The Potential For Renewable Energies in Rural Areas of Madagascar (March 2009)

Organisations des Nations Unies pour le Développement Industriel
Bureau de Représentation pour l’Océan Indien à Antananarivo

(Comores, Madagascar, Maurice, Seychelles)
THE POTENTIAL FOR RENEWABLE ENERGIES IN

RURAL AREAS OF MADAGASCAR
Victor BEGUERIE1
Kevin BLANCHARD2
Under the direction of Patrick GILABERT

Representative of UNIDO for the Indian Ocean
Documentation stopped on the 15th October 2008

Mars 2009
1
UNIDO Intern, victor.beguerie@gmail.com
2
UNIDO Intern, blanchardkevin@hotmail.fr
The potential for renewable energies in rural areas of Madagascar
2
WARNING
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization can’t in any way be responsible for
the utilization and the interpretation of the information contained in this publication which
aims to inform and not to deliver personalized advices. Opinions expressed in this document
are those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization. Information contained in the present document was updated in
the middle of October 2008. They are given to an informative purpose and are likely to
change throughout time. The interested reader is invited to contact the different concerned
actors in order to get more details on the searched information.
3
Contents
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 9
I. Rural energy in Madagascar ............................................................................................. 11
1. NATIONAL ENERGY OVERVIEW ........................................................................... 11
1.1 Energy consumption & production ........................................................................ 11
1.2 Macro consequences of the national energy situation ........................................... 12
2. ENERGY SITUATION IN RURAL AREAS .............................................................. 15
2.1 Rural energy institutional framework .................................................................... 15
2.2 Energy consumption in rural area .......................................................................... 17
2.3 Causes of the rural energy situation ....................................................................... 24
2.4 Consequences of the rural energy situation ........................................................... 27
II. Renewable energies potential in rural area ................................................................... 31
1. Solar energy in Madagascar .......................................................................................... 31
1.1 Resource potential .................................................................................................. 31
1.2 Technology availability ......................................................................................... 32
1.3 Experiences and running projects in Madagascar .................................................. 32
2. Wind energy .................................................................................................................. 35
2.3 Experiences and running projects .......................................................................... 39
3. Hydropower ................................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Experiences and running projects in Madagascar .................................................. 45
4. Gasification energy ....................................................................................................... 49
4.3 Experience in Madagascar ..................................................................................... 58
5. Methanization energy .................................................................................................... 58
5.3 Financial issues ...................................................................................................... 62
4
5.4 Biogas consumption: .............................................................................................. 63

6. Biofuel energy ............................................................................................................... 67
6.1 Resource Potential ................................................................................................. 67
6.3 Institutional framework .......................................................................................... 70
6.5 Economic viability of biofuel in Madagascar ........................................................ 73
7. Wood energy ................................................................................................................. 74
III. SWOT ANALYSIS, COMPARISON AND RECOMMANDATIONS ....................... 82
1. SWOT ANALYSIS PER ENERGY ............................................................................. 82
1.1 Solar SWOT analysis ............................................................................................. 82
1.2 Wind SWOT analysis ............................................................................................ 83
1.3 Hydraulic SWOT analysis ..................................................................................... 83
1.4 Gasification SWOT analysis .................................................................................. 84
1.5 Methanization SWOT analysis .............................................................................. 85
1.6 Biofuel SWOT analysis ......................................................................................... 86
1.7 Wood SWOT analysis............................................................................................ 86
1.8 Common factors ..................................................................................................... 87
2. SWOT ANALYSIS COMPARISON: strenghts, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
88
3. Comparison and recommandations ............................................................................... 92
3.1 Cooking issues ....................................................................................................... 92
3.2 Electricity development ......................................................................................... 93
References ................................................................................................................................ 96
Annex ....................................................................................................................................... 98
Annex 1: Solar energy worksheet ........................................................................................ 98
Annex 2: Wind energy worksheet ...................................................................................... 103
Annex 3: Hydropower worksheet ....................................................................................... 109
Annex 4: Gasification (thermal conversion) worksheet ..................................................... 113
Annex 5 : Methanization (biological conversion) .............................................................. 116
5
Annex 6 : Biofuel Worksheet ............................................................................................. 122

Annexe 7 : Wood worksheet .............................................................................................. 130
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Acknowledgment
We would like to thanks all the people who accepted to receive us and to share information
and in particularity A. Andriantavy (ADER executive secretary) and O. Ischebeck (Energy
minister advisor) with whom the discussions have been very helpful.
We also thank the UNIDO staff in Madagascar for having helped us in our tasks.
Finally, we acknowledge Nico for his paintings of Madagascar.
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ACRONYMS and ABBREVIATIONS
ADER = Agence du Développement de l’Electrification Rurale

ADES = Association pour le Développement de l'Énergie Solaire Suisse-Madagascar
CDM = Clean Development Mechanism
CSB = Centre de Santé de Base
CNRIT = Centre National de Recherches Industrielle et Technologique
CMCS = Centre Malgache de la Canne à Sucre
DC = Direct Current
DRE = Decentralized rural electrification
EDF = Electricité De France
ESF = Electricien Sans Frontière
EU = European Union
FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization
FNE = Fond National pour l’Electricité
GEF = Global Environmental Fund
GDP = Growth Domestic Product
GIS = Geographical Information System
GTZ = Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
Ha = Hectare
IME = Institut pour la Maitrise de l’Energie
kW = Kilo Watt
kWh = Kilo Watt Hour
MAEP = Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche
MAP = Madagascar Action Plan
MEEF = Ministère de l'Environnement et des Eaux et Forêts
MEM = Ministère de l'Energie et des Mines
MRSTD = Ministère de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique pour le Développement
MW = Mega Watt
OPEM = Organisation des Producteurs d'Ethanol à Madagascar
ORE = Office de Régulation de l’Eléctricité
PEPSE = Poverty Eradication and Planning of Sustainable Energy
PV = Photovoltaic
REFM = Rural Electrification Financing Mechanism
SAPM = Système Nationale d'Aires Protégées
SGDF = Site de Gestion Forestière Durable
SHP = Small Hydro Power
W = Watt
Wc = Watt-Crete
WFP = World Food Program
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INTRODUCTION
The Madagascar Action Plan (MAP) provides a guideline for the government and all partners
involved in the development of Madagascar from 2007 to 2012. It details eights commitments
relatives to every aspects of the social, economic, judiciary, health and education life. The
commitment 2 stipulates an improvement of the energetic system, the water supply and the
road network.
To this end, the Government of Madagascar has made legal and institutional provisions to
open the economy to foreign investment and invites foreign investors to all fields of energy
supply from renewable sources, in particular for grid-connected hydro-power, small hydro-
power for rural electrification, plantation of energy crops and transformation to bio-fuels,
solar energy for rural energy supply, wind power and geothermal power.
At the summit meeting of the African Union on industrial development in Addis Abeba of
January 2008, President Marc Ravalomanana has again stated the government’s will to
develop Madagascar’s energy supply on the basis of renewable energies.
The national energy policy aims at:
- Ensuring electricity supply security by developing hydroelectric power in priority
- Increasing the access to electricity by means of a policy focussing on public-private
partnership
- Promoting the development of other renewable energy resources, notably wind, solar,
biomass and geothermal energy
- Valorising conventional energy resources (natural gas, hydrocarbons and coal)
With this policy, Madagascar foresees in 2020 a share of 53% of renewable energies in the
total energy supply of the country.
The UNIDO office for the Indian Ocean being in charge of environmental and energetic
issues in the United Nations System wants to accompany the government in its energy policy.
A huge gap exists between urban and rural areas regarding the access to electricity and energy
more generally. Thus, we decided to focus this survey about the potential of renewable
energies in rural areas in Madagascar. This investigation aims at distinguishing all the
renewable energies (wind energy, solar energy, hydraulic energy and bioenergy (geothermic
energy won’t be discussed in this survey)) and at studying their potential in Madagascar. The
results of this study will help the UNIDO office for the Indian Ocean to orient its future
projects on renewable energies.
The following report will first present an overview of the situation of the energy in
Madagascar. This part will be followed by a detailed analysis of the potential of every
renewable energy in Madagascar. The final part will be dedicated to a comparison of all these
energies and will expose our recommendations for the orientation of the future UNIDO
projects.
9
This survey not being addressed to energy experts only, we also added in Annex a worksheet
explaining every renewable energy (their origins, their techniques and their utilizations) so
that non experts will be quickly and easily familiarized with the different renewable energies
developed in this study.
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I. RURAL ENERGY IN MADAGASCAR
1. NATIONAL ENERGY OVERVIEW
1.1 Energy consumption & production
a. Energy consumption
The national energy consumption in Madagascar was estimated to be at 2 997.7 Ktoe in 2004.
The main energy resources used are biomass, petroleum-based products and electricity.
Biomass consumption accounts for about 79.5% of the total energy consumption. Petroleum-
based products provide about 17.5% of the total consumption and electricity accounts for
2.2%.
Based on sectors, the domestic sector represents 59.7% of the total final energy consumption
while the industrial and the transportation sectors account respectively for 24.7% and 11.8%
(MEEF, 2004).
Biomass consumption mainly includes firewood for 81.9% of the total biomass consumption,
charcoal for 14.9 % and agricultural residue for what is left (sugarcane bagass: 2.9%; rice
husk: 0.3 %) (MEEF, 2004). Only one third of the wood comes from dedicated and renewable
plantations, while two thirds are cut from natural forests, thereby further degrading the
country’s already low forest cover (Ischebeck, 2008). The contribution from the woody
biomass as an energy product to the diminution of the forestry cover rate is between 25 % and
40 %. Almost all the rural households and around 95% of the urban households use woody
fuel for cooking and heating purposes (MEEF, 2004).
51% of the petroleum-based products are consumed in the transportation and the domestic
sectors. 35% are allocated in the industrial sector. 12 % of this resource is used by the
JIRAMA (the national company for water and electricity) for electricity production.
The national electrification rate is closed to 23 %. However, there is a large inequality
between rural and urban areas as the electrification rate in rural area is at 6% while it is close
to 43 % in urban areas (Ischebeck 2008).
b. Energy production
All the petroleum-based products are imported. 4 companies are in charge of the distribution
of the products: Total, Gallana, Jovenna, and shell. About 10 international oil companies have
begun oilfield researches. These researches have not led to oilfield discoveries. However,
exploitable oil reserves are estimated to be around 150 MMbbl (Ischebeck, 2008). Even if this
potential could be interesting at the national level, it may be available only in the long run.
Therefore, for the moment, Madagascar depends entirely on the world oil market.
According to electricity, the total generation capacity is 253 MW. 103 MW are produced
through oil generators (diesel and heavy fuel) and the other part through hydropower
(Ischebeck, 2008).
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1.2 Macro consequences of the national energy situation
a. Oil dependency
The oil dependency refers to the part of the oil imported in the total oil consumed. Since
Madagascar imports all its oil, the country is highly exposed to oil price variation.
Oil price evolution

More than a commodity, oil is considered to be a strategic resource. The absence in the short
run of substitution products is a big issue for sectors like transportation or energy production.
The demand is therefore relatively inelastic in the short run. The price dynamic depends on
producer behavior (OPEC), available market tools (financial tools) and external shocks (war,
hurricane, etc.). The price evolution shows a lot of variation which could come from a quota
reduction by the OPEC, from a speculative bubble on the spot, swaps or options market, or
from instability in a producing country. Since 2002, when the oil price was around US $ 30 a
barrel, it increased drastically and in the first semester of 2008, the price reached the highest
level ever at around US $ 150 a barrel. Since then, the price has drastically decreased to US $
30 a barrel in December 2008. However, the price is not going to stay at this level and the
price is expected to increase.
Consequences for Madagascar

The oil price variation affects macro-economic indicators.
• Payment balance
Given the fact that the oil demand is inelastic in the short/middle run, oil imports in value
increase when the oil price increases. This negatively affects the commercial balance and
therefore negatively affects the balance of payment. Furthermore, according to the drop of
productivity in sectors exposed to the international competition, tradable products will loose
competitiveness, negatively affecting the balance of payment.
• Inflation
According to the inflationary effects of energy price increases, when firms decide to transfer
the increase in input price to the output price it will lead to a general increase in the whole
price structure since many products depend on energy product.
Unfortunatly, we do not have data to illustrate our purpose.
b. Diminution of the forest cover
Evolution of the forest cover
12
Many studies have been led to estimate the forest cover in Madagascar and its evolution since
the end of the 19th century. We can count at least 14 of them. The methods used in these
surveys to estimate the forest cover were so various that it is a hard to have a precise idea of
the phenomenon; but these maps derived from aerial photographs and satellite images give
them an idea of the importance of deforestation in Madagascar.
Map : Maps of deforestation history in eastern Madagascar derived from

aerial photographs and satellite images.
In 1927, the forest cover was estimated at 53 million hectares (ESMAP, 1995) whereas, in
2005, 9 725 082 hectares of forests were identified by US AID. Nevertheles, the annual rate
decrease from 1.39% between 1990 and 2000 to 0.49% between 2000 and 2005 (US AID,
2007).
The last registered map of the forest cover in Madagascar represents the forest cover in 2000.
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Map : Map of the forest cover in 2000
Reasons to deforest
Rapid deforestation is the result of a rapid population growth and of traditional agricultural
techniques. Madagascar, with its annual population growth rate of 6,3% in 2007, responds
typically to these criteria.
We can distinguish three main reasons to deforest: agriculture, energy and trade.
The negative impact of agriculture on the forest cover depends on the interaction between the
agricultural technique and the subsistence demand of the population. For a constant level of
technology, the rapid growth of the population accelerates the deforestation. Indeed, given the
fact that it is not possible to produce more on the same parcel of land, the surface of the parcel
needs to be widened in order to increase the production and thus satisfy the population needs.
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Forests are thus turned into cultivable lands or pasture lands. In Madagascar, tavy technique is
mainly responsible for this transformation.
Moreover, this rapid population growth increases the demand of woody fuel and the demand
of wood for building new houses. As we discussed above, only one third of the wood comes
from dedicated and renewable plantations, while two thirds are cut from natural forests,
thereby further degrading the country’s already low forest cover (Ischebeck, 2008). The
contribution to the diminution of the forestry cover rate is between 25 % and 40 %. Almost all
the rural households and around 95% of the urban households use woody fuel for cooking and
heating purposes (MEEF, 2004).Besides, wood is mainly directly used for energy purpose and
transformed into charcoal (rarely used in rural area) which consumes less wood for the same
calorific value. USAID estimates that the annual consumption of charcoal in the rural areas is
insignificant, whereas it is 1,75 m3/person in urban areas. As a whole, firewood was
responsible for the loss of 9,026 million m3 of wood for the year 2005 and charcoal was
responsible for the loss of 8,58 million m3 of wood for the year 2005 (USAID, 2007).
Finally, Madagascar is very rich in terms of precious wood such as palissandre or bois de
rose… All these precious trees are in the center of an important trade which was responsible
for the loss of 4,127 million m3 of wood in the year 2005 (USAID, 2007).
2. ENERGY SITUATION IN RURAL AREAS
2.1 Rural energy institutional framework
The MAP provides a guideline for the government and all partners involved in the
development of Madagascar from 2007 to 2012. According to energy issues, the main
concerns are to insure a sufficient electricity production to face the economic growth and
increased individual welfare, and to reduce deforestation through the diminution of firewood
consumption.
a. Project of the government to develop rural electrification
In order to manage electricity issues, the government has been engaged in energy sector
reforms since 1999. The energy sector was opened to competition in order to attract financing
and change the monopoly situation of JIRAMA.
In order to support the new rural electrification market, a Rural Electrification Financing
Mechanism (RFEM) was designed in 2001 through the decrees Number 2001-173, Number
2001-803 and Number 2001- 849. A RFEM is a mechanism implemented to mobilize private
funding and provide technical assistance for the rural electrification sector. The system was
supported by 4 institutions: the MEM, the ORE, the ADER and the FNE. The table below
details their respective roles.
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Table 1: the RFEM institutional design

Institution Role
- Prepares and implements national
policies
- Prepares legislative and regulatory texts
Energy ministry (MEM) - Has contractor authority
- Launches bid calls (transportation,
distribution, etc…)
- Offers administrative supervision
- Is a competition referee
- Fixes and supervise tariffs
Electricity regulation office (ORE)
- Controls service quality
- Realizes MEM folder (concessions)
- Is in charge of the implementation of the

rural electrification policies
- Provides supply services for the sector
- Supervises and finance renewable energy
Rural electrification development
projects
agency (ADER)
- Provides technical assistance for
operators
- Is in charge of socio-economic and
environmental project evaluation
- Finances rural electrification development

Electricity national fund (FNE) programs
- Provides incentive for banks to invest in
the sector
ADER is the main agency coordinating the rural electrification. It manages the FNE.
The mean annual budget of the ADER/FNE is utilized to subsidize 70% of investments as a
maximum per project chosen. Currently, the budget is between € 1 to 2 million per year and
may reach a maximum of € 4 million in few years.
b. Project of the government on firewood
In order to limit the deforestation and to preserve the Malagasy biodiversity, the government
established a national system of Protected Areas. In October 2003, the president Marc
Ravalomanana presented, in the International Congress of Parks in Durban, his wish to extend
the national system of Protected Areas from 1,7 to 6 million hectares, that is to say 10% of the
size of the country. Only 3,552 million hectares of natural forest and 265 000 hectares of
plantations are thus now available (in 2005) for commercial exploitation. It is estimated that
this forest cover can produce 18,5 million m3 of wood (US AID, 2007).
Compared to electricity policy, deforestation is more considered in a global framework. For

example, wood projects in rural areas are more included in regional projects (ex: Greenmad
from GTZ in the north). However, government has developed forest management association
16
at the commune level: the COBA. These groups have to manage and protect the forest area.
Analyses have to be pursued to understand better the institutional framework on wood issues.
2.2 Energy consumption in rural area

The energy consumption in rural areas could be shared into domestic, productive activities,
and administrative and social structures consumption.
a. Domestic consumption
Households need energy mainly for cooking, lighting, using audio-visual devices and getting
access to water.
Cooking
On average, households in rural areas consume three meals each day. They need heat for each
meal.
Households in rural area consume mainly rice and cassava which are produced in large
quantities all over the country. For those who can afford it, they eat meat like bovines, pigs,
poultry, etc. This consumption is spread out all over the country. Moreover, since Madagascar
is an island and has a lot of other water resources (river and lac), people who have access to it
eat more fish. Households also eat many different vegetables and fruits like corn, tomatoes,
bananas, coconuts, etc.
Nico, 2008, Preparer le repas
Some of them need to be cooked: fish, meat, rice, cassava, etc. Frequently, cookers overcook
the rice in the cooking pot in order to make cake. The cooking energy consumption depends
17
mainly on firewood but also on charcoal3 and gas. When electricity is available, it is not
competitive for cooking except sometimes for rice cooker and water boiler.
• Firewood
The use of firewood is the widespread in rural area. It is commonly use in open fire but also in
stoves and improved stoves. The open fire method is largely spread out because it does not
request investment but presents some inconveniences: the energy efficiency4 is very low and
the fire is generally made in households in small spaces that expose mainly women and
children to fire smoke. This induces severe respiratory illness. Associating to paraffin lamp
pollution, this illness kills 13 000 persons each year, 39 persons/day (WHO, 2007). The stove
solution motivates people to buy the device since it is not really expensive. It allows reducing
the energy inefficiency even if it remains low and lets individuals exposed to the fire smoke.
Different campaigns have introduced improved cooking stoves permitting the energy
efficiency to increase drastically and preventing people from being exposed to smoke when a
chimney is installed.
According to the resource price, when the wood is collected in the forest, the resource is free.
Another possibility is to buy it. In 2007, the cost of 1 Kg of wood bought is Ar 40
(BIONNERR, 2007) and 0.686 m3 of wood is consumed per person and per year (USAID,
2007) or 6.56 Kg per household per day5. Therefore, for households who buy all their
firewood, their daily consumption expense is Ar 263.
• Charcoal
According to USAID (2007), the use of charcoal in rural area is 0 m3/person. However, even
if this analysis is close to the real statistic, some rural households do consume charcoal in
rural area. Unfortunatly, we did not find data on this aspect. The resource is used in stoves.
The cost of a traditional stove (fatapera traditional) is Ar 3000. They have an estimated life
duration of around 3 months. Households can also use a more improved cooking stove (fatana
mitsity) which costs Ar 6000 and has estimated life duration of around 7 months. For a
fatapera traditional stove 2.92 Kg of charcoal is needed per day for a household of 5 persons.
For mitsity, 1.75 Kg is needed (Tana Meva, 2007). The price of 1 Kg of charcoal is between
Ar 285 and Ar 333 according respectively to Tany Meva (2007) and BIONERR (2007)
analyses. Households using fatepera spend around Ar 1000 per day, while those using mitsity
spend around Ar 500.
• Gas
Finally, the gas used in rural area is the natural gas that is sold in bottles of different sizes: 6
and 12 kG. This solution presents very good energy efficiency but is very expensive and
3
Charcoal is the wood obtained after pyrolysis in a millstone.
4
Energy efficiency refers to the transfer of energy in Kcal from the primary energy to the final use. For example
it refers to the number of kcal in 1 kg of wood transfer into heat for cooking.
5
According to Ademe energy equivalency, we make the hypothesis here that 1 m3 of wood equal more or less
700 Kg. Furthermore, we suppose that a household is composed by 5 persons. Therefore, 6.56 Kg
((0.686*700*5)/365) of wood is consumed by households per day.
18
therefore remains inaccessible for many of them. Therefore, it is weakly used in rural areas.
The price of a 12 Kg gas bottle is Ar 44 000 (BIONERR, 2007). Households using bottled gas
consume 0.5 Kg of gas each day and 1 Kg of gas is Ar 4000. It means that the daily expense
is around Ar 2000.
The table below shows the comparison between the different options for cooking traditionally
used in rural area.
Table 2: cooking options
Resource Wood Charcoal Gas
Support Open fire Traditional Mitsity Bottle 6 Bottle

stove stove Kg
12 Kg
Initial investment of the 0 3000 6000 22 000 44000

support (Ar)
Life duration (Months) 3 7
Quantity (Kg)/ Per day 6.56 2.92 1.75 0.5

(3 meals); per person in
household (5 people)
Price of the resource 0 if it is collected 285 to 333 4000

