Alternating Current

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
THEORY AND EXERCISE BOOKLET
CONTENTS
S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. Alternating Current .......................................................... 3

2. Average and RMS Value of A.C........................................ 4 – 6
3. Series A.C. Circuit ........................................................ 6 – 9
4. Series LR Circuit .......................................................... 10 – 11
5. Series CR Circuit ......................................................... 11 – 13
6. Series L-C-R Circuit ..................................................... 13 – 17
7. Power In A.C. Circuit ................................................... 17– 18
8. Resonant Frequency .................................................... 18 – 19
9. Choke Coil ..................................................................... 20
10. Oscillations in L-C Circuit ............................................ 20 – 23
11. Transformer ............................................................. 23 – 24
12. Exercise - 1 .............................................................. 25 – 31
13. Exercise - 2 .............................................................. 32 – 35
14. Exercise - 3 .................................................................. 36
15. Exercise - 4 .............................................................. 37 – 39
16. Answer key .................................................................. 40
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Page # 2 ALTERNATING CURRENT
SYLLABUS
RC, LR and LC circuits with d.c. and a.c. sources.
394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

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ALTERNATING CURRENT Page # 3
1. ALTERNATING CURRENT
Until now, we have studied only circuits with direct current (dc) which flows only in one
direction (as shown in fiugre I and II). The primary source of emf in such circuit is a battery.
When a resistance is connected across the terminals of the battery, a current is established
in the circuits, which flows in a unique direction from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal via the external resistance.
D.C.
D.C.
i i
t t
Fig - I Fig - II
But most of the electric power generated and used in the world is in the form of alternating
current (ac), the magnitude of which changes continuously with time and direction is reversed
periodically (as shown in figure III & IV)and it is given by
i = i0 sin (t + )
Here i is instantaneous value of current i.e., the magnitude of current at any instant of time
and i0 is the maximum value of current which is called peak current or the current amplitude
2
and the current repeats its value after each time interval T = as shown in figure. This

time interval is called the time period and  is angular frequency which is equal to 2 times of
frequency f.
 = 2f
A.C.
A.C.
i
i
i0
t
T
Fig - III Fig - IV
The current is positive for half the time period and negative for remaining half period. It
means that the direction of current is reversed after each half time period. The frequency of
ac in India is 50 Hz.
An alternating voltage is given by

V = V0 sin (t + )
It also varies alternatively as shown in the figure (b), where V is instantaneous voltage and
V0 is peak voltage. It is produced by ac generator also called as ac dynamo.
V
V0
T
Fig.(b)

AC Circuit : An ac circuit consists of circuit element i.e., resistor, capacitor, inductor or any
combination of these and a generator that provides the alternating current as shown in
figure. The ac source is represented by symbol ~ in the circuit.
Circuit element
2. AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

2.1 Average current (Mean current)
As we know an alternating current is given by
i = i0 sin (t + ) ...(1)
The mean or the average value of ac over any time T is given by
T
 idt
0
iavg  T
 dt
0
Using equation (1)
T
i
0
0 sin(t  )dt
iavg  T
 dt
0
In one complete cycle, the average current
T
i0  cos(t  )  i  cos(t   ) – cos   i0  cos(2   ) – cos  
iavg  –   =– 0 = –   = 0 (as T = 2)
T  0 T  
 T  
Since ac is positive during the first half cycle and negative during the other half cycle so iavg
will be zero for long time also. Hence the dc instrument will indicate zero deflection when
connected to a branch carrying ac current. So it is defined for either positive half cycle or
negative half cycle.
T/2
i
0
0 sin(t  )
2i 0  0.637 i
i avg  T/2 = 0

 dt
0 2 V0
Similarly Vavg =  0.637 V0

Ex.1 If a direct current of value a ampere is superimposed on an alternating current i = b sin

t flowing through a wire, what is the effective value of the resulting current in the
circuit ?
b
i + i =?
t
t
Sol. As current at any instant in the circuit will be,

i = idc + iac = a + b sin t

1/ 2
T 
 i2 dt 
   1 T 
1/ 2
 0T  2
So, ieff =   =  T (a  b sin t) dt 

 dt   
  0 
 0 
1/ 2
1 T 
2 2 2
i.e., = i eff  T (a  2ab sin t  b sin t)dt 

 
 0 
but as
T T
1
sin t dt = 0 and 1 sin2 t dt  1

T
0
T 2 
0
1/ 2
 2 1 2
So, ieff = a  b 
 2 
2.2 R.M.S Value of alternating current

The notation rms refers to root mean square, which is given by square root of mean of square
current.
i.e., i rms  i2avg
T
2
i dt
1 2
T
2 i20
T
= T i0 sin (t  )dt = 2 T [1 – cos 2(t  )]dt

