief of MMAMC, Biratnagar for the other official help.

I am grateful to my parents and family for their great patience and encouragement in each and
every step during this research work. My sincere thanks go to my friends Miss Punam
Kumari Shah, Mr. Sawan Rajbanshi, Miss Puspha Thakur for their continuous help in field
work and constant encouragement. I want to express my appreciation to my supervisor not
only for academic supervision but also for entire guardianship to the work.

Date: …………………………….
Priyanka Thakur
Symbol No.500030027
T.U.Regd No.: 5-2-0003-0390-2015
B.Sc. 4th Year
MMAMC, Biratnagar

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
RECOMMENDATION iii
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xi
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 VGETATION ANALYSIS 5
1.2 BIOMAS AND CARBON STOCK 7

2. OBJECTIVES 8

3. LITERATURE REVIEW 8

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS 12

5. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 14

6. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

vii
LIST OF TABLES

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

ix
1. INTRODUCTION
Nepal is rich in biodiversity and natural resources. Nepal has around 4.27 million hectares of
forest representing about 29% of total land area. There are different types of forest situated in
Nepal in different location. They are Tropical forest, Sub-tropical forest, Alpine forest,
Temperate forest, and Moist tropical forest.

Tropical forests are one of the richest and complex terrestrial ecosystems supporting a variety
of life forms and have a tremendous intrinsic ability for self maintenance. However, many of
these forests are losing this ability due to excessive biotic interferences such as anthropogenic
pertubarations and uncontrolled grazing. The tropical forests spread over 13.67 million sq.
km. worldwide account for 60% of the global forest. Tropical forests act as sources of
atmospheric carbon if disturbed by anthropogenic activities as natural calamities.

Teak plant (Tectona grandis) is a deciduous tree species, belonging to the family verbenance
where is originated from south-east Asia. Due to its high commercial value it is highly
valuable. It is a highly valuable timber tree. A part from high demand in the domestic and
international market, teaks plays an important role in protection and improvement of soils.

Teak (Tectona grandis) is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering
plant family Lamiaceae. Some forms of teak are known as Burmese teak, Central Province
teak (CP teak), as well as Nagpur teak. T. grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in
mixed hardwood forests. It has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters
(panicles) at the end of the branches. These flowers contain both types of reproductive organs
(perfect flowers). The large, papery leaves of teak trees are often hairy on the lower surface.
Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled and is particularly valued for its
durability and water resistance. The wood is used for boat building, exterior construction,
veneer, furniture, carving, turnings, and other small wood projects.

Tectona grandis is native to south and southeast Asia, mainly India, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Bangladesh but is naturalised and
cultivated in many countries in Africa and the Caribbean. Myanmar's teak forests account for
nearly half of the world's naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show that there are two
centres of genetic origin of teak: one in India and the other in Myanmar and Laos.

1
Teak is a large, long, deciduous tree up to 40 m (131 ft) tall with gray to grayish brown
branches. These are mostly known for their finest quality wood. Leaves are ovate-elliptic to
ovate, 15–45 cm (5.9–17.7 in) long by 8–23 cm (3.1–9.1 in) wide, and are held on
robust petioles which are 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long. Leaf margins are entire.

Wood
• Heartwood is yellowish in colour. It darkens as it ages. Sometimes there are dark patches
on it. There is a leather-like scent in newly cut wood.
• Sapwood is whitish to pale yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from
heartwood.
• Wood texture is hard and ring porous.
• Density varies according to moisture content: at 15% mc it is 660 kg/m3.[

Botanical history
Tectona grandis was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus the Younger in his 1782
work Supplementum Plantarum. In 1975, Harold Norman Moldenke published new
descriptions of four forms of this species in the journal Phytologia. Moldenke described each
form as varying slightly from the type specimen: T. grandis f. canescens is distinguished
from the type material by being densely canescent, or covered in hairs, on the underside of
the leaf, T. grandis f. pilosula is distinct from the type material in the varying morphology of
the leaf veins, T. grandis f. punctata is only hairy on the larger veins on the underside of the
leaf, and T. grandis f. tomentella is noted for its dense yellowish tomentose hairs on the lower
surface of the leaf.

Distribution and habitat

Tectona grandis is one of three species in the genus Tectona. The other two
species, T. hamiltoniana and T. philippinensis, are endemics with relatively small native
distributions in Myanmar and the Philippines, respectively. Tectona grandis is native to
India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Myanmar, northern Thailand, and northwestern Laos.