(Ar)/ Kg or 40 if it is bought
Household daily expense 0 to 263 1000 500 2000

(Ar)
Household yearly 0 to 96 040 377 000 194 000

expense (Ar)
Source: Authors, 2008.
Wood remains the cheapest solution for cooking.
LIGHTING
On average, households use light between 18:00 and 22:00. The wealthiest can use light till
midnight. Some households keep a nightlight for their security. They generally leave it on
until it turns off alone. This habit concerns a few parts of the population.
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Nico, 2008, Travail sous la lampe
Households use traditional lamps, paraffin lamps, flashlights or candles. The data provided
below comes from a UNIDO survey and from GRET/ERI survey in 2008.
• Paraffin lamp
Paraffin lamp is the most widespread device used for lighting in rural
areas because it is the cheapest. It costs around Ar 300. However, the
quality of this device is very low, the life duration is around 6 months,
and the price depends on the oil price as paraffin is a product derived
from oil. Moreover, it exposes individuals to respiratory illness. One
liter of paraffin costs between Ar 2500 and Ar 3000 in 2008. One lamp
consume on average 0.05 liters per night. It means that households
spend between Ar 125 and Ar 150 for paraffin per night per lamp. If we
consider that an household of 5 peoples have on average 2 paraffin lamps, they spend between
Ar 250 and Ar 300 per night. This price evolves depending on the time of use.
• Candle
Candles provide better lighting than paraffin lamps and are less harmful for health but they
are more expensive. The price of one candle ranges from between Ar 200 and Ar 500. There
are different sizes of candles given their lighting duration. Households use 2 candles on
average per day. Thus, the daily expense ranges from Ar 400 to Ar 1000.
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• Traditional lamp
Traditional lamps use vegetable oil, shortening, etc. They are used for house lighting. A
traditional lamp costs around Ar 300 and its life duration is around 6 months. The price for
lighting depends also on the resource use. Shortening is free, 1 liter of ethanol costs Ar 1740
today and 1 liter of jatropha costs Ar 1880 (BIONERR, 2007).
• Flashlight
A flashlight is used for lighting out of the house. A flashlight cost 1500 Ar on average and its
lige duration is around 4 months. It needs two R20 batteries to work which have to be
changed twicea month on average, indeed the life duration of the batteries differs given their
quality and their frequency of use. A battery costs between Ar 500 to Ar 1000. Batteries are
pollutants because when households dispose of them in their natural surroundings, the
chemical components contained in the battery can contaminate the soil and the water sheet.
The survey made by GRET in Tolongoina close to Fianarantsoa, shows that half of the
households have a flashlight.
• Electricity
Finally, when electricity is available for lighting, it is commonly provided by a small electric
generator. It costs Ar 100 per hour for a 24 W lamp (low consumption) which means Ar 400
per lamp per night. On average, households have one to two low consumption lamps and use
during 4 hours from 18h to 22h. Therefore, households consume 96 to 192 Wh per night
which means a spending from Ar 400 to Ar 800 per night.
The table below shows the comparison between the different options for lighting traditionally
used in rural area.
Paraffin lamp remains the cheapest solution for lighting.
Audio-visual
Audio-visual devices are generally radios, televisions and phones.
The use of radios depends on the reception. When there is reception, an average of more than
half of the population uses radios. In Tolongoina, 60% of the population has a radio. The
radio is listened several hours a day on the morning, the midday and the evening. A radio
costs around Ar 30 000. They work with 2 R20 batteries. A battery costs between Ar 500 and
Ar 1000. The expense per household per month is on average Ar 2000 for batteries.
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Table 3: lighting options
Support Paraffin Candle Traditional flashlight Electricity lamp

lamp lamp
Resource paraffin Vegetable batteries electric generator (50

oil/shortening W)
Initial 600 600 (300*2) 1500 500 000 to 1 000 000

investment of (300*2)
the support (Ar)
Life duration 6 6 4 10 ans

(Months)
Quantity of 0.1 liter 2 Liter 4 R20 per 96 to 192 Wh

resource/ Per month
day (4 hours);
per household
(5 persons)
Price of the 2500 to 200 to 500 1800 500 to 100/ Wh

resource (Ar)/ 3000 1000
unit
Household daily 250 to 300 400 to 65 to 133 400 to 800

expense (Ar) 1000
Household 92 450 to 146 000 to 28 225 to 196 000 to 392 000

yearly expense 110 700 365 000 53 045
(Ar)
Source: Authors, 2008.
Televisions remain scarce for rural households and when they have one, they used it during
restricted times in order to avoid the high energy expenses. If the rural areas have reception,
they have access to the different channels. If not, a TV is bought with a VCD and is used to
watch movies. Moreover, the energy needed to make a TV work is often provided by car
batteries or generators. These devices are expensive. Car batteries need to be reloaded and
generators are expensive both at the initial investment and the exploitation costs level because
of the oil price. On average, TV is used 2 hours a day. This requires more or less 1 liter of oil
when the generator is used. 1 liter costs between Ar 2500 and Ar 3000. Therefore, the
expense for household who have a TV is between Ar 2500 and Ar 3000 per day. Some of the
owners use the TV for commercial purposes thereby increasing their daily expenses. In
Tolongoina, 3 of the 17 owners used their TVs as cinemas.
22
The Phones used in rural area are the cell phones. Since the development of the network all
over the country by the three operators: Orange, Telma and Zain and the cheap price of the
mobile, numbers of individual have bought a cell phone. It is working through a prepaid
system. The price per minute is quite high for most of the rural population. Therefore, lots of
people have a mobile but do not have credit.
Water
To get access to water, different infrastructures are installed in many villages. It can be a
fountain born or a well. The fountain born is a system that allows the storage of the water and
then dispensed by the pull of gravity. The well permits the water to be extracted from beneath
the soil. A hole is made in the soil to get access to the water sheet. Then, a mechanical system
working through human force or electricity allows villagers to raise the water to the surface.
Then, individuals have to bring back the water to the house by carrying the water in buckets.
When infrastructures are not available, which is mainly the case in lots of fokontany, people
get access to water directly in the river closest to their living place. The water is frequently
not potable and so people who drink it are exposed to severe illnesses and in particular
children are often susceptible to diarrhea.
b. Productive activities consumption
In rural areas, the energy use for economic activities is mostly for agriculture and groceries.
Agriculture represents a huge part of the Malagasy GDP and this activity is almost entirely
concentrated in rural areas. The green revolution is not an issue in Madagascar. Farmers still
work in their land with traditional materials. However, as rice is the primary agricultural
product in Madagascar, rice mills and rice huskers have been installed. They generally work
trough diesel engines. The material is expensive and the exploitation costs depend highly on
the oil price.
Grocery stores use lights and fridges. Some of them have a small oil generator or an oil
fridge.
Other activities like welding shop use oil generator. Otherwise, the human force is the energy
resource. For instance, individuals working in the handwork and woodwork activities depend
mainly on traditional materials.
c. Administrative and social structures consumption
According the administrative infrastructure, authorities have to manage the census of the
population and all the information needed to manage the commune. Without computer, it is
very difficult to handle, and some of them do not their task properly.
23
The social structures concern mainly the health center and the schools. Health centers use
light for the patient who have to stay and for the emergencies during the night. They also use
oil fridge for vaccines. Schools do not use energy. They close before the night because they
do not have sufficient light system. Furthermore, teachers report that they waste their time
explaining several times the same things because they do not have course support.
The energy consumption of rural inhabitants is essentially for cooking, lighting, audio-
visual, cold storage and several different productive activities. For cooking purposes,
they mostly use wood. For the other consumptions, they use oil and batteries. The
wealthiest have generators they can use for lighting, audio-visual, cold storage or
productive devices (ex: rice husker).
2.3 Causes of the rural energy situation
a. LACK OF REVENUE
Rural household incomes are low, instable and seasonal.
For most of rural households, incomes are very low. Most of the rural inhabitants are farmer.
Given the price of the commodities and the lack of knowledge of the market, farmers have
very low revenue.
Nico, 2008, Bord de route travaux des champs
Rural inhabitants are vulnerable to shocks. An external shock like a bad crop, a hurricane, or
an increase in energy prices can suddenly reduce the revenue expected. Since 2002, the oil
price has drastically increased. Even if rural households are not the primary national oil
consumers, they use it for different purposes as explained above. Moreover, the oil price
increase indirectly affects the price of all goods when they use oil as an input. Therefore, the
inflation resulting from the oil price relatively increases household expenses if the revenue
remains stable. These factors could lead them into a drastic level of poverty. In a dynamic
24
perspective, households have the incentive to reduce their consumption or they can switch
back to traditional biomass.
Finally, farmer revenues are seasonal. Generally, their annual revenues are concentrated in
one period which occurs after the crop is harvested. Rice is the main agricultural product
produced in the country and generally farmers get one crop of rice a year after the rainy
season. Therefore, farmers get their revenue after the crop and have to spread their income
throughout the year. However, incomes are not sufficient to face all their needs and lead a lot
of them to face difficult months. This is the welding period and it is generally during the first
months of the year. In some cases, irrigation infrastructure allows 2 or 3 crops a year to be
obtained. This leads to a reduction in the risk of the welding period. During this period, the
main part of the population reduces their consumption. This affects the other productive
activities.
b. STRUCTURAL DISAVANTAGE OF RURAL AREAS
Land-locked areas
Many locations are not accessible by road or are not accessible throughout year. This causes
difficulties to arise when needs are being assessed since it is difficult to develop project and to
monitor them.
Density of the population per m2
The population is more spread out in rural areas than in urban areas. Implementing a village
project will definitely lead to increase the cost per beneficiary and decrease project
profitability.
c. Lack of financing for rural electrification
The JIRAMA deficiency
Before the energy market openness, the JIRAMA was in charge of developing electricity all
over the country. The system implemented was similar to many national electricity companies
in developing countries and had faced the same failures. For instance, the price of electricity
was subsidized and was higher in urban areas than in rural areas. Moreover, given the above
mentioned cost reasons, the grid was mostly developed in urban areas. Therefore, urban areas
had benefited more from the subsidy. At the same time, the JIRAMA failed in its strategic
orientation which has led the company to face several deficiencies. In 1986, the energy sector
had to be restructured. The project proposed was based on the fact that the grid did not need
an increase in the energy production. This proposition came from the overcapacity observed
25
in the Antananarivo electricity grid in1982 after the inauguration of the hydraulic central of
Andekaleka (58 MW). In the other hand, the oil barrel price was between US$ 10 and US$
20. An increase in the electricity demand could be rapidly satisfied by thermal groups.
Therefore, the restructuring program had consisted of the renewal of the thermal group park,
strengthening local capacity, improving bill cashing and the renewal of the car park in order
to improve the monitoring of the groups in remote areas.
In 2003, the national economic situation was critical and the oil price was increasing. The
investment needed to satisfy the increase in demand was not available and the maintenance of
the groups was not sufficiently done. At the same time, the electricity price has not been
adjusted which has resulted in an increasing of the gap between the production price and the
consumption price. The JIRAMA was in a critical financial situation. In 2006, they switched
the use of diesel to heavy fuel. It has reduced exploitation costs by 30%. However, in 2008,
even if the political context seems to be more stable, the oil price has drastically increased
since 2003 (reaching US$ 150 a barrel at the first semester of 2008). The price have decreased
in huge proportion since then but the situation is still very critical. Currently, 70% of the
exploitation expenditures are for oil. We understand that in this context, it was and it is still
hard for JIRAMA to provide electricity to remote areas. The recent demand of the commune
of Antoby est at 1 hour of Antananarivo was not accepted by JIRAMA even though they
proposed a financial contribution for the connection. This example illustrates that JIRAMA is
not able to provide electricity in rural areas in the short run.
The REFM
It is difficult to attract financing for electrification in rural areas. Even if JIRAMA has the
experience to develop electricity in rural area, as we explained above, the society is not able
to handle it. Therefore, the rural electrification will be developed out of the grid (DRE) and
depends on the REFM.
The REFM is based on the 70% subsidy provided by ADER. This subsidy proposed is
needed to develop rural electrification. However, the FNE is not sufficient to finance all the
projects and the 70% subsidy is not sufficient for most of the Malagasy operators involved in
rural electrification.
The FNE needs to be increased but JIRAMA is the primary funding opportunity for both
governments and international agencies. This leads to a competition for funding with the
FNE. For example, when the FNE was created, the World Bank promised US$ 5 million to
create a guarantee fund associated with the FNE. An agreement was signed with the BOA.
But, at the last moment the money was transferred to JIRAMA because of its critical
situation. Since then, the agreement did not succeed and rural electrification suffers from a
lack of bank involvement. Another reason is that ADER was created after other agencies in
Africa, which have collected a lot of funds. Given this delay, Madagascar lost the access to
international financing. However, according to the executive secretary of ADER, the
26
increasing interest in energy at a global level and the REFM design will allow Madagascar to
have access to more funds in a few years.
Most of the private operators involved in rural electrification do not have the independent
resources to finance the 30% left. Therefore they need access to bank loans. But the interest
rate attached to bank loans is quite high (between 15% to 25%) and is given for a short period
(around 5 years on average but could be extended). Indeed, commercial banks do not have a
lot of knowledge on rural electrification and thus increase the interest rates and decrease the
period of loans in order to reduce risks. Therefore, these constraints lead to a decrease in the
benefits and an increase the risk supported by the operators in the long run. High interest rates
and short reimbursement periods lead investors to decrease investment and therefore affect
the project quality and its sustainability. When ADER was created, the solution chosen was to
invest in the cheapest technology: the diesel generator (even more because the generators
came from a donation). However, even if the initial investment is lower, the profitability in
the long run remains highly exposed to the oil price variation.
d. The urban bias
The scarce resources of the government are more allocated in urban area. This phenomenon is
known as the urban bias. It is a paradox in developing countries because the GDP depends
mostly on the agricultural sector and thus on rural areas. This is a result of the economic
opportunity cost of the government resources due to the structural disadvantage of the rural
area but also because of the political interest in targeting more individuals at the lowest cost.
From the demand side, for most of the rural inhabitants, the part of their revenue they
can allocate to energy expense is quite low. Thus, they use the cheapest resources even if
it has a lot of inconvenient (wasted time, respiratory illness, etc.). From the supply side,
rural areas suffer from structural disadvantages to develop electricity projects. There is
a lack of financing.
2.4 Consequences of the rural energy situation
As a consequence, rural inhabitants are exposed to oil dependency, to the increase of the
wood bill and to a lack of access to electricity.
a. Oil dependency
The oil dependency impacts the consumers through the price increase and the price instability.
Oil price increase
27
An increase in energy prices is expected to affect consumers in two ways: a revenue effect
and a substitution effect. The revenue effect is the fact that consumers reduce their energy
consumption because of the energy price increase. The drop depends on the energy price
elasticity of demand. This effect is strengthened through indirect effects on inflation. On the
other hand, the substitution effect means that consumers switch to others goods: other energy
goods or non-energy goods. In the case of energy goods, for the poor this effect implies a
return to traditional biomass energy whereas for the rich it implies switching to other energy
like natural gas or a more efficient energy structure with regards to energy prices, resources
access, and technology disposal. For non-energy goods, consumers face more incentives to
spend less on energy and more on these other items, given the relative price.
For productive activities, an increase in energy prices will reduce factor productivity.
Therefore, managers will face two alternatives to react to the price increase: the first one is to
reduce the number of workers and thus lower production, the second results in a transfer of
input price increases to the output price. Furthermore, the drop in productivity exposes firms
to lose in international competitiveness. Ultimately, the effect will be more detrimental in
sectors that are more energy intensive. It could even lead to seriously hindering sectors or
industries that succeed in their development thanks to energy subsidy.
Oil price instability
The government control of energy price provides a protection from energy price volatility to
all consumers and thus contributes to protecting economic growth from macro-economic
shocks (Ramey et Ramey, 1995; Hnathovska and Loayza, 2004). Indeed, volatility has ex-post
and ex-ante consequences on the economy. Ex-post consequences refer to asymmetric effects
and adjustment costs. In the case of asymmetric effects, an increase in energy price has more
negative impact on the economy than the positive impact of an energy price decrease has
(Ferderer, 1996). Adjustment costs result in a misallocation of production factors due to
energy price variations (Hamilton, 1988). Ex-ante consequences refer to uncertainty. The
allocation of production factors depends on the agent's anticipations. Therefore, the allocation
will not be optimal, compared to a situation in which there is no variation.
Unfortunatly, we did not find data to illustrate our purpose.
b. The wood bill
The free access to wood has provided incentive for rural inhabitants to use it. However, as a
consequence, this habit has led to deforestation and has made the wood more and more
difficult to gather for villagers who have to walk more and more kilometers to find forest
areas. The time spent each day to collect the resource represents an opportunity cost because
of the possibilities to transfer this time into productive activities or into education.
28
A study led in September 2001 by the Ministry of Environment6 tries to estimate these costs
undergone by the rural household due to the expansion of deforestation. According to the
sample chosen in this survey, on average, villagers have to cover a distance of 3,3 km away
from their house to collect the wood. On average, villagers spend 4 hours and a half to collect
their wood. According to this study, the cost of the collect increased from 69 Fmg to 115 Fmg
over twenty years; that is to say an increase of 67%. This study also asserts that the loss of the
forest cover make the villagers lose a sum
equivalent to 143,9 to 286,1% of their
average annual individual income coming
from their main activity. Only considering
the investigated households, the annual
total cost of deforestation is from 527 to
1,05 million Fmg. The authors estimate that
the cost of deforestation will be multiplied
by 2 to 5 in the next twenty years if things
follow their current trend.
c. Lack of access to electricity
Lots of studies show that there is a positive

correlation between electricity and
development. Indeed, electricity is needed
at the domestic, productive and Nico, 2008, Miandrivazao
administrative and social level.
At the domestic level, it allows to get access to electric lamps, use radio and television at a
lower cost and charge the cell phone batteries. It could be used for other electric devices
designed especially for rural area needs: electric cooker, washing machine, etc. as it has been
done in China with success.
At the productive level, electricity permits to use fridge, light, rice husk, welding devices, etc.
For Handwork and woodwork activities, traditional materials could be replaced by electric
devices increasing the productivity. According to fishing activities, the energy needed is for
maintaining fresh fishes at cold temperature. Therefore, storage units are requested. Modern
energies could also be required by factories that want to involve themselves in rural areas. It
could be for ethanol production or mining extraction.
According to the administrative and social consumption, authorities need computers, printer
and photocopier. The health center need cold storage units for vaccines and schools ask for
light, computer, printer and projector.
6
MINENV, Les impacts de la deforestation sur les ménages ruraux à Madagascar : Application de la méthode de
coût de déplacement, 2001.
29
Lots of studies show that electricity is needed for development.
CONCLUSION: WHAT COULD BE THE ALTERNATIVES?
As described above, rural areas suffer from several deficiencies according to energy issues:
the main concern is the lack of access to electricity and the lack of alternatives for the cooking
issues, the demand is important but it is currently not solvable, there is a lack of financing
from the supply side, oil-dependency affects consumers’ utility and the diminution of the
forest cover has negative environmental and economic effects.
Therefore, other solutions have to be considered in order to develop electricity and to provide
alternatives for the cooking issues. We considered renewable energies7 here because they
present several advantages that can be part of the solution to the deficiencies mentioned
above. Indeed, they increase the energy security, the exploitation costs are cheaper because
the resource is typically available for free, the potential is huge in Madagascar and there is
political support. The main problem remains the initial investment in renewable energy
technologies. That is why we will proceed to analyze whether or not the technologies could be
produced in a competitive way in Madagascar. Moreover, most of the renewable energies
explored are an environmental solution. This fact could attract some financing since more
money is currently allocated to environmental issues.
Nico, 2008, Bivouac baraques au bord du fleuve
7
We defined renewable energies in this report as a resource which can be used indefinitely.
30
II. RENEWABLE ENERGIES POTENTIAL IN RURAL AREA

We study in this report the potential of solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, gasification
energy, methanization energy, biofuel energy and wood energy. If the reader is not
familiarized with a renewable energy characteristic, please refer to the annex.
1. SOLAR ENERGY IN MADAGASCAR
Solar energy worksheet: annex 1
1.1 Resource potential

In Madagascar, sunshine is 750 W/m² as a maximum in sunny day. As a mean over the year,
it is around 250 W/m² meaning that the potential for Madagascar per year is 1950 KWh/m²
(Ischebeck, 2008).
Although other factors as temperature, weather, relative humidity, etc. affect the solar energy
capacity, we focus here on the radiation repartition over the territory. Moreover, areas
threaten by deforestation represent a good indicator for site selection. All this aspects need to
be taken into account in a more detailed study.
Therefore, we study below maps which display the radiation reaching the ground in
Madagascar. The quantity displayed is the irradiation for a day averaged over twenty years
from 1985 to 2004. The radiation is expressed in Wh/m². These maps are computed from
observations made by meteorological satellites (European commission and l’Ecole des Mines,
2005).
According to the yearly mean data, Madagascar

has an important potential in the region on the
western side from Antsiranana to Taolagnaro and
on the east cost. Solar radiations range from 4 000
to 6 500 Wh/m2. The most interesting regions
which have a radiation level up to 5 500 Wh/m2
(yellow to the red color) are Diana, Sava, Sofia,
Boeny, Melaky, Menabe, Astsimo andrefana,
Androy, Anosy, Ihorombe, Haute Matsiatra,
Amoron’I Mania, Vakinankaratra, Bongolava. In
the eastern side, we find the cost of Atsimo
atsinanana and of Vatovavy Fitovinany. However,
these results have to be balanced given the
influence of the factors like weather. Because, the
rain comes from the east, he east cost is more
Map of Madagascar: Yearly mean of daily exposed and present a higher rate of rainy day per
irradiation year. Given to ADES and GREEN-MAD (see
experience in Madagascar) the toleario, the
31
Mahajunga and the Antsiranana province are the better sites for solar energy taking into
account all the factors affecting the solar energy efficiency.
1.2 Technology availability

We only focus here on the cooker issues for solar thermal. According to Photovoltaic (PV)
issues, we only provide information on solar panels and batteries technology because they are
the basics of a PV installation as it is detailed in the solar energy worksheet.
a. Solar thermal
There are two solar cookers available in Madagascar: the box cooker and the parabolic
cooker. There are build in Madagascar by NGOs like ADES or SOLTEC (see experiences in
Madagascar).
b. Photovoltaic
In most of the project already done or which are going to be realized, all the materials are
imported (May, 2008). The project GREEN-MAD tried in the 90’ to vulgarize the technology
but it was a failure (see experiences in Madagascar section). The market of batteries is widely
developed in Madagascar. However, VIRIO is the only local firm involved in the production
and the recycling of batteries.
1.3 Experiences and running projects in Madagascar

There are currently around 10 firms, NGO’s or international agency involved in solar
activities: TENEMA, MADASOLEIL, SOMECA, NGO ADES, NGO SOLTEC,
SOLARMAD, RANASOA, WCS. (May, 2008)
We only detail below few examples of these firms activities in Madagascar.
a. Solar thermal
ADES is a NGO and a non-profit organization, producing solar cookers in Madagascar and
encouraging the use of renewable energy. The association is involved in the construction, the
production and the sale of solar box cookers in Toleario and Ejeda. Local craftsmen produce
the box type solar cooker in the ADES workshop in Toleario and starting in April 2006 also
in Ejeda in the South of Madagascar. ADES sells the solar cookers to the population at Ar
25 000, but the price is largely subsidize. Teaching the population thow using the solar cooker
is an important part of ADES work.
32
ADES box cookers
Due to the favourable conditions of 350 sunny days per year the South is ideal for using
solar energy. ADES therefore focuses its activities on the south of Madagascar, the
Province of Toleario. In order to cover the whole south ADES is planning to build various
regional and local centres for solar cooking within the next 8 to 10 years. Two regional
centres are planned in Morondava and in Toleagnaro. Up to the present time the financing
of two centres (investment and yearly operation) is possible through the fundraising
activities of ADES in Switzerland. For further centres other financial sources have to be
found.
SOLTEC is a professional center which helps the orphan or the families in difficulties. Each
year, 140 young malagasy are trained in mechanics, metallic, woodworks, etc. They produce
parabolic solar cookers and solar dryers. The price for a parabolic cooker is 190 000 Ar.
b. Photovoltaic
TENEMA is currently the leader on the PV market. It is a filial from TENESOL (TOTAL).
They have distribution centers in Toleario, Farafangana, Fianarantsoa and Manakara.
According to rural electrification, they have implemeneted PV installation: 7840 Wc in
Toliara region, 1200 Wc and 1300Wc in other regions. Furthermore, 60 schools and CSB
have been electrified by 700 Wc solar systems. They installed the biggest unit of Madagascar
in the Parc d’Ankaranfantsika with 16 kW power capacities.
SOLARMAD is a little french-malagasy firm which produces and sales solar and wind power
devices in rural area at a competitive price. It has begun in 2005 and is growing since then.
Today, 10 peoples are employed. According to their surveys, it exists a demand for solar
panel, mainly for those with low power capacity, under 50 W in order to use radio, cell
phones, lamps and televisions. These low capacity solar devices are sale from Ar 15 000.
Around, a 100 have been sale until now. The panels are produced in amorphous silicon which
is the cheeper material available on the market. Its efficiency is low compared to its size but
according to solarmad it does not matter. Panels without frame and cabling are imported.
33
ADES is also involved in photovoltaic issues. They do demonstration of their products in

their expositon center. Currently, they are analyzing the feasibility of a rural electrification
project in Saint Augustin in the Tolearia region. Several photovoltaic solutions are going to be
tested in order to choose the most adapted technology for vulgarization purpose. Units would
be implemented by the end of 2008.
GREENMAD is a project led by GTZ and the energy ministry. Part of this project was in the
90’ to develop the photovoltaic sector. They target the north-west side of the country given
the sufficient solar radiation potential: 5500 Wh/m2. Three of the four steps of the project
have been handled: the region situation analysis (socio-eco, matching demand, etc.),
demonstration projects in 6 CSB and 9 households and technology transfer to the private firm
SOCIMEX (technicians and engineer have been trained). The third step was the
commercialization of the solar kits. It did not happen because of the lack of involvement of
SOCIMEX, the lack of profitability and the lack of the demand solvability. Indeed, studies
have shown that PV installations were profitable only in 4.5% of the rural population
(GREEN-MAD, 1992).
RONOSOA is a Malagasy firm working on PV issues since 2004. In 2006, they implemented
PV installations in the Andranofeno village in the Analamanga region. Panels are mono-
crystallite and are imported from Italia.
PEPSE is a project focusing on the rural electrification solution in 9 regions in the south of
Madagascar: Amoron’I Mania, Atsimo Atsinana, Androy, Atsimo Andrefana, Haute
Matsiatra, Menabe, Vatovavy fitovinany, Ihorombe and Anosy. Several indicators have been
chosen to select the better sites. 73 villages in these 9 regions have been elected. 41 of them
have the objective to produce electricity from solar central through a local grid. The table
below details the information.
In Madagascar, a mono or polycrystalline solar panel with 50 Wc power capacity could be

buy for Ar 1 million. It is around Ar 700 000 for an amorphous one. Mono and polycrystalline
are the more used. According to the battery, many different products are available on the
malagasy market. The price for a battery of 50 Ah (6 hours of light or radio) is around Ar
400 000. Regulator could be find for Ar 170 000 for the low power and around Ar 5 000 000
for the high power (Hendrik, 2008).
34
Table 4: Pepse solar central projects
Region Village Available Population Estimated Costs/ kW Costs/Perso

power (kWc) targeted costs (million (million Ar) n (million
Ar) Ar)
Atsimo 4 232 70 000 8 000 34 0.114