0
i 2
avg
= T 
0

0
 dt
0
T
i20  sin 2(t  )  i2  sin(4   2) – sin 2  i2
=  t–  = 0 T – = 0
2T  2 0 2T  2 
 2
i0
 0.707 i0
irms =
2
Similarly the rms voltage is given by
V0
Vrms =  0.707 V0
2
The significance of rms current and rms voltage may be shown by considering a
resistance R carrying a current i = i0 sin (t + )
The voltage across the resistor will be
VR = Ri = (i0R) sin (t + )
The thermal energy developed in the resistor during the time t to t + dt is
i2 R dt = i02R sin2(t + ) dt
The thermal energy developed in one time period is
T 1 T
T 
2 2
U = i Rdt = R 2
sin (t  )dt = RT  T i 0 sin (t  )dt  = i2rms RT
 i20 2

0
 0

 0


• It means the root mean square value of ac is that value of steady current, which would generated
the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a given time.
• So in ac circuits, current and ac voltage are measured in terms of their rms values. Likes
when we say that the house hold supply is 220 V ac it means the rms value is 220 V and peak
value is 220 2 = 311 V..

Ex.2 If the voltage in an ac circuit is represented by the equation,
V = 220 2 sin (314t – ),

calculate (a) peak and rms value of the voltage, (b) average voltage, (c) frequency of
ac.
Sol. (a) For ac voltage,
V = V0 sin (t –  )
The peak value of voltage
V0 = 220 2 = 311 V
The rms value of voltage
V0
Vrms  ; Vrms  220 V
2
(b) Average voltage in full cycle is zero. Average voltage in half cycle is
2 2
Vavg = V0 =  311 = 198.17 V
 
(c) As  = 2f, 2f = 314
314
i.e., f = = 50 Hz
2 
Ex.3 The electric current in a circuit is given by i = i0 (t/T) for some time. Calculate the rms
current for the period t = 0 to t = T.
Sol. The mean square current is
T T
1 2 i2 i 02
(i 2 ) avg   i 0 ( t / T ) 2 dt = 03 2
 t dt  3
T T
0 0
Thus, the rms current is
i0
irms = i 2avg. 
3
3. SERIES AC CIRCUIT
3.1 When only Resistance is in an AC circuit
Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor

VR
of resistance R and an ac generator, as shown in
the figure.
R
According to Kirchhoff’s loop law at any instant,
the algebraic sum of the potential difference
around a closed ~
loop in a circuit must be zero.
   0 sin t
 – VR = 0
 – iRR = 0
0 sint – iRR = 0
0
iR = sint = i0 sin t ..(i)
R
0
where i0 is the maximum current. i0 =
R
From above equations, we see that the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor
VR = i0R sint ...(ii)
We see in equation (i) & (ii), iR and VR both vary as sin t and reach their maximum values at
the same time as shown in figure (a), they are said to be in phase. A phasor diagram is used
to represent phase relationships. The lengths of the arrows correspond to V0 and i0. The

projections of the arrows onto the vertical axis give VR and iR. In case of the single-loop
resistive circuit, the current and voltage phasors lie along the same line, as shown in figure
(b), because iR and VR are in phase.
iR, VR
i0 iR
iR
iR
V0 VR i0
t
VR
V0
t
Phasor diagram
Wave diagram
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
3.2 When only Inductor is in An AC circuit

Now consider an ac circuit consisting only of an Inductor of inductance L connected to the
terminals of an ac generator, as shown in the figure. The induced emf across the inductor is
given by Ldi/dt. On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit
di
 – VL = 0   – L  0 VL
dt
When we rearrange this equation and substitute L
i
 = 0 sin t, we get
~
di
L = 0 sin t ...(iii)    0 sin t
dt
Integration of this expression gives the current as a function of time
0 
iL = sin t dt = – 0 cos t  C

L L
For average value of current over one time period to be zero, C = 0
0
 iL = – cos t
L
When we use the trigonometric identity
cost = – sin(t – /2), we can express equation as
0  
iL = sin t –  ...(iv)
L  2 
From equation (iv), we see that the current reaches its maximum values when cos t = 1.
0 
i0 = = 0 ...(v)
L X L
where the quantity XL, called the inductive reactance, is
XL = L
The expression for the rms current is similar to equation (v), with 0 replaced by rms.
Inductive reactance, like resistance, has unit of ohm.
di
VL  L   0 sin t  i0 X L sin t
dt
We can think of equation (v) as Ohm’s law for an inductive circuit.
On comparing result of equation (iv) with equation (iii), we can see that the current and
voltage are out of phase with each other by /2 rad, or 90º. A plot of voltage and current
versus time is given in figure (a). The voltage reaches its maximum value one quarter of an
oscillation period before the current reaches its maximum value. The corresponding phasor
diagram for this circuit is shown in figure (b). Thus, we see that for a sinusoidal applied
voltage, the current in an inductor always lags behind the voltage across the inductor by
90º.