Tectona grandis is found in a variety of habitats and climatic conditions from arid areas with
only 500 mm of rain per year to very moist forests with up to 5,000 mm of rain per year.
Typically, though, the annual rainfall in areas where teak grows averages 1,250-1,650 mm
with a 3-5 month dry season.

2
Cultivation
Teak's natural oils make it useful in exposed locations, and make the timber termite and pest
resistant. Teak is durable even when not treated with oil or varnish. Timber cut from old teak
trees was once believed to be more durable and harder than plantation grown teak. Studies
have shown that plantation teak performs on par with old-growth teak in erosion rate,
dimensional stability, warping, and surface checking, but is more susceptible to color change
from UV exposure.

The vast majority of commercially harvested teak is grown on teak plantations found
in Indonesia and controlled by Perum Perhutani (a state owned forest enterprise) that
manages the country's forests. The primary use of teak harvested in Indonesia is in the
production of outdoor teak furniture for export. Nilambur in Kerala, India, is also a major
producer of teak of fine quality, holds the world's oldest teak plantation.

Teak consumption raises a number of environmental concerns, such as the disappearance of

rare old-growth teak. However, its popularity has led to growth in sustainable plantation teak
production throughout the seasonally dry tropics in forestry plantations. The Forest
Stewardship Council offers certification of sustainably grown and harvested teak products.
Propagation of teak via tissue culture for plantation purposes is commercially viable.

Teak plantations were widely established in Equatorial Africa during the Colonial era. These
timber resources, as well as the oil reserves, are at the heart of the current (2014) South
Sudanese conflict.

Much of the world's teak is exported by Indonesia and Myanmar. There is also a rapidly
growing plantation grown market in Central America (Costa Rica) and South America. With
a depletion of remaining natural hectares of teak forests, a growth in plantations in Latin
America is expected to rise.

Hyblaea puera, commonly known as the teak defoliator, is a moth native to southeast Asia. It
is a teak pest whose caterpillar feeds on teak and other species of trees common in the region
of southeast Asia.

3
Uses
Teak's high oil content, high tensile strength and tight grain make it particularly suitable
where weather resistance is desired. It is used in the manufacture of outdoor furniture and
boat decks. It is also used for cutting boards, indoor flooring, countertops and as a veneer for
indoor furnishings. Although easily worked, it can cause severe blunting on edged tools
because of the presence of silica in the wood. Over time teak can weather to a silvery-grey
finish, especially when exposed to sunlight.

Teak is used extensively in India to make doors and window frames, furniture, and columns
and beams in old type houses. It is resistant to termite attacks and damage caused by other
insects. Mature teak fetches a very good price. It is grown extensively by forest departments
of different states in forest areas.

Leaves of the teak wood tree are used in making Pellakai gatti (jackfruit dumpling),
where batter is poured into a teak leaf and is steamed.[25] This type of usage is found in the
coastal district of Udupi in the Tulunadu region in South India. The leaves are also used
in gudeg, a dish of young jackfruit made in Central Java, Indonesia, and give the dish its dark
brown color.

Teak is used as a food plant by the larvae of moths of the genus Endoclita including E.
aroura, E. chalybeatus, E. damor, E. gmelina, E. malabaricus, E. sericeus and E. signifer and
other Lepidoptera including Turnip Moth.

Boatbuilding
Teak has been used as a boatbuilding material for over 2000 years (it was found in an
archaeological dig in Berenice Panchrysos, a port on the Indian Roman trade). In addition to
relatively high strength, teak is also highly resistant to rot, fungi and mildew. In addition, teak
has a relatively low shrinkage ratio, which makes it excellent for applications where it
undergoes periodic changes in moisture. Teak has the unusual properties of being both an
excellent structural timber for framing, planking, etc., while at the same time being easily
worked, unlike some other similar woods such as purpleheart, and finished to a high
degree. For this reason, it is also prized for the trim work on boat interiors. Due to the oily
nature of the wood, care must be taken to properly prepare the wood before gluing.

4
When used on boats, teak is also very flexible in the finishes that may be applied. One option
is to use no finish at all, in which case the wood will naturally weather to a pleasing silver-
grey. The wood may also be oiled with a finishing agent such as linseed or tung oil. This
results in a pleasant, somewhat dull finish. Finally, teak may also be varnished for a deep,
lustrous glow.