Atsinana
Amoron’I 10 251 112 000 8 976 35 0.08

Mania
Atsimo 5 206 128 000 9 254 45 0.072

Andrefana
Haute 7 135 98 000 6 229 46 0.064

Matsiatra
Vatovavy 7 342 89 000 11 780 34 0.132

Fitovinany
Irohombe 1 28 12 325 975 34 0.079
Menabe 7 195 82 000 7 036 36 0.085
2. WIND ENERGY
Wind energy worksheet: annex 2

In Madagascar, 3 kinds of winds are distinguished: the coastal winds and other locals wind,
the Alizés and the cyclones. Whereas, the first types of winds have a daily variation, Alizés
have a seasonal variation. Cyclones are individual phenomena occurring during the austral
summer that is to say from December to March. Coastal and local winds and Alizés have a
good potential for wind energy. Cyclones represent a danger for wind turbines. Central East
Coast, with 1 to 5 cyclones per season, is the most vulnerable region of Madagascar to
cyclones and, thus, can present an important barrier for rural wind energy development.
35
Generally, the North, the South and the East coast of Madagascar are said to be the windiest
regions of Madagascar. This
generality is confirmed by every
study on wind measurement all
over the country. In the beginning
of the nineties, the German
society DECON (Deutsche
Energy Consult) conducted wind
measures in numerous points all
over the country. 3 sites were
considered interesting for
developing wind energy
equipment: Antsiranana,
Vohemar and Taolagnarao. The
Vergnet company published a
wind atlas of Madagascar,
covering the North, the East
coast, the East region of Hauts
Plateaux and the South. The maps
result from satellite measures of
the NASA and refer to the
average speed of the wind at a
height of 50 meters. This study of
the wind resource shows that Source: Atlas Eolien de Vergnet
there is a great potential of wind
energy resource: in the north of the country (Diana), many sites with wind speed higher than
8m/s were identified, in the middle part, the average wind speed in the range from coast
stretch to more than 10km inland is between 6-6.5 m/s, and in the south part, the estimated
wind speed exceeds 7.5m/s. Considering only the highest wind speed sites (>7m/s at 50m)
along the south and north coasts, Madagascar has more than 2000 Mw of potential. From this
atlas, we can conclude that the highlands region is not interesting for the development of wind
energy. This state of mind is based on the weak wind regime (about 4m/s) compared to a very
good potential for hydraulic energy. The South and the North remain the regions where wind
energy has the most important potential. The central east coast has also a good potential but
cyclones can represent a barrier to wind energy development. These remarks concern average
measures of wind power, it is possible that in very precise point of the West coast or of the
highlands, wind speed is higher than in some points in the South, the North or the East Coast.
For every eligible village to wind energy project a specific measure study should be
conducted.
36
Source: Atlas Eolien de Vergnet

Two kinds of wind turbines have to be distinguished: water pumping wind turbine and electric
wind turbine.
Water pumping wind turbines are purely mechanic. Water pumping is generally of 6m³. Life
duration of these machines can achieve 20 to 30 years. These equipments require a regular
maintenance, at least once a year. Nowadays, 10 systems of that kind exist in Madagascar for
water pumping. The producer is Ecolab, France. Their price is 12 millions Ariary (maximum)
without the installations fees.
Some electric wind turbine enterprises already exist in the Malagasy market; the most
important are listed below:
37
Source: Atlas Eolien de Vergnet
• SOMECA:
For its wind turbines, the company SOMECA works with the French company Vergnet which
provides wind turbines with a minimum power of 275 kW. This power can electrify a village.
The Vergnet company constructs wind turbines which can be easily and rapidly lowered, in
order to face the threat of cyclones. Nevertheless the technologies currently delivered to
Madagascar are considered as medium power wind turbine (nominal power of 275 kW) and
thus can provide electricity for an important village, the energy needs of the small rural
villages are not sufficient enough for that kind of wind turbine. Vergnet also constructs less
powerful anti cyclone wind turbine, which could better fit small rural village energy needs,
but they are not furnished any more.
38
• SOLARMAD:
SOLARMAD is a small Franco-Malagasy company based in Mahajanga. It produces small
wind turbines of 2 kinds:
500 Watt: diameter of 2,6m
1,5 kW: diameter of 5,6m
A model of 3kW is in preparation.
These turbines can be lowered during cyclones or for
maintenance and the blades are made of wood. Their
nominal speed being 7m/s, which is inferior to the
ordinary wind turbines sold on the Malagasy market,
makes them more adapted to less windy regions.
From a speed of 3m/s, they start to produce
electricity, they have to lowered when wind speed
exceeds 24m/s which is an important inconvenient.
These turbines are built locally, and except the
permanent magnet which is imported, all the
products come from Madagascar.
The price is about 1500€ per kW.
• TED:
TED imports wind turbines from the USA. 3 kinds of units exist:
• 400 W, the equipment costs 3 millions of Ariary, with the installations it costs about 5
millions of Ariary.
• 1 kW, the equipment costs 12 millions of Ariary, with the installation it costs about 20
millions of Ariary.
• 3 kW, the equipment and the installations cost around 45 millions of Ariary.
These equipments start to work from a wind speed of 3 m/s, and start to produce electricity
from 6-7 m/s. Their optimum is reached at 10-12 m/s.
2.3 Experiences and running projects
a. Mad’Eole
Mad’Eole sarl realized in June 2007 the electrification of the village of Sahasifotra in the
region of Diana. 60 families representing 300 people are now electrified. The system is made
of 3 Aerosmart wind turbines of 5 kW, lowered in case of cyclones. These wind turbines work
with a battery and are accompanied by a diesel generator of 5 kW. Financing is taken into
account by Mad’Eole at 70% and by ADER via the Fond National d’Eléctricité (30%).
39
Project details
• Total Investment: 200 000€
• Estimated life duration: 20 years
• Price of the electricity produced by the
wind turbines: 0,33€/kW
• Price of the electricity produced by the
diesel generator: 0,4€/kW
Cost repartition
• Wind turbines (3 x 5 kW): 25%
• Battery: 25%
• Electronic of control: 20% Wind turbines in Sahasifotra
• Diesel generator: 5%
• Electric grid: 10%
• Compteurs and domestic Installations: 15%
Although most of the installations were imported, a study conducted by Aerodyn

Energiesystem GmbH concluded that some elements of the wind turbines, like for instance
the mast of 30 m high, could be produced locally in the future by the company SECREN SA.
The project led in Sahasifotra will be followed by 15 other projects in 15 different villages, all
located in the region of Diana. In 2008, the villages of Ambolozokeli and Ambolozobe are
going to be electrified. They will be followed by 12 other villages during the 5 next years.
The villages are chosen according to their wind regimes, their village structures, their
economic potential and the engagements of the population.
b. Institut pour la Maîtrise de l’Energie (IME)
A wind turbine of 500 W was installed in the University of Antananarivo by the Institut pour
la Maîtrise de l’Energie (IME, Prof. Minoson Rakotomalala) in collaboration with the
Association Energie Efficiente Trans Europe Culture (AEETEC) of Strasbourg. Every part of
the wind turbine was imported and the system was fabricated by the Ateliers Raseta in
Antananarivo for a total cost of 6 millions of Ariary.
c. ACORDS
The village of Faux Cap (région) was recently electrified thanks to 3 wind turbines of 5 kW
each accompanied by a diesel generator. A cold chain was also settled in the village thanks to
the electricity produced by the wind turbines. This project was financed by the ADER and
ACORDS (a European Union program). The wind turbines were imported from India and
provided by Installation Electrique Technique (IET) a company based in Antananarivo.
40
d. QMM
A project is planned to provide energy to the QMM in Taolagnaro through a wind turbine
central. The created electricity will be injected in the grid of JIRAMA. The contract of the
chosen company will entail the supply of services and the sale of a part of the energy to rural
villages around the wind turbine central. The SOMECA and Vergnet propose a wind turbine
central of 3,3 MW composed of 12 wind turbines of a nominal power of 275 kW. This central
would cost 6 200 000 € among whom 1 200 000€ of different works, 1 654 000 € of electric
equipments and 3 300 000 of machines. No data concerning the energy supply for rural areas
are though available.
3. HYDROPOWER
Hydropower worksheet : annex 3

It is often said that Madagascar is ideal for hydraulic energy because there are many rivers
and the reliefs are relatively uneven.
Although decades ago Madagascar had a very developed Geographical Information System
(GIS) which was based on the Laborde method, the data provided by FTM (the society in
charge of the GIS system) needs to be updated. Therefore, a homogenized GIS on SHP sites
does not currently exist in Madagascar. However, for decades, hundreds of sites all over the
country have been localized. Potentials range from a few KW to 772 MW. Most of these sites
have been identified on the field and preliminary and prefeasibility studies have been
conducted for some of them. However, many sites remain unidentified. In 2002, an analysis
made by Hydro-Quebec identified the hydraulic potential of Madagascar. It was estimated to
be around 7800 MW. Only 2% of this potential is currently being exploited. The Rhyviere
project (see the Experiences and Running Projects section) has gathered much information
and is currently creating an exhaustive hydraulic atlas.
As this atlas is not yet available, we provide below the main hydrographic characteristics in
Madagascar. Five main catchment areas are identified in Madagascar. These are illustrated in
the map below on the natural division of the hydrographic network: the north with the Amber
mountain range (Ambohitra) and Tsaratanana, the east (extending from north Mananara to the
south Mananara), the west (from Onilahy to Sofia) and the south. The Dark line represents a
shared water flow line resulting from a geological break. The map on Madagascar relief
below shows how this relief is associated to this shared line and indicates the slope evolution.
We can see that the slope is higher from the shared line to the east cost. It means, that there
probably a larger potential to found out waterfalls in the east side in the Manara catchment
area. The same observation could be made in the north in the Amber mountain range
(Ambohitra) and Tsaratanana catchment areas.
41
Waterpower could be used as a source of energy for irrigation, as mechanical force (water
mill) or as electricity production. Although the varied use of waterpower could lead to
competition between the different users, we just consider SHP issues in this report given the
limited time to make our analysis. However, this competition remains a critical point in the
waterpower development and research ought to be conducted on the subject.

The availability of the technology for SHP in the Malagasy market focuses on turbine
manufacturing. In fact, generators and regulation systems require inputs and expertise that are
not currently available in Madagascar. For example, according to generators, the copper used
for the coil is not available in Madagascar and this industry is too large in the world which
leads to a very competitive market (most notably in transition countries like China or India).
The goal of the SHP and the Rhyviere project, two small hydropower projects (see
Experience section), is to develop local turbine manufacturing. However, it is very difficult to
develop this industry from scratch. Therefore, both of the projects have launched market
analyses to identify who could be the beneficiaries of the technology transfer. We detailed
below the analysis made by SHP and Rhyviere on this issue.
Market study from SHP:

Although Antsiranana (since it hosts the Institut Supérieur Technologique (IST), the Ecole
Superieure Polytechnique, the SECREN, etc.) presents interesting qualifications and materials
to produce crossflow central, this place is too far from Antananarivo to be able to launch
market operations at the national level. Therefore, the analysis has been reoriented in
Antananarivo and the conclusions of the study have resulted in the selection of two potential
beneficiaries for the technology transfer: the Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique of Antananarivo
(ESPA) and the Lycée technique et professionnelle Alarobia (LTPA).
The ESPA has machines to manufacture turbines but the equipment suffers from a lack of
maintenance. Nevertheless, this school has the advantage of having extensive experience in
teaching and has several departments which can be involved in hydropower development
projects.
According to the LTPA, they are capable of manufacturing turbines with capacities ranging
from 100 W to 100 KW and implement them. For the medium and low fall (a fall head
between 4 to 100 m), they produce BANKI turbines (Crossflow) with a power capacity
inferior to 100 kW; and for high fall (a fall head up to 50 m), they produce PELTON turbines
with a power capacity of up to 50 kW. However, PELTON turbines need steel and/or stainless
steel in their production and the LTPA does not have iron foundry. Therefore, part of the
manufacturing for PELTON has to be done out of LTPA. LTPA has already produced and
sold 5 turbines with a power capacity of around 20 kW. These turbines are currently working.
In May of 2008, they sold a 7.5 KW turbine (with a regulation system included) for US$
1400.
42
Map of the natural division of the hydrographic network
Source: Chaperon et al., 2005
43
Map of Madagascar relief
Source : Chaperon et al., 2005
44
Market study from Rhyvière:
The objective of this project is to build a partnership between two firms: one in charge of the
technology transfer and one Malagasy firm which receives this transfer of competencies.
Within this framework, Rhyvière has launched market analyses to identify the eligible
Malagasy firms. Although same observations were made on the potential for firms or schools
in Antsiranana, the study was based in Antananarivo.
The study provides a wide range of firms able to manufacture Banki or Pelton turbines.
Moreover, the market analysis has also targeted the firms able to implement and manage
hydraulic projects.
3.3 Experiences and running projects in Madagascar
a. State of the situation
Several SHP plant are already implemented or agreement was signed between operators and
ADER and project look extra funding in rural area in Madagascar. We provided below the
listing of these installations or the one expecting to be installed and their main characteristics.
Tableau 5 : SHP units in Madagasacar
Note: MCH= Micro Hydro Power; GE = diesel generator
Source: Ader 2008
Therefore, according to ADER statistics, six companies are involved: SAEE, SM3E,
Viatasoa, Elec&Eau, Aditsara and Jirafi.
A lot of other SHP plants exist in Madagascar built by private firms for extraction for
example but we do not have any update list of these installations.
b. The different projects and programs
45
ERI/USAID: in 2004-2005: 12 prefeasibility studies were launched by ITECO, a research

office, and were financed by ERI/USAID Fianarantsoa. The studies targeted the lowest price
per kWh solutions and focused on economic development potential.
PIC project (World Bank):
The purpose of the project is to develop 40 MW of hydraulic power from three different sites:
Ramena, Mahavavy amont, and Mahavavy aval in the Diana region. The priority districts
selected are Antsiranana, Ambanja and Ambilobe. The project will also benefit rural areas
connecting the communes close to grid. Around 1 million people are expected to be
connected by 2030.
The PIC would like to develop this project in a Public Private Partnership framework around
three main actors: the government, the private sector and the communes.
Investments of more than US$ 150 million are expected for dams, power stations, high-
voltage lines, new roads and in order to develop the 40 MW of power until 2030. The World
Bank has committed to invest US$ 100 000, that is to say half of the budget required for
prefeasibility studies of the three sites. Therefore, the projects still lacks US$ 100 000 to
begin prefeasibility studies.
ESF/Terre des hommes:
NGOs Terre des Hommes and ESF are constructing or have constructed hydraulic machinery
for rural electrification.
Pico-central requires an investment of around € 100 000. Due to a well designed monitoring
and to the equipment quality (since European turbines were used), this method presents good
results except for the followings weaknesses:
- There is no reserve fund to mitigate incident consequences.

- The project faces risks given the do-it-yourself component.
- In some cases, tariffs are too high to attract productive activities.
UNIDO project:
Within the framework of a renewable energy development program in the 90s, UNIDO
already tried to develop SHP. Unfortunately, we do not have access to the evaluation
document and can not learn from what happened in the past. However, Mr.
Razafimanatsoa, currently engineer at the CNRIT , who was involved in the project, has
reported that the project was a failure because of the lack of knowledge in designing SHP
plant and because of the lack of financing for operating costs.
46
Today, UNIDO is involved in a more structured project. The purpose of the project is to
provide access to rural energy by harnessing small/mini/micro hydro resources. There are
three components in the project:
1. To build local capacity (human & institutional) for developing, implementing and
managing Small/Mini/micro hydro projects;
2. To facilitate the establishment of two mini pilot SHP systems and 10 micro hydro
systems for demonstration purposes;
3. To facilitate local manufacturing of micro turbines in Madagascar;
The scope of the project will include comprehensive capacity-building activities that will
offer seminars and technology-based workshops and that will provide technical assistance in
the development of pilot projects including feasibility studies, supply/fabrication of turbines,
installation, commissioning, etc. The project will also assist in identifying a technology
provider and selection of technology recipient in one of the countries in the region.
Currently (at the end of 2008), UNIDO is conducting prefeasibility studies and is looking for
additional financing partners. The duration of the project is 3 years (from 2008 to 2011).
The followings projects are part of the Facility Energy financing launched by the EU.
Rhyviere project (GRET): The purpose is to develop micro hydraulic energy for rural
electrification. There are three components to the project:
1. Design, test and popularize mechanisms of small decentralized networks adapted to
the rural areas. It aims to involve the active participation of local actors. A technology
transfer will be made to help the private operators manufacture turbines locally.
2. Electrify 8 rural communities (14 000 inhabitants) through micro central with a
purpose of demonstrating the function. Four regions have been selected: Atsinanana,
Haute Matsiatra, Vakinankatra, Vatovavy fitovinany.
3. Create a rural electrification observatory to collect and update energy information all
over the country. The first objective is to realize a hydraulic atlas.
The duration of the project is 3 years from 2008 to 2011. The budget is € 2 310 710. The
financing partners for the main parts are the EU, ADER and Energy Assistance.
Lokoho (GTZ-EDF-EDM):
The purpose of this project is to substitute the use of diesel generators in urban areas of the
Andapa and Sambava districts, (located in the Sava region), by a 6 MW hydraulic central. The
project also includes a rural electrification component targeting the rural villages close to the
grid. The project should have started at the beginning of 2008 but faces some difficulties to
find an agreement with the Jirama which not agree the price per kWh proposed by the project
even if it is inferior to the price currently paid by consumers.
47
On the other hand, prefeasibility studies have been conducted to evaluate the potential for
decentralized rural electrification based on SHP in the LOKOHO project area. This study has
evaluated also the management issues through local associations or private operators and the
socio-economic sustainability. Three sites out of 9 have been identified as feasible:
Region Site name/ Village Available Population Estimated Costs/ kW

power targeted costs (Ar (Ar
(kW) million) million)
Sava Ampontsllahy 1 35 2750 178 5
Sava Ambalavelona 1 80 1000 + 3000 375 4
Sava Ambalavelona 2 100 1000 + 3000 750 7
Lemena project (ESF): With EU facility energy financing, ESF established SHP projects and
transferred them to local control. The two sites targeted are:
• Close to Antsirabe II, the hydropower potential is 1.2 MW. However, only 600 kW
will be exploited at the beginning in order to allow time for the demand to increase.
Three km of middle tension lines are required. The project targets 4 villages. A bid
will be launched at the end of 2008 for equipment. The structure will be given to a
concessionary selected around the end of 2010.
• Close to Manakara, the power capacity is 15 kW. The waterfall is located 300 m away
from the village. The project targets one village. The turbine (manufactured with
European technology) is expected to be established in late September.
Table 6 : PEPSE hydro projects
Region Village Available Population Estimated Costs/ kW (

power targeted costs ( million million Ar)
(kW) Ar)
Atsimo Tangainony 20 21 008 373 18
Atsinana
Atsimo Bezaha 120 12 493 978 8
Andrefana
Haute Vohiposa 150 17 982
Matsiatra Camp robin 12 190 1576 6
Sahatona 15 318
Vatovavy Sahasinaka 160 24 026
Fitovinany Fenomby 14 254 185 11
mahabako 27 763
Irohombe Ivohibe 80 19 534 889 11
Source: Authors, 2008
48
PEPSE (Fondem) is a project focusing on the rural electrification solutions in 9 regions in

the south of Madagascar. These regions are Amoron’I Mania, Atsimo Atsinana, Androy,
Atsimo Andrefana, Haute Matsiatra, Menabe, Vatovavy fitovinany, Ihorombe and Anosy.
Several indicators have been chosen to select the best sites. 73 villages in these 9 regions have
been selected. Nine of them intend to produce electricity from SHP. The table below details
the information.
The project budget is Ar 3250 billion. They have already finished their feasibility study and
are looking for private investment to finance the sites selected.
4. GASIFICATION ENERGY
Gasification energy worksheet: annex 4

The objective of this analysis is not to provide a detailed study of the location of agricultural
residues but rather to provide an initial overview of the national situation by region. More
detailed analyses need to be conducted in order to determine what areas can be targeted by a
gasification program.
Many different residues can be exploited in Madagascar for gasification such as rice husk,
corn stalk, woody biomass (which is a product of woodwork or sawmills), coconut shells,
banana fibers, sisale, etc. However, the three main residues available in Madagascar are rice
husk, cornstalk and woody biomass. Woody biomass will be studied in the wood part,
therefore we focus the resource location on rice husk and corn stalk.
Actually, rice is the primary agricultural product produced in Madagascar with an annual
production of 3.5 million tons in 2007. By contrast, the corn production was 0.3 million tons
in 2007 (MAEP, 2007). The energy conversion in a gasifier requires more or less the same
weight by residue i.e. 1.5 kg for 1 kWh. Both for rice and corn, the residue represents between
20% and 30% of the brut product.
a. Rice husk
Rice mils and rice huskers are used in many parts of the country in order to separate the paddy
from the rice husk. In most cases, the rice husk is not used and farmers burn it in order to
avoid residue accumulation. Sometimes people use it for heating issues.
There is a cost associated with the collection of rice husks. Assuming that all other factors
remain the same, the more rice husk production is concentrated, the less it costs to collect it
for the gasifier. Therefore, we have to identify where the rice husk production is the most
concentrated. We analyze below the rice production efficiency by region and the rice mills
and rice huskers location by region.
49
Rice production efficiency
The table below presents the rice production and its efficiency by region in 2007.
Table 7 : Rice production and efficiency by region

Rice
Production Standard Rizicole Efficiency

Province Région (tons/year) Mean1 error1 area (ha) (Tons/ha)
TOAMASINA ALAOTRA 461316 92263 79248 85617 5
MAHAJANGA SOFIA 299411 42773 18282 110972 3
ANTANANARIVO Vakinankaratra 295294 59059 42427 56006 5
ANTANANARIVO Analamanga 295005 42144 24757 62429 5
HAUTE
FIANARANTSOA Matsiatra 250983 62746 48482 50153 5
ANTANANARIVO Itasy 216213 72071 24151 43572 5
VATOVAVY
FIANARANTSOA fitovinany 198857 33143 10784 108337 2
MAHAJANGA BOENY 180926 36185 37400 61103 3
ANTSIRANANA SAVA 160687 40172 15575 60535 3
ATSIMO
TOLIARA ANDREFANA 159470 19934 16911 34198 5
ANTANANARIVO Bongolava 131439 65719 19326 54181 2
TOAMASINA ATSINANAN 124535 20756 8329 73247 2
ATSIMO
FIANARANTSOA ATSINANA 123086 24617 27111 40381 3
ANTSIRANANA DIANA 110784 27696 11578 44144 3
AMORON'I
FIANARANTSOA MANIA 108403 27101 9755 36890 3
TOAMASINA ANALANJIROFO 101283 16880 12383 55846 2
MAHAJANGA BESTIBOKA 96102 32034 25163 34997 3
TOLIARA MENABE 90755 18151 9322 51414 2
TOLIARA ANOSY 62062 20687 9348 25558 2
MAHAJANGA MELAKY 55775 11155 5729 28307 2
FIANARANTSOA IHOROMBE 47192 15731 11376 17064 3
TOLIARA ANDROY 26187 6547 11814 5133 5
Source: Authors, 2008. 1 = Using district data
50
The table shows that 10 regions produce more than 150 000 tons per year. These regions are
Aloatra, Sofia, Vakinankaratra, Analamanga, Haute Matsiatra, Itasy, Vatovavy Fitovinany,
Boeny, Sava, and Atsimo andrefana. The region with the highest rice production is Aloatra
with 461 316 tons in 2007.
The rice production efficiency ranks at the regional level from 2 tons/ha to 5 tons/ha. Except
for the smallest producer, none of the 12 regions which have an annual production under 150
000 tons in 2007 have a production efficiency up to 3 tons/ha. Among the big producers, 6
have a 5 tons/ha production efficiency: Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy, Aloatra-Mangoro,
Atsimo andrefana, Haute Matsiatra.
The map below illustrated the table data.
Rice huskers/mills localization