VL
VL, iL
iL
i0
V0
VL
t
iL i0
Wave diagram
Fig.(a) Phasor diagram
Fig.(b)
Ex.4 An inductor of inductance L = 5 H is connected to an

L = 5H

AC source having voltage v = 10 sin (10t + )
6
Find
(i) Inductive Reactance (xL)
(ii) Peak & Rms voltage (V0 & Vrms)
(iii) Peak & Rms current (I0 & Irms)
(iv) Intstantatious current (I(t))
Sol. (i) xL = L = 10 × 5 = 50
(ii) v0 = 10
10
vrms =
2
v0 1
(iii) I0  x  5
L
1
Irms =
5 2
1  
(iv) I(t) = sin(10 t  – )
5 6 2
3.3 When only Capacitor is in An AC circuit

Figure shows an ac circuit consisting of a capacitor of capacitance C connected across the
terminals of an ac generator. On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit, we get
VC
 – VC = 0
VC =  = 0 sin t ...(vi)
where VC is the instantaneous voltage drop across the capacitor. From the definition of
capacitance, VC = Q/C, and this value for VC substituted into equation gives
Q = C 0 sin t
Since i = dQ/dt, on differentiating above equation gives the instantaneous current in the
circuit.
dQ
iC   C 0  cos t
dt

Here again we see that the current is not in phase with the voltage drop across the capacitor,
given by equation (vi). Using the trigonometric identity cos t = sin(t + /2), we can
express this equation in the alternative from
 
iC  C 0 sin  t   ...(vii)
 2
From equation (vii), we see that the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value when
cos t = 1.
0
i0  C 0 
XC
Where XC is called the capacitive reactance.
1
XC 
C
The SI unit of XC is also ohm. The rms current is given by an expression similar to equation
with V0 replaced by Vrms.
Combining equation (vi) & (vii), we can express the instantaneous voltage drop across the
capacitor as
VC = V0 sin t = i0 XC sin t
Comparing the result of equation (v) with equation (vi), we see that the current is /2 rad =
90º out of phase with the voltage across the capacitor. A plot of current and voltage versus
time, shows that the current reaches its maximum value one quarter of a cycle sooner than
the voltage reaches its maximum value. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the
figure (b). Thus we see that for a sinusoidally applied emf, the current always leads the
voltage across a capacitor by 90º.
VC , iC
i0 iC i0
iC
V0
VC
t VC
V0
Wave diagram Phasor diagram

Fig (a) Fig.(b)
Brain Teaser
What is the reactance of a capacitor connected to a constant DC source ?
Ex.5 A capacitor of capacitive reactance 5 is connected with A.C. source having voltage V = 3
sin ( t + /6). Find rms and Peak voltage rms and peak current and instantaneous
current

v  3 sin( t  )
6
Sol. On comparing with
v  v 0 sin(t  )  v0 = 3
v0 3 v rms 3
Vrms    Irms  x 
2 2 c 5 2
v0 3  
I0    I(t) = I0 sin (t   )
xc 5 6 2

4. SERIES L-R CIRCUIT

Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R and an inductor of inductance
L in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in phasor diagram, current is taken along positive x-direction. The VR is also along
positive x-direction and VL along positive y-direction as we know that potential difference
across a resistance in ac is in phase with current and it leads in phase by 90º with current
across the inductor, and as we know VR = i0R & V0 = i0 XL
y V
R XL VL V0
VR VL
i = i0 sin t
 
~ VR i x
VR(t) = i0 Rsin t
VL(t) = i0 XL sin (t + /2)
hence we can write
V(t) = i0R sin t + i0 XL sin (t + /2)
V0 = i0 x L2  R 2
where x L2  R 2 is known as impedence (z) of the circuit.

now we can write
Vt  i0 x L2  R 2 sin(t  )
xL
where tan  =
R
–1  L 
hence  = tan  
 R 
Ex.6 When 100 volt dc is applied across a coil, a current of 1 amp flows through it; when 100
V ac of 50 Hz is applied to the same coil, only 0.5 amp flows. Calculate the resistance
of inductance of the coil.
Sol. In case of a coil, i.e., L – R circuit.
V
i= with Z = R 2  XL2 = R2  (L) 2
Z
So when dc is applied,  = 0, so z = R
V V 100
and hence i = i.e., R = = = 200 
R i 0.5
Z  R 2   2L2 i.e.,  L = Z –R
2 2 2 2
but
i.e., (2fL)2 = 2002 – 1002 = 3 × 104 (as  = 2f)
3  10 2 3
So, L = = H = 0.55 H
2  50 

Ex.7 A 12 ohm resistance and an inductance of 0.05/ henry with negligible resistance are
connected in series. Across the end of this circuit is connected a 130 volt alternating
voltage of frequency 50 cycles/second. Calculate the alternating current in the circuit
and potential difference across the resistance and that across the inductance.
Sol. The impedance of the circuit is given by
Z= (R2   2L2 ) = [R2  (2fL) 2 ]
= [(12) 2  {2  3.14  50  0.05 / 3.14} 2 ] = (144  25) = 13 ohm

130
Current in the circuit i = E/Z = = 10 amp
13
Potential difference across resistance
VR = iR = 10 × 12 = 120 volt
I nductive reactance of coil XL = L = 2fL
 0.05 
 XL = 2 × 50 ×   = 5 ohm
 
Potential difference across inductance
VL = i × XL = 10 × 5 = 50 volt
5. SERIES C-R CIRCUIT

Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R and an capacitor of
capacitance C in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in phasor diagram current is taken along positive x-direction. Then VR is also along
positive x-direction but VC is along negative y-direction as potential difference across a
capacitor in ac lags in phase by 90º with the current in the circuit. So we can write,
VC
+ VR – + –
i  i0 sin t
VR = I0 R sin t  VR0 sin t

Potential difference across capacitor
VC  I0 X C sin(t –  / 2)  VC0 sin(t –  / 2)
Potential at any instant t

V ( t )  Vc ( t )  VR ( t ) = VC0 sin(t – )  VR0 sint = V0 sin(t –  / 2   )
2
V0
VR 0
VR 0


2 –
 

 VC 0 V0
VC 0
V(t) = V0 sin (t + )

VR 0 R
tan  = V  X
C0 C

Ex.8 An A.C. source of angular frequency  is fed across a resistor R and a capacitor C in
series. The current registered is i. If now the frequency of the source is changed to /
3 (but maintaining the same voltage), the current in the circuit is found to be halved.
Calculate the ratio of reactance to resistance at the original frequency.
Sol. At angular frequency , the current in R-C circuit is given by
 rms
irms = ...(i)
{R  (1 /  2 C 2 )}
2
When frequency is changed to /3, the current is halved. Thus

irms  rms  rms

2 {R 2  1 / ( / 3 ) 2 C 2 }
=
{R 2  (9 /  2 C 2 }
...(ii)
...(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
1 2
=
{R 2  (1/ 2C2 )} {R  (9 /  2 C 2 }
2
5
Solving this equation, we get 3R 2 
 C2
2
(1 / C)  3
Hence, the ratio of reactance to resistance is   
R  5
Ex.9 A 50 W, 100 V lamp is to be connected to an ac mains of 200 V, 50 Hz. What capacitance

is essential to be put in series with the lamp?
Vs2 100 2 V 100
Sol. As resistance of the lamp R =  = 200  and the maximum current i = = =
W 50 R 200
1
A ; so when the lamp is put in series with a capacitance and run at 200 V ac, from V =iZ
2
we have,
V 200
Z= = = 400
i (1 / 2)
2
 1 
Now as in case of C-R circuit, Z = R2    ,
 C 
2
2
 1 
i.e., R +   = 160000
 C 
2
 1 
or,   = 16 × 104 – (200)2 = 12 × 104
 C 
1 2
So,
C
= 12 × 10
1
or C= F
100   12  10 2
100
i.e., C = F = 9.2 F
 12
5. L.C. CIRCUIT
As shown in figure a capacitor and inductance are connected in series method and alternat-
ing voltage is applied across the circuit.
Let Xc is capacitance reactance,
XL is Inductance reactance,
i = i0 sin t current floing through the circuit

xC xL
i  i0 sin t xL
xC
VC(t) = i0 XC sin (t – /2)

VL(t) = i0 XL sin (t + /2)
  
v t  vc  vL
= i0 XC sin t cos /2 – i0 XC cos t sin /2 + i0 XL sin t cos /2 + i0 XL cos t sin /2
= i0 cos  t(XL – XC)
V(t) = V0sin (t + /2)
V0 = i0Z (Z is impedance)
xL – xC
Z = (XL – XC)
cos  = 0
VCO = i0 XC ; XL 0  i 0 X L I
6. SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT

Now consider an ac circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R, a capacitor of capacitance
C and an inductor of inductance L are in series with an ac source generator.
Suppose in a phasor diagram current is taken along positive x-direction. Then VR is along
positive x-direction, VL along positive y-direction and VC along negative y-direction, as potential
difference across an inductor leads the current by 90° in phase while that across a capacitor,
lags by 90°.
V= VR2  ( VL – VC ) 2
L – R – C circuit VL
I
/2
/2
I vc I
VR
xC
I xL R
C vR
vL
vC
i  i0 sin t
Fig : A series L-C-R circuit
Impedance phasor of above circuit

xL (xL–xC)
R
z  R 2  ( x L – x c )2

R
xC

& Impedance triangle

1 2
z  R 2  ( L – )
C Z
XL–XI
XL – X C
here B is phase angle By triangle tan  =
R 
R
Power factor cos = R
Z
Let I be the current in the series circuit of any instant then
(1) Voltage V(t) = V0 sin (t + ) = i0 z sin (t + )
here v0 = i0z & vrms = irmsz
(2) v L ( t )  v O L sin( t   / 2) here voltage VL across the inducetance is ahead of current I in phase
by /2 rad
VOL  I0 XL
(3) VC(t) = VO C sin (t – /2)
here voltage VC across the capacitance lags behind the current I in pase by /2 rad
VO C  I0 X C
(4) VR(t) = i0 R sin t
here voltage VR across the resistor R has same phase as I
VO R = IO R
• Special Case :
(1) When XL > XC or VL > VC then emf is ahead of current by phase  which is given by
XL – X C R
tan  = or cos  =
R Z
The series LCR circuit is said to be inductive
(2) When XL < XC or VL < VC then current is ahead of emf by phase angle  which is given by
X C – XL R
tan   or cos =
R Z
The series LCR circuit is said to be capacitive
(3) When XL = XC or VL = VC,  = 0, the emf and current will be in the same phase. The series LCR
circuit is said to be purely resistive. It may malso be noted that
0 I0  E Rms
I0  or  0 or IRms =
Z 2 2Z Z
Susceptance : The reciprocal of the reactane of an a.c. circuit is called its susceptance.
Admittance : The reciprocal of the impedance of an a.c. circuit is called its admittance.
Ex.10 Figure shows a series LCR cicuit connected to a variable voltage source V = 10 sin ( t
+ /4) ;
xL = 10  XC = 6  R = 3 
Calculate Z, i0, irms, vrms, VL O, VC O, VR O,  ,
VL Rms, VC Rms, VRms, i(t), VL(t), Vc(t), and VR(t)
XL  10 XC  6  R  3 
V  10 sin( t   / 4)
XL > XC