Teak is also used extensively in boat decks, as it is extremely durable and requires very little
maintenance. The teak tends to wear in to the softer 'summer' growth bands first, forming a
natural 'non-slip' surface. Any sanding is therefore only damaging. Use of modern cleaning
compounds, oils or preservatives will shorten the life of the teak, as it contains natural teak-
oil a very small distance below the white surface. Wooden boat experts will only wash the
teak with salt water, and re-caulkwhen needed. This cleans the deck, and prevents it from
drying out and the wood shrinking. The salt helps it absorb and retain moisture, and prevents
any mildew and algal growth. Over-maintenance, such as cleaning teak with harsh chemicals,
can shorten its usable lifespan as decking.

1.1 VGETATION ANALYSIS

Vegetation analysis is the way to study species composition and structure of plant community
veg.analysis vegetation analysis species composition vegetation structure area sampling unit
sampling size unit sampling form veg.

Nepal’s vast wealth in flora is primarily due to the considerable altitudinal and climatic
variation of the country which range from 60 m above the sea level in the lowland Terai to
8,848 m the highest Mountain in the world (the Mount Everest). These varied topographic
condition make the nations physiogeography diverse and resulting in the presence of 11
bioclimatic zones, 35 forest types, 75 vegetation types and 118 ecosystem (Dobremez 1976).

Species richness is currently the most widely used diversity measure (Stirling and Wilsey
2001). It is a simple and easily interpretable indicator of biological diversity (Peet 1974,
Whittaker 1977). A complex of various factors determine species richness (Schuster and
Diekmann 2005). The altitudinal (elevational) gradient is believed to be a mirror of the
latitudinal gradient in species richness (Stevens 1992, Rahbek 1995, 1997, 2005). Species
richness is the fundamental measure of community and regional diversity (Magurran 1998,
Gotelli and Colwell 2001).

5
The elevation pattern of species richness has stimulated much interest among naturalists,
ecologists and evolutionary biologists. This pattern comprises one of the most spectacular
diversity gradients in the world (Korner 2000, Whittaker et al. 2001, Palmer 2006, Nogues-
Bravo et al. 2008). In a review of 204 published elevational species richness pattern studies.
Rahbek (2005) found a unimodal pattern in almost 50%, a monotonic pattern in 25% and a
mixed pattern in the remaining 25% of studies. The mechanisms behind these patterns are a
matter of ongoing debate (Rahbek 1995).

Grytness and Vetaas (2002) analysed plant species richness along the Himalayan altitudinal
gradient in Nepal. They concluded that interpolated species richness in the Himalaya showed
a hump shaped structure. The maximum richness of flowering plants of Nepal has been found
between 1500 m- 2500 m a.s.l. Total species richness from lowland to 6000 m a.s.l. in Nepal
indicated very little variation between 3000 m to 4000 m a.s.l. and in general, species
richness remains fairly constant generating a high-elevation plateau.

A decreasing trend in species richness with increasing altitude is reported by several workers
(Yoda 1967, Gentry 1988, Patterson et al. 1998, Odland and Birks 1999). However, others
reported a hump shaped relationship between species richness and altitude (Janzen 1973,
Rahbek 1995, Grytnes and Vetaas 2002, Baniya et al. 2012, Baniya 2010). Bhattarai and
Vetaas (2003) reported that herbaceous species do not have significant trend in richness,
whereas for woody life forms (trees, shrubs and woody climbers) significant relationships
were found with climate along a subtropical elevation gradient in the Himalayas, east Nepal.
The variation in species richness is caused by many components of climate and local
environment (e.g. temperature, precipitation etc.) that vary along the elevation gradients and
ultimately create the variation in species richness (Lomolino 2001).

Reduction in biodiversity in much of the forested area of Nepal is led by human impact in
varying degree (Karki 1991, Chaudhary and Kunwar 2002). According to Geldenhuys and
Murray (1993) conservation of such forests requires an understanding of the composition of
the particular forest, the effect of past disturbance and the present impact of neighbouring
land use of the forest.

6
1.2 BIOMAS AND CARBON STOCK
The significant influences of tropical forest n Carbon Cycle is attributed to the high rate of
primary production besides the large pool and flux sizes (Brow & Lugo 1982, 1984). Because
of higher net productivity the tropical forest are more effective in carbon request nation than
any other forest. The tropical forests store large quantities of carbon in vegetation and soil,
exchange carbon with the atmosphere through photosynthesis is and respiration.

The potential of tropical forest for increased carbon sequestration capability can be assesses
either through the amount of carbon stored. The studies on carbon sequestration have been
focusing on and expressing the sequestration in terms of Biomass and Carbon Stock.

