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Prospects of Rain Water Harvesting, Management Strategies with Artificial

Recharge and Water Shed Management Strategies in India : A Review

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 Prospects of Rain Water Harvesting, Management
Strategies with Artificial Recharge and Water Shed
Management Strategies in India
: A Review
1
Kolluru Hemanth Kumar, 2Madduri Saicharan Reddy
1, 2
Department of Civil Engineering. Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology 1121111049, 2121111060
Abstract—India receives the highest rainfall (with an annual
average rainfall of 4000 billion cubic meters), among countries
comparable to its size. Its landmass has gorgeous and perennial
rivers crisscrossing it particularly through the northern part. But
the other side of the story is this: one part or another of India has
continued to experience drought conditions with an alarming
regularity. The rivers have been drying up and getting polluted.
The underground water tables are shrinking rapidly. The annual
water requirement of India is only 450 billion cubic meters, which
is much less than annual average rainfall (4000 billion cubic
meters). So, the above situations are not because of scarcity of
water, but mismanagement and unsustainable use of water is
making the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable in
India. If water management is not accorded the importance it
deserves, the country can very much expect to find itself in
troubled waters as the years roll by. Estimates of the Central
Ground Water Board are that the reservoir of underground water
will dry up entirely by 2025 in as many as fifteen States in India –
if the present level of exploitation and misuse of underground
water continues. By 2050, when more than 50 percent of the Indian
population is expected to shift to the cities, fresh drinking water is
expected to get very scarce. A new category of refugees is expected
to emerge around that time: the water migrants. Future wars,
between or within nations will be fought on the issue of water.
As water is essential for all life and used in many different ways
we need to utilize the erratic monsoon rain for raising good crops
in dry tracks and conserve the excess runoff water for drinking
and for recharging purposes which is called as water harvesting it
can be done in many ways with the help of rainwater harvesting,
ground water. Many prospects and management strategies include
in the water harvesting which we need to consider for a good water
harvesting system. Many different methods/techniques are
developed for harvesting water in India from the medieval age
which are briefly discussed in this paper. An overview of rainwater
harvesting its prospects and management strategies are discussed
in this paper along with artificial recharge of ground water and
water shed management strategies of India.
Keywords—scarcity, rainwater harvesting, artificial recharge,
water shed management.
I. INTRODUCTION
India is the seventh-largest country by area (3,287,590
sq.km), the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion
people, and the most populous democracy in the world. It is
lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, and part of the
IndoAustralian Plate. India's defining geological processes
began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, then part of
the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward
drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later,
south and south-east. India lies to the north of the equator
between 6° 44' and 35° 30' north latitude and 68° 7' and 97° 25'
east longitude.
India receives the highest rainfall (with an annual average
rainfall of 4000 billion cubic meters), among countries
comparable to its size. Its landmass has gorgeous and
perennial rivers crisscrossing it particularly through the
northern part. But the other side of the story is this: one part
or another of India has continued to experience drought
conditions with an alarming regularity. The rivers have been
drying up and getting polluted. The underground water tables
are shrinking rapidly. The annual water requirement of India
is only 450 billion cubic meters, which is much less than
annual average rainfall (4000 billion cubic meters). So, the
above situations are not because of scarcity of water, but
mismanagement and unsustainable use of water is making the
whole situation environmentally uncomfortable in India. If
water management is not accorded the importance it deserves,
the country can very much expect to find itself in troubled
waters as the years roll by. Estimates of the Central Ground
Water Board are that the reservoir of underground water will
dry up entirely by 2025 in as many as fifteen States in India –
if the present level of exploitation and misuse of underground
water continues. By 2050, when more than 50 percent of the
Indian population is expected to shift to the cities, fresh
drinking water is expected to get very scarce. A new category
of refugees is expected to emerge around that time: the water
migrants. Future wars, between or within nations will be
fought on the issue of water.
Our duty is to save and store the water for future use which
are done by rainwater harvesting and ground water recharge
which are discussed briefly in the below sections.
II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF RAIN WATER
HARVESTING
Traditionally Indians worshipped both water and rain as
“Jala” and “Varuna”. Even rivers were worshipped. Till 3000
B.C., RWH happened without human effort as rain got
collected in rivers and natural depressions. Civilizations
flourished on river banks all over the world Indus valley
civilization in India.
From 3000 B.C. to 1800 A.D.:
 RWH happened with human effort. Indians harvested
rainwater using different methods. These methods depended on
local conditions.
Figure.1 Traditional collection of Rainwater
Some of our traditions, evolved and developed by our
forefathers thousands of years ago have played an important role
in different spheres of life. Most important among these is the
tradition of collecting, storing and preserving water for various
uses. Hydro-technical installations were among the earliest tech
Table 1. List of traditional rainwater harvesting structures in different parts of India
-nological achievements of mankind. Human beings generally
migrated to safer and productive localities in response to local
aridity in earlier days. But rather than migration, people also
modified the dwelling environments by adapting strategies for
the optimum utilization of available water by harvesting rain.
The Vedic hymns, particularly those in Rig Veda, contain many
notes on irrigated agriculture, river courses, dykes, water
reservoirs, wells and water lifting structures (Shastri, 1976). In
Chandogya Upanishad, we can get the oldest reference of
hydrological cycle.