Sol. V = 10 sin (t + /4) so V0 = 10 volt

10
Vrms = volt
2
 Z= R 2  ( XL – XC )2  9  16  5
v0
i0  2
z
irms  2 A
VL O  i0 X L  20 volt ; VC O  i0 X L  12 volt
20
VR O  i 0R  6 volt ; VL Rms  volt
2
20 6
VCRms  volt ; VR Rms  volt
2 2
R 3
cos       53 
Z 5
i(t) = 20 sin (t + /4 – 53°)
VL(t) = 20 sin (t + /4 – 53° + /2)
3  
= 20 sin (t + – 53° – ) = 12 sin (t – – 53°)
4 2 4
 
VR(t) = VR O sin (t + – 53°) = 6 sin (t + – 53°)
4 4
Ex.11 A resistor of resistance R, an inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C

all are connected in series with an a.c. supply. The resistance of R is 16 ohm and for a
given frequency the inductive reactance of L is 24 ohm and capacitive reactance of C is
12 ohm. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp., find
(a) the potential difference across R, L and C
(b) the impedance of the circuit
(c) the voltage of a.c. supply
(d) phase angle
Sol. (a) Potential difference across resistance
VR = iR = 5 × 16 = 80 volt
Potential difference across inductance
VL = i × (L) = 5 × 24 = 120 volt
Potential difference across condenser
VC = i × (1/C) = 5 × 12 = 60 volt
 2
 1  
(b) Z  R2   L –   = [(16) 2  (24 – 12) 2 ] = 20 ohm
  C  

(c) The voltage of a.c. supply is given by
V = iZ = 5 × 20 = 100 volt
(d) Phase angle
 L – (1 / C)  –1  24 – 12 
 = tan –1   = tan  
 R   16 
–1
= tan (0.75) = 36°87
Ex.12 A series circuit consists of a resistance of 15 ohm, an inductance of 0.08 henry and a
condenser of capacity 30 micro farad. The applied voltage has a frequency of 500
radian/s. Does the current lead or lag the applied voltage and by what angle?

Sol. Here L = 500 × 0.08 = 40 ohm

1 1
and 
C 500  (30  10 –6 )
= 66.7 ohm
L – (1 / C)] 40 – 66.7
tan =  = – 1.78
R 15
 = – 60.67°
Thus the current leads the applied voltage by 60.67°
Ex.13 A current of 4 A flows in a coil when connected to a 12 V d.c. source. If the same coil is
connected to a 12 V, 50 rad/s, a.c. source, a current of 2.4 A flows in the circuit.
Determine the inductance of the coil. Also find the power developed in the circuit if a
2500 F condenser is connected in series with the coil.
Sol. When the coil is connected to a d.c. source, its resistance R is given by
V 12
R= = =3
i 4
When it is connected to a.c. source, the impedance Z of the coil is given by
Vrms 12
Z= = =5
irms 2.4
For a coil, Z = [R2  (L) 2 ]
 5= [(3) 2  (50L) 2 ]
or 25 = [(3)2 + (50L)2]
Solving we get L = 0.08 henry
When the coil is connected with a condenser in series, the impedance Z is given by
2 1/ 2
 2
 1     1  
Z = R 2   L – 2
  = (3 )   50  0.08 –  
  C     50  2500  10 –6  

= 5 ohm
Power developed P = Vrms × irms × cos
where cos  = R/Z = 3/5 = 0.6
 P = 12 × 2.4 × 0.6 = 17.28 watt
Ex.14 A 20 volts 5 watt lamp is used in ac main of 220 volts 50 c.p.s. Calculate the (i)
Capacitance of capacitor. (ii) Inductance of inductor, to be put in series to run the
lamp, (iii) What pure resistance should be included in place of the above device so
that the lamp can run on its voltage. (iv) Which of the above arrangements will be
more economical and why ?
Sol. The current required by the lamp
wattage 5
i   0.25 amp
voltage 20
The resistance of the lamp
voltage 20
R   80 ohm
current 0.25
So for proper running of the lamp, the current through the lamp should be 0.25 amp
(i) When the condenser C is placed in series with lamp, then

