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Original: English
Edited by
Dietrich Schwela,
Olivier Zali
and Philipp Schwela
1
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
This document is not issued to the general public, and all rights are
reserved by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Service
of Ecotoxicology (ECOTOX) of the Department of Public Health,
Geneva. This report is an