The book Arthasastra written by Kautilya is a treatise on
government and economics of ancient India. There is enough
evidence in the book to indicate that the people knew about the
rainfall regimes, soil types and appropriate irrigation techniques
in specific micro-ecological contexts. According to his book, the
construction of embankments to collect rainwater was a popular
irrigation device. Both natural resources like rivers, springs and
lakes and man-made tanks, reservoirs and wells were tapped for
irrigation. Irrigation works are done in both waterless regions
(anudaka) and regions with good water supply (sahodaka)
(Bhattacharya, 1978). Government superintendents were asked
to construct wells and waterworks in the waterless regions.
References of two types of setu for embankments or dams for
storing water was found – the Sahodaka, where there is a natural
spring or flow of water, and the Aharyodaka, which is a storage
tank with water brought into it through channels (Agarwal and
Narain, 1997).
Rainwater harvesting structures originated in the Thar
Desert, Rajasthan in circa 4500 BC in response to the weakening
of the south-west monsoon after its peak intensification.
Evidence of human presence in Thar Desert was seen during cir
-ca 2894–2643 BC, i.e. even before the Indus Valley
Civilization (Pandey et.al. 2003). Indus valley civilization
started in circa 2000 BC. The city planning and social structures
reflect their environmental awareness. In Mohenjo-Daro, there
were two separate places – the city and the fort, separated by
150-hectare area containing forests or water-bodies. In the
bathing-ponds of the fort, the slope was very scientifically
maintained to drain the water. In August, there was flood every
year in the Indus valley, but in winter the water level dropped.
They used to store water for cultivation in winter. The area of
cultivation was changed every year depending on the amount of
rainfall and the direction of river flow. The people often used
the ground water because of insufficient rainfall. They used the
bulls in irrigation to overcome the water stress. In winter water
often stored in the lowlands. Urban Harappan civilization
develops earliest wells of their kind in South Asia; a sound
agricultural base thrived because of rainwater harvesting and
collection systems (Ratnagar, 2003).
The 'dock-yard' (or a water-reservoir) was found in the
excavations at another well-known Harappan site, namely,
Lothal. Irrespective of the controversy about whether the
structure was a dockyard or merely a reservoir, this remarkable
lined structure, with evidence of channels for inlet and outlet of
water, is a pointer to the hydraulic knowledge of protohistoric
India (Ratnagar, 2003). The presence of marine organisms in
this complex strengthens the argument for its having been a
dock. The structure – roughly trapezoidal area (western wall
218.23 m; eastern wall 215.03 m; southern wall 35.66 m and
northern wall: 37.49 m), is enclosed by a 1.2m thick lining made
up of a four-course wall of kiln-baked bricks, within broader
mud-brick embankment walls. There are two inlets to this
enclosure; one each in the northern and southernmost portions
of the eastern side. The water harvesting systems at Dholavira
in the Harappan civilization was worth mentioning. The gradient
between the higher east and the lower west of the site is 13
meters, which is ideal for making reservoirs. There is a series of
reservoirs, which almost entirely surround the city. Dholavira
lies in an area that presently receives less than 160 cm of annual
rainfall, and has a history of prolonged droughts. Its climate and
precipitation levels during the period that the Harappan city of
Dholavira flourished is believed to have been not very
significantly different either (Ratnagar, 2003). Several rock-cut
reservoirs or cisterns – about 7m deep, noted around the inner
side of the outer wall of the settlement. To fill these, the
rainwater in the catchment areas of the site's two local seasonal
rivulets - the Mandsar (which lay outside the walled area of
Dholavira, and to its north-north-west) and the Manhar (flowing
through the south-eastern part of the walled area), was collected
and brought to the reservoirs.
Tanks have been the most important source of irrigation in
India. Some tanks may date as far back as the Rig Vedic period,
around 1500 BC. The Rg Veda refers to lotus ponds, ponds that
give life to frogs and ponds of varying depths for bathing (Bisht,
1991).
From 1500-1000 BC, due to the major weakening of the
southwest monsoon, water management systems became well
established. People migrated from north to Rajasthan, Ganges
plain and Ganges-Yamuna Doab. Harvesting structures like
khadins were intensified for farming in dry areas of Rajasthan
between circa 1000 and 600 BC (Mishra, 2001). Between 900
and 800 BC, early farms were designed for in situ moisture
conservation by erecting small earthen embankments.
During the Maurya period (324-185 BC) development in
water harvesting systems led to rapid agricultural development.
In ancient Vidisa close to Ranchi, sophisticated irrigation
system of tanks and canals were built in 300 BC. A rock cut
tank, located near the largest surviving Buddhist stupa, could be
one of the oldest surviving tanks.
Numerous inscriptions of different periods have been found
in almost every part of the country with a wide range of
information about tanks, dams and embankments, their
maintenance and management. Two inscriptions engraved on a
rock in Junagadh (Gujrat) provide the information about the
repair of an embankment that was destroyed during a flood. The
first inscription (Saka year 72 or circa 150-151 AD) of Saka
rular Rudradaman records the restoration of lake Sudarsana by
him (Pandey et.al. 2003). The lake was constructed by
Pusyagupta (the viceroy of Chandragupta Maurya, circa 320-
298 BC) and was later improved under the reign of Asoka (circa
273-232 BC), when irrigation canals from the lake were
excavated by the Yavana king, Tusaspha. The lake was created
by storing the stream water of Suvarnasikata and Palasini
running from the Urjayata (modern Girnar) hill. The water of
the lake was use for irrigation through canals, which had been
excavated by king Tushaspha. Pahlava carried the restoration
work four centuries later. Another inscription at Junagadh, at the
time of king Skandagupta (circa 455-467 AD) records the
repairs to the embankments of the Sudarsana Lake by
Chakrapalita (Pandey, 2000).