The design and evaluation of global scale carbon models require field estimates of forest
biomass. Among the phyto mass components, i.e. above ground, below ground. The live
above ground wood mass is the most important because it is involved in the regulation of
atmospheric concentration and constitutes about 60% of total biomass. Therefore, estimation
of above ground biomass (AGB) is the most important aspect of studies of carbon
sequestration (Ketterings et. al. 2001). Estimation of AGB is also a useful measure for
comparing structural and functional attribute of forest ecosystems across a wide range of
environmental conditions (Brown et. al. 1999).

The most reliable technique for estimating forest carbon stock is through forest inventories
followed by developing allometric relationships between the above ground biomass (AGB)
of a tree and its trunk diameter (Brown 1997; Brown et.al. 1989; Clark et. al. 2001).

Several studies have conducted that matured tropical forest with high AGB contain a large
proportion of their above ground biomass in large free (Brown et. al. 1995; Brown & Lugo
1992).

Therefore, the present work aim to quantify carbon sequestration through estimation of above
grounf carbon storage and AGB distribution pattern in different diameter classes in a
plantation forest. The study would not only provide the distribution pattern of carbon in
different tree size classes but would also fill the AGB data gap for the tropical forest in
Nepal.

7
2. OBJECTIVES
1. To analyze the vegetation of Tectona grandis forest of Dhanpalthan Municipality.
2. To determine biomass and carbon stock of Tectona grandis forest of Dhanpalthan
Municipality.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW
Shrestha et al. 2000 studied vegetation analysis of natural and degraded forests in Chitrepani
in Siwalik region of Central Nepal. They found that shorea robusta saplings were found
increasing in the forests where there was less number of other species. Total volume and
biomass of trees were higher in natural forests.

Baishya et al. 2009 studied the distribution pattern of above ground biomass in natural and
plantation forests of humid tropics in north east India. They found that the natural forest had
lower AGB (323.9 mg ha-1) than the plantation forest (406.4 mg ha-1). About 49% of the
AGB was present in >60cm dbh trees in the natural forest against 24% in the plantation
forest. The carbon storage was highest in 60-80 cm and 40-60 cm dbh classes in the natural
forest and plantation forest respectively.

Zhaodi Gua et al. studied the inventory-based estimates of forests biomass carbon stocks in
China: A comparison of three methods. The three methods resulted in different estimates of
biomass C stocks for different forest types. For temperature/subtropical mixed forests,
MBDM (Mean Biomass Density Method) generated a 92% higher estimate than CBM
(Carbon Biomass Mean) and MRM (Mean Ratio Method) generated at 14% lower than
CBM. The degree of the over estimates is closely related with the proportion of young-aged
forest within total area of each forest type.

Ghimire et al. 2008 studied the vegetation analysis along on Altitudinal Gradient of juniperus
indica forest in Southern Manang valley, Nepal. They identified 19 species (3 trees and 16
shrubs) J. indica was the most dominant tree species in all elevation range. Tree density and
basal area showed inverse relation with elevation. Above 3700m J. indica was found in bushy
(scrubby) form so there was no measurable basal area of the tree. Diversity index did not
show any specific relation with altitude. Index of dominance indicated that forest was
dominated by one or two species and the value of beta diversity showed the more or less
homogeneous distribution of the plants in all stands.

8
Gunnar Marklund et al. studied the Global Assessment of Growing Stock, Biomass and
Carbon Stock. The information presented in this report has the potential to contribute to or
substantiate estimates of the magnitude of carbon stocks and flows by scientific bodies, such
as the Inter-governmental panel on climate change. In the future, such as information
provided by the Global Forest Resources Assessment could facilitated streamlined
international reporting and monitoring of green house gas emissions and removals under the
United Nations framework convention on climate change.

Lama et al. studied on carbon stock of leasehold forests of Katakuti VDC, Dolkha district.
They found that the estimated total carbon stock per ha was found to be highest in Srijana
leasehold forest with 125.493 t c/ha. The estimates total carbon stock of 10 leasehold forests
was found to be 1439.033 tons. Here, leasehold forests have been an emerging and successful
example in conserving forest in Nepal.

Shrestha et al. studied on carbon stocks in the Oak and Pine forest in Salayan District, Nepal.
They found that the vegetation carbon stock was higher in the Oak Forest than in the Pine
Forest. The soil organic carbon was higher in Oak Forest than in the Pine Forest due to
higher amounts of leaf litter and under storey biomass. With the increase in soil depth, bulk
density was found to have increased, whereas, the carbon content was found to have
decreased. The average soil carbon comprised 52.5% of the total carbon. Both the forests
seem to be good for vegetation and soil carbon stocks.