 2
 1  
Z  R 2    
  C  

The current through the circuit
200
i  0.25 200
or  0.25
[R  (1 / C) 2 ]
2

2 1 
(80)   2 
 4   50 2  C 2 
Solving it for C, we get

C = 4.0 × 10–6 F = 4.0 F
(ii) When inductor L henry is placed in series with the lamp, then
200
 0.25
Z  [R2  (L) 2 ] or
[R  (L ) 2 ]
2
200
 0.25
or
[(80) 2  (4  2  50 2  L2 )]
Solving it for L, we get L = 2.53 henry
(iii) When resistance r ohm is placed in series with lamp of resistance R, then
200
 0.25
Rr
200
or  0.25  r  720 ohms
80  r
(iv) It will be more economical to use inductance or capacitance is series with the lamp to run
it as it consumes no power while there would be dissipation of power when resistance is
inserted in series with the lamp.
Brain Teaser
Can the peak voltage across the inductor be greater than the peak voltage of the source in an LCR
circuit ?
7. POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT
In case of a steady current the rate of doing work is given by,
P = Vi
In an alternating circuit, current and voltage both vary with time, so the work done by the
source in time interval dt is given by
dW = Vidt
Suppose in an ac, the current is leading the voltage by an angle . Then we can write,
V = V0 sint
and i = i0sin(t + )
dW = V0i0 sin t sin (t + ) dt
= V0 i0 (sin2 t cos  + sint cos t sin) dt
The total work done in a complete cycle is
T T
W = V0i0 cos  sin2 t dt + V0i0sin  sin tcos t dt

0 0
T T
1 1
 V0 i 0 cos  (1 – cos 2t)dt + V0 i 0 sin  sin 2t dt = 1 V i T cos
 
2 2 00
0 0 2
The average power delivered by the source is, therefore,
W 1  V0   i0 
P= = V0 i0 cos  =    (cos )
T 2  2  2 
= Vrms irms cos
or <P>one cycle = Vrms irms cos

Here, the term cos  is known as power factor.

It is said to be leading if current leads voltage, lagging if current lags voltage. Thus, a power
factor of 0.5 lagging means current lags the voltage by 60° (as cos–10.5 = 60°). The product
of Vrms and irms gives the apparent power. While the true power is obtained by multiplying the
apparent power by the power factor cos. Thus,
and apparent power = Vrms × irms
True power = apparent power × power factor
For  = 0°, the current and voltage are in phase. The power is thus, maximum (Vrms × irms).
F o r
 = 90°, the power is zero. The current is then stated as wattless. Such a case will arise
when resistance in the circuit is zero. The circuit is purely inductive or capacitive.
8. RESONANT FREQUENCY
A series LCR circuit is said to be in the resonance condition when the current through it has
its maximum value.
The current amplitude I0 for a series LCR circuit is given by
E0
I0 
R  ( L – 1 / C) 2
2
Clearly I0 becomes zero both for   0 and . The value of I0 is maximum when
1 1
L –  0 or  
C LC
1
 f
2 LC
Then impedance will be minimum
Zmin = R I max
The circuit is purely resistive. The current and
voltage are in the same phase and the current in
the circuit is maximum. This condition of the LCR
circuit is called resonance condition.
The variance of I0 v/s  shown in following figure
I0
v0 v
i0 max   0
z min R
R R
So cos  = = =1
Z R 
V = V0 sin (t) 1

Impedance phase of resonance circuit LC
xL
V
R R I
xR
Impedance of the circuit is minimum and heat generated in the circuit is maximum.
Zmin
fr f

Ex.15 In following LCR circuit find Z, i(t), VOC, VOL at resonace frequency
x L  20 x C  20 2 
V  10 sin t
Sol. Z = Zmin = R = 2
E 0 10
i0    5A
Z 2
V( t )
i( t )   5 sin t
Z
VO L = i0XC = 100 volt
VO L = i0 XL = 100 volt
: Above circuit is used as voltage amplifier (magnification) as peak value of voltage by source
is only 10 while we can have maximum voltage up to 100 (VO C & VO L)
Ex.16 A series LCR with R = 20 , L = 1.5 H and C = 35 F is connected to a variable frequency

200 V a.c. supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of
the circuit. What is the average power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
Sol. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, resonance
occurs.
 Z = R = 20 ohm
Erms 200
  10 A
irms = Z 20
Average power transferred/cycle
P = Ermsirms cos0° = 200 × 10 × 1 = 2000 watt
8.1 Sharpness of Resonance (Q - factor) :
The Q- factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to
the difference in two frequencies taken on the both sides of the resonant frequency such
1
that at each frequency, the current amplitude becomes times the value of resonant
2
frequency.
I0   0 / R
0
I
2R
1 r 2

Mathematically Q-factor.
r  Re sonant frequency
Q  r 
2 – 1 2 Band width
x L r L
or Q 
R R