Dating back to the end of 1st century BC, an extraordinary
example of early Indian hydraulic engineering was observed
near Allahabad. The tank excavated is 250 meter long, fed by
the water of Ganges, where other contemporary tanks just
collected rainwater. The earliest and subsequent settlements at
Sringaverapura hugged the riverbank, but when their population
began to grow, houses were constructed about 1km. away from
the riverbank. During the monsoon season, the Ganges water
level raised upto 7-8 meters, and spills into a nearby nullah. Like
Indus valley civilization, a canal nearly 11 m. wide and 5 m.
deep was dug to take the excess water. Silting chambers were
used to remove the dirt from the water and clean water was
stored in brick tanks. Successive tanks displayed an
extraordinary example of water treatment and the final exit
channel returned the excess water to the river. In case of dry
months, a series of wells in the bed of tanks were constructed to
access groundwater (Agarwal and Narain, 1997). Probably king
Dhanadeva of Ayodhya constructed the whole system.
At the Buddhist site of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), dating
back to the 3rd century BC, there are three ancient tanks to store
rainwater from the hill slopes. Hydrological and archaeological
analysis of the Sanchi dams revealed that they were built to
provide irrigation, possibly for rice, as a response to the
increased population levels suggested by the distribution of
settlements and Buddhist sites (Keilhorn, 1906).
Most of the old temples in south India built centuries ago
have large tanks in their premises. These tanks are either fed by
harvested rainwater or by tapping underground spring. In Tamil
Nadu alone there are 39 temple tanks with areas varying from
.25 to 3 hectares. These are all fed by rainwater. Though these
were used mainly for bathing and religious purposes, these also
recharged the drinking water wells.
In the second and third century AD, plough cultivation
spreads in India aided by decentralized farms and associated
earthworks that helped seasonal collection of rainwater within
farms. Subsistence farmers themselves made irrigation
earthworks and streamside wells that supplied water to farms.
Some large community wells fitted with water wheel and
pitchers too. Sacred as well as secular texts of the period
document management of water. Contemporary literatures of
Tamil Nadu also explained paddy cultivation watered by river
and tank irrigation. The Satvahanas (1st century BC- 2nd
century AD) introduced the brick and ring wells.
The Mahabharata narrates that while advising Yudhisthira
on administration principles, sage Narada gave emphasis on the
excavation of the large and swelling lakes so that cultivation
should remain independent of rainwater.
Kuntagani plates state that the Kadamba king Ravivarman
ordered a tank-bund to be constructed in the village of Variyaka
(the Kadambas ruled an area northwest of Mysore city between
4th and 6th century AD.)
A Nagarjunakonda inscription shows the reference of tank
excavation at Setagiri and Mudera was found. A Gunda
inscription records the digging of a tank by an Abhira general
Rudrabhuti at the village of Rasopodra. In Nagarjunakonda,
traces of a canal with an average width of 50 ft. and depth of 16
ft., situated at the southeast corner of the valley have been found.
It is enclosed by lofty hilly ranges on all sides and the
embankments were constructed with hard lime gravel mixed
with kankar (stone chips) and stones which provides immense
strength.
In the fourth century to eighth century AD, water bodies
such as Dasmati Sagar of Titilagarh, Darpana Sagar, Bhanu
Sagar, Rama Sagar, Bhoja Sagar and Hira Sagar of Patna state
and Krisna Sagar of Mayurbhanja constructed (Agarwal and
Narain, 1997). Varahamihira, in his ancient text Bhrhadsamhita
(AD 550) mentioned the construction of ponds and tanks.
In seventh century AD, Kalhana’s Rajtarangini describes a
well-maintained irrigation system around the Dal and Anchar
lakes and the Nandi canal in Kashmir. On the other hand,
development of water management systems was also evolved in
Gujrat and Rajasthan. The fort of Chittor had 84 artificial water
bodies including talabs, kunds, baories and wells. Baories, older
than large water bodies but younger than kundas in rural areas,
were built in Jodhpur. Step well era covers the period of 8th
century to 14th century. In western India, step wells and stepped
ponds have been built with underground buildings. An estimated
3000 of them were built between 7th and 19th centuries AD.
Because of steps constructed upto the bottom, water could be
reached during the dry season when water level is low or during
monsoon when water level is high compared to this modern
hand pump or tube-well which during summer do not give water
in many cases and also due to excessive with drawl of ground
water.
In the ninth century AD, the Gond people in the central India
developed earthworks such as katas, mundas and bandhas as a
main source of irrigation. The Chola and Pallava kingdom also
left a marked impression in rainwater harvesting systems and
irrigation management at that time.
The Bhopal lake, created in the 11th century was one of the
largest artificial lakes of that time, covering over 65,000
hectares and was fed by 365 streams. Viranam tank, the largest
in South Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, is believed to have been
built by the Chola rular Rajendra Chola Ι. The tank was fed by
the Vadavar channel from the lower anicut on the Kollidam
River.