Rao et al. 2015 studied on carbon sequestration potential of tropical deciduous forest of
Nallamalais, India. They estimated that the total standing biomass and carbon stock of the
study was 56.047 Mt. and 26.34Mt respectively. Among all life forms, trees are the main
contributors of standing biomass and carbon stocks in the study area accounting for 96.72%
of the above-ground live biomass. The carbon stock accounted for Nallamalais is equivalent
to 97.568 Mt of sequestered atmospheric carbon dioxide. With respect to total carbon stock
of Indian forests worked out in different studies, Nallamalais share 0.26% to 0.90% of the
total carbon stocks of India.

S.C. Garkoti, 2006; studied on estimates of biomass and primary productivity in a high
altitude maple forest of the west central Himalayas. They describe that the biomass and
productivity of maple forest occurring at an altitude of 2,650m in the West Central

9
Himalayas. Total vegetation biomass was 308.3 th-1, of which the tree layer contributed the
most, followed by herbs and shrubs.

Gautam and Mandal; 2016 studied on effect of disturbance on biomass production and
carbon dynamics in moist tropical forest of ecosystem Nepal. They found that although in
having higher biomass, the NPP of present forest is relatively low indicating C stock and C
sequestration capacity are reduced which reflect the high C.

Borah et al. 2013; studied on above ground biomass and Carbon stocks of Tree species in
Tropical forest of Cachar District, Assam, North-East India. They found that the AGB was
ranged from 32.47 Mgha-1 to 261.64 Mgha-1 and C stocks ranged from 16.24 Mgha-1 to
130.82 Mg ha-1. AGB showed significant relationship with basal area and diversity indices.

Yadav and Sah (1998) studied quantative analysis of vegetation (trees and shrubs) in
Nagarjun hill. They found Schima wallichii and Castanopsis tribuloides as the most dominant
species of Nagarjun hill. They observed that the highest density of Castanopsis tribuloides
showed their maximum adaptability on north-east facing slopes which are relatively
undisturb forest of Nagarjun hills. They also reported that farther the sampling plots along the
altitudinal gradient, lesser was the similarity between the present plant species.

Shrestha et al. (2000) studied vegetation distribution in relation to surface soil characteristics
in Shivapuri Watershed. They found that the correlation analysis between the soil parameters
and plant species revealed that the variation observed in the vegetation distribution correlates
with the variation in the edaphic factor. They also found that significant changes were
observed in the quantitative characters of herbs and negligible changes were observed in the
quantitative characters of shrubs.

Chaudhary and Kunwar (2002) studied the vegetation composition of Arun Valley, east
Nepal. They studied 20 types of forests and reported 61 tree species. A total of 117 species of
herbaceous plants belonging to 100 genera and 62 families were recorded from tropical to
temperate bioclimatic zones.

10
Shrestha et al. (2004) studied regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia (khasru) forest in
Shivapuri Hill (Shivapuri National Park, Kathmandu) at the altitudinal gradient 2200 m to
2500 m. They found that the forest had abundant number of small seedlings but sapling was
very rare. Survival of large seedling and sapling appear to limit the regeneration of kharsu
forest.

Bhattarai et al. (2004) studied relationship between plant species richness and biomass in an
arid subalpine grassland of the central Himalayas, Nepal. They reported the hump-shaped
relationship between plant species richness and biomass for herbaceous vegetation in
temperate climates. However, this relationship has not previously been investigated in high
arid subalpine mountain grasslands. There was a significant unimodal relationship between
species richness and biomass only in the common pasture, and when the two sites were
analyzed together. The results indicate that a hump-shaped relationship is also found in arid
Trans-Himalayan grasslands.

Kunwar and Chaudhary (2004) studied status, vegetation composition and biomass of forests
of Arun Valley, east Nepal. They observed a total of 20 forests types and 12 forest
communities and reported maximum tree species richness (12 species).

Koirala (2004) carried out comparative study of vegetation structure and composition of two
forests at Tamafok (TF) and Madimulkharka (MM) villages in the Piluwa microwatershed in
Tinjure-Milke Region, east Nepal. He reported 20 tree species, with more species in the non-
degraded TF forest than in the degraded MM forest.

Rhododendron arboreum and Goldfussia penstempnoides were the dominant species in the
TF forest, whereas Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum were dominant at
the MM forest.