9. CHOKE COIL :
A choke coil is simply an inductor with large inductance which is used to reduce current in
a.c. circuit without much loss of energy.
Principle. A choke coil is based upon the principle that when a.c. flows through an inductor,
the current lags behind the e.m.f. by a phase angle /2.
Construction. A choke coil is basically an inductance. It consists of a large number of turns
of insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron core. In order to minimise loss of electrical
energy due to production of eddy currents, a laminated iron core is used.
In practice, a low frequency choke coil is made of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron
core, while a high frequnecy choke coil has air as core materials
LINE WIRE
LAMINATED
IRON CORE
Choke coil
L R
choke T.L.
v  v 0 sin t
Working : As shown in fig a choke is put in series across an electrical appliances of resistance
R and is connected to an a.c. source.
Average power dissipiated per cycle in the circuit is
R
Pav = Veff Ieff cos = Veff Ieff .
R  2L2
2
Inductance L of the choke coil is very large so that R << L. Then
R
Power factor cos  ~– ~ 0
L –
xL X
tan =
R

R
Uses. In a.c. circuit, a choke coil is used to control the current in place of a resistance. If a
resistance is used to control the current, the electrical energy will be wasted in the form of
heat. A choke coil decreases the current without wasting electrical energy in the form of
heat.
10. OSCILLATIONS IN L-C CIRCUIT

If a charged capacitor C is short-circuited through an inductor L, the charge and current in
the circuit start oscillating simple harmonically. If the resistance of the circuit is zero, no
energy is dissipated as heat. Assume an ideal situation in which energy is not radiated away
from the circuit. With these idealizations-zero resistance and no radiation, the oscillations in
the circuit persist indefinitely and the energy is transferred from capacitor’s electric field to
the inductor’s magnetic field back and forth. The total energy associated with the circuit is
constant. This is analogous to the transfer of energy in an oscillating mechanical system

from potential energy to kinetic energy and back, with constant total energy. Such an
analogous mechanical system is an example of spring mass system.
i
t=0 t=t c
b
+ +
C q L q
– 0 C L
– 0
a d
S S
(a) (b)
Let us now derive an equation for the oscillations of charge and current in an L-C circuit.
Refer figure (a) : The capacitor is charged to a potential difference V such that charge on
capacitor q0 = CV
Here q0 is the maximum charge on the capacitor. At time t = 0, it is connected to an inductor
through a switch S. At time t = 0, the switch S is closed.
Refer figure (b) : When the switch is closed, the capacitor starts discharging. Let at time t
charge on the capacitor is q (<q0) and since, it is further decreasing, there is a current i in
the circuit in the direction shown in figure.
The potential difference across capacitor = potential difference across inductor, or
Vb – Va = Vc – Vd
q  di 
  L  ...(1)
C  dt 
 –dq 
Now, as the charge is decreasing, i =  
 dt 
di d2 q
or =–
dt dt 2
Substituting in equation (1), we get
q  d2 q 
 –L 2 
C  dt 
d2 q
or = –  1  q ...(2)
dt 2  LC 
 d2 x 2

This is the standard equation of simple harmonic motion  2  – x
 dt 
1
Here  = ...(3)
LC
The general solution of equation (2), is
q = q0 cos (t ± ) ...(4)
In our case  = 0 as q = q0 at t = 0.
Thus, we can say that the charge in the circuit oscillates with angular frequency  given by
equation (3). Thus,
di
ln L – C oscillations, q, i and all oscillate simple harmonically with same angular frequency
dt
di 
, but the phase difference between q and i or between i and is . Their amplitudes are
dt 2
q0 q0 are 2 q0
respectively. So
q = q0 cost, then ...(5)

dq
i=– = q0 sin t ...(6)
dt
di
and  q0  2 cost ...(7)
dt
Potential energy in the capacitor
1 q2 1 q20
UC = = cos 2 t ...(8)
2 C 2 C
Potential energy in the inductor
1 2 1 q20
UL = Li = sin2 t ...(9)
2 2 C
Thus potential energy stored in the capacitor and that in the inductor also oscillates between
maximum value and zero with double the frequency. All these quantities are shown in the
figures that follows
q
q0
t 2
qmax
O UC
2C
t
O
i UL Li 2max
i0 2
t t
O O T T 3T T
T 2T
T
3T 4 2 2
2
2
Ex.17 A capacitor of capacitance 25 F is charged to 300 v. It is then connected across a 10 mH

inductor. The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
(a) Find the frequency of oscillation of the circuit.
(b) Find the potential difference across capacitor and magnitude of circuit current 1.2
ms after the inductor and capacitor are connected.
(c) Find the magnetic energy and electric energy at t = 0 and t = 1.2 ms.
Sol. (a) The frequency of oscillation of the circuit is ,
1
f=
2 LC
1
f 10 3
Substituting the given values we have, –3 –6 = Hz
2 (10  10 )(25  10 ) 
(b) Charge across the capacitor at time t will be ,
q = q0 cos t
and i = – q0 sin t
Here q0 = CV0 = (25 × 10–6) (300) = 7.5 × 10–3 C
Now, charge is the capacitor after t = 1.2 × 10–3 s is,
q = (7.5 × 10–3) cos (2 × 318.3) (1.2 × 10–3)C
= 5.53 × 10–3C
 P.D. across capacitor,
| q| 5.53  10 –3
V=  = 221.2 volt
C 25  10 –6