According to the rice huskers and rice mills localization, the data given by the ministry8 has
not been updated since 1999. However, even if the situation has changed since then, it has not
altered dramatically. Therefore, we have decided to provide the rice huskers and rice mill
location. The ministry is currently updating the data.
Table 8: Rice huskers and mills by region

Region Rice huskers Rice mills Region Rice huskers Rice mills
Analamanga 336 32 ALAOTRA 266 31
Vakinankaratra 199 15 BOENY 149 8
Itasy 100 9 SOFIA 23 4
Bongolava 41 3 BESTIBOKA 29 2
HAUTE Matsiatra 49 6 MELAKY 20 2
ATSIMO
AMORON'I MANIA 16 0 ANDREFANA
28 9
VATOVAVY
fitovinany
3 0 ANDROY 0 0
IHOROMBE 3 0 ANOSY 3 1
ATSIMO ATSINANA 1 0 MENABE 89 2
ATSINANAN 10 2 DIANA 49 0
ANALANJIROFO 11 0 SAVA 55 1
Source: Direction du genie rural, 1999
The regions of Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy, Aloatra and Boeny have the highest level
of rice huskers (up to 100). The regions which have the highest level of rice mills (up to 8) are
Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy, Aloatra, Boeny and Atsimo Andrefana.
Therefore, when analyzing the data on rice husks production efficiency and on rice
huskers/mills location, we find that Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy and Aloatra are
the four regions which offer the best indicators for rice husks gasification. An indicator that
takes into account all the different information could be created to evaluate the potential by
region.
8
Direction du génie rural, service de la promotion de la mécanisation agricole. Contact : Jocelyne
Ranjalahy, manager, 032 40 109 60
51
52
b. Cornstalk
Cornstalk is more difficult to collect because there is no machine to separate the corn from its
residue. Therefore, the stalk concentration depends on the production concentration and how
the farmers proceed to eliminate the residue. Furthermore, the collection cost is increased
because the residue needs to be transformed before being introduced in the gasifier.
The table below presents by region the corn production and its efficiency in 2007.
In 2007, 9 regions produced the biggest level of corn (with quantities ranging from 17 500
tons to 69 000 tons). These regions were Vakinankaratra, Atsimo Andrefana, Itasy, Boeny,
Bongalava, Haute Matsiatra, Androy, Sofia, Menabe.
However, even if the production is lower in Amoron’I mania, Betsiboka and Analamanga, the
efficiency in these regions is higher compared to Androy, Sofia and Menabe which are the
other major producers of corn out of the 9 regions identified above. Furthermore, Ihorombe
with an efficiency of 5 tons/ha can be considered as a site even if its production level is quite
low at 4 262 tons/year.
Therefore, we find that Vakinankaratra, Atsimo Andrefana, Itasy, Boeny, Bongalava,
Haute Matsiatra, Androy, Sofia and Menabe are the regions which present the best
potential for gasification with cornstalk.
The map below illustrates this data.
Nico, 2008, Tsiribina 2 piroguiers
53
Table 9: Corn production and efficiency by region

Corn
Production Standard rizicole Efficiency
Province Région (tons/year) Mean1 error1 area (ha) (tons/ha)
ANTANANARIVO Vakinankaratra 68 034 13 607 8 773 33 984 2
ATSIMO
TOLIARA ANDREFANA 65 466 8 183 7 828 42 146 2
ANTANANARIVO Itasy 43 748 14 583 8 659 15 058 3
MAHAJANGA BOENY 25 551 5 110 9 219 13 549 2
ANTANANARIVO Bongolava 24 784 12 392 12 138 10 635 2
HAUTE
FIANARANTSOA Matsiatra 22 664 5 666 3 754 6 524 3
TOLIARA ANDROY 20 998 5 250 3 696 16 353 1
MAHAJANGA SOFIA 19 205 2 744 1 180 13 180 1
TOLIARA MENABE 18 277 3 655 2 143 16 110 1
AMORON'I
FIANARANTSOA MANIA 17 242 4 311 2 377 11 358 2
MAHAJANGA BESTIBOKA 12 379 4 126 6 553 3 363 4
ANTANANARIVO Analamanga 9 450 1 350 1343 3741 3
TOAMASINA ALAOTRA 6 945 1 389 1 015 7 154 1
TOLIARA ANOSY 6 742 2 247 1 539 5 593 1
ANTSIRANANA DIANA 6 726 1 681 1 726 3 010 2
TOAMASINA ATSINANAN 6 205 1 034 802 12 829 0,5
MAHAJANGA MELAKY 5 835 1 167 754 4 535 1
FIANARANTSOA IHOROMBE 4 262 1 421 1 935 936 5
ANTSIRANANA SAVA 2 392 598 125 10 771 0,2
VATOVAVY
FIANARANTSOA fitovinany 1 930 322 252 12 243 0,2
TOAMASINA ANALANJIROFO 1 578 263 89 8 923 0,2
ATSIMO
FIANARANTSOA ATSINANA 490 98 176 842 1
Source: Authors, 2008. 1= using district data
54
55

Currently, there is no gasifier produced in Madagascar and BIONERR is the only firm who
proposed to install gasifiers. Therefore, we present below the technology chosen by
BIONERR.
a. Technology used
The technology is designed by ANKUR scientific. They are imported from India.
Regarding the Malagasy context, three gasifiers have been chosen by BIONERR:
1. The WBG series using residues like woody biomass (size from 1 to 10 cm) as a fuel.
2. The FBG series using fine residues (size < 1 cm) like rice husk as a fuel
3. The combo series using both of the above
All the gasifiers are fixed bed and downdraft9. Their power capacities range from 3 kW to 1
MW. According to Mr Zebrowski, some of the Ankur units have been implemented in other
countries more than 15 years ago and are still working.
b. Gas characteristics
The caloric value of the biogas from Ankur technology is 1000 kcal/m3.
c. Application
The gasifiers chosen by BIONERR allow three types of use for gasification:
Heating production: the gas is produced in the reactor. It is filtrated and then used in a
burner. Can be used for ovens, boilers, etc.
Electric production in dual-fuel mode: the gas is produced into the reactor, it is filtered at a
higher level than for the heating production and then it is introduce into a diesel generator.
There is nearly no investment necessary in order to adapt the diesel generator to biogas is.
This process requires diesel at the beginning and at the end of the generator use. It allows
70% of diesel to be saved(BIONERR, 2008).
Electric production using 100 % biogas: it is the same system as the former except the fact
that instead of being used into a diesel generator, the biogas is used in a generator especially
designed to work with this gas. Therefore, the unit is entirely independent from diesel.
However, the initial investment is much higher because gas generators are currently produced
in very little quantities around the world and the solution is less flexible because the
consumption needs to be equal to at least 50% of the nominal power (BIONERR, 2008).
9
See gasification worksheet
56
Figure: “Ankur” biomass gasifier system: schematic power generation mode
Source: Bionerr, 2008
Figure: “Ankur” biomass gasifier system: schematic thermal mode
Source : Bionerr, 2008
d. Gasifier cost
A 30 KW gasifier unit costs Ar 90 million including the biogas generator. It means Ar 4

million per KW installed while it costs Ar 2 million per KW installed without the biogas
generator (BIONERR, 2008). The cost for producing electricity through diesel generator is
estimated to be around Ar 600 000 per KW installed (ADER, 2007).
The dual mode is interesting because the cost of a biogas generator is important but this unit
still consumes 30 % to 40% of diesel. The 100% gas mode is more competitive when the unit
is highly used (BIONERR, 2008).
Investment returns are around 7 months for a unit working continually (BIONERR, 2008)
e. Local production of gasifiers
Since BIONERR is the only firm involved in gasifiers in Madagascar, their analysis for
gasifier technology development in Madagascar is incorporated below. According to Mr
Zebrowski, one of BIONERR’s stakeholders, it is possible to construct gasifiers in
Madagascar but not in a competitive way. A lot of materials are not available or are available
57
at a prohibitive cost. For example, boiler manufacturing activities cost 30 % to 50 % more in

Madagascar than importing a preassembled system. It is worse for electromechanical
activities. Moreover, the economic structure of Madagascar does not provide incentives to
develop gasifiers because of the high inefficiency in the handcrafted and the industrial
network. Furthermore, there are no subcontracting facilities for many trade activities. Finally,
approach costs are very high. As a result, the price to produce gasifier in Madagascar is
estimated to be around 30% higher than the price paid by BIONERR which imports Indian
gasifiers.
4.3 Experience in Madagascar

BIONERR has already installed four units: two on power generation mode and two on
thermal mode.
For the two units based on power generation mode, one works with rice husks and the other
one with cornstalks.
The one working with rice husks is located in Ambatondrazaka in the region of Alaotra
region. It was installed in 2006, its power capacity is 40 KW and works through the dual
mode. As shown by the table, the standard error in Aloatra is quite high meaning that the rice
production is concentrated in few districts. Three of the five districts of Aloatra concentrate
95% of the production and the Ambatondrazaka district, which produces 145 902 tons/per
year, is one of them. BIONERR collects the rice husk from the rice mill of the village
producing 2 tons/day on average (working an average of 10 hours/day). Although, the residue
was collected for free at the beginning, farmers decided to sell it Ar 4/kilo.
According to the cornstalk unit, it is located in Boriziny (Port-Berger). It was installed in

2006. Its power capacity is 30 KW and it works through the 100% gas mode. Cornstalks are
collected for free from the farmers producing corn around Port-Berger but we do not have
information of the collection cost because the residues do not come from just one place and
they have to be transformed before being introduced into the gasogene. As for the rice husk,
1.5 kilo of cornstalk is needed to produce 1 KW.
The units working on thermal mode use woody biomass and have been installed in 2008.
5. METHANIZATION ENERGY
Methanization energy worksheet: annex 5

The inputs used for methanization need to be organic materials that can be biologically
broken down in the absence of oxygen. In Madagascar, since the rural economy depends
58
essentially on primary sector activities, there is a large potential for biogas production from
animal wastes and agricultural residues.
Before identifying the resource location, it is important to know if the temperature generally
remains above 20 °C. As was
Map of the mean temperatures per year
explained in the Biogas
Worksheet, the anaerobic
digestion is less efficient under 20
°C. Heaters can be used to
maintain this temperature level.
However, they consume
additional energy and so therefore
it is better to target warmer areas
for methanization projects.
The map of the mean temperature

per year indicates potential areas
that may be the sites of
methanization projects. However,
the map only portrays the annual
mean temperatures. Therefore,
analyses have to be conducted on
the temperature variation
throughout the year.
We can see from the map that the

cost areas match the temperature
needs for methanization. The
regions in the western side from
the north to south are Boeny,
Betsiboka, Melaky, Menabe,
Atsimo-Andrefana, Androy and
Anosy. For the east cost, which
extends from the south of the
island to the north, the regions are
Atsimo-atsinanana, Vatovy-
fitovinany, Atsinanana,
Source: Chaperon et al., 2005
Analanjirofo and Sava.
Obviously, the high land regions and areas with high altitudes have lower temperatures.
Some of the areas in these regions have yearly mean temperatures of around or under 20°c.
This range of temperatures is not sufficient for methanization given the daily and monthly
temperature variations.
59
After having identified regions that could potentially host methanization sites, based on their
temperature characteristics, we study below the localization of resources in these various
areas. We focus our analysis on animal waste resources.
The repartition of the livestock population is indicated below in the 2005 agricultural survey.
The results are classified by province.
Table 10: Repartition of the livestock by species and regions
Species
Province
Bovine Porcine Ovine Goats Poultry Total
Antananarivo 1053804 501107 22497 5999 6531910 8115317
Fianarantsoa 1467323 338747 26147 970 7952487 9785674
Toamasina 492505 103975 17017 0 4357086 4970583
Mahajanga 2625739 125845 29379 147832 3753231 6682026
Toliara 3252180 133414 596384 1043588 3867165 8892731
Antsiranana 608586 43956 3804 20458 2688568 3365372
Total 9500139 1247043 695229 1218848 29150447 41811706
% 23 3 2 3 70 100
Source: MAEP, 2007.
Bovine and poultry are the most abundant livestock in Madagascar. However, large
distributions of poultry are located in the highlands (which include the Antananarivo and
Fianarantsoa provinces), which are the coldest areas, and it is easier to collect the bovine fecal
matter. Therefore we focus our analysis on the location of the bovine farms.
The map below indicates the number of bovine farms by region.
We can see that the regions which have the highest quantity of bovine farms (up to 60%) are
in the north (which includes Diana, Sofia, Betsiboka, Boeni and Melaky) and in the south
(which includes Atsimo-Andrefana and Androy).
On the other hand, the average number of bovines distributed by farm indicates the
concentration of the resource. The regions with concentrations of bovine (classified by largest
to smallest) are Ihorombe (26.20), Melaky (23.51), Anosy (14.77), Boeny (13.89), Atsimo-
Andrefana (13.13), Androy (12.28), Betsiboka (11.32), Menabe (11.61) and Sofia (9.88).
Therefore, according to this analysis, Boeny, Betsiboka, Atsimo-Andrefana, Androy and

Anosy are the primary regions which can be targeted by a methanization program.
60
61

There are three technologies used in Madagascar: scattered, continual and half continual. The
continual system is the most common. Several digesters have been implemented as the
continual fixe dome and the continual floating dome. Few digesters have been built in the
mid-west regions, in Vakinankaratra and around Antananarivo. Today, the more appropriate
technology for Madagascar seems to be the Borda fixe domes developed by GTZ/RFA
because it is better adapted for local manufacturing since it uses bricks and a reduced amount
of cement for masonry work.
Given to the FAO project (see the Experience section below), competencies have been
developed while designing and implementing biogas projects. Today, the CNRIT have the
capacity to design and implement different digesters built with brick and cement. However,
given the initial investment price and the technical limits (for instance, fissures appear after a
few years, etc.) of the commonly used digesters, research has been launched for other
alternatives. Plastic solutions have been investigated because of the cost opportunity and the
technical interest (since they are waterproof and have a decreased risk of fissures). Makiplast
provides this kind of digester. The tank can be horizontal or vertical or it can be a septic tank.
Horizontal and vertical tanks are designed for mobility, have varied carrying capacities, are
resistant to corrosion and do not need regular maintenance. Septic tanks are advantageous
since they are easy to install, are waterproof and are an improved technology (that has been
used for 30 years in France).
As we present in the biogas worksheet, small biogas units are very cheap and easy to
construct.
According to electricity production, further researches have to be done to identify if the

technology could be developed locally. However, the system looks like the one used for
gasification and as we seen, it seems difficult for the moment to design the technology in
Madagascar.
5.3 Financial issues
a. Total cost:
Fixe dome digesters require the lower initial investment than for floating dome. Moreover,
this technology has a long life expectancy but can be used only for lighting and cooking.
Floating dome installations are more expensive but have better efficiency in warmer regions
(Rafanjanirina, 2002).
The table below provides information on digester costs (not for electricity production).
62
Table 11: Biogas installation cost in 2004
Type Capacity (m3) Total cost (Fmg)

Traditional 15 45 000 000
(brick masonry,
cement, etc.)
Horizontal 15 70 000 000
Makiplast vertical 15 50 000 000
Septic tank 15 40 000 000
Source: Sabin, 2005
Unfortunately, we do not have comparative costs for the different traditional digesters.
b. Cost repartition
The results from CNRIT projects have shown that the investment repartition for traditional
digesters is 42.8% for the construction of materials, 34.4% for the workforce and 22.8% for a
gasometer and other accessories (pipes, etc.).
5.4 Biogas consumption:

Given the Borda technology, the individual biogas consumption per day in rural area is 0.25
m3 (Sabin, 2005). On average, the size of a household is 5 people. This means the daily
consumption is around 1.2 m3. A 15 m3 Borda digester providse 6 m3 per day for 12 families
and could be targeted for firewood substitution.

In Madagascar, the first digester unit was successfully installed in 1981 in Mahajunga.
Afterwards, other units were built and in 1986 the government introduced a national biogas
program financed by the FAO. Since then, several other installations have been conducted
and financed by various sources.
a. The FAO project
The purpose of the project was to develop methanization in Madagascar in collaboration with
the MRSTD. The main objectives were to:
1. Install units for demonstration purposes.

2. Train managers and technicians.
3. Inform farmers on the technology and its application.
4. Implement the structures necessary to develop and popularize the technology
63
The budget of the project was $ US 153 000 and the duration was two years (between 1986
and 1988).
Results of the project:
• Control of the technology adapted to the Malagasy context. A project designing team
(composed of engineers and superior technicians) and an implementation team (composed
of bricklayers, plumbers, welders, etc.) have been trained.
• Installation of units: all the units were installed with the participation of the CNRIT
between 1987 and 1988.
Table 12 : FAO methanization projects
Region Site Digester Substrate Biogas Utilization

characteristics producti
vity
(m3/day)
Sakay Ampitiliana Type: Borda with a Zebu dung 9 Cooking
farm metallic dome, and pig Lighting
continual. manure Refrigeration
Capacity: 15 m3 (250 Kg)
Ampizaranta Type: Borda with Zebu dung Cooking
ny dome, continual and pig Lighting
farm Capacity: 15 m3 manure Laundry
(250 Kg)
Amboasarike Type: SFOI canvas Pig manure
ly cover, continual (25 heads)
Capacity: 10 m3
Androtra Type: GTZ fixe Zebu dung 8 Cooking
bell, continual (14 heads) Lighting
Capacity: 15 m3
Vakinank Antsoantany Type: floating Zebu dung
aratra dome, continual
Capacity: 10 m3
Vakinank Faratsiho Type: floating Zebu dung
aratra dome, continual (120 heads)
Capacity: 15 m3
Antananar Ambohimirar Type: GTZ with Human
ivo y stock balloon, waste and
continual pig manure
Capacity: 8 m3 (15 kg)
Source: Sabin, 2005.
64
Data observations:
Table 13 : Biogas digesters
Generally, the technology selected was adapted. characteristics
In the table to the right, we present the biogas of the Ampitilina Tsiroamandidy
characteristics of the Ampitilina Tsiroamandidy site
site. Characteristics value
CH4 65.2%
However, several problems have caused some
of the sites to be shut down: CO2 32%
Among the western sites, the Ampitiliana site H2O 0.1%
was shut down because of the insecurity H2S 0.1%

(dahalo: zebu stole) in the region which caused
N2 0.5ù
the three families benefiting from biogas to
leave the place. H2 1.5%
According to the Androtra site, the person in CO 0.1%

charge of the installation left the village and the P 9 mbar
rest of the family returned to wood fuel. The
D0 0.857
other sites are still working.
PCI 5600 Kcal/m3
For the Vakinankatra sites, the temperature was
too low in winter which caused a reduction in Source: Rafanjanirina, 2002
the biogas production. The energy needs were
not met and, consequently, the motivation of the beneficiaries decreased.
For Antananarivo: the water source of the fokontany was located 50 m close to the digester. It
was not taken into consideration and presented a risk of contamination by the methanization
bacterias which are present during the rainy period. Therefore, the installation was shut down.
The diffusion and popularization of the technology have not worked very well primarily due
to problems in communication, credit access in rural areas, good insurance against vandalism
(dahalo), low alphabetization rate and cultural issues given the localization.
b. CNRIT projects:
Since the FAO project, several units have been implemented by the CNRIT. Several examples
are listed below.
65
Table 14: CNRIT methanization projects
Region Site Digester Substrate

Biogas Utilization
characteristics producti
vity
(m3/day)
Tsinjoarivo Type: PVC tank, Zebu dung 80 Motorization
continual and pig (Honda, 3
Capacity: 130 m3 manure kW)
Lighting
Water pump
Cooking
Atsinanan Ambodiatafa Type: fixe dome,
a na continual
Capacity: 30 m3
Analaman Ambodiatafa Type: floating Zebu dung Cooking
ga na dome, continual and human Lighting
Capacity: 11 m3 waste
Vakinank Anstirabe, Type: floating Zebu dung, Self energetic
aratra Red cross dome, continual water satisfaction
Capacity: 20 m3 hyacinth of the Red
and human Cross
waste Antsirabe
Source: Sabin, 2005
The Ambodiatafana unit was financed by the beneficiary. The installation was designed by
the CNRIT. However, the site never worked for two reasons: the substrate is not available and
the technology is not adapted. The project was launched even though the CNRIT did not
know the waste availability and the energy needs of the beneficiary.
The Ambodiatafana unit was financed by ANAE/ CNRIT and design by the CNRIT in 1993.
Currently, the gas produced does not satisfy the needs.
The Anstirabe Red Cross unit was financed by USAID (Fmg 35.576.835) and the Red Cross
(Fmg 80.000.000). The unit was designed by the CNRIT in 1999.
Methanization unit : Floating dome, Red cross Antsirabe
66
Currently only five units are working (Rafanjanirina, 2002) and no projects are running.
6. BIOFUEL ENERGY
Biofuel energy worksheet: annex 6
6.1 Resource Potential

We mainly focus on the potential of jatropha curcas, cotton and sugar cane which are the three
plants which are the most considered actually by investors in Madagascar. Jatropha and cotton
are used to produce PPO or biodiesel; sugar cane is used to produce ethanol. We study
biofuels in our report with regards to the potential they represent for rural energy
development.
a. Jatropha Curcas
The Jatropha plant is a small tree or large shrub

which can reach a height of up to 5 m. The life-span
of the Jatropha plant is more than 50 years. The seeds
contain 27% to 40% of oil. Most varieties of this
plant produce oils, which are toxic to humans and
animals so that they are unsuitable for either food or
feed. Jatropha plants are frequently used as hedges to
protect plantings in gardens and fields from grazing
animals. The plant is adapted to extreme growing Jatropha Curcas
conditions and is resistant to drought and therefore
allows re-cultivation of desert areas. The oil of the physic nut tree (Jatropha curcas L.) seems
to be most suitable for energy applications.
There is around 177 species of jatropha in the world but we mainly find in Madagascar the
Curcas and the Mahafalensis.
The current situation of the plantations of jatropha is presented in the map below:
67
The potential for renewable energies in
in rural areas of Madagascar
Source: MEM
This map shows that jatropha is already spread out in the country either through endemic
plantation and human plantation.
b. Cotton
According to the Ministry of Agriculture referendum of 2004, the culture of cotton is

concentrated in the region of Atsimo Andrefana. It is also
Table 15: region distribution of
produced in Diana, Sofia, Betsiboka and Boeni to a much
the cultures of sugar cane
lesser extent. The production is not significant in the other
regions.
Region Area (Ha)
As for Jatropha, there is a huge potential of development
Atsimo Andrefana 7 130
but it could be interesting to take the advantage of where
the resource is currently produced. Diana 871
Sofia 816
Betsiboka 289
Boeni 156
c. Sugar cane
Amoron'i Mania 3
According to the Ministry of Agriculture referendum of Ihorombe 2
2004, the region distribution of the
th cultures of sugar cane is
Madagascar 9 266
as followed: Source CMCS
With more than 4 000 Ha used, Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy and Bogonlava i.e. the 4
regions of the province of Antananarivo, are the regions which use the highest part of their
territory to produce sugar can.
68
Table 16: region distribution of the cultures of sugar cane
Region Sugar cane (Ha) Region Sugar cane (Ha)
Analamanga 8 297 Alaotra Mangoro 791