In 1052 AD, Qila Rai Pithora, the forest capital city of the
Sultanate, thrived because of rainwater harvest, as there was no
other alternative source of water.
From the thirteen-century, the deccan capitals of the
medieval period develop extensive urban water supply systems.
Monsoon being the only source of water in the deccan, some of
the most notable networks of earthworks are built here. The
Bahamani rulers (circa 1388-1422 AD) introduced canal
irrigation for the first time in the eastern provinces of the deccan.
There are several references describe the water management
systems in the period of Mohammad- bin- Tughlaq, Alauddin
Khilji and Sultan Qutb-ud-Din. Feroze Shah Tughlaq (circa
1351-1388) built the western Yamuna canal in 1355 to extend
irrigation facilities in the dry land tracts of the present day
Hariyana and Rajasthan.
In ancient India, digging a pond or a well-considered a pious
religious act. In this process, a culture developed with songs and
ballads and many rivers are considered sacred and bathing in
such rivers is a religious act. Causing damage to irrigation works
was considered as crime, comparable to the destruction of a
child in embryo. Buckets, water lifts, pecottah (device for lifting
water) and palm-leaf buckets were widely used for irrigating
fields with water from canals, tanks and wells. The use of
mechanized devices was very popular in the Deccan. Many
people were working as hydraulic engineers. In the
Gathasaptasati (oldest anthology in Maharastri Prakrit,
consisting of 700 gathas or verses) reference of a waterlifting
machine called Araghatta was found. According to Himanshu
Prabha Roy, the famous archaeologist, Araghatta was a
currentdriven water lift (Keilhorn, 1906).
Caste based social hierarchy was determined in ancient
times through notions of purity and pollution and centered
around inequitable access to, control over and distribution of
water and water use right. Water is the most common medium
of purification. It is considered to have an intrinsic purity and
capacity to absorb pollution and carry it away.
III. RAINWATER HARVESTING: WHAT IS IT
A. Definition and typology of rainwater harvesting systems
Rainwater harvesting consists of a wide range of
technologies used to collect, store and provide water with the
particular aim of meeting demand for water by humans and/or
human activities. These technologies can be divided into two
main areas depending on source of water collected; namely, the
in situ and the ex situ types of rainwater harvesting respectively.
In essence, in situ rainwater harvesting technologies are soil
management strategies that enhance rainfall infiltration and
reduce surface runoff. The in situ systems have a relatively small
rainwater harvesting catchment typically no greater than 5-10 m
from point of water infiltration into the soil.
 The ex situ systems are defined as systems which have
rainwater harvesting capture areas external to the point of water
storage. The rainwater capture area varies from being a natural
soil surface with a limited infiltration capacity, to an artificial
surface with low or no infiltration capacity. Commonly used
impermeable surfaces are rooftops, roads and pavements, which
can generate substantial amounts of water and which can be
fairly easily collected and stored for different uses.
Why Rainwater Harvesting?
Rainwater harvesting means the activity of direct collection of
rain water which can be recharged in to the ground water to
prevent fall of ground water level or storing in surface or
underground water tank. It is most suited in today’s context due
to following reasons.
1. It is the most scientific and cost effective way of
recharging the ground water and reviving the water table.
2. It offers advantage in water quality for both irrigation
and domestic use.
3. It provides naturally soft water and contains almost no
dissolved minerals or salts, arsenic and other heavy metals.
4. It can be done at individual as well as in a community
level. This way we can be self-sufficient in terms of domestic
water requirements and not just dependent on the actions
initiated by government or any other local body.
Collecting rainwater as it falls from the sky seems immensely
sensible in areas struggling to cope with potable water needs.
Rainwater is one of the purest sources of water available as it
contains very low impurities. Rain water harvesting systems can
be adopted where conventional water supply systems have
failed to meet people’s needs.
Components of Rainwater Harvesting Structure
All rainwater harvesting structures will have three basic
components:
1. Catchment area i.e. the surface area utilized for
capturing the rainwater.
2. Collection device, like tanks or cisterns or percolation
pits used for collecting or holding the water.
3. Conveyance system i.e. the system of pipes or
percolation pits through which water is transported
from the catchment area to the collection device.
B. Rainwater Harvesting Methodologies in present India:
There are different ways by which rain water harvesting
is carried out. Some of the important methods are discussed one
by one as discussed in coming paragraphs.
1. Utilizing Rainwater for Dewas Roof Water Filter
Dewas is the name of the city located in Madhya Pradesh.
This roof water filter is first practiced at Dewas and hence the
name Dewas roof water filter. Fig.1 shows details of Dewar roof
water filter. It can be made easily using sand pebbles of different
sizes. In this two caps are provided as T1 and T2. Keep the cap
T1 and T2 always closed. The T2 is used for periodical back
washing of filter and cap T1 is used for backwash drainage.
Small pebbles of size 6 mm are on entry side of rainwater. Use
of medicine for water purification is made through cap T2. Do
not recharge rainwater for first two days in rainy season. Keep
the roof always clean, especially in rainy season so that quality
of rain water falling on roof is not deteriorated. The cost of this
roof filter excluding connecting pipe is about Rs 800. For
average condition in Maharashtra, from 100 square metres roof
area about 50 m3 of water can be percolated through this filter.