The magnitude of current in the circuit at

t = 1.2 × 10–3 s is,
|i| = q0  sint
= (7.5 × 10–3) (2) (318.3) sin(2 × 318.3) (1.2 × 10–3) A = 10.13 A
(c) At t = 0 : Current in the circuit is zero. Hence,UL = 0
Charge on the capacitor is maximum
1 q20
Hence, Uc =
2 C
1 (7.5  10 –3 ) 2
or Uc =  = 1.125 J
2 (25  10 –6 )
 Total energy E = UL + UC = 1.125 J

At t = 1.2 ms
1 2 1
UL = Li = (10  10 –3 ) (10.13)2 = 0.513 J
2 2
UC = E – UL = 1.125 – 0.513 = 0.612 J
Otherwise UC can be calculated as,
1 q2 1 (5.53  10 –3 ) 2
UC = =  = 0.612 J
2 C 2 (25  10 –6 )
11. TRANSFORMER :
A transformer is an electrical device for converting an alternating current at low voltage into
that at high voltage or vice versa. If it increase the input voltage, it is called step up
transformer and if it decreases the input voltage, it is called step down transformer.
Secondary Coil
N1
O output
N2
Iron box type

Primary Coil
Principle : It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a changing current is
passed through one of the two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is setup in the other
coil.
Construction : A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire having
different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil to which electric
energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy is drawn or output is
obtained is called the secondary.
To prevent energy losses due to eddy currents, a laminated sheet is used. Because of
high permeability of soft iron, the entire magnetic flux due to the current in the primary coil
practically remains in the iron core and hence passes fully through the secondary.
Two types of arrangements are generally used for winding of primary and secondary coils in a
transformer.

1. Core type : In this type, the primary and secondary coils are wound on seperate limbs of the
core.
2. Shell type : In this type the primary and secondary coils are wound one over another on the
same limb of the iron core.
Theory : Consider the situation when no load is connected to the secondary, i.e., its
terminals are open. Let N1 and N2 be the number of terminal in the primary and secondary
respectively. Then Induced emf in the primary coil
d
v p  –N1
dt
Induced emf in the secondary coil
d
v s  –N 2
dt
where  is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the primary or secondary at any instant.
Thus
Vs N2

Vp N1
N2
The ratio N of the number of turns in the secondary to that in the primary called the turns
1
ratio of the transformer. It is also called transformation ratio
for step up transformer : N2 > N1
for step down transformer : N1 > N2
Currents in primary and secondary : Assuming the transformer to be ideal one so that
there are no energy loss, then
Input power = output power
or Vp Ip = Vs Is
where Ip and IS are the currents in the primary and secondary respectively.
Ip Vs N2
Hence I  V  N
s p 1
Efficiency : The efficiency of a transformer is defined as
Power output
= × 100%
Power input
The efficiency of real transformer is fairely high (90 – 98%) though not 100%


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IIT-JEE|AIEEE

Nurturing potential through education

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Alternating Current .......................................................... 3

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

An alternating voltage is given by

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

2. AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

Ex.1 If a direct current of value a ampere is superimposed on an alternating current i = b sin

Sol. As current at any instant in the circuit will be,

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

2.2 R.M.S Value of alternating current

i.e., i rms  i2avg

= T i0 sin (t  )dt = 2 T [1 – cos 2(t  )]dt

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.2 If the voltage in an ac circuit is represented by the equation,

V = 220 2 sin (314t – ),

3.1 When only Resistance is in an AC circuit

Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

3.2 When only Inductor is in An AC circuit

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.4 An inductor of inductance L = 5 H is connected to an

3.3 When only Capacitor is in An AC circuit

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Wave diagram Phasor diagram

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

4. SERIES L-R CIRCUIT

where x L2  R 2 is known as impedence (z) of the circuit.

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

= [(12) 2  {2  3.14  50  0.05 / 3.14} 2 ] = (144  25) = 13 ohm

5. SERIES C-R CIRCUIT

VR = I0 R sin t  VR0 sin t

V(t) = V0 sin (t + )

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

When frequency is changed to /3, the current is halved. Thus

Ex.9 A 50 W, 100 V lamp is to be connected to an ac mains of 200 V, 50 Hz. What capacitance

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VC(t) = i0 XC sin (t – /2)

6. SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT

Impedance phasor of above circuit

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& Impedance triangle

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Sol. V = 10 sin (t + /4) so V0 = 10 volt

Ex.11 A resistor of resistance R, an inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C

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Sol. Here L = 500 × 0.08 = 40 ohm

For a coil, Z = [R2  (L) 2 ]

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Solving it for C, we get

W = V0i0 cos  sin2 t dt + V0i0sin  sin tcos t dt

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Here, the term cos  is known as power factor.

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.16 A series LCR with R = 20 , L = 1.5 H and C = 35 F is connected to a variable frequency

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10. OSCILLATIONS IN L-C CIRCUIT

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394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.17 A capacitor of capacitance 25 F is charged to 300 v. It is then connected across a 10 mH

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The magnitude of current in the circuit at