Kunwar and Sharma (2004) studied quantitative analysis of tree species in two community
forests Amaldapani and Juphal of Dolpo district, mid-west Nepal. They recorded a total of
419 individual trees representing 16 species, 16 genus and 11 families. Of the families
Pinaceae was the most diverse, with 28 individuals representing 5 species and 5 genera,
followed by the Rosaceae 3 individuals representing 2 species and 2 genera. Pinus

11
wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Quercus semecarpifolia and Cedrus deodara had the highest
importance value index and could therefore be considered the dominant species.

Mahato and Chaudhary (2005) studied variation in woody plant species richness along a
subtropical elevation gradient in the Himalayas, West Nepal. They found that the species
richness of tree and shrub showed a significant linear pattern along the elevation gradient i.e.
the species richness increased with increase in altitude. Maximum species richness was found
at 1000-1100 m. A monotonic increasing trend of richness was observed from 400-1100 m.

Panthi and Chaudhary (2006) studied plant species richness and composition in upper
manang valley along 3200-400 m. They recorded 68 woody plant species under 50 genera
and 31 families. The number of species packed between 3300-3400 m followed by gradual
decrease. Above 3800 m species number again increases towards high elevation. However,
variation between 3000-4000 m was slight species richness remains constant generating a
high-elevation plateau.

Baniya et al. (2012) studied richness and composition of vascular plants and cryptogams
along high elevational gradient on Buddha Mountain, Central Tibet. The study was carried
out at an elevation of 4985-5685 m. They recorded 143 species, including 107 angiosperms,
2 gymnosperms, 27 lichens and 7 mosses. The total species richness was fairly constant
between 4985-5400 m and continuously declined above 5400 m.

Baniya (2010) studied vascular and cryptogam richness in the world’s highest alpine zone,
Tibet. He interpolated elevational range of each species recorded in the flora between 4900-
6000 m and recorded 642 species from 209 genera and 70 families. Total species richness
ranged from 3 to 540 with an average of 195 species.

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study area was carried out on plantation Teak (Tectona grandis) forest at Ramchowk of
Dhanpalthan Municipality. The total area of Dhanpalthan is 70.26 sq.km. The forest covers
8.16 hectare area of Dhanpalthan. The altitude of forest is ____________. The forest has
been planted for monoculture plantation by the people of community of Dhanpalthan
Municipality. This forest is an tropical plantation forest. This forest consist of only one

12
species in whole area i.e. Tectona grandis (L.f.). This forest is highly rich in this species.
There were found almost same range of growth of all tree. The forest is currently undisturbed
by the community of rural Dhanpalthan Municipality.

Climate
Ramchowk of Dhanpalthan’s climate is classified as warm and temperate. The summers here
have a good deal of rainfall, while the winters have very little. The climate here is classified
as Cwa by the Köppen-Geiger system. In Ramchowk, the average annual temperature is 24.3
°C. The rainfall here averages 1898 mm.

RAMCHOWK OF DHANPALTHAN WEATHER BY MONTH // WEATHER

AVERAGES
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Avg. Temperature 16.2 18.1 23.2 27 28.1 28.8 28.5 28.9 27.9 26.1 21.6 17.4
(°C)
Min. Temperature 9 10.5 15.1 20.5 23.1 25 25.3 25.6 24.4 21.3 14.6 9.8
(°C)
Max. Temperature 23.4 25.8 31.3 33.6 33.2 32.6 31.7 32.2 31.4 31 28.7 25
(°C)
Avg. Temperature 61.2 64.6 73.8 80.6 82.6 83.8 83.3 84.0 82.2 79.0 70.9 63.3
(°F)
Min. Temperature 48.2 50.9 59.2 68.9 73.6 77.0 77.5 78.1 75.9 70.3 58.3 49.6
(°F)
Max. Temperature 74.1 78.4 88.3 92.5 91.8 90.7 89.1 90.0 88.5 87.8 83.7 77.0
(°F)
Precipitation / 10 9 18 47 144 340 543 367 313 95 8 4
Rainfall (mm)

The variation in the precipitation between the driest and wettest months is 539 mm.
Throughout the year; temperatures vary by 12.7 °C.

Soil
Almost the area is plain. Soil of terai is essentially made up of materials transported and
deposited relatively in recent years by Ganges and Tributaries. Being mature soil it shows
strong profile. In general soil is pale yellow to dark grayish brown in color having sandy silt
or clay in texture. The soil of projected area is not the exception of above type.