2. Utilization of Rainwater for Recharging Pit
Where there is no well or bore well in the house, total
rainwater falling on the open plot can be recharged by making
recharge pit. Water flowing out of the plot can be directed to this
pit. This pit may get filled 10 to 15 times in one monsoon and
can recharge water up to 200 m3. This method is effective in the
area where permeability of soil is more. The capacity of the pit
may be taken up to 10 m3. The percolation of water through this
pit of the order of 200 m3 per annum is possible. The cost of this
structure may come about Rs 7000.
3. Utilization of Rainwater for Well Recharging
Rainwater flowing in the farm is diverted to a water
collecting tank of size 6 m x 6 m x 1.5 m near well and a small
filter pit of size 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 0.6m is made at the bottom of
large pit. Otherwise suitable pit may be excavated depending
upon the availability of space near well. Fig.2 shows details
regarding recharge of open well by runoff from farm. Filter pit
is filled with sand, pebbles larger than 20 mm and
pebbles/boulders larger than 75mm pebbles is filled in three
equal layers and connected to the well by 150 mm diameter PVC
pipe and this pipe projects 0.5 to 1.0 m inside the well. The
capacity of the water tank may be taken about 50 m3. The
percolation of water 400 to 1000 m3 per year is possible through
this structure.
4. Utilizing of Rainwater for Bore well Recharging
Arrangement of bore well recharging is as shown in fig. 3.
A six metre diameter collecting pit of 1.5 m depth is excavated
around the bore well casing pipe. Another small pit of 1.5 m x
1.5 m x 0.6 m depth is made at the bottom of large pit and filled
with filter media. A 75 mm diameter PVC pipe is connected to
the bore well casing pipe after first layer of 75 mm pebbles. An
inverted elbow is connected to the pipe. 5. Utilizing Roof Water
to Recharge Trench
The roof water collected can be recharged through recharge
trench. Water can be recharged throughout the year either by
using used water or rainwater. This recharge trench may get
filled many times as per availability of used or rain water. This
method is effective in the area where permeability of soil is
more. The capacity of the trench may be taken up to 20 m3. The
percolation of water through this pit of the order of 100 to 200
m3 per annum is possible. The cost of this structure may come
about Rs 5000.
6. Utilizing Surface Rainwater to Recharge Tube
Well Depleted aquifers are directly fed with surface
rainwater by using a recharge tube well so that recharge is fast
and evaporation and transit losses are zero. A typical recharge
tube well is designed as follows:
1. A borehole of 50 cm diameter is drilled to the desired depth.
2. A 20 cm diameter casing i.e. outer pipe of the bore well is
designed by providing slotted perforated sections against
aquifers.
3. The depth of the recharge tube well should be about 30
metre below the water table in the area.
4. The annular space between the borehole and the pipe
is filled with good gravel and developed with a compressor till
it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solids from entering
the recharge tube well, a filter mechanism is provided at the top.
5. A pit of dimensions 6 m x 6 m x 6 m is dug with the
tube well at the center.
6. This pit is filled with small rounded boulders, stone
chips and sand in layers with boulders at the bottom and sand at
the top.
7. The top one metre of the casing assembly in this pit is
filled with sand. The top of the casing pipe is provided with a
cap which is about 600 mm below the sand bed to prevent
suspended material from entering the well.
8. In order to release the air present in the casing
assembly during the percolation process of floodwater, the air
vent is provided through a 75 mm diameter pipe connected to
the recharging tube well within the top 600 mm through a
reducer tee of dimensions 200 mm x 75 mm. The air releasing
pipe is then extended to one of the banks where the vent is
constructed.
When flood water filters through the sand, most of the
suspended materials are filtered out. The second sand filter
surrounding the slotted section of the well at the top prevents the
remaining suspended material entering the well. Beyond this is
a coir wrapping as a final protective filter before water enters
the well. The rate gradually decreases due to setting of slit at the
top. Every year, after the rainy season about one meter of the
sand at the filter bed has to be replaced. Every year the well is
developed with a compressor once immediately after the storage
structures become empty because the water level is shallow
immediately after the monsoon and development is effective.
During pumping when the water is clear, it may be allowed on
the filtered bed so that it takes down the slit accumulated in the
filter bed into the well which is being developed. Through this
method the entire filter bed also gets cleared of the silt during
the time of infiltration.
7. Utilizing Roof Water to Collect into the Storage Tanks
Rainwater from the roof surface is drained through gutters into
storage tanks. To prevent contamination and dust to flow into
the storage tanks there is a provision of a hand movable gutter
connection which can be manually moved to divert the water
out. The rooftop is used as the collection device. Guttering
generally made of PVC is used to transport the rainwater from
the roof top to the storage tanks. Storage tanks may be either
above or below the ground and should be properly covered. In
apartments more than one storage tanks can be used and they
can be interconnected through connecting pipes. The storage
tanks should have provision of an adequate enclosure to
minimize contamination from human, animal or other
environmental contaminants. The end of the gutter, which
connects the storage tank, should be attached with a filter to
prevent any contaminants to get into the storage tank. It is also
advisable to drain the first flow to get rid of the dust and
contaminants from the roof top.