Vakinankaratra 6 672 Boeni 746
Itasy 5 187 Sofia 599
Bongolava 4 750 Betsiboka 569
Haute Matsiatra 2 911 Melaky 331
Amoron'i Mania 2 321 Atsimo Andrefana 306
Vatovavy Fitovinany 1 654 Androy 257

Ihorombe 1 559 Anosy 255
Atsimo Atsinanana 1 380 Menabe 211

Atsinanana 875 Diana 168
Analanjirofo 798 Sava 152
Madagascar 40 791
The data also shows that jatropha and sugar can are much more widespread than cotton.
Therefore, a potential is already available with jatropha and sugar can.
d. Resource potential risk
As we explain in the worksheet, produce biofuels needs lands to cultivate the plant from
which will be extracted the fuel. Moreover, there is a lot chance that the biofuels will be
produced in a large scale because of the exportation benefit opportunities.
In the same time, Madagascar stands as one of the most food insecure nations in the world
and has insufficient resources to feed its rapidly growing population. Only 5.3 % of the lands
are currently farmable and 3.5% of this potential is already exploited (FAO, 2007). The
World Food Program (WFP) is actively involved essentially in the south regions providing
the primary needs to the population.
Therefore, developing biofuels in a large scale could lead to a major risk: the land competition
between the food production and the biofuels production. Indeed, even if there is still land
areas available for exploitation purposes and if the biofuel plants can be produced in a less
arable land, the production either for biofuels than for food will be oriented primarily to the
most fertile lands to obtain the higher investment returns. Hence, the relative price between
biofuels and food will determine which one of the two alternatives is the most profitable for
farmers and investors. There is a lot of chance that biofuels price will increase following the
69
energy consumption rise all over the world. Those who defend the use of biofuel argue that
farmers will benefit from the price increase because it will rise their purchasing power and
will diversify their production reducing the price variation exposition. However, it is not
obvious that first farmers will benefit from the price increase as it is happening currently with
the collectors and secondly because the food products price may increase due to the reduction
of the land exploited for food production. Moreover, farmers will be owners of a non eatable
good. If the biofuel price returns, they could be exposed to a drastic food crisis. Thus, it is
important to consider that producing biofuel is a factor that can cause or aggravate an
alimentary crisis. However the development of small units in rural area to satisfy local needs
remains an interesting solution.
a. PPO
To obtain the oil from the seed, a press is needed. The press working without engine is
available locally, but the one working with engine have to be imported. Manual press is
affordable for local use but need human force to work. The press working with engine is more
expensive and the production has a great chance to be exported or introduced in a national
distribution network.
b. Biodiesel
As far as we know there is no transesterification and hydrogenation experiences in

Madagascar. Therefore, for the moment, the PPO has to be exported to be transformed.
c. Ethanol
Distilleries already exist in Madagascar. They are built locally but with some imported inputs.
6.3 Institutional framework

A project of law is about to be voted in Madagascar to register the biofuel activities. For
now, a law exists regarding the downstream of the sector, that is to say the way to transform
inputs into biofuel, but no law exists concerning the upstream of the sector, that is to say on
the utilization of biofuel.
The Centre Malgache de la Canne et du Sucre (CMCS) is an Etablissement Public à

caractère Industriel et Commercial (EPIC) under the leadership of the Ministry of
Industrialization, of Trade and of the development of the Private Sector. The missions of the
CMCS are mainly to propose and take any measures in order to organize and promote the
production of sugar cane and its by-products, and also their circulation.
70
The Organisation des Producteurs d’Ethanol à Madagascar (OPEM) is the organization

of the producers of ethanol in Madagascar. The OPEM supports every producer in their
administrative procedures and represents their interests. For instance, the OPEM is
representing ethanol producer interests in the formulation of the project of law on biofuel.
We can count numerous initiatives regarding the development of jatropha or sugar cane
activities in Madagascar. Most of these projects are oriented to exportation; 5% of the
production is estimated to be sold locally. The following projects are the initiatives which can
be compatible with the supply of renewable energies in rural areas:
a. Biodiesel
CASIELEC and BIONERR are working jointly with cotton oil to produce biodiesel.
BIONERR is a private Malagasy firm working on energy issues in Madagascar. They try to
promote renewable energies such as biofuels, biogas and firewood developing or importing
technologies adapted for Madagascar.
CASIELEC is a Malagasy firm working on rural electrification. The president is also the
president of COOPELEC, an association between the private firms involved in rural
electrification in Madagascar. Currently, CASIELEC is managing 13 sites in rural areas
working with diesel generators.
CASIELEC buy cotton biodiesel to BIONERR in order to provide fuel for their 2*30 KW
units in Ankazomborona. This is working since June 2008. CASIELEC invested Ar 800 000
to switch the resources needed for their generators from diesel to biodiesel. This investment
corresponds to the materials required because of the not sufficient viscosity of the cotton
biodiesel. According to our knowledge, it is the first unit working with cotton vegetal oil in
Madagascar.
BIONERR produce biodiesel since 2006 through cotton seed. They bought a land of 50 ha
near Boriziny (Port-Berger) in the north of Madagascar to produce cotton and buy at the same
time the cotton seed to farmers who produce cotton on other land around Boriziny. With the
cotton seed, they produce a brut biodiesel they refined in order to obtain a fuel compatible
with diesel generator.
b. Ethanol
Currently, 5 distilleries exist to produce sugar in Madagascar. Four of them are managed by
the SIRAMA, a state owned company, and the SUCOMA owns the other one. The distilleries
of SIRAMA are localized in Ambilobe (Diana), Namakia (Boeny), Nosy be and Brickaville
(Atsinanana). The one owned by SUCOMA is localized in Morondava (Menabe). These
71
distilleries produce 44 796 liters of ethanol in 2006. The production decreases by 66%
between 2000 and 2006. This is due to SIRAMA situation which is characterized by
management inefficiency and corruption. The Malagasy government, with the support of the
World Bank is trying currently to sell the old sugar factories in order to make them more
competitive. The table below illustrates the purpose:
Table 17: Evolution of the production of ethanol between 2000 and 2006 (in liter)
The CNRIT has an ethanol fuel project. They are testing different varieties of sugar cane in
order to identify the best yield in saccharose for a better yield in ethanol fuel. Their studies led
them to obtain an ethanol fuel pure at 99,91%.
Tany Meva is a Malagasy NGO. Its main activities concern mainly the protection of the
environment. They have a project concerning ethanol fuel with the support of the World
Bank, UNDP, the NGO ECODEV and the company PROIMPEX Agro-Industry, in order to
promote the utilization of artisanal ethanol in ethanol cooking stoves, in order to replace wood
or charcoal. The company PROIMPEX produces the ethanol cooking stoves called “fatana
ol”. During the test period of the project, 400 households were equiped with a fatana ol in the
village of Vatomandry in the region of Antsinana. A fatana ol costs between Ar 18 000 to Ar
20 000. On average, a household of 5-6 persons consumes 1,2 liter/day; a liter of ethanol
costing Ar 500. The success of the test period should extend the area of the project on an
entire region for 2009. PROIMPEX also builds distilleries. The distilleries are built locally
but with some imported inputs. Their yield is between 7 to 12%. It means that with 100
kilograms of local sugar cane, they produce between 7 to 12 liters of ethanol. Their cost is Ar
12 000 000.
72
The World Bank is thinking of the implementation of a project of ethanol micro-distilleries

in order to produce ethanol
fuel and to fuel cooking
stoves in rural areas. It is a
small distillery unit with
the capacity to produce up
to 5 000 liters/day. Micro
distilleries offer unique
opportunity to decentralize
at most, fuel production for
local consumption,
integrating small farmers
into a growing global An ethanol micro distillery Ethanol cooking stove
economy. This project would be based on a similar project that took place in Brazil. The
ethanol thus created can be used for lighting, cooking, vehicles… All the by-products would
be used:
• Tip of the sugarcane plant can be used to feed cattle
• Sugarcane bagasse can be used to fire the boiler of the micro distillery or to feed cattle
• Vinasse can be used to feed cattle or can be used to fertilize fields
• The water used in the cooling process is totally recycled.
6.5 Economic viability of biofuel in Madagascar

The data on the cost and price of ethanol fuel and jatropha oil vary depending on the study
and the estimations made.
According to Cyrille Zebrowski (BIONERR) in May 2007, the price of one liter of jatropha
oil is Ar 1 880, representing 179 Ar/KWh. The price of one liter of ethanol fuel is Ar 1 740,
representing 294 Ar/KWh.
In his report on Jatropha in Madagascar, Alfons Üllenberg estimates that the production of
one liter of jatropha oil by small farms costs Ar 1 700. This is deduced from the hypothesis
that a Bielenberg press is used and that 5 kilograms of seeds produce one liter of oil.
In the same study, he estimates the cost of one liter of jatropha oil with an industrial
production at Ar 1 900, with the use of a Tinytech press.
Since there is no experience of transesterification in Madagascar, it is not easy to estimate the

cost of one liter of biodiesel produced from jatropha oil. Nevertheless, USDA estimated the
cost of transesterification at around Ar 500 per liter of biodiesel. But since the jatropha oil is
meant to be produce biodiesel, solvents can be used to increase the extraction rate. Thus with
an extraction rate of 35%, 3kg of seeds are sufficient to produce one liter of oil. One liter of
jatropha oil only costs Ar 1 650 with this method. Transesterification costing Ar 500 per liter
of biodiesel, thus, one liter of biodiesel costs Ar 2 150.
73
7. WOOD ENERGY
Wood energy worksheet: annex 7

As we explain in the wood worksheet, the time rotation of a forest area has to be considered
to make the resource sustainable. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish the energy wood
collected in forest without forest management system and which contributes to the
deforestation and the energy wood which comes from managed areas and which permits to
use the resource in a sustainable way.
The energy wood field has to be developed. It could improve the forest quality and introduce
forest maintenance. It offers also the possibility to develop the by-product market of the wood
transformation industry. The field profitability could then be increased. Finally, involving the
rural households in the field development may afford them additional revenue providing
incentives to manage their forest in a sustainable way. For instance, the land competition
between the wood area and the area needed by the farmers and the stockbreeder is the first
cause of the deforestation in Madagascar. Increasing the revenue due to a better forest
management may favor wood land. However, even if the development of the wood field may
reduce the deforestation, it has to be strongly regulate to avoid abuse, even more if the field
begun very profitable. The development of the wood energy could contribute then to reduce
the deforestation.
Consequently, we define here the wood potential as the area where the forest is managed or
have a potential to be managed in a sustainable way. We identify first where the forests are
localized. We then identify, then, the evolution of the forest cover to prioritize the area most
affected by the deforestation. Finally, we analyze which forest areas are included in a forest
management system or have a potential to be included.
a. State of the forest cover
The forests cover in 2005 represents 9 million Ha or 15% of the territory. Half of this cover is
humid forest, 30% is dry forest, 20 % is thorny
Forest Forest area % total
category 2005 (Ha) forest and 3% is mangrove. Others kind of
Humid 4 489 248 48,21 forest are marginal. The table below details this
Dry 2 539 319 27,27 information.
Thorny 2 028 798 21,79
Mangrove 252 405 The main plantations in Madagascar are pin and
2,71
Others 2 247 eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is commonly accused of
0,02
Total drying the lands because it needs a lot of water.
9 312 017 100
However, it has been proven that:
• It is better to have land covered of eucalyptus rather than anything on the land because the
former is more vulnerable to fire.
• The land on which eucalyptus is able to grow is not a rich soil and few plants could grow
on it.
74
• Experience shows that eucalyptus plantations allow the reapparition of sources of water
by the harnessing of the streaming water they offer.
The repartition of the forest per region is shown in the table below. It also provides
information on the deforestation evolution between 1990 and 2005.
Table 18: Repartition of the forest cover by region
Regions Region area Forest 2005 deforestation 90-00 deforestation 00-05

(ha) (ha) (% per year) (% per year)
Atsimo-Andrefana 6 672 411 1 702 795 1,19 0,98

Analanjirofo 2 193 766 1 092 415 0,59 0,14
Menabe 4 901 473 874 915 0,51 0,6
Sava 2 379 557 843 512 0,31 0,12
Sofia 5 141 981 761 177 1,04 0,3
Diana 2 036 252 589 091 0,62 0,52
Melaky 4 084 521 537 720 0,22 0,2
Anosy 2 969 782 476 987 0,47 1,02
Alaotra-mangoro 2 741 279 468 754 0,97 0,37
Androy 1 865 736 453 561 0,62 0,66
Boeny 3 031 115 403 960 0,91 0,4
Atsinanana 2 210 263 327 445 1,13 0,56
Atsimo-Atsinanana 1 654 777 253 591 1 0,54
Vatovavy-Fitovinany 2 076 357 152 219 1,5 0,24
Ihorombe 2 611 339 130 464 0,27 0,24
Betsiboka 2 961 604 65 186 0,45 0,29
Haute Matsiatra 2 089 450 57 764 2,22 0,07
Analamanga 1 736 130 45 096 1,68 1,04
Amoron'i Mania 1 655 218 37 662 2,77 1,49
Vakinankaratra 1 805 139 11 318 2,72 4,09
Bongolava 1 796 044 8 561 0 0,05
Itasy 649 364 44 7,49 6,66
National 59 263 558 9 312 017 0,82 0,55
Source: USAID
The south east regions and the north regions dispose of the biggest forest areas in 2005. The
forest areas in Sofia, Diana, Analanjirofo and Sava represent 35% of the total; the ones in
Atsimo-Andrefana, Melaky and Menabe are about 33% of the total.
The deforestation rate in Madagascar is 0.55% per year on the period 2000-2005. It has
decreased since the 90’, the rate was 0.82% per year. Over the period, the distribution remains
generally the same between the regions.
Deforestation is observed all over the island. It is more important in thorny forest. The yearly
deforestation rate is important in the region where the forest area is the smalest: 6.6% for
Itasy, 4.09 for Vakinankaratra, 1.49 for Amoron’I Mania, 1.04 for Analamanga. The rate is
1.02 for Anosy. Among the regions which have the biggest forest area, the most affected by
the deforestation between 2000 and 2005 are Atsimo Andrefana (0.98), Menabe (0.6) and
75
Diana (0.52). The yearly deforestation rate has increased in 3 regions betweens the 90’ and
2000-05: from 0.51 to 0.6 in Menabe, from 0.47 to 1.02 in Anosy and from 0.62 to 0.66 in
Androy.
b. Forest management
In order to limit the deforestation and to preserve the Malagasy biodiversity, the government
established a national system of Protected Areas. In October 2003, the president Marc
Ravalomanana presented, in the International Congress of Parks in Durban, his wish to extend
the national system of Protected Areas from 1.7 to 6 million hectares, that is to say 10% of the
size of the country.
First, there are the Protected Areas managed by the Système National d’Aires Protégées
(SAPM). Then, there are the priority areas for the future expansion of the SAPM. We also have to
distinguish the Sites de Gestion Forestière Durable (SGFD), they represent forest areas controlled
and managed in a sustainable way, from the remaining forests which can be exploited freely.
The SGFD represent the forest managed in a sustainable way, while the remaining forests
correspond to a potential of forest managed area. Therefore, we identify the wood potential
according to a combination between the two categories.
The map and the table below show this repartition over the country given the geographical
CIREED classification. This repartition is close to the region division but it defers because of the
forest management needs.
76
77
Table 18: Different categories of forest by CIREEF.
CIREEF Protected area 2005 (ha) SAPM 2005 (ha) SGFD 2005 (ha) Others 2005 (ha) SGFD + others SGFD + others/total TOTAL 2005 (ha)
Toliara 99 213 702 733 125 167 779 342 904 509 53 1 706 456
Morondava 165 416 104 383 185 842 415 937 601 779 69 871 578
Antsohihy 79 559 120 747 203 249 354 908 558 157 74 758 463
Fenoarivo 360 402 240 436 259 782 182 550 442 332 42 1 043 170
Ambovombe 1 670 46 355 94 306 310 173 404 479 89 452 504
Antalaha 322 158 211 635 129 590 206 779 336 369 39 870 163
Maintirano 96 499 144 915 71 917 249 901 321 818 57 563 231
Antsiranana 131 424 244 124 36 796 219 386 256 182 41 631 730
Mahajanga 154 433 65 816 11 353 178 048 189 401 46 409 651
Moramanga 99 374 24 592 75 736 99 883 175 619 59 299 584
Ambotomdrazaka 128 915 18 814 60 720 88 591 149 311 50 297 040
Taolagnaro 83 101 289 362 0 113 540 113 540 23 486 003
Antananarivo 17 000 10 974 10 236 97 915 108 151 79 136 125
Farafangana 164 056 23 908 49 843 37 042 86 885 32 274 849
Toamasina 217 904 58 336 27 358 55 432 82 790 23 359 030
Maevatanana 5 679 2 692 85 59 655 59 740 88 68 111
Ihosy 92 334 80 9 57 738 57 747 38 150 160
Fianarantsoa 49 389 2 0 45 638 45 638 48 95 040
Mananjary 55 438 14 705 5 808 24 308 30 116 30 100 261
Antsirabe 0 832 4 323 24 402 28 725 97 29 557
Tsiromandidy 0 0 0 8 954 8 954 100 8 954
Manakara 63 211 141 0 7 232 7 232 10 70 584
Ambositra 34 072 106 0 4 431 4 431 11 38 666
Miarinarivo 0 0 0 1 353 1 353 100 1 353
Total 2 421 247 2 325 688 1 352 120 3 623 138 4 975 258 51 9 722 263
Source: CIREEF
78
The forests remaining for the exploitation of wood represent 4.975 (1.352 + 3.623) millions of
Ha in Madagascar; with about 4.7 millions of hectares of natural forest (95%) and about
250 000 hectares of plantations (5%).
Toliara (Atsimo Andrefana), Morondava (Menabe) and Anstohihy (Sofia) dispose of the biggest
forest areas available, with more than 500 00 Ha, for the wood energy field.
c. By-product : wood pellets
The potential for the production of pellet in Madagascar depends on the settlement of the
sawyer activity. We couldn’t identify with precision the location of every sawyer in
Madagascar, but the numerous interviews lead concluded that one of the most sawyer active
regions is the region of Alaotra Mangoro.
Therefore, given to these different indicators, the south regions (Atsimo Andrefana, Menabe,
Androy and Anosy), the north regions (Sofia, Diana and Sava) and Alaotra Mangoro are the ones
which represent a higher potential for the development of the wood energy field.
a. Improved stoves
Since the 90’, a lot of improved stoves have been introduced in the Malagasy market. It has
been developed with certain limits. However, most of them can be produced locally at a
competitive cost.
b. Electrification
The vaporization system (see the wood worksheet) is available locally using the wood as the
fuel. Some parts of the machines have to be imported.
The technology can work with others resources that permit to heat the water.
Because we did not have the time to collect more information on the technology, please see
BIONERR or CIRAD projects for more information.
a. Cooking
Many initiatives have been launch to developed improved stoves in Madagascar. We present
here the improved stove “fatana pipa” proposes by BIONERR because it seems well adapted
to the rural needs. The stove is mainly composed by a heat-resistant clay fireplace, by a cover
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protection in sheet metal and a chimney. Accessories can be added like a valve for air
regulation.
The schemes below show how work a fatana pipa and present also the monetary saving using
a fatana pipa.
Préparation de 500g de riz sec :

Prix selon le cuiseur utilisé
400
350
300
Prix du 250
combustible
200
(Ariary)
150
100
50
0
Pipa Pipa Fatapera Fatapera
Gaz
(copeaux) (bois) mitsitsy classique
Prix (Ariary) 15 60 75 135 366
Source : Bionerr, 2008
b. Electrification
The CIRAD is currently implemented a DRE financed by the energy facility. It consists in
implementing two DRE units in the east of Madagascar. The units work with a vaporization
system. Wood is the resource used to heat. The CIRAD have a strong experience in forest
issues in Madagascar. They really believe that a development of the wood energy field will
reduce the deforestation and bring sustainable solutions for rural energy issues. (For further
information, please contact Mr Montagne, CIRAD)
c. Forest management project
Many projects based on the wood energy field development have been implemented and are
still running to reduce the overexploitation of the forest. It happens (ed) at a local, regional
and national level.
The project Greenmad (GTZ), for instance, has been implemented in the north with a
significant success. The objective of the project was to develop an integrated management of
the wood energy field from where the resource stands to the consumers. It has led to increase
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the management of the forest, to develop rural competences for carbonization issues and to
strengthen the distribution chain to the urban consumer. Given the success, the project will be
extended in the others regions of the country.
Other similar projects have been implemented or are still running. See the SEESO project
(WWF, CNRIT – energy facility), etc.
These projects allow to strengthen the competences in rural areas forest management. In this
sense, the government has introduced rural forest management units: the COBA.
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III. SWOT ANALYSIS, COMPARISON AND RECOMMANDATIONS
1. SWOT ANALYSIS PER ENERGY
1.1 Solar SWOT analysis

Solar resource is free but is not available out of sunshine hours and the solar radiations are not
sufficient all over the country. The potential is concentrated in the north and the south regions
in the Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara province.
The solar oven technology is available in Madagascar and is sold at a competitive price. Solar
cookers require more time to cook food compared to traditional ovens and depend on the
hours of sunshine. Using a solar oven therefore induces that food preparation be started
several hours before the meal. However, it asks for less hands-on time. It is considered as
reasonable trade-off. The solar cookers are an important contribution towards halting the
deforestation process and thereby preserve the environment. 500 solar cookers save 5'500 tons
of wood a year, which translates into 1'000 hectares of woodland in the south of Madagascar.
There is no CO2 emission, which is the main agent responsible for climate change. The
population will become less dependent on wood and charcoal. Besides environmental reasons
there are also economical and practical reasons to favor the solar cooker. Families reduce their
energies expenses for cooking purpose. There is a pay back on the investment after only 6
months of using the solar cooker. Furthermore, cooking with the solar cooker is hygienic,
there is no smoke to affect health and therefore reduces life expectancy. Housewives report
they have more time for other work as the fire doesn't need to be tended. Also, the solar
cooker is less dangerous for children than it is with open fire.
PV technology is not available in Madagascar and the price of a solar panel is high. Batteries
are used to make the energy available out of the hours of sunshine. Maintenance is an
important issue as several materials like batteries have to be change in a relative short period
but it faces some problems because of the lack of financing. Most of the batteries are let in the
nature while the lead contains inside infiltrated the soil and causes water contamination.
Moreover, although some solutions have been provided to make it more secure, lot of solar
devices are exposed to steal. The main constraints to make PV more competitive are the initial
investment, the increased efficiency and the need to find solutions for the storage because
generally the period of production differs from period of consumption.
Recently, the solar thermal technology has been largely improved for electricity production.
This aspect has to be studied (see the Mediterranean Solar Project for example).
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1.2 Wind SWOT analysis
The wind energy is free. The potential is concentrated in the south and the north regions.
However, it could be not available at a sufficient speed according to the hours of the day and
the seasonal characteristics in a many different areas.
The use of this technology is interesting for water pumping and electricity.
The barriers to wind energy development in Madagascar are: a commercial and financial
barriers, a lack of sufficient volume in the market for technology providers and a high up-
front investment costs for wind energy technologies versus low cost and quick installation of
diesel base system.
Also, the distance from the consumption place is important: a lot of potential sites are far
away from the village and transport lines are expensive. This leads to a drastic increase in the
overall project investment due to the transportation costs.
Low population density: as for all rural electrification projects, the fact that houses are spread
out throughout villages increases distribution costs. This problem is made worse by the
households’ low payment capacity.
Low utilization factors: the KWh price increases inversely with the charge rate.
1.3 Hydraulic SWOT analysis