The teak plantation was created during the year 2054 and is well-protected. This forest is one
of the forest of Morang district. The study area was selected randomly and by the following
methods:-

1. The size of the quadrate was always constant to all the sites (20m×20m).

13
 2. Measuring tape was used for measuring diameter at breast height (DBH).
3. Large tape was used for lying down quadrates.
4. White colour paint was used for counting trees after measuring each one in order to
avoid oversight.
5. Right angle triangle was made by paper from which hypotenous, height was
measured.

5. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

The vegetation data were analyzed for % frequency (F), density (D) and abundance (A). The
Importance Value Index (IVI) was computed for all the tree species by adding the relative
values of frequency, density and dominance (basal area) following Curtis and McIntosh
(1951), Curtis and Cottam (1956), and Brown and Curtis (1952). The relative value of
frequency, density and dominance were determined as suggested by Phillips (1959).

Phyto-sociological attributes (density, frequency and basal area); aspects and elevation of
each stand were recorded. Importance value was used to rank each species and the plant
species with the highest importance value in the stand was considered the dominant species.
The plant community was named on the basis of dominant species. Diameter breast high
(DBH) of individual in a stand were calculated.

4.1 Frequency:
Frequency is the important parameter of vegetation analysis, which reflects the spread,
distribution or dispersion of a species in a given area, and given in percent. For example, if a
species is distributed uniformly in an area, there is greater probability of its occurrence in all
quadrants and it would have maximum frequency. In another case, a species may be clustered
or present only in a part of the area. In this case, it will occur only in few quadrants and hence
it would have lesser frequency. The % frequency of a species in a given area is studied by
either quadrant method or transects and is calculated by the following formula:

Number of quadrats in which species occured

% Frequency = ×100
Total number of quadrats studied

Relative frequency can be calculated by the formula,

14
 Number of quadrats in which species occured
Relative frequency = ×100
Total number of quadrats occupied by all species

Thus, if a species occurs in 5 out of total 10 quadrants studied, its frequency would be 50%.
If a species occurs in all the quadrants studied, its frequency would be 100%. Frequency is a
very important quantitative parameter. Raunkiaer (1934) made an elaborative study on the
frequency of species in about 8000 quadrants and based on his data, he divided species into 5
classes viz. A, B, C, D, E. The distribution of frequency in 5 classes is given here under in
table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Raunkiaer’s Frequency class distribution.

Raunkiaer’s Frequency Class Frequency Range
A 1-20%
B 21-40%
C 41-60%
D 61-80%
E 81-100%

Each species was classified in above mentioned classes. A histogram was drawn with
percentage of the total number of species on Y axis and frequency classes A to E on X axis.

The percentage of number of species falling in Class A, B, C, D and E were calculated and
compared with a standard values (Class A-53%, Class B-14%, Class C-9%, Class D-8%,
Class E-16%) given by Raunkiaer and with the law of frequency as :

A > B > C ≥ or ≤ D < E

If the value of the ratio E+D/B+C is less than one, the vegetation stand/community is
homogeneous. Greater the value than one, greater would be the homogeneity of the stand.

4.2 Density:
It is defined as the number of individuals of a particular species per unit area. Tree density
gives an idea of how closely trees are growing in a given area. This value is always expressed
as trees per hectare. The tree density is not an exact number of all of the trees in the region.

15
 Total number of individuas of the species
Density =
Total number of quadrats used in sampling

The density value, thus obtained for each species was expressed as individuals per unit area.
Density may be defined as the number of species per specified collection area.

The relative density is the study of numerical strength of a species in relation to total number
of individuals of all species and calculated as:

Total number of individuas of the species

Relative Density = × 100
Sum of all individualsof all species

4.3 Abundance:
It is also calculated like density but in this case, only those quadrants are considered for
calculation where a species actually occurs. For example, if a species has occurred in only 3
quadrants out of total 5 studied, then the total number of individuals of the species is divided
by 3 (instead of 5, as in case of density). The difference between density and abundance thus
becomes clear from the example given in Table 1. The formula for calculation of species
abundance is:
Total number of individuas of the species
Abundance =
Number of quadrats in which they occured

Abundance does not give a total picture of the numerical strength of a species in an area because
only the quadrats of occurrence are taken into consideration and not all the quadrats studied.

Abundance is also presented on the basis of unit area, i.e. 1m2, especially in smaller areas or
grasslands. However, it is not much used as compared to density in ecological studies. It can also
be multiplied by 100 to get percent abundance.

4.4 Dominance:
Dominance is measure of the size, bulk, or weight of the vegetation. Three characteristics of the
vegetation are commonly evaluated as a measure of dominance: weight, basal cover, or canopy
(crown) cover or area. Weight measurements are often difficult and time consuming to obtain and
the latter two measures are more often evaluated.