C. Rainwater Harvesting Systems of Present India:
As stated early, rainwater harvesting is as old as civilization
and is practiced in many countries including India from time
immemorable. But government and people remember this only
when water is not available even for drinking purposes. There is
no use of spending huge sum of money when we notice the water
scarcity for drinking, industry and agriculture. These activities /
structure should be taken / constructed before the rainy season
so that the rain water which goes as runoff outside the sub
watershed / city limits can be collected and used directly or by
recharging into the ground. Government is undertaking the
wasteland / watershed development programs, but not done in a
comprehensive / integrated manner / holistic saturating the
watershed in all water harvesting measures. Hence there is a
need to take up watershed development programmes – mainly
water harvesting measures in a scientific and systematic manner.
The government of Tamil Nadu has laid condition that in any
building construction, water harvesting work should be included
and executed, but in practice, it is not perfect. The authorities
concerned should monitor the programme so that the drinking
water problem can be solved in all municipalities/corporation
without any difficulty to some extent.
To sum up the following types of Water Harvesting System
for different uses can be implemented in different parts of the
country and are tabulated in Table. 2.
D. Case Studies in Rainwater Harvesting in India:
There are numerous case studies available in water
harvesting both in Rural and Urban sectors. In Rural areas it is
Soil and Water conservation measures taken on watershed basis
to conserve and augment ground water. In the urban sector, it is
mostly roof water harvesting for direct use and recharging the
ground water and also collecting of surface runoff from
pavements / roads and recharging it into the ground through
recharge pits or using abandoned / existing wells. The following
are the places where rain water / roof water harvesting has been
implemented in a successful manner.
1. Rural areas
a) Ralegoan Siddhi in Maharastra state
b) Lakshman Nagar and Varisai Nadu in Theni Dt., Tamil
Nadu.
c) Alankulam Taluk in Tirunelveli Dt., Tamil Nadu.
d) Aravari watershed in Alwar Dt., of Rajasthan.
e) Maheshwaram watershed in Andhra Pradesh.
f) Kapilnalla watershed in Karnataka
2. Urban Sectors
a) Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, all
main buildings.
b) PRICOL, Periyanaickenpalayam (Industry Building),
Coimbatore
c) TWAD Board / office and PWD office at Chennai.
 d) Numerous Apartment buildings in Chennai.
e) Sundaram and Clayton Ltd, Padi, Chennai–(Industry
buildings)
f) TVS training schoool at Vanagaran, Chennai vii.
Rastrapathi Bhavan, Delhi.
g) Center of science and environment building at Delhi.
h) Institute of economic growth, New Delhi.
Table. 2.
Rules and regulations have been framed for Rain Water
Harvesting in all corporation, municipalities and panchayat
unions in Tamil Nadu. The Gujarat government has issued a
general resolution for the effort that no new construction would
be allowed if it does not have provision for roof top rainwater
harvesting. This would be valid in all 143 municipalities and 6
urban development authorities in the state. It is heartening to
note that Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries
(FICCI) have taken action to implement the rain water
harvesting to their Industry premises. If the above measures are
implemented in Rural and Urban areas, the drought in rural
areas and drinking water problem in Urban and Rural population
can be solved to some extent. The people, NGO, and
Government should joint together and implement the rain water
harvesting in a big way in all places in the years to come to solve
water scarcity problem in the country.
IV. PROSPECTS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN
INDIA
A. What is a watershed?
• Watersheds can be defined as a geo-hydrological unit
draining to a common point by a system of drains. All
lands on earth are part of one watershed or other.
Watershed is thus the land and water area, which
contributes runoff to a common point.
For example, the watershed of a lake would include not only
the streams entering that lake but also the land area that drains
into those streams and eventually the lake.
Watersheds can be classified in to 4 different types depending
upon the size of watershed
• Macro Watershed (> 50,000 Hect)
• Sub-Watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)
• Milli-Watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)
• Micro-Watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)
• Mini-Watershed (1-100 Hect)
B. Watershed Mangement – Definition:
• The process of creating and implementing plans,
programs, and projects to sustain and enhance
watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and
human communities within a watershed boundary.
• Watershed management is the integrated use of land,
vegetation and water in a geographically discrete
drainage area for the benefit of its residents, with the
objective of protecting or conserving the hydrologic
services that the watershed provides and of reducing or
avoiding negative downstream or groundwater
impacts. Fresh water, and freshwater ecosystems, is the
most basic components of watershed management.
C. Need for Watershed Management:
In spite of sufficient rainfall, people have to depend upon
tankers for their domestic water supply in summers in most of
the areas. This is mainly due to large runoff which is responsible
for water loss as well as soil loss of the land. Another reason is
if a raindrop, when flows along the slope, carries the loose soil
along it. In this case the topmost layer of soil is lost rapidly. Due
to high intensity rainfall, it is estimated that, more than 100 tons
of soil is lost.
D. Objectives of Watershed management:
The following are the objectives of the watershed management
systems:
• To control damaging runoff and degradation and
thereby conservation of soil and water.
• To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful
purpose.
 • To protect, conserve and improve the land of
watershed for more efficient and sustained production.
• To protect and enhance the water resource originating
in the watershed.
• To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of
sediment yield on the watershed.
• To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
• To moderate the floods peaks at downstream areas.
• To increase infiltration of rainwater.
• To improve and increase the production of timbers,
fodder and wild life resource.
• To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever
applicable.
E. Parameters of Watershed Management:
The following are the Parameters for designing any strategies
for watershed management systems.
