Quantitative Research

in the Social Sciences

Prof. Gladys A. Cruz
College of Social Sciences
U.P. Baguio
 Quantitative Research
 Highly-structured

 Measures are standardized to ensure

comparability & analysis
 Large sample size

 Usually amenable to statistical

analysis
 Methods
1. Census
2. Survey
3. Secondary analysis
 Tools/strategies
1. Interview: face-to-face; researcher
asks questions and records the
answers on the interview schedule
2. Questionnaire: self-administered
by the respondent
3. Secondary data analysis: data from
existing sources are re-analyzed
 Census
 Entirepopulation is enumerated in
order to determine the distribution of
their characteristics

 Disadvantage: expensive; might

take a long time to accomplish;
might involve error
 Survey
 Covers only a sample of the
population of interest to the
researcher
 Sample must be chosen at random

 Sample must be as large as the

researcher can afford
 Secondary data analysis
 Sources: public documents & official
records, data archives
 Advantage: less costly to collect
than primary data
 Disadvantage: ensuring quality of
data may not be easy; the
conceptualization of concepts may
vary from source to source
 Sampling Techniques for Surveys
Probability Sampling:
1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling

3. Stratified sampling

4. Cluster sampling
Non-probability Sampling:
1. Purposive sampling

2. Quota sampling

3. Convenience sampling
The Place of Statistics
in Research
 STAGES IN THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
Research Design Formulation

Data Gathering
Problem Formulation

Report Writing
Data Processing

Data Analysis
Data analysis & cooking
 RAW data
 Voluminous

 Heavy to bring around

 Difficult to store

 A fire hazard

 Difficult to interpret
 Raw Data

Codes

Data Matrix

Tables, Graphs &

Statistics

Analysis & Interpretations

 Data processing
 Conversion of data into a form that
permits statistical tabulation, ease of
storage, & access for future use
 Reduction of data into numerical
form
 Steps in Data Processing

1. Editing – quality control process to

ensure that data is error-free, consistent
& complete.
2. Coding – data is transformed into
standardized form suitable for computer
processing
 Responses are sorted and classified;
similar responses are put under one
category
 A unique code is assigned to each
response category
 Steps in Data Processing

3. Data Entry – data is encoded into the

computer using a statistical software like
SPSS, SAS, MS Excel, etc.
4. Data Cleaning – encoded data is
checked for accuracy

Careful attention to data processing is

vital to producing valid and reliable
research results. Minimize error. Avoid
encoder discretion.
 After data processing
 Data is now ready for analysis and
interpretation
 We recall our research problem so
that we know what answers we are
looking for
 We then produce tables, graphs and
some statistical measures to describe
patterns in our data
To do this, we need
to learn some basic
statistics 
 Statistics
 Usuallyinvolves numbers in
numerical form (facts & figures)
and/or in graphs
 Some examples
 “In Mexico, 81% of IP have incomes below the
poverty line, compared with 18% for the general
population” (HDR 2004:6).
 Average family income in the Philippines in 2003 is
P147,888 (NSO)
 “Filipino families consisting of 5 members should be
earning a combined monthly income of P6,195 to
meet their most basic needs” (NSCB, 2007)
 Median age of Filipino males is 21.6 yrs compared to
22.6 yrs for Filipino females
 Some examples
 “compared to Americans, more
Filipinos believe in love at first sight
(72% compared to 52% among
Americans)” SWS 2001
 Statistics
A process –- a way of working with
numbers to find answers to puzzling
questions about the world

A body of logic and techniques useful

for the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of information
 Fields of Statistics
1. Descriptive statistics – involves
tabulating, describing, summarizing
collections of data
– Objective: finding trends and patterns
in the data
2. Inferential Statistics – involves
making generalizations or
inferences from sample data to
population data
 Levels of Analysis
1. Univariate analysis: concerned
with drawing patterns and trends
from data for variables that are
treated ONE at a time without
attempting to determine
relationships between variables
 Levels of Analysis
2. Bivariate analysis: concerned
with determining the existence,
strength and direction of
relationship between two variables
3. Multivariate Analysis: concerned
with determining the existence,
strength and direction of
relationship between 3 or more
variables
 Central to statistical
analysis is knowledge re
LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENT
 Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal: numbers are used simply to
name, label or classify observations into
categories
2. Ordinal: when the researcher goes beyond
classifying cases by kind and instead seeks
to order or rank the cases in terms of the
degree they have of any given characteristic
3. Scale (also called interval & ratio): aside
from arranging cases from lowest to highest
(or highest to lowest), the exact difference
between cases is known
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
(Lutz 1983:18)