Waterpower is a free resource available at all hours of the day and throughout the year if the
power capacity of the central is based on the lowest water level.
According to central size: pico installations and the low head waterfall are systems that are
too small and not profitable. Indeed, they experience an economy of scale because production
costs are higher than for bigger units. As a result, it provides incentives to choose simplified
solutions and therefore go against hydropower project sustainability. According to the micro
installations, in general it is the ideal size to develop sustainable electrification project. For
small installations, it is better to be connected to the grid in order to sell the excess energy
during at least the first years of the projects (Lokoho project).
Distance from the consumption place: a lot of potential sites are far away from the village and
transport lines are expensive. This leads to a drastic increase in the overall project investment
due to the transportation costs.
Prohibitive capital costs: the initial investment for hydropower is quite high. Given the
restrained access to the credit and the high interest rates (between 15% and 25%) in
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Madagascar, rural electrification depends largely on donations, subsidies or preferential

interest rates.
Water resource competition: irrigation against energy. For example, the recent rice price
increase has led to an increase in the competition between the use of water for irrigation or the
use of water to produce electricity. However, this competition depends on the institutional and
management capacities and has the potential to become a synergy if it is well organized.
Given the size of the international market and the technology necessary to build turbines, it is
competitive to produce turbines in Madagascar. However, although technology transfers are
included in running projects (Rhyviere-UNIDO), there is a lack of knowledge concerning the
manufacturing and installation of SHP and before it could take some time untill the process
will be effective. This can detract from the turbines’ reliability, at least in the short run.
Projects have to be very careful conducting their demonstration project using locally
manufactured turbines.
Hydro power projects are respectful of the environment and therefore are eligible for funding
like GEF or CDM.
1.4 Gasification SWOT analysis

Since Madagascar produces a lot of agricultural products, they transform the soil and since
generally the residues of the transformation process are not used, this provides a free resource
for gasification. However, residues remain the farmer’s ownership and if they identify an
economic value to this, they will sell it. This entrepreneurial activity was experienced by
BIONNER when couples of months after the beginning of their installations, farmers have
decided to sell their rice husks for Ar 4/kilo whereas they had initially been collected for free.
Finally, even if residues are usually considered to be a constraint by the farmers, opportunity
cost analyses have to be conducted.
Given the repartition of the residue all over the country, gasification can be developed in lot
of areas. However, analyses of the resource potential for woody biomass, coconuts, banana
fibers, sisal, etc. residue have to be done in order to localize the better sites. In the case of rice
husks, analysis shows that Analamanga, Vakinankaratra, Itasy, Aloatra, Atsimo andrefana and
Haute Matsiatra are the most plentiful regions. This analysis depends on the existence of rice
mills and the concentration of rice huskers. For cornstalk, Vakinankaratra, Atsimo Andrefana,
Itasy, Boeny, Bongalava, Haute Matsiatra, Androy, Sofia and Menabe are regions with the
most potential.
Scale flexibility: with various gasifier types and processes, biomass gasification system can be
designed in appropriate scale according to user demand. The system can be operated stably
and kept with reasonable technical indices in any scale. However, too small a scale decreases
the economic indices, and too large a scale creates problems in providing feedstock.
Therefore, appropriate scale must be decided by local conditions, such as the amount of
biomass wastes, demands of energy (kinds and output), etc.
Prohibitive capital cost: the price of a gasifier is quite high. Moreover, it could lead to choose
a system as simple as possible. It can affect the gasifier sustainability and some important
processes, such as tar removal and gas cleaning, cannot be perfectly designed, leaving some
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operation difficulties and environmental problems. For example, gasification of straw for
domestic cooking system can achieve obvious social benefit, but due to the high cost for
antipollution measures it is impossible to make profit from its use.
Technical barriers: there are three main technical barriers to the commercialization of biomass
gasification: secondary pollution, equipment reliability and client orientated product
development. These issues are caused by the immature technology that makes it difficult to
open market and commercialize. Among these issues, wastewater processing is a first order
technical barrier that needs to be solved. Therefore, all the materials are currently imported.
Therefore, it seems difficult to develop the technology at a competitive cost in Madagascar.
This analysis is largely influenced by the BIONERR point of view and needs further
investigations.
Opportunity cost of the residue: the residue can be used as fertilizer, breedings food, to fight
erosion, etc. therefore, its uses for gasification can present opportunity cost.
Production instability of the residue: the evolution of the brut product production has to be
studied to insure that the involvement in gasification will not face shortage. Today, the main
factor which affect the rice or the corn production are climatic shocks. It is an important risk
here in Madagascar because the hurricane which are frequent during the rainy season.
However, given the drastic oil price increase, the competition for land between food and
energy could be another factor that can affect the rice or corn production. This analysis matter
if the plant used instead do not provide residue available for gasification.
1.5 Methanization SWOT analysis
The resource is free and is available throughout the year for the waste owners (stockbreeder,
human being, etc.)
The technology is available in Madagascar. The initial investment remains prohibitive for big
units but is very competitive for small household units. The Borda technology developed by
GTZ is as adapted for local manufacturing. Plastic solutions have shown strong advantages.
The optimal conditions for the methanization process depend on the temperature and the
humidity.
The use of digester allows not only for wastes to be stalked but also for the destruction of
pathogenic germs. In many developing countries the pathogenic germs transported by human
and animal wastes cause a lot of parasitosis (amebas, roundworm, bilharzias, etc.) or
microbial illness (typhoid, cholera, etc.). Moreover, digester use allows for pollution into
rivers or soil to be avoided.
85
In some areas, it is taboo to use waste for cooking purposes. It is more acceptable to use the
gas for cooking than use the compost as a fertilizer in order to produce food. Some projects in
the south have been confronted to these problems.
Methanization prevents the methane from getting into the atmosphere. Moreover, it reduces
deforestation providing solutions for cooking issues.
In some areas, farmers are exposed to insecurity (zebu theft). Although in these attacks still
occur in certain areas, it happens less frequently today. However, it is a big issue because if
the digester is not used during a limited period then it could no longer be usable.
1.6 Biofuel SWOT analysis

Jatropha, sugar can and in a lesser extent cotton are already available in several regions of
Madagascar. Jatropha can be produced in less arable area. However, the most arable land has
a lot of chance to be used because of investments returns expectations. Therefore, a strong
regulation system is required to avoid land competition with food production.
The manual press is available locally at a competitive price but is less efficient than the press
working with an engine. However, engines have to be imported.
Most of the diesel engines have to be modified to work with Pure Plant Oil. This oil is not
appropriate for oil lamps and oil ovens.
The transesterification and hydrogenation process have not been experienced locally to
produce biodiesel.
Ethanol is produced in Madagascar for several years. Distilleries can be built locally but
several components have to be imported. Micro-distelleries represent a competitive solution at
the decentralized level. The fuel can be used for lighting and cooking, all the by-products can
be used for commercial purposes and it provides incentives for famers to switch from a local
alcohol production forbidden by the law.
1.7 Wood SWOT analysis

Wood is still available for free in an important extent in Madagascar. The forest area is more
important in the north and the south regions.
Forest management system represents an interesting solution both for forest preservation and
wood consumption.
Malagasy have strong habits using this resource because they know well how fire is working,
it gives a special taste they like, and it is free. However, as far as the deforestation increased,
it rises the times spent every day by the rural inhabitant collecting the wood fuel and the use
of open firewood exposes individual to severe respiratory illness.
86
Improved stoves are available locally at a competitive cost for rural inhabitants. It increases
the energy efficiency and reduces the indoor air pollution exposition.
Electricity could be produced by vaporization system.
Developing the wood energy field seems to be a good way to reduce deforestation and
respond to the energy issues for both rural and urban areas. However, a strong regulation
system has to be implemented to avoid abuse.
1.8 Common factors
a. Funding opportunities
Due to the increasing interest on the environmental issues, the funding opportunities rise all
over the world. As renewable energy projects respect the environment, they are eligible to
these funding. Moreover, there is also an increasing interest from donors to provide modern
energies in developing countries.
b. Technology transfer
There is a lack of technical and techno-economic knowledge and know-how on renewable

energy technologies in Madagascar. A joint venture between an experimented company and a
Malagasy company would be necessary to produce locally renewable energy technologies
adapted to the Malagasy environment.
c. DRE Institutional weaknesses
The ADER suffers from a lack of employees and financing. Even if the rural energy
development is well planed, they do not have sufficient resources to handle it. Therefore, the
ADER faces several problems:
• There is a lack of management and planning capacity to identify, prepare, and
implement energy programs.
• There is a lack of capacity for assessing the economics of energy resources in a
portfolio of sources with risk and local benefits.
• The institutional weaknesses lead to a lack of reliable and comprehensive information
on energy resources and opportunities to ground decisions.
• Lack of tools to help decision makers in prioritizing and establishing energy targets.
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2. SWOT ANALYSIS COMPARISON: STRENGHTS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS

Strengths
Solar Wind Hydraulic Gasification Methanization Biofuels Wood
Price of the resource the resource is free the resource is free the resource is free the resource is free
Large potential to Large potential to Large potential in Large potential in Large potential in Jatropha available the forest area are
use the resource in use the resource in the east cost, the the country. The the Mahajanga and all over the country. more important in
the north and in the the north and in the north and the localisation depends the Toliara province Large area used in the north and the
south south highlands on the resource we Atsimo Andrefana south regions.
Disponibility of the
consider for cotton culture
resource
Resource always Availability in the
available when the province of
lowest level of the Antananarivo for
river is considered Ethanol
Technology is Competitive Competitive Competitive Cooking technology Manual press and Improved stoves
available at a solution for DRE (Ar solution for DRE (Ar solution for DRE (Ar available at the local micro-distelleries available at a
competitive price 6 to 12 million the 4 to 18 million the 4 million the level and is very are available at a competitive cost.
Technology
for solar cooker installed kW) installed kW) installed kW with competitive for competitive cost. (see for
investment cost
biogas turbine and small household Biofuel Generator vaporization)
Ar 2 million without units are competitive
biogas turbine)
Micro size is better Borda technology is fuels for diesel Improved stoves is
adapted in dynamic adapted to local generators. well adapted for
rural village manufacturing rural needs.
Low operating cost Low operating cost Low operating costs Plastic tanks are Micro-distilleries
Technology process technologically are better adapted
adapted and are to local needs.
cheaper Ethanol for cooking
issues.
Solar cooker are Borda and plastic Except for manual improved stoves are
available locally tank are available press and micro- available locally.
Local manufacturing locally distilleries, most of
the technology have
to be imported
Reduction of GHS Reduction of GHS Reduction of GHS Reduction of GHS Reduction of Diversifying reduce indoor air
emissions emissions emissions emissions deforestation and cultures for farmers pollution
methane emissions
Use consequences
Reduce households Improve farmers’ Reduce households Lots of other uses Increase the energy
air contamination management of air contamination available than efficiency
their residue. energy uses
88
Weaknesses
Farmers are owners Stockbreeder, very variable and Distribution
of the resource human being, etc. close to classic fuel systems induces a
Price of the resource
are owners of the prices for the cost.
resource moment
Resource only the wind speed is Only available The resource is not Deforestation
available in the instable along the where there is a available in the reduce the access to
hours of sunshine day and given the sufficient waterfall same quantity all the resource
and without clouds season we consider and/or flow over the year
according to the
Disponibility of the
crop season
resource
collecting costs are
significant when the
resource is not
concentrated in a
small area
Prohibitive capital Prohibitive capital Prohibitive capital Prohibitive capital Prohibitive capital prohibitive capital
cost for solar panels, cost cost (distance from cost cost for medium and cost for press with
Technology
batteries, etc. the location of the large scale units engine and large
investment cost
consumption scale distilleries
matters a lot) units
Low duration of the Low utilization Low utilization Problem of Process is exposed Transeterification
batteries factors drastically factors drastically feedstock for big to temperature and not available
increase the price increase the price gasifiers humidity variation
per kWh. per kWh.
Small central needs Small gasifiers are Explosion risk
to be connected to not competitive
the grid at least in given to economy of
Technology process
the first year of the scale.
implementation.
Low utilization
factors drastically
increase the price
per kWh.
Lack of technology Lack of technology Lack of knowledge lack of technology Lack of technology Lack of technology Lack of technology
Local manufacturing knowledge for PV knowledge to produce turbine knowledge knowledge knowledge knowledge
at the local level
Use consequences
89
Opportunities
Funding Funding Funding Funding Funding Funding Funding
Financing and opportunities (GEF- opportunities (GEF- opportunities (GEF- opportunities (GEF- opportunities (GEF- opportunities opportunities
institution CDM-etc.) CDM-etc.) CDM-etc.) CDM-etc.) CDM-etc.)
Use less arable land reduce
deforestation
Resource Switch from illegal
production use of wood pellet
Technology transfer Technology transfer Technology transfer Technology transfer Technology transfer Technology transfer
- joint venture - joint venture – joint venture – joint venture – joint venture – joint venture
Increase the storage Improve farmer Improves farmers’ improves rural

capacity for battery collaboration management of inhabitants
for PV their residue. management of
Technology their forest
Increase the heat Destroys pathogenic developed the
capacity for solar germs technoogy in a
cooker natioanl intagrated
electricity system
Solar thermal production
electricity
90
Threats
Financing and Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional

institution weaknesses weaknesses weaknesses weaknesses weaknesses weaknesses weaknesses
cloudy year Exposition to Water resource Farmers are owners Variation of Land competition developing the
hurricanes competition of their resource External with food. wood energy field
and can decide to temperature and could induce abuses
Resource sell it humidity International price
evolution
Residue shortage
Lack in battery Operating cost could Operating cost could
management be important be important in
leading to water classic digesters
contamination
Technology Lack of maintenance Potential diseases

for PV contained in the
animal waste
Exposition to
stealing for PV
Reluctance from the The use of that kind
population to of residue is taboo
change their
cooking purpose
habits essentially
Use according to the
food taste.
Insecurity (zebu
theft)
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3. COMPARISON AND RECOMMANDATIONS
3.1 Cooking issues

Solar energy, wood, methanization and biofuels can be used for cooking issues in rural areas.
Solar cooker is a competitive solution in sunny areas in the north and the south of
Madagascar. The technology is available at a competitive price and could be produced locally.
The resource is free but can be used only in the sunshine hours. It induces a change in their
habits which can reduce the incentives to adopt the technology. However, the projects led in
the south seem to work successfully.
Using open firewood leads to several problems: wasted time, respiratory illness, deforestation,
etc. Therefore, different projects have been led to introduce improved oven. This technology
reduces the three problems mentioned above. It has been pretty well accepted by rural
households. Improved oven are produced locally at a competitive price. The development of
the technology has to be strengthened all over the country and primarily in the areas where the
deforestation is critical. Moreover, an integrated management of the resource used is
appropriate. Specific forest areas could be dedicated to cooking used and managed in order to
insure the supply respecting the three rotations. Several projects have tested this solution
using eucalyptus threes with a certain success. Another resource is also available: the wood
pellet. The resource is not very expensive. Few projects have tested this solution. It seems to
be a competitive alternative.
The methanization technology has been spread out during the 80’ through a UN project. This
has permitted a technology transfer and developed competences in the country. However, the
different digesters installed as pilot units did not work as well as it was expected. These
results do not mean that the technology is not adapted but more that the implementation of the
methanization units has to be improved. A more detailed research than the one we did above
needs to be carried on to identify the barriers before implementing methanization project. It
remains that the technology is costly for big unit. Plastic tanks are a very interesting
alternative. In the same time, small units are very competitive and a recent project led close
to Fianarantsoa confirmed the potential (contact Mr Marchand10). However, even if the
technology is developed with a security valve, it remains an explosion risk that has to be taken
into consideration.
Ethanol is the biofuel which could be considered for cooking issues. It could be used in
ethanol oven and provides incentives for farmer to switch from illegal production. However,
even if the technology is available locally at a competitive price, this solution is highly
exposed to the ethanol price variation.
Therefore, according to cooking issues, solar cooker, improved oven and small digesters seem
to be the most interesting option. All these options allow to reduce deforestation, the time
spent to collect wood and the respiratory illness. Solar cookers can be developed in the north
10
heliem.marchand14@gmail.com
and in the south. A joint-venture with the NGO’s which have the experience could be
interesting. The used of improved oven with wood pellet is particularly appropriate. The
resource potential has to be studied in order to identify the distribution possibilities. An
integrated management of the forest is also an interesting solution. GTZ through the
GREENMAD project has acquired competences. The small digesters are an eligible solution
for cooking. The technology is more adapted in areas where the temperature and the humidity
are consistent with the methanization process that is to say not in the highlands. Biofuels use
face several issues that have to be studied in a larger extent (see Practical Action, Tana meva:
report in progress). Finally, experiences show that rural households pay a huge attention to the
firewood taste of the food. This has to be taken into consideration designing cooking projects.
3.2 Electricity development

Solar energy, Wind power, hydraulic, gasification and biofuels could be considered to
produce electricity in rural area. Our recommendations on this report are for rural areas where
the electricity-grid is not going to be installed in the middle/long run.
a. Decentralized rural electrification
Solar central is not a good option for rural villages. It is too costly and the technology is
imported. Nevertheless, when no other solution is available, solar central can be considered.
Moreover solar thermal technology has been improved. This alternative has to be
investigated.
Nico, 2008, Energie de l’eau
93
It is possible to install wind power central in the north and in the south. The cost per kW
installed is competitive but remain high compared to diesel generator (from Ar million 6 to 12
per kW installed for wind power). Moreover, the resource is instable and the technology is not
available locally. Some firms produced wind turbines locally, but it remains a doubt on their
quality.
Hydraulic power is available when a waterfall is sufficient and not too far from the village.
The resource is available all over the year at each time of the day. There is a large potential to
develop hydropower in the east cost, the north and the highlands. The micro size is better
adapted in dynamic rural villages. A technology transfer is about to be realized through the
Rhyviere and the SHP projects. The operating costs are quite low. The cost per kW installed
is competitive (from Ar 4 to 18 million per kW installed). There are very few experiences in
Madagascar for the moment.
The resources for gasification are huge all over the country and are a priori free. The
technology is not available locally. It has to be imported. However, the price per kW installed
is very competitive (Ar 2 to 4 million). The most interesting solution is to connect the gasifier
to a diesel generator because the price of the gas generator is high. These solutions are mainly
supported by BIONERR and the data only come from their analysis. Benchmark studies have
to be made to strengthen the analysis. BIONERR have already installed several units which
are working with success.
Biodiesel can be used in diesel generator to produce electricity. However, the price remains
high and will depend on the international market. Moreover, the jatropha oil have to be
transformed in order to obtain a compatible fuel. Finally, there is currently an important
reflexion on the land competition that the introduction of biofuel may induce. Therefore, we
do not suggest to develop this option for the moment.
b. DRE comparison
The objective is to identify if DRE working with renewable energies are more competitive
than using diesel generator and also the difference between the renewable energie
technologies. The cost per kW installed is around Ar 600 000 for a diesel generator. The
exploitation costs are important due to the oil price. Considering that the energy efficiency of
a diesel generator is around 4 kWh per liter (Retscreen website), A 30 kW diesel generator
working 4 hours a day consumes 24 liters per day. It means 8640 liters per year. If we
consider an oil price around Ar 2000 per liter, which is optimistic, the annual consumption is
Ar 17 million. We consider here that the initial investment per kW is on average Ar 8 million
for wind centrals, Ar 7 million for small hydro power units and Ar 3 million for gasification
units. The calculation of the average is based on the data we present above by energy. It has to
be taken carefully because of the lack of observations. Moreover, the energy efficiency of the
diesel generator could be very different given the device used. Further investigations have to
be carried on to make the analysis more consistent. However, the comparison analysis
94
suggests below provides a rough estimate of the differences existing between the four
possibilities: diesel generator, wind power, hydropower and gasification.
Table 19: DRE comparison
Hydraulic
Resource Diesel generator Wind power power Gasification
Cost per kW installed (Ar) 600000 8000000 7000000 3000000
central power (kW) 30 30 30 30
Initial investment (Ar) 18000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
Year
1 35000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
2 52000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
3 69000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
4 86000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
5 103000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
6 120000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
7 137000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
8 154000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
9 171000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
10 188000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
11 205000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
12 222000000 240000000 210000000 90000000
Given the fact that we consider a low price for diesel and that the diesel generator are working
just 4 hours a day instead of 24 hours for the others, the renewable energies solutions are
competitive to produce electricity. Indeed, without taking into account these factors, wind
power is less expensive after 12 years, hydraulic after 11 years and gasification after 4 years.
The evaluation for hydropower is biased by a central in our sample which is more expensive
than the average. In reality, the average is more around Ar 5 000 000 per kW installed and
lead to 8 years before being more interesting than diesel generator. Therefore, according the
advantage of the resource (always free and always available) and the potential in Madagascar,
hydropower is the panacea for DRE when the waterfall is not too far from the village.
Gasification is also interesting and should be developed. However, the risk that the farmers
can decide to sell the residue has to be evaluated carefully. Further investigations are required
to identify the potential for technology transfer, localization of the resources and the price risk
of the resource. The wind power is a competitive alternative in windy regions.
The agency in charge of the rural electrification is well structured but need to be strengthened
financially. Its labor force has to be risen.
Develop renewable energies today gives the opportunity to take advantage of the increasing
interest in environmental issues and therefore get access to funding.
95
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ANNEX
ANNEX 1: SOLAR ENERGY WORKSHEET
1. Resource origin
Solar energy is the use of solar rays to create energy. The term solar power is used
interchangeably with solar energy but refers more specifically to the conversion of sunlight
into heat and electricity either by photovoltaics or by solar thermal devices.
Solar energy potential depends on the radiation level. The higher the radiation is, the higher
the potential for solar energy is. However, this correlation also depends on the use of
technology, the hour of the day, the relative humidity, the air temperature and the weather.
Typically, 5,500 W/m2 is considered to be a good level for solar energy. The site chosen must
contain the least possible shadow hours, be secured against robbery and vandalism, and be
accessible for maintenance.
The map below shows how solar radiations are distributed all over the world. Solar radiations
are expressed in W/m2. The solar constant is around 1376 W/m².
Table : solar radiation shared all over the world in W/m2
Source: Loster, 2006
2. Technical characteristics
Solar energy is divided into thermal solar and photovoltaic categories.
2.1. Thermal solar : focusing on solar cookers (ovens or stoves)

Basic principles of all solar cookers:
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1. Concentrating sunlight: some devices, usually mirrors or some type of reflective

metals, are used to concentrate light and heat from the sun into a small cooking area.
2. Using black color: any black on the inside of a solar cooker will improve the
efficiency of converting light into heat.
3. Trapping heat: the process is to isolate the air inside the cooker. The light enters into
the cooker and is trapped in the interior after having been absorbed and converted to
heat.
Used individually, each of these strategies for heating something with the sun is not sufficient.
Therefore, most solar cookers use a combination of two or three of these principles in
combination in order to achieve a temperature sufficient for cooking.
Different kind of solar cookers:
We present below different types of solar cookers: box cookers, panel cookers, solar kettles
and parabolic cookers:
Box cooker: the inside insulator of the box cooker is able to withstand temperatures around
150°C. This is not as hot as a standard oven but still hot enough to cook almost all food over a
longer period of time: rice, cassava, corn, potatoes, vegetables, meat and fish. Also, bread and
cakes can be baked and medical tools or water can be sterilized. It can be constructed out of
locally available materials ranging from small cardboard to wood or glass devices.
Panel cooker: it uses shiny panels to direct sunlight to a cooking pot that is enclosed in a
clear plastic bag. A common model is the Cookit developed by Solar Cookers International.
This product can be produced locally by pasting a reflective material, such as aluminum foil,
onto a cut and folded backing, usually a corrugated cardboard. For a small panel cooker, it is
possible to melt butter in 15 minutes, to bake cake in two hours and to cook rice for four
people in four hours. The typical cost is about US $ 5.
Solar kettles: typically, they use evacuated solar glass tube technology to capture, accumulate
and store solar energy. They can heat water to boiling point.
Parabolic cookers: They reach high temperatures and cook quickly but require frequent
adjustment and supervision for safe operation they can cook as well as conventional oven.
However, they are difficult to construct.
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Parabolic cooker Box cooker
Using a solar cooker:
The different kinds of solar cookers have different methods of cooking, but most of them
follow the same basic principles. The prepared food is placed in an appropriately sized heat-
proof container. The most efficient containers are made of thin, dull metal, dark in color, with
a lid that covers the food and reduces the moisture loss. Glass containers and even plain paper
bags are also used. The container of food is placed inside the solar cooker, perhaps elevated
by bricks or rocks and the solar cooker is placed in direct sunlight. The cooking time depends
primarily on the equipment beings used, the sunlight radiation and the quantity of food that
needs to be cooked. Air temperature, wind and latitude also affect the machine’s performance.
Additionally, food cooks faster in the two hours before and after the local solar noon.
2.2. Photovoltaic
2.2.1. Solar panel