SIZE: It helps in computing parameters like precipitation
received, retained, drained off.
SHAPE: Different shapes based on morphological parameters
like geology and structure.
PHISIOGRAPHY: Lands altitude and physical disposition.
SLOPE: It controls the rainfall distribution and movement:
CLIMATE: It decides the quantitative approach.
DRAINAGE: It determines the flow characteristics and so the
erosion behavior.
VEGETATION: Information of species gives a sure ground for
selection plants and crops.
GEOLOGY AND SOILS: Their nature determines size,
shape, physiographic, drainage and groundwater conditions.
Soils, derivative of rocks are the basic to greenery
HYDROLOGY: Basic to final goal of growing greenery in a
watershed. It helps in quantification of water available.
HYDROGEOLOGY: Availability of groundwater.
Figure. 2. Contour bunds, Stone bunds, Check Dams, Gully Control
SOCIOECONOMICS: Statistics on people and their health,
hygiene, wants and wishes are important in managing water. G. Integrated Watershed Approach:

F. Watershed management practices in India:
The following are the watershed management Practices in
India.
1. Conserving soil and water.
• Contour - Contour trenches trap rain water, enable it
to percolate to underground aquifers and break the
speed of fast moving water
• Gully control - Gully plugs help to control the flow
of water, sedimentation and recharge ground water
aquifers.
• Stone bunds - Building stone and nala bunds across
the slope arrest the flow of water and control erosion
in areas where soil work is not possible.
2. Improving the ability of land to hold water.
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharging.
4. Growing greenery – trees, crops and grasses.
• Dry land agriculture, Irrigation, Forestry,
Horticulture, Pastures.
• IWM is the process of planning and implementing
water and natural resources.
• Emphasis is on integrating the bio-physical,
socioeconomic and institutional aspects.
H. Advantages and Future of Watershed management:
• Watershed Development program is a revolutionary
program aimed at fulfilling the water needs in the water
scarce areas.
• In areas where there is inadequate water supply
watershed management offers an ideal solution.
• It helps in utilizing the primary source of water and
prevents the runoff from going into sewer or storm
drains, thereby reducing the load on treatment plants.
• If we take steps to encourage each drop of rainfall to
penetrate in the ground at the point where it strikes
earth, it will result in addition of one drop to our useful
water supply and subtraction of one drop from a
potential flood.
 A. Recharging of underground storage:
In order to store the surplus surface water the artificial surface
Public Participation reservoirs are constructed by building dams, in the summer,
artificial underground reservoirs are now-a-days developed by
Mainly water artificial recharge for storing water underground. The
conservation
development of such a reservoirs may be advantageous as
compared to the development of a dam reservoir, because of the
following reasons.
i) Much pure water can be obtained from an underground
reservoir source. ii) No space is required for building such a
reservoir.
Socio-economic with iii) The cost of building such a reservoir by recharging the
water conservation
aquifers may be considerably less than the cost of the surface
reservoirs. Moreover in an underground reservoir, the aquifer in
which the water is stored shall itself act as a distribution system
for carrying the water from one place to another, and as such,
the necessity of constructing pipe lines or canals (as is required
in a surface reservoir) is completely eliminated.

Socio-economic,
water conservation,
participation
Public participation
planning, design,
implementation
Social issues are addressed through involvement of women and
minority.
Community led water users groups have led the implementation
efforts.
Figure. 3. Graph showing the watershed development program in
India
V. PROSPECTS OF ARTIFICIAL GROUND WATER
RECHARGE: IN INDIA
Optimum development and sound management practices are
vital to the sustained use of ground water. Ground water
recharge may be increased by conservation measures and
artificial recharge procedures. Artificial recharge to ground
water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that obtaining under natural
conditions of replenishment. In general any man-made system
or facility that adds water to an aquifer is an artificial recharge
system. Artificial recharge of ground water is, therefore,
preferred and encouraged in the present days, so as to augment
the natural available underground yield for management of
water supply systems.
iv) The water lost in evaporation from an underground
reservoir is much less than the water lost from a surface
reservoir.
v) The raising of the water table by artificial recharge may
help in building pressure barriers to prevent sea water intrusion
in the coastal areas.
B. Methods of Recharging
The below mentioned methods are being generally adopted
for ground water recharging.
1. Spreading Methods: This method consists in spreading
the water over the surfaces of permeable open land and pits,
from where it directly infiltrates to rather shallow aquifers. In
this method, the water is temporarily stored in shallow ditches
or is spread over an open area by constructing low earth dykes
(called percolation bunds). The stored water, slowly and
steadily, percolates downward so as to join the nearby aquifers.
The recharging rate depends upon the permeability of the spread
area and on the depth of water stored, and is generally less, say
of the order of 1.5m/day, though rates as high as 22m/day have
been possible.
2. Recharge-well Methods: This method consists in
injecting the water in to bore holes called recharge wells.
Depending upon the favorable condition of surface, the water is
fed in to recharge wells by gravity or for increasing the recharge
rate, it may be pumped under pressure. The recharge wells used
are just like ordinary production wells. In fact the ordinary
wells are many a times could directly use for recharge during
the off season, when the water is not required in use. With this
method high recharge rates can be obtained. This method is
widely used in Israel. Moreover, this method may help in
injecting water in to the aquifers and also where it is most
needed. To avoid clogging of the well screens, the water used
for recharging well should be free from suspended impurities.