Level of Classification Categories Differences Has an

Measurement by KIND have ORDER between absolute
categories are ZERO point
KNOWN
NOMINAL YES

ORDINAL YES YES

INTERVAL YES YES YES

RATIO YES YES YES YES

 Basic statistical measures
1. Central Tendency
2. Variation
3. Skewness
4. Modality
 Central tendency
 indicates where the center of the
distribution tends to be located; refers to
what is “typical” or “average”
a. Mode: most frequently occurring
response
b. Median: middlemost value in a
distribution below which 50% of cases
are found
c. Mean or average: the exact
mathematical center
 Variation
 Refers to the extent and manner in
which responses differ from each
other
a. Range = highest - lowest
b. Interquartile range = Q3 – Q1
c. Standard deviation
d. Coefficient of variation = SD ÷
Mean
Skewness
Modality
The level of measurement
used will determine what
statistical tool will be
appropriate
UNIVARIATE Nominal Ordinal Scale
ANALYSIS

Tables Frequency Frequency Frequency

& & &
Percentage Percentage Percentage

Charts Pie chart Bar graph Histogram

Line graph
Bar graph Stem & leaf

Central Mode Mode Mode

Median
tendency Median Mean
Range, IQR,
Variation Index of IQR
SD, variance,
dispersion coefficient of
variation
 Organizing and Presenting
DATA
1. Frequency Table
2. Percentage Table
3. Cumulative Frequency/Percentage
4. Graphs
5. Proportions, Ratios, Rates
 Frequency Table
A record of the number of individuals
located in each category on the scale
of measurement
 Advantage: we can see the entire
distribution AT A GLANCE
 Percentage Table
 Similarto the frequency table but
presents the data in terms of
percentages
 Percentage = (frequency ÷ total) X
100
Table 4. Distribution of Respondents
According to Household Income

Monthly Frequen Percen

Household cy tage
Income

Below P1000 20 6.3

P1000 to P4,999 66 20.8
P5,000 to P9,999 66 20.8
P10,000 to 57 17.9
P14,999
P15,000 or more 109 34.4
TOTAL 318 100
 Table 7. Respondents’ Attitudes on Divorce

Males Males (%) Females Females

(freq) (freq) (%)

In favor 400 62.5% 150 18.75%

Opposed 240 37.5 650 81.25

Total 640 100% 800 100%

Pie Chart
Life expectancy, IP vs non-IP, selected
countries

90
80
70
60
50 IP
40 Non-IP
30
20
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Population Pyramid
Bar Graph
Line Graph
 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
STEP 1: Construct the crosstab; put
the IV in the columns and the DV in
the rows
STEP 2: Solve for the percentage Xtab
by using either:
column total
row total
grand total
STEP 3: Interpret the percentages by
using the basic rule: “if you
percentage down (i.e., using the
column total), then you compare
across.” If you percentage across,
then compare down.
Example: Non-profit activity of Benguet HHs

Member of Voluntary Not a member of Voluntary

Organization Organization

Currently Volunteering 268 (73%) 227 (35%)

Not Currently Volunteering 97 (27%) 421 (65%)

TOTAL 365 (100%) 648 (100%)

Individuals who belong to voluntary organizations are more likely to engage in

voluntary activities than those who are not members of voluntary
organizations. As seen above, 73% of those who belong to voluntary
organizations do volunteer activities compared to only 35% of those who are
not members in any organization.
 The ff. graphs were based on Xtabs

As such, we apply the same rule. “% down,

compare across.”

TRY IT.
STEP 4: Compute for the appropriate
measure of association.
STEP 5: Interpret the statistic.
 Measures of Association

NOMINAL ORDINAL SCALE

Statistical Tool Lambda Gamma Regression

Tau Tau-c Pearson’s r
Somer’s d Coefficient of
Spearman’s Rho Determination r2
Type of Existence & Existence, Existence,
Information strength of strength and strength and
relationship direction of direction of
relationship relationship

Range of Possible 0 to 1 -1 to +1 0 to 1 (for r2)

Values -1 to +1 (for r)
 References
1. Blalock, H. Social Statistics. Mc-Graw
Hill Book Co. 1972.
2. Hawley, W., Foundations of Statistics.
Harcourt Brace & Co. 1996.
3. Levin, J. & J.A. Fox, Elementary Statistics
in Social Research. 9th ed. Pearson
Education (Asia). 2004.
4. Sprinthall, R., Basic Statistical Analysis.
5th ed. Allyn and Bacon. 1997.