A solar panel, also called photo-voltaic (PV) panel turns sunlight into direct current (DC)
electricity. Electricity produced by a PV panel is measured in Watts (W). The optimal
exposition for solar panel is given in Watt-Crete (Wc). It refers to the electric power in Watt
of a radiation per m² with a vertical incidence and a temperature around 25° C. Nowadays,
efficiency is around 15% for the technology. It means that to reach a power of 1 kWc, we
need 6.66 m² of solar infrastructure: kW/m² * 0.15 = 150 Wc; 1 000 W / 150 W = 6.66 m².
Due to the growing need for solar energy, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic
arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic production has been doubling
every two years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year since 2002, making it the
world’s fastest-growing energy technology.
Although a variety of technologies exist, only the silicon cells are used for household
electrification because of the competitive relation of price to power. They can be divided into
three categories : monocrystalline cells, polycrystalline cells, or amorphous cells. The
monocrystallines ones are efficient but the most expensive silicon panels. Their efficiency
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ranges from 15% to 18.5%. The main inconvenience is the large decrease in power when the
sunshine is low. According to the polycrystallines cells, their efficiency, which ranges from
12% to 14%, is lower than the former one but they are also cheaper. Their main defect is also
their reaction to a low sunshine. Finally, amorphous cells are the less efficient, between 5% to
8% but are the cheapest ones. Moreover, they react better to a low sunshine level. Their main
defects are their size and their life duration.
There are different potential uses of photovoltaic panels such as solar lamps, solar kits, solar
pumps, and solar centrals.
Solar lamps: a solar lamp is a device composed of an incandescent lamp or a light-emitting

diode (a form of electroluminescence), a solar panel and a small rechargeable battery. It can
be used outdoors and indoors (for instance as desk lamps). The energy is charged during the
sunny daylight hours in a battery. The energy accumulated is used during the night for
lighting. The discharging time is generally 8 to 10 hours.
Solar kits (home system): solar kits provide electricity for lighting and heating for rural
households, local community infrastructures (schools, CSBs, and administrative
infrastructures), and economic activities (fridges, small businesses, etc.). It is very
competitive when the resource is abundant and the dwellers are spread out.
Solar pump: a solar water pump allows for water to be pumped from the ground. The daily
water delivery depends on the amount of PV panels installed and also on the depth of the
water level and the height of the water storage tank (the depth and height added together are
referred to as “total pumping head”).
Solar central: several solar panels are assembled in order to produce a large quantity of
electricity. The biggest PV central ever build is in Spain was installed in January 2008 and has
a power of 23 MW.
PVP Solar Lamp Solar kit Water solar pump Solar central
Source:Ischebeck, 2008
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2.2.2. Battery:
It is used because some periods of consumption differ from periods of production like the
lighting during the night. Lead batteries are the more commonly used because of their
competitive power/price relation.
2.2.3. Regulator:
It is used in order to avoid the overcharge and the discharge that reduce the life duration of
batteries.
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ANNEX 2: WIND ENERGY WORKSHEET
1. Resource origin
Wind energy is provided by the kinetic energy present in the moving air. The quantity of
energy produced depends mainly on the wind speed and the air density. The power and the
energy produced rise exponentially with the wind speed.
2. Wind energy potential identification
2.1. Choice criteria for the location of a wind turbine settlement
The choice of the land where the wind turbines should be installed depends on the force of
friction.
The force of friction exists primarily in low altitudes, or at levels ranging between 0 and 100
meters above ground, and it depends on the ruggedness of the ground surface (for instance,
topography, plant cover, artificial constructions, etc.). Certain surfaces are more conducive to
slower wind movements (for example, vast bodies of water), while other surfaces are more
uneven and rugged (such as forests). A classification system of size and ruggedness is
employed by meteorologists and wind energy technicians in order to characterize the different
types of land surfaces. A surface that has a high level of ruggedness will provide more
friction and therefore more resistance to wind, while a surface that has a classification of 0
will offer nearly no resistance to the wind. A high level of ruggedness decreases wind speed
at several meters above the ground where the windmills are located. Therefore, an evaluation
of ruggedness is necessary in order to assess wind sites.
The efficiency of a wind turbine depends on its location. In fact, the power provided
increases at a rate that is exponential to the speed of the wind. For this reason the sites are
initially chosen based on the speed and frequency of the wind currents that pass through them.
A site with winds with an average of 30 km/h will be around eight times more productive than
another site with winds around 15 km/h. Additionally, a wind turbine functions far more
efficiently when wind currents are frequent and constant.
Another important criterion for the choice of a wind power site is the constancy of wind speed
and the direction of the wind, otherwise known as the turbulence of the wind. In fact, as a
general rule, wind turbines are usable when the speed of wind is within a range of between 10
and 20 km/h and if the wind speed does not reach an excessive speed that will destroy the
wind turbines. Therefore, the speed of wind ought to remain primarily between the
aforementioned speeds in order for the wind turbine to function at an optimal level. Also, the
axis of the rotation of the wind turbine must remain parallel to the direction of the wind for
the majority of the time. Even with an orientation system in the performing platform, it is still
preferable to have a consistent wind direction in order to attain optimal energy outputs.
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Certain sites that are located near obstacles (such as trees, buildings, cliffs, etc.) ought to be
avoided because the wind is too turbulent.
Certain very specific sites augment the speed of the wind and are therefore more suitable for
wind turbine installations:
• The tunnel effect or Venturi effect: the wind is often stronger in valleys between
mountains or gaps between two large buildings. The air is compressed between the
mountains or the buildings and the speed augments considerably in order to maintain a
constant airflow. In addition, the wind generally flows in a constant direction. These
locations are therefore very suitable for wind turbines. Often, however, these areas are
restricted and hard to access so it is difficult to place a large number of wind turbines.
• Similarly, air is often compressed and therefore accelerates at mountain summits. All
the same, it is important that the slopes of the hills or mountains be mildly downward
sloping and that they are free of escarpments that are likely to provoke wind
turbulence that could impair the proper functioning of wind turbines.
• Seas and lakes are also suitable wind turbine locations since there are no obstacles to
the wind and thus, even at low altitudes, the winds have a speed that is higher and less
turbulent. The proximity to a steep slope, however, will create turbulence which
prematurely uses certain mechanical components of a wind turbine.
2.2.Evaluation of a wind field
An evaluation of a wind turbine platform is conducted with two tools. In an effort to find
wind sites and to measure these winds during the development period, patterns are measured
and modeled at mid- and small-scales. The mid-scale analysis allows evaluators to estimate
the speeds of the wind on a large surface with the aid of a regional model that predicts the
meteorological phenomena at a mid-scale. The mid-scale phenomena, which include electric
thunderstorms and land-to-sea breezes among others, have a substantial impact on winds. The
mid-scale models are normally limited to a resolution of 1km by 1km or more and don’t take
into consideration the local influences, which is to say the influences that manifest themselves
at a micro-scale level. In order to take into account these influences that appear on a smaller
scale, most notably the terrain’s relief and ruggedness, a micro-scale model is used in order to
obtain the wind speed at more elevated resolution levels, such as 200m by 200m. When a
zone has been identified with the aid of these mid-and small-scale models, a study to measure
the winds with the aid of measuring equipment has to be implemented on the site. From a
height that can reach 60m, this equipment while used with an anemometer allows a more
precise analysis of the wind potential of a chosen site.
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3. Wind turbine technical characteristics
3.1.Wind turbines classification
A wind turbine is a device that uses the motor force of the wind. This force can be used
mechanically (as in the case of a water pump windmill) or it can produce electricity (as in the
case of an aerogenerator). The main types of wind turbine models are categorized as follows:
the large, medium, small, and micro-wind turbines used in the production of electricity, and
the wind turbines that use water pumps and produce either mechanical or electric energy. The
large wind turbines (which produce 500 kW +), are grouped together in wind turbine parks
and principally serve in the production of electricity which runs through national and regional
networks. During windy periods, the electricity produced is distributed according to demand,
reducing the need for other sources of energy which fuel the same networks. The medium,
small and micro wind turbines, which produce a varying amount of power within a range of
around a hundred kW, are generally found in the micro-networks of decentralized electricity
or in the individual and communal applications. Since wind energy is intermittent by nature,
wind energy systems must be supplemented by batteries in order to store the energy or be
coupled with another source of energy (such as the hybrid wind-diesel system).
Water Pump Windmill Small Wind Turbine Large Wind Turbine
3.2.Electric Energy Produced by Wind Turbines
• Wind energy is characterized by its electric power. Therefore a wind turbine which
produces 1.5 mW is capable of providing an electric power of 1.5 millions of Watts as
a maximum. This is known as nominal power. Each wind turbine has its own
particular take off speed that is to say the wind speed from which the wind turbine
starts to produce electricity. The nominal speed of the wind turbine is the speed of
wind that corresponds to the production of the nominal power of the wind turbine.
The speed at which the wind turbine stops is the speed of wind that corresponds with
105
the halting of the wind turbine for security purposes. The different phases of a wind
turbine are indicated as follows:
• The performance of a wind energy park is indicated by its factor of use, or Capacity
Factor (CF), and it is defined by the following equation:

Capacity factor=

The energy that is potentially produced is equal to: nominal power x the number of hours the
machine is operating during the year.
Given the intermittence of wind energy production and the variations in wind speed
throughout the year, the capacity factor has values which approach 30% to 40% on wind
energy sites considered to be between good and very good quality. It has generally an
average of a 20% to 30% value.
3.3. Technologies used
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The most modern and widespread model

of wind turbine is composed of a
horizontal shaft with three blades.
Generally, a wind turbine is composed of
four essential elements: a lathe, a
platform, blades, and a step-up
step tension
transformer. The steel lathe, which has a
tubular shape, has the platform and the
rotor. The platform includes the hub that
supports the three blades linked to the
generator. The device allows the rotor to
be placed at a height which
whi is sufficient
to allow it to be that by wind that is more
strong and steady than at ground level.
The steel device generally has a part
which is composed of electric and
electronic components (for instance
modulators, controls, multipliers, generators, etc.).
The composition of a wind generator.
A rotor, which has several blades (typically three), is at the front of the wind turbine. The
rotor is propelled by wind energy and is part of an electric generator. The rotor is connected
to the platform by a hub.
The device, which is placed at the top of the lathe, shelters the mechanical and inflatable
components and certain electric and electronic components that are essential to the
functioning of the machine.
The axis of rotation of the wind turbine must remain parallel to the direction of the wind for
the majority of the time. Therefore the small wind turbines are directed towards the wind by a
fin that is located at the rear, like a weathercock. The large wind turbines have sensors that
identify the direction
irection of the wind and activate a motor that makes the rotor pivot.
For the use of the little wind turbines in rural areas, energy storing is not a serious problem.
The wind turbine is linked to batteries that are loaded by the electricity produced by the th
turbine. Technically, the electricity produced by wind energy passes by a charger or by a
regulator that charges the battery and stops the battery charging when it is full. The battery is
linked to a converter which transforms the continual courant from the battery into an
alternative current which is usable in the network. A diesel generator accompanies the
turbines thanks to a linking system when the battery is not sufficiently charged to satisfy the
demands for electricity.
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Solar and wind turbines also exist. The batteries are charged by the electricity of the wind
turbine and by the electricity of the solar panel thanks to a linkage system. A generator also
accompanies that kind of installation.
Representation of wind energy production and fuel generator energy per hour in a
month in the site of Sahasifotra
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ANNEX 3: HYDROPOWER WORKSHEET
1. Resource background
Hydropower, also known as hydraulic power or water power, is the physics derived from the
force or energy of moving water in river beds and riverbanks. The water, which comes from
precipitation, remains in motion because of the slope.
Rain water flows from the top to the catchment area through several little catchment areas.
The bigger the catchment area is, the higher the potential for hydropower is.
The water sharing line indicates the direction of the water’s flow. The more the ramp is sloped
from this line, the more potential there is for higher waterfall.
2. SHP potential identification

Generally, SHPs (Small Hydro Power) are localized in the little catchment adjoining the big
catchment area. A GIS (Geographical Information System) is the most effective method to
identify sites with SHP potential. This method of identifying hydrographic characteristics
corresponds with the SHP needs. If this system is not available, sites could be identified
through analysis on hydrographic maps showing the river localization, the curve level and the
distance from a village. Potential SHP sites could also be identified by surveys conducted
directly on the field.
3. SHP technical characteristics

In remote areas, SHP has increasingly been used as an alternative energy source. SHP systems
can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernible environmental effect on
things such as fish migration. Most SHP systems do not use a dam or major water diversion,
but rather use water wheels.
3.1. SHP central classifications according to their power
There exist no universal terms to classify SHPs according to their power. However, the
success of a SHP could be very different according to the power capacity. It is common to say
that units that are too small are not often profitable while units that are too big need to be
connected to the grid in order to be profitable during at least the first year of the project.
Different organizations like ADEME, URC Africa, Retscreen or INSHP provide their own
classification. Therefore, we decided to choose our classification system in order establish
standard terms of reference during the energy potential analysis. The one chosen below was
selected by Mr Ischebeck, the Energy Minister’s Advisor on Renewable Energies.
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Category Abbreviation Installed power

Home-made hydraulic Home-made < 1 KW
Pre-electrification Pré-el < 1 KW
Hydrohome system Hydro-kit 50 W to 2 KW
Pico central Pico 2 to 50 KW
Micro central Micro 50 to 500 KW
Small central Small 500 KW to 10 MW
Source: Leutwiler, 2008
3.2. Constructing an SHP plant

There are six aspects essential to the fabrication of an SHP plant:
1. Intake works: channels the water from the

river.
2. Forebay: guarantees that a sufficient level of
water gets into the penstock.
3. Channel works: permits water to be
transported to the powerhouse.
4. Powerhouse: the place where the waterpower
is transformed into electricity. Inside there is a
turbine, a generator, a regulation system and a
transformer.
5. Restitution works: allows water to return to the
river.
Source: ecocentre.org 6. Transmission lines: transports electricity to the
consumers.
3.3. Technologies used: focusing on turbines possibilities

possi
11
Hydraulic turbines are generally classified as high-head,
high medium-head
head or low-head
low
machines depending on the height of the waterfall they are used for. However, this
classification is relative to the size of the machine (i.e. what is low head for a large turbine12
can be high head for a small turbine).
There is a wide range of different turbines such as Crossflow, Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, etc.
The Crossflow and Pelton turbine technologies are the most widely used by local
manufacturers in developing countries. They have the following advantages: they are more
tolerant of sand and other particles
articles in the water, they have better access to working parts,
there are no pressure seals or glands around the shaft, they are easier to fabricate and
maintain, and they have better part-flow
part efficiency.
11
Head refers to the height of the waterfall
12
The size of the turbine refers to its power capacity
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However, the disadvantage of these turbines is that they are generally unsuitable for low-head
sites because they require a higher head to run at a desirable
speed with the generator they are connected to. The
Crossflow can be used only on very small sites (measuring
as little as 4m) while the multi-jet Peltons are generally used
on sites that are around 20m.
Two particularly attractive features of the Crossflow turbine

Crossflow turbine
have led to its widespread popularity for micro-hydro
purposes (even though it has the lowest peak efficiency of
the common turbine types). First, it is designed to be
suitable for a wide range of heads and power ratings. In
addition, it can be manufactured relatively easily (which is a
characteristic that is of particular importance to developing
countries).
In certain countries such as China, Peru, Brazil, India and Pelton turbine
Nepal, the manufacture and installation of various SHP
projects has resulted in the establishment of strong nationally-owned SHP industries. These
industries have significantly contributed to local development and gainfully employed
thousands of people. Benchmark studies have shown that SHP is an improved and viable
technology.
3.4. Calculation of the central power

The electric potential of the water depends on the “flow” (i.e. the time for a m3 of water to get
from a point of the river to another in one second) and the “available charge” (i.e. the height
of the waterfall).
The theoretical equation for electricity production is: P = Q*H*e*9.81
- P = the power (KW)

- Q = the flow (m3/s); measured at the lowest water level
- H = the waterfall height (m)
- e = central efficiency taking into account the different losses
- 9.81 = constant value (KW) to convert the flow and the charge into KW.
4. Financial issues
The initial investment necessary to establish SHP plants could be discouraging for many rural
areas in developing nations. However, operating costs are very low and SHP plants have high
life expectancies (with duration up to 20 years).
It is very difficult to provide a precise range of prices per KW installed because it depends on
several factors such as the economy of scale, the waterfall utility (resource density economy),
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the technology used, the distance between the central and the village, the demand density,
etc.
A high level of utilization of the central power is required in order to reduce the risk of hydro-
project non-sustainability. This level of utilization depends on the water availability (lowest
water level), the variation of the consumption (low consumption period) and the hours needed
for handling or for maintenance and repairs.
For more detailed information see the “guide on how to develop a small hydro power plant”,
ESHA report, 2004. Internet links below:
1. Guide on How to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant

2. Guide on How to Develop a SHP
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ANNEX 4: GASIFICATION (THERMAL CONVERSION) WORKSHEET
The gasification is a process that allowed the production of biogas through the conversion of
solid fuels into combustible gas mixture called producer gas (CO + H2 + CH4).
1. The different steps of the gasification process

In a first step, biomass is dried before workers put it into the feeding system. Then the
feedstock is transferred into the gasifier and becomes fluid in it. Biomass undergoes partial
combustion at a temperature between 800 °C and 1000 °C in absence of oxygen, to produce
volatiles gas. After several rounds of purification, a mixed fuel gas is obtained, consisting of
CO, H2 and CH4. This mixed gas is stored in a gas storage facility and transported via
underground pipes to individual families or used to produce electricity. (see fig 2).
As a resume, the steps are:
- Drying
- Pyrolysis
- Combustion
- Reduction
- Purification
- Gas storage
2. Eligible inputs
Type: they can be divided in three categories: the straw, the mill, and the forestry residues.
Straw (and other agricultural residues left in the field or at the farm after the crop is
harvested). Usually highly dispersed, these residues often have local uses and major non-
energy markets (eg: fodder, bedding, board manufacture) which reduce their availability as a
fuel.
Mill residues produced when the harvested crop is processed at a mill. Examples include rice
husk, sawdust, corn cobs and wood off-cuts, bagasse (the cane residue left after extraction of
the juice from sugar-cane), ground-nut shell, coconut shells and coffee husk. They are
concentrated in large quantities at a limited number of mills, where they may be an
environmental or fire danger.
Forestry residues include the lops and tops left after clear felling; thinnings; wind blow; and
premature clear felling.
Drying: We can gasify all dried biomass which contain less than 20% of water. Otherwise, it
needs to be dried. There is more water in the wood biomass than in the other one. As the
biogas needs to be cooled after his volatilization, it can be done drying the biomass.
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Size: Feed particle sizes in the range 20–80 mm are typical. Therefore, several input have to
be adapted in order to be used in the gasifier. It is the case, for example, for corn stalk and
wood.
Fractionation: The nitrogen and alkali contents of the biomass are critical, as they are partially
carried over into the gas-stream. Small particles tend to contain less nitrogen and alkalis, so
fractionation into fine and coarse particles helps to produce a gas with fewer impurities.
3. Technology
The commonly used gasifier to match the rural area needs are the fixed bed gasifier
(Rampling, 1993).
The fixed bed gasifier has been the traditional process used for gasification, operated at
temperatures around 1000 °C. Depending on the direction of airflow, the gasifiers are
classified as updraft, downdraft or cross-flow. In general fixed-bed gasifiers have the
advantage of a simple design but the disadvantage of producing a low calorific value gas with
a high tar content.
Figure : Gasification - Basic process Figure: Gasifier model in Madagascar

chemistry schematic
Source: Bionerr, 2008 Source: Bionerr, 2008
4. Outputs of the gasification process

4.1. The biogas
The biogas composition:
Table below presents the common chemical composition of the biogas from the gasification
process.
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Table : Biogas chemical composition produced in fixed

bed gasifier
Chemical composition Percentage
Nitrogen N2 40 to 50 %
Hydrogen H2 15 to 20 %
Carbon dioxide CO2 10 to 15 %
Carbon monoxide CO 10 to 15 %
Methane CH4 3 to 5 %
Others Traces
Source: Mc Kendry, 2002
The main component of this biogas is nitrogen due to the air introduced for combustion. The
methane proportion is relatively low leading to low calorific value of the biogas. With a fixed
bed gasifier, using air for combustion, the gas calorific value is around 4 to 6 MJ/m3 (Mc
Kendry, 2002). Compared to the natural gas which has a calorific value at 36 MJ/m3, the
efficiency is six times lower. It is possible to increase the gas calorific value using oxygen or
hydrogen instead of air but as their use for gasification is expensive, air is normally used for
processes up to about 50 MW. With these processes the gas calorific value reaches
respectively 12 to 18 MJ/m3 and 40 MJ/m3 (Mc Kendry, 2002).
Biogas utilization:
Electricty: The gas is transform through generator (dual mode or 100% gas) into electricity.
Heating: for cooking issues, the gas is transported via underground pipe to households. It can
also be used for other heating issues.
4.2. The ash

The biogas production leads to the production of waste ash that can be used as an ingredient
for cement or as a fertilizer for agriculture.
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ANNEX 5 : METHANIZATION (BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION)
The methanization is a process that allowed the production of biogas through the biological
breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Another component of the process is
the compost obtained as a residue of the methanization process. We study first the biogas
issues and in the second step, we present the main characteristics of the compost.
1. The different steps of the methanization process

Biodegradable materials such as human and animal wastes, sewage, and agricultural residue
are introduced in a digester. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of concrete with a
pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually directly from the cattle shed. The
pit is then filled with a required quantity of wastewater. Then, a period is required in the pit
for the biological breakdown of the organic matter. Control valves are installed to avoid
overpressure risk. Then, the gas is collected through a gas pipe and could be connected
directly to the kitchen fire place or used into a generator to produce electricity. Finally, the
residue of the methanization process are pulled out from the digester and could be used as
fertilizer.
According to the fermentation process, the substrate is composed in a fermentable part and a
non fermentable one. The biogas production comes from the fermentable part. The
fermentable part leads to the biogas production. It works followings three steps through the
action of the different bacteria groups. In the first step, hydrolyzing bacteria permits to
decompose solid organical materials. Then, acidifying bacteria used the product of the former
degradation to provide the alimentation necessary for methanizing bacteria. The digestion
through the methanizing bacteria allows to product the methane. The non fermentable part is
break down in two parts: the mineral component and the fiber lignin. These two components
added to substances resulting from the fermentable part compose the compost.
The fermentation temperature is crucial for the quantity and the speed of the biogas
production. Bacterias need a specific level of temperature: around 35°C, the fermentation
process is called mesophile and it is called thermophile when the temperature is around 55°C.
Under 6°C, the bacterias are not active anymore. Moreover, bacterias are very responsive to
sudden temperature variation. Thus, a heater system is needed in areas exposed to that kind of
variation.
2. The substrate
In rural area, the main resources needed for methanization come from breeding wastes, human
wastes, agricultural residue and water.
The Breeding wastes could be the pig liquid manure (a mix between urine and dung), the
bovine dejections (dung in the meadows and manure in the cowshed) or the poultry
droppings. It works in the same way for human wastes using human dejections. Agricultural
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residue could be straw for example but in general they lack nitrogen and have to be mixed in
order to be digested by the bacterias. Water need to be added to make the process working.
The ratio between water and wastes or residues depends on the nature of the manure.
3. The technology
In general, digesters are tanks cover by a lid (it can also be called a “dome” or a “bell”) under
which the biogas is accumulated. The biogas is extracted as long as it is produced.
3.1. Digesters types

There three types of installation:
1. High pressure installation say fixe dome

2. Middle pressure installation say floating dome
3. Low pressure installation say balloon
The fixe domes are cheaper than floating dome and generally are more used for lighting
purpose. Their main drawbacks are the low stocking capacity and the low efficiency.
The floating domes are the most widespread. The difference with the fixe dome is that the
dome is lift as long as the gas is produced. They are easy to manage for the farmers and have
an acceptable gas storage capacity. Metallic domes seems to be the weakness of this
installation because of the high cost and the low duration period (corrosion). Metallic dome
could be replace by fiber renforced plastic domes but they still are expensive.
The balloon installations are plastic tanks. They can have a good gas storage capacity, are the
cheapest and present good level of efficiency. The weakness is the plastic tank which could be
damage easily by animal for example.
Figure : fixe dome digester Figure : floating dome digester
Source: Marchaim, 1992. Source: Marchaim, 1992.
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Figure : balloon digester
Biogas program, Department of minerals and energy, South