3. Induced Infiltration Method: This method is
sometimes used for recharge is that of the induced infiltration
which is accomplished by increasing the water table gradient
from a source of recharge. In this method, Renney type wells
are constructed near the river banks. The percolating water is
collected in the well through radial collectors and is then
discharged in to a lower level aquifer ‘B’ for storage as Shown
in fig. No.5. this types of well construction is very common in
France and is sometimes referred to as French system of tapping
underground water. In addition to the above mentioned
methods, the recharge to ground water is accomplished by using
some of the structures are
a) Pits : The pits have been constructed about 3 metres
deep & 1 to 2 metres wide filled with boulders, gravel and
coarse sand such types of ponds are constructed for recharging
shallow aquifer.
b) Trenches: Trenches are constructed subjected to the
availability of permeable stream at shallow depth. These
trenches are back filled with filter materials. The trenches may
be 0.5 to 1 metre wide, 1 to 1.5 meter deep and 10 to 20 meters
long depending on the availability of water.
c) Dug wells: Existing dug wells may be utilized as
recharge structure and water should be allowed to pass through
filter media before storage.
VI. FUTURE PROSPECTIVES
It is very important to make water everybody’s business. It
means a role for everybody with respect to water. Every
household and community has to become involved in the
provision of water and in the protection of water resources.
Make water the subject of a people’s movement. It means the
empowerment of our Urban and Rural community, i.e., to
manage their own affairs with the state playing a critical
supportive role. Further involving people will give the people
greater ownership over the water project including watershed
development, Soil and Water conservation and water harvesting
will go a long way towards reducing misuse of government
funds. It will also develop the ownership (own water supply
systems), they will also take good care of them. In this way it is
possible to solve water problems facing the county in the 21st
century.
VII. CONCLUSION
Water is essential element of life. Everyone knows that, if
we do not harness available sources of water and use them
judiciously with proper care the problem of water scarcity is
going to be serious. Irrespective of fast development in all fields
of science there can be no substitute to water. Hence, it is
necessary to opt for various water harvesting measures. It is the
responsibility of government organization as well as individual
to harvest each drop of water falling on earth surface. For this,
it is necessary that each person collect the raindrops failing on
his roof, plot, and farm and recharges it under ground. Two cases
of roof top water harvesting for urban and rural area have been
considered in the present study. Similarly for other building roof
top rain water harvesting can be implemented. In fact there is no
village and habitation in India that cannot meet its basic drinking
and cooking needs through rainwater harvesting techniques.
Hence from our study we came to know that we need to do
proper conservation, maintenance and careful use of water
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resources, along with developing additional storages may
considerably reduce the chance of water famines for further
generations to come. In addition to these measures, it is
necessary to find out means and ways for increasing the
available usable water by developing artificial rain technology.
It is also of vital importance to conserve water by practicing
economy and avoiding its wastage. However ground water
exploitation is inevitable especially urban areas. To curtail its
reduction, a strategy to implement the groundwater recharge, in
a major way needs to be launched with concerted efforts by
various Non-Governmental and Governmental agencies and the
public at large, to increase the water table and make the
groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable source for
supplementing water supply needs. It is about building our
relationship with water and the environment. Harvest rain.
Learn the prestigious value of each rain drop.
VIII. REFERENCES
• Agarwal A., Narain S. (ed.) 1997. Dying wisdom:
Rise, fall and potential of India's traditional water
harvesting systems. (State of India's Environment – A
Citizens' report, No. 4). Centre for Science &
Environment (CSE), New Delhi, pp. 11-12.
• Bhattacharya S. 1978. Land, Soil, Rainfall Irrigation-
some aspects of the backdrop of agrarian life in the
Arthasastra of Kautilya. Indian Economic and Social
History Review 15, 211-219.
• Bisht, R.S. 1991. 'Dholavira – New Horizons of the
Indus Civilization'. Puratattva 20, 71-82.
• Chhabra B., Gai G. 1981. Inscription of the early Gupta
kings in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol III.
Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, pp 296-
305.
• Kaushal Kishore (2004) “Rain Water Harvesting”,
Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction Review,
May 2004, pp.42-48 Magar R.B. and
Waghmare S.T. . (2006) “Rain Water Harvesting”
Conference on ‘Engineering Technology for Efficient
Rain Water Harvesting and Soil Conservation’,
S.G.G.Nanded, 29-30 May 2006.pp. 44-51
CII, Rainwter harvesting – A guide, New Delhi 2000.
• Rajiv Gandhi, National Drinking water missions
Handbook on Rainwater harvesting, Government of
India, New Delhi, 1998.
• Sivanappan, R.K., Soil and Water Conservation and
Water harvesting, Tamil Nadu Afforestation project,
Chennai, 1999.
• Sivanappan, R.K. Water harvesting, ICCI, Coimbatore
2001.
• Verma HN & Tiwan KN current status and Prospects
of Rain Water Harvesting, NIH, Roorkee, 1995.
• Evaluating watershed management procedures by John
Kerr and Kimberly Chung.
• Watershed management – An Introduction by Gerd
Forch and Brigitta Schutt.
• Eye Opener, “Rainwater Harvesting & Recharging
Ground Water” enROUTE, JUL- DEC. 2005, Vol IX,
PP. 16-17.