16
Dominant species are those which are highly successful ecologically and determine (to a
considerable extent) the condition under which the associated species must grow. It can be
calculated as follow
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Dominance =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Relative dominance is the relative proportion of different species in the community

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Relative Dominance = × 100
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

π(𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 )2
Basal area (BA) m2 =
4
Where DBH = diameter of stem at breast height
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Relative Basal Area (RBA) (%) = × 100
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

4.5 Importance Value Index:

The importance value index is statistical measure, which gives an overall picture of the
importance of the species in the vegetation community. It considers the relative values of
density, frequency and basal area of every species in a given area. It thus incorporates three
important parameters, which are measures of diversity and productivity of every species.

Thus,
IVI = Relative density + Relative frequency + Relative Basal Area

The sum of the IVI of all the species in a forest composed of several species should equal
300.

17
 REFERENCES
S.C. Sahu, N.K.Dhal & R.C. Mohanty tree species diversity, distribution and population
structure in a tropical dry deciduous forest of Malyagiri hill ranges.

Brown S. & P.E. Schroeder 1999. Spatial pattern of above ground production and mortality
of woody biomass for eastern US forests. Ecological Applications 9: 968-980

Brown, S., A. E. Lugo.: 1992, Aboveground biomass estimates for tropical moist
forests of the Brazilian Amazon, Interciencia 17, 8–18.

Brown, S., A. Gillespie & A. Lugo 1989. Biomass Estimation Methods for Tropical Forests
with Applications to Forest Inventory Data. Forest Science 35:881-902.

Ketterings, Q.M., R. Coe, palm 2001. Reducing uncertainty in the use of allometric biomass
equation for predicting aboveground tree biomass in mixed secondary forest.

Brown S., A. E. Lugo. 1984. Biomass of tropical forests a new estimates based on forest
volume.

Brown S., A. Gillespie & A. Lugo 1989. Biomass estimation methods for tropical forests
with application to forest inventory data.

Brown, S. & L.R. Iverson. 1992. Biomass estimates for Tropical forests.

Behera, S.K and M.K. Misra. 2006. Aboveground tree biomass in a recovering tropical sal
(Shorea Robusta Gaertn. F) forest of Eastern Ghats, India.

Brown, S. 1997. Estimating Biomass and biomass Change of Tropical forests: a primer.

Barah et 2013; Aboveground biomass and Carbon stocks of Tree Species in tropical Forests
of Cachar District, Assam, Northeast India.

1
Vetaas (1997), the effect of canopy disturbance on species richness in a central Himalayan
Oak forest.

Yadav and Sah (1998), quantities analysis of vegetation (Trees and Shrubs) in Nagarjun hill

Shrestha et al. (2000), vegetation distribution in relation to surface soil characteristics in

shivapuri watershed.

Chaudhary and Kunwar (2002), the vegetation composition of Arun Valley, east Nepal.

Kunwar and Sharma (2004) quantitative analysis of tree species in two community forests
Amaldapani and Juphal of Dolpa district, mid-west Nepal.

Chaudhary. O., ram Prasad, P. Mishra G.P, 1988. Studies of teak plantation & mixed natural
forest in tropics.

Shrestha et al. 2000, vegetation analysis of natural and degraded forests in Chitrepani in
Siwalik region of Central Nepal.

Baishya et al. 2009, the distribution pattern of aboveground biomass in natural and plantation
forests of humid tropics in Northeast India.

Zhaodi Guo et al. 2009 the inventory-based estimates of ofrest biomass carbon stocks in
China.

Ghimire et al. 2008; Vegetation Analysis along an Altitudinal Gradient of Juniperus indica
forest in Southern Manang Valley, Nepal

Lars Gunnar Marklund et al. 2006, Global assessment of growing stock, biomass and Carbon
Stock.

2
Tshering Dolma Lama st al. Carbon Stock of leasehold forest of Katakuti VDC, Dolakha
District.

Shrestha et al; Carbon Stocks in the Oak and Pine Forest in Salyan District, Nepal.

Rao et al 2015, Carbon sequestration potential of tropical deciduous forest of Nallamalais,

India

Garkoti 2006; estimates of biomass and primary productivity in a high altitude maple forest
of the West-Central Himalayas.

Gautam and Mandal; 2016 Effect of disturbance on biomass, production and carbon
dynamics in moist tropical forest of Eastern Nepal.