Africa, 2008.
Source: http://www.ruralcostarica.com/biogas.html
Other digesters more developed exist. The technology used allows to reduce the fermentation
time and allowed to increase the daily biogas production. As a mean, traditional digester
allowed to produce between 0.15 and 0.30 m3 of biogas per day, while it is between 1 and 10
m3 per day for modern digesters (Vernier, 2005).
3.2. Substrate introduction

The process could be scattered or continual.
For the scattered one, the substrate is introduced in the digester. Then, at the end of the
fermentation period, the digester is emptied. These digesters are more adapted for solid
substrates which have a dry material content superior to 10% like straw manure.
The continual process consists in introducing the substrate continually (it could be several
times a day). The residue is extracted in a continual way. It is more adapted for wastes which
have a dry material content inferior to 10 %.
3.3. Low cost digester
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Another way is to develop household units for cooking issues. The technology needed can be
very simple to match the rural needs. For
example, EDEN and Intelligent Energy
Europe have provided a technical paper on
how build a digester for cooking with few
and non costly items: 2 watertight plastic
barrels, 2 air tubes (like car air tube), a 5
liters water bottle, a burner (like a Bunsen
burner), a hose pipe, connections that fit the
pipe (4 T connections, 2 simple
connections), silicon and metal collar as a
clamp, steel wool. The life expectancy of Biogas production for cooking, EDEN and Intelligent Energy
this small biogas unit is around 3 years and Europe, 2007
the cost is Ar 25 000 (EDEN and Intelligent
Energy Europe, 2006).
4. Output of the methanization process

There is two outputs in the methanization process: the biogas and the compost.
4.1. The Biogas

Biogas composition: the main component of the biogas is methane and carbon dioxide. Table
below presents the common chemical composition of the biogas from the methanization
process.
Table : Biogas chemical composition
Chemical composition Percentage
Methane CH4 50 to 80 %
Carbon dioxide CO2 20 to 40 %
Hydrogen H2 1 to 3%
Nitrogen N2 0.5 to 2 %
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 0.1 to 0.5 %
Carbon monoxide CO 0 to 0.1 %
Others Traces
Source: Rakotondranosolo and Razafimiarantsoa, 2003
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The methane is in reality the same gas than the natural gas fund in the underground deposit
but the gas resulting from the methanization is mixed to others gas and mainly to the carbon
dioxide. Therefore, the biogas obtained is less calorific than the natural gas. Its calorific value
is from 18 to 26 Mj/m3 following the carbon dioxide gas proportion. Compared to the natural
gas which has a calorific value at 36 MJ/m3, the efficiency is two times lower.
The carbon dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are the main impurity contained in
the biogas. Because the biogas is always wet, CO2 and H2S become acid and attack the metal
materials. Therefore, adequate materials for transport and storage need to be used. Inoxidable
metal or plastic represent a good solution.
Finally, H2S is responsible for bad smell but it can be deal with a simple and cheep treatment.
However, whatever the treatment is made or not, there is no bad smell in the methane
combustion.
Additional information on the biogas:
The gas is combustible not before 25 % of methane. Its combustion speed is inferior as the
others commonly used in the market. Therefore, burners need to be adapted. The gas burned
with a blue flam which does not blacken the pan.
It is less heavy than the air, therefore, it avoids accumulation risk in local area and explosion.
Nevertheless, local aeration has to be controlled.
The biogas has a specific smell. It comes from the gas impurity, mainly H2S (rotten eggs).
But, it can disappear with a simple treatment. However, the gas does not emit unpleasant
smell when it burns.
It is toxic: CO and H2S are toxic gas. A treatment is necessary.
The methane air mix is explosive for a presence of methane between 7 and 14 %. Therefore,
given the percentage of methane in the biogas between 50 and 80 %, a overpressure have to
be maintain in the digester.
The gas is colorless.
Biogas utilization:
Electricty: The digester is connected to a generator. The gas is pressurized to make the turbine
working. Connected to a generator, it allows the electricity production.
Heating: for cooking issues, the gas is transported via underground pipe to households. It can
also be used for other heating issues.
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4.2. The compost

The compost composition:
It depends on the substrate introduced and several other factors. We provide below the
common results on the substrate transformations:
- Organic material losses: 15 to 25 % depending on the fermentation intensity.

- Mineral material losses are minimal.
- The protein concentration is higher in the digested substrate, while in level the
weight loss is between 5 to 10 %.
- The digested substrate is an organic material augmented in nitrogen, potassium
and other nutritive components for agriculture
- Generally, it is without pathogenic germs, however caution have to be taken when
the substrate introduced is affected by specific illness. For example sometimes,
cows are infected by the anthrax. After the methanization process the germs is still
present and could affect the land.
- It is odorless
Compost utilization:
As a result, the compost resulting from the methanization process could be an efficient
fertilizer.
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ANNEX 6 : BIOFUEL WORKSHEET
1. Resource origin
The term biofuel refers to Pure Plant Oil (PPO), biodiesel, ethanol fuel and biomass to liquid
(BTL).
1.1. PPO
PPO is a biofuel obtained from a variety of sources: soybean, sunflower, rapeseed, palm trees,
coconut trees, algae, peanut, jatropha curcas, cotton…
The production process of PPO entails three steps: the preparation of the seed, the pressing
and the purification.
1.1.1.Preparation of the seed
Sorting: it is important to avoid high impurity rates in order to guarantee a good quality of the
oils and the oil cakes and good pressing conditions. In France, for example, to be
commercialized, the impurity rates of oils mustn’t exceed 2%. The sorting is important
because foreign bodies in the press can badly damage the machine or prematurely use it.
Drying: it is important to harvest and stock dry seeds; the optimal humidity rate is 7%.
Pressing a too dry or too humid seed would penalize the output in oil and its quality. Thus the
range for the humidity of the seed is generally between 6% and 9%.
Stocking: if the harvest occurred in good conditions, sorting and stocking of seeds is not
necessary. It will depend on the dirtying of the crop during the harvest and on the way of
stocking the seeds. Thus the stocking in closed grain silo is preferable to stocking on the
ground in order to avoid impurities and changing humidity rates.
1.1.2.Pressing
The traditional method of pressing the seeds is not competitive for an energy use, therefore,
we focus here on the method using extraction machines. There are two types of extraction
machines: those without engine and those with.
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Scheme of the organization of the production process of pure plant oil
Without engine: The most common machine is the Bielenberg press. It is a versatile manual
press for extracting oil from oil-seeded grains.
The technical Characteristics of the Bielenberg press are te followings:
• Frame made entirely of welded

metal
• Simple and economic construction
• Easy to maintain and operate
• Processing capacity sufficiently
large
• With each stroke of the piston,
more grains enter the machine and
more oil and oil cakes leave the
machine
• Can be operated by a single person Bielenberg Press
• Comes with an adjustable pressure cone

• Feeder bin and reception plate made of galvanized sheet metal
• Easy to transport
• Dimensions : 230 cm x 50 cm x 90 cm
The performance of the press is around 10 - 15 kg/hour depending on the operator and the
product.
With engine: many types of press exist on the market and propose performances varying from
2 to 5 000 kg of seeds per hour. Several parameters are at stake in the determination of the
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performance of the press: parameters relative to the seeds (type of seed, humidity rate,
impurity rate) and parameter relative to the press (rotation speed of the engine, temperature of
the head of the press…)
We distinguish 2 kinds of press in function of the screw of the press and the evacuation holes
of the oils: pierced cylinder press (called screw press) and squirrel cage press (called rung
press).
• Screw press: this press has a low capacity (inferior to 100 kg/hour). The evacuation is
allowed by holes located in the end of the cylinder. Oil cakes are evacuated in a form
of corks in the exit of the press. That kind of press has a warming starting system
facilitating the evacuation of the oil cakes and limiting the risks of blockage.
• Rung press: the pressing capacity is between 15 to 5 000 kg of seeds per hour. The
extraction rate is generally higher than the screw press one, which make the oil cakes
less fat in the exit of the press. In this press, the oil cakes have the shape of a potato
chip.
1.1.3.Purification
Oil obtained after pressing contains a certain percentage of impurities which need to be
eliminated to the maximum in order to ensure a good future utilization. The purification of the
oil has two objectives: eliminate the particle via a process of settling or filtration, and
eliminate the molecule (wax, gum…) using different kinds of filters after having eliminated
the particles.
1.2. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a PPO transformed by a chemical process in order to be usable in a diesel engine

without adapting it. Two chemical processes are available to produce biodiesel:
transesterification and hydrogenation.
1.2.1.Transesterification
It consists in mixing oil with alcohol (ethanol or methanol). Chemically speaking the oil
molecules (triglycerides) are cut to pieces and connected to alcohol (methanol or ethanol)
molecules to form methyl or ethyl esters. As a side product glycerin is formed (usable in
chemical and food industry).
1.2.2.Hydrogenation
It consists in making react oil with hydrogen in presence of a catalyst. All these processes
require the use of electricity and therefore biodiesel production is typically feasible on a large
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scale, at centralized production plants. It is not so suitable for small scale applications,
although small systems have been designed in India, powered by human pedaling force
(cycling).
1.3. Ethanol Fuel
1.3.1.The production process of ethanol fuel

Ethanol fuel is a biofuel obtained from vegetables containing saccharose (sugar cane, sugar
beet…) or starch (corn, wheat…) or from the lignin and the cellulose of vegetables (straw,
wood, grass…).
For all these substances the general process follows three main steps: extraction, fermentation
and distillation.
• First, sugar needs to be extracted from the vegetables. For plants containing
saccharose, it is an easy task but, but for the others different processes need to be
accomplished to withdraw sugar from the plant. For starch, a hydrolysis is required
either enzymatic or acid to obtain the sugar. For lignin and cellulose, a pre treatment is
required before processing to the hydrolysis. This pre treatment entails a washing, a
reducing of the size of the materials (compacting…) and a pre acid hydrolysis.
• Then, sugar needs to be fermented. To ferment the sugar, yeasts are generally used in
a mix of sugar and water. This step results in a very diluted ethanol not yet usable.
• Finally, the obtained ethanol needs to be distilled. In order to separate the pure ethanol
from the mix of ethanol and water, a distillation is required. This distillation is based
on the difference of boiling temperature between ethanol and water. The mix is
brought to the boil, and ethanol will be evacuated before water begins to boil. Pure
ethanol is thus obtained.
The following scheme will present all the chemical processes to obtain ethanol fuel:
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1.3.2.The special case of sugar cane
The production of sugar from sugar cane entails many by-products which can be used for an
energetic purpose.
First, bagasse, which is the fibrous residue remaining after sugar cane stalks are crushed to
extract their juice, has a good calorific value and can thus be used in specific power stations to
produce electricity.
Another by-product can also be used to produce energy, this is the molasses. The molasses is
a thick by-product from the processing of the sugar cane into sugar.
To make molasses, the sugar cane plant is harvested and stripped of its leaves. Its juice is
extracted from the canes, usually by crushing or mashing, it can also be removed by cutting.
The juice is boiled to concentrate which promotes the crystallization of the sugar. The results
of this first boiling and removal of sugar crystal is first molasses, which has the highest sugar
content because comparatively little sugar has been extracted from the source. Second
molasses is created from a second boiling and sugar extraction, and has a slight bitter tinge to
its taste.
The third boiling of the sugar syrup gives blackstrap molasses. The majority of sucrose from
the original juice has been crystallized but black strap molasses is still mostly sugar by
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calories; however, unlike refined sugars, it contains significant amounts of vitamins and
minerals.
Thanks to a process of fermentation, it is possible to turn both sugar cane juice and molasses
into ethanol.
Once, all the searched interesting substances are extracted from the molasses, the final
product is called vinasse. It is possible to produce energy from the vinasse thanks to a process
of methanization (cf Biogas Worksheet) which produces biogas.
1.4. Biomass to Liquid (BTL)
Biomass to Liquid represents the future for bio fuel. Indeed, whereas pure plant oil, bio diesel
or ethanol fuel productions so far only use parts of a plant i.e. oil, sugar or starch, BTL
production uses the whole plant which is gasified by gasification. The result is that for BTL,
less land area is required per unit of energy produced compared with the others sources of bio
fuels.
Any plant is thus gasified (see Biogas Worksheet) and then liquefied. Choren Industry is a
pioneer in BTL, their fuel is called SunDiesel. Bio fuels obtained from BTL processes can
directly be used in any diesel engine.
2. Utilization of the biofuels

2.1. Pure Plant Oil
After pressing the seeds, the PPO can be directly used in diesel engines. Because of slightly
different properties of PPO compared to fossil diesel, newer types of diesel engines must be
adapted. Many types of diesel engines have indirect injection (IDI) with pre-chambers. The
PPO can be used freely in these engines, which are still commonplace in developing
countries. Elsbett diesel engines have been designed especially for the use of PPO.
Direct Injection diesels can also run on PPO, but some modifications have to be made to the
engines. Mainly cold start and low-load situations (idling etc.) are to be avoided when using
PPO. A two-tank system, using PPO only for full load of the hot engine, overcomes most
problems. The engine should be monitored properly for lubrication oil production or
consumption and coke deposit in the combustion chamber.
Conversion of the engine is meant to overcome three major differences between PPO and
diesel:
1. PPO is more viscous (thicker) than diesel at moderate temperatures.
2. Under similar conditions PPO burns slower (has a larger ignition delay) than diesel.
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3. It is more difficult with PPO than with diesel to get a complete combustion.
The first problem is mainly an issue in temperate climates or with very viscous oil, like palm
oil or castor oil. It mainly affects the flow resistance in the fuel system until the injection
pump. The majority of diesel fuel systems are suction systems, driven by the injection pump.
If the pump cannot overcome the resistance, the engine won’t get enough fuel and will refuse
to accelerate. The flow resistance can be overcome by heating the PPO to make it less
viscous. Heating with hot coolant is the best option, because coolant is water (or water based)
and hence it can deliver a lot of heat, and secondly because the coolant water has the ideal
temperature of close to 100 °C. Other options that should be considered to reduce the flow
resistance are placing the tank in a warm location (in case of a stationary engine) and
increasing the fuel line diameter. In European PPO conversions the supply line diameter is
changed from 6 to 8 mm or more.
To overcome the second and third issue it is important that the injectors are in proper
condition. These parts make sure the fuel is atomized (sprayed into very fine droplets) for
combustion. In case of pre-chamber car engines, in Europe, the guideline is kept that the
opening pressure of the injector (reflecting its condition) should be checked after 100,000 km.
If no special PPO injectors (like offered by Elsbett) are installed, it is advised to increase the
opening pressure of the new injectors by 10-20 bar and to advance the injection timing of the
engine a bit. If it should remain possible to drive the engine with pure diesel at high loads
after conversion, it is recommended not to advance the timing too much, to avoid hard
knocking.
Pure Plant Oil can also be used as lamp oil.

Oil cakes can be used as fertilizer or as food for the cattle.
2.2. Biodiesel
Instead of adapting the engine to run on PPO, the oil can also be chemically treated to
produce biodiesel for any diesel engine. The resulting biodiesel can be used in any diesel
engine without adaptations. Disadvantages to the user are its slightly lower energy content,
leading to an increase in fuel consumption of about 2-10%, and the fact that it works as a
solvent. Biodiesel tends to clean the fuel system, taking the dirt that has been gathered during
diesel use, and herewith it may cause blocking of the fuel filter. Furthermore its solvent nature
may affect the integrity of the fuel lines and gaskets in the fuel system.
2.3. Ethanol fuel
Ethanol can be used in gasoline engines with minor adaptations.

Ethanol is used as an automotive fuel by itself and can be mixed with gasoline. Because the
ethanol molecule contains oxygen, it allows the engine to more completely combust the fuel,
resulting in the emission of cleaner exhaust gasses. Since ethanol is produced from plants that
harness the power of the sun, ethanol is also considered a renewable fuel.
128
Pure ethanol reacts with or dissolves certain rubber and plastic materials and cannot be used
in unmodified engines. Additionally, pure ethanol has a much higher octane rating (113) than
ordinary gasoline, requiring changes to the compression ratio or spark timing to obtain
maximum benefit. To change a gasoline-fuelled
GELFUEL: engine into a pure-ethanol-fuelled engine, larger
carburetor jets (about 30-40% larger by area) are
Gelfuel is currently being distributed needed. A cold starting system is also needed to
in several countries in Africa as a fuel ensure sufficient vaporization for temperatures
for cooking. To produce gelfuel, below 15 °C (59 °F) to maximize combustion and
ethanol is mixed with a thickening minimize un-combusted non-vaporized ethanol. If
agent (for example cellulose) and 10 to 20% ethanol is mixed with gasoline, no engine
water through a very simple technical modification is typically needed. Many modern
engines can run on the mixture very reliably.
process, resulting in a combustible
gel. Gelfuel has several advantages
Ethanol (either straight or jellified) can also be used
compared to straight ethanol: one can
in households for cooking as a substitute of wood,
not drink it, it is easier and less
charcoal or kerosene and for lighting as a substitute
dangerous to store, sell and transport,
of kerosene. Beyond its possible use as fuel, ethanol
and it is less likely to have fire in the
can be produced for use in beverages and in a
household because if the stove falls
variety of industrial applications including
the burning gel does not spread. The
cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. As a solvent for the
main disadvantage is that it is up to
pharmaceutical industry, ethanol is useful for
25% more expensive than straight
processing antibiotics, vaccines, tablets, pills, and
ethanol, and this makes it less
vitamins. Ethanol is used as a solvent in the
competitive. Also now-a-days straight
manufacture of many other substances including
cheap ethanol burners have been
paints, lacquer, and explosives. Industrial ethanol is
developed that are very efficient and
used as a raw material for the production of vinegar
safer.
and yeast, and similarly in chemical processing as a
chemical intermediate. Even food products like
extracts, flavorings, and glazes contain large amounts of alcohol. The ethanol is also used in
some liquid animal feed products as an energy source.
2.4. Biomass to Liquid
Bio fuels obtained from BTL processes can directly be used in any diesel engine.
129
ANNEXE 7 : WOOD WORKSHEET
1. Wood resource
Wood is an organic material.
1.1. Main characteristic of the wood
Wood comes from the natural forest or from human plantation. Many different species exists.
The important factors are the growth speed (for the rotation time), the water needed, the
humidity content (to resist forest fire), etc.
The forest can be humid, dry, thorny or mangrove.
1.2. Wood fuels
The wood fuel is the wood used as a fuel. Wood fuel is available as wood, charcoal and
pellets.
Wood refers to all the different woods you can use to do a firewood.
Wood pellets are made from compacted sawdust. The sawdust is composed in fine particles of
wood and it is the main by-product of a sawmill. The pellet is extremely dense and could
content a low humidity level (below 10%) that allows them to be burn with a very high
combustion efficiency. The compacted sawdust is convenient for transportation. Pellets are
produced by compressing the wood material which has first passed through a hammer mill to
provide a uniform dough-like mass. This mass is fed to a press where it is squeezed through a
die having holes of the size required (normally 6 mm diameter, sometimes 8 mm or larger).
The high pressure of the press causes the temperature of the wood to increase greatly, and the
lignin plastifies slightly forming natural glue that holds the pellet together as it cools.
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and
other volatile constituents from the wood. It is produced by pyrolysis (absence of oxygene). It
has a higher combustion efficiency than wood.
2. Use: cooking and electricity

Heat and steam are by-products of burning wood fuel. They are useful for cooking and
producing electricity.
2.1. Cooking
Wood fuel can be burned in open firewood, stoves and improved stoves.
An open firewood is when the wood is burned in an open air area. It could be either outside or
inside the house. The food is cooked over the fire. The energy efficiency is low because the
presence of air accelerates the combustion.
130
Wood fuel cook stoves is a very basic stove heated by burning wood fuels. It could be built in
different materials and with different design which lead to different heat capacities. Either
wood, pellet or charcoal can be used to heat. Even if the stove reduces the air content in the
combustion chamber, the energy efficiency remains low.
Improved stove is an evolution of cook stoves to reduce the wood fuel use and the pollution
exposition. Many different stoves have been developed in developing countries. However, the
common points are the close combustion chamber which let an air entry through valves, an
adapted food plot to reduce heat losses and a chimney to avoid air contamination.
2.2. Electrification
Two processes are actually considered for DRE: gasification and vaporization. For the first
one, please refers to the gasification worksheet. The second solution consists in burning wood
fuel to heat water. The steaming resulting is then used in a turbine to produce electricity.
3. Undesirable by-products and effects

As with any fire, burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products that are undesirable,
irritating or dangerous.
One by-product is wood ash, which in moderate amounts is a fertilizer but is strongly alkaline
as it contains potassium hydroxide.
Smoke is another by-product which contains water vapor, carbon dioxide and other chemicals
and aerosol particulates. It can be irritating and potentially dangerous for people exposed
every day.
4. Consequences of the deforestation

Even if the use of wood for heating purposes is not first responsible of the deforestation, it
contributes in a significant extent. The consequences are important for rural inhabitants
because the deforestation induce soil erosion which is dramatic for culture efficiency, change
the water regulation and increase the time spend for collection.
131

The Potential For Renewable Energies in Rural Areas of Madagascar (March 2009)

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Organisations des Nations Unies pour le Développement Industriel

Bureau de Représentation pour l’Océan Indien à Antananarivo

THE POTENTIAL FOR RENEWABLE ENERGIES IN

Under the direction of Patrick GILABERT

Documentation stopped on the 15th October 2008

5.4 Biogas consumption: .............................................................................................. 63

Annex 6 : Biofuel Worksheet ............................................................................................. 122

Finally, we acknowledge Nico for his paintings of Madagascar.

ACRONYMS and ABBREVIATIONS

ADER = Agence du Développement de l’Electrification Rurale

I. RURAL ENERGY IN MADAGASCAR

1. NATIONAL ENERGY OVERVIEW

1.1 Energy consumption & production

1.2 Macro consequences of the national energy situation

Oil price evolution

Consequences for Madagascar

Unfortunatly, we do not have data to illustrate our purpose.

b. Diminution of the forest cover

Evolution of the forest cover

Map : Maps of deforestation history in eastern Madagascar derived from

Map : Map of the forest cover in 2000

2. ENERGY SITUATION IN RURAL AREAS

2.1 Rural energy institutional framework

a. Project of the government to develop rural electrification

Table 1: the RFEM institutional design

- Is in charge of the implementation of the

- Finances rural electrification development

b. Project of the government on firewood

Compared to electricity policy, deforestation is more considered in a global framework. For

2.2 Energy consumption in rural area

Nico, 2008, Preparer le repas

Table 2: cooking options

Resource Wood Charcoal Gas

Support Open fire Traditional Mitsity Bottle 6 Bottle

Initial investment of the 0 3000 6000 22 000 44000

Life duration (Months) 3 7

Quantity (Kg)/ Per day 6.56 2.92 1.75 0.5

Price of the resource 0 if it is collected 285 to 333 4000

Household daily expense 0 to 263 1000 500 2000

Household yearly 0 to 96 040 377 000 194 000

Source: Authors, 2008.

Wood remains the cheapest solution for cooking.

Nico, 2008, Travail sous la lampe

Paraffin lamp remains the cheapest solution for lighting.

Audio-visual devices are generally radios, televisions and phones.

Table 3: lighting options

Support Paraffin Candle Traditional flashlight Electricity lamp

Resource paraffin Vegetable batteries electric generator (50

Initial 600 600 (300*2) 1500 500 000 to 1 000 000

Life duration 6 6 4 10 ans

Quantity of 0.1 liter 2 Liter 4 R20 per 96 to 192 Wh

Price of the 2500 to 200 to 500 1800 500 to 100/ Wh

Household daily 250 to 300 400 to 65 to 133 400 to 800

Household 92 450 to 146 000 to 28 225 to 196 000 to 392 000

Source: Authors, 2008.

b. Productive activities consumption

c. Administrative and social structures consumption

2.3 Causes of the rural energy situation

Rural household incomes are low, instable and seasonal.

Nico, 2008, Bord de route travaux des champs

b. STRUCTURAL DISAVANTAGE OF RURAL AREAS

Density of the population per m2

c. Lack of financing for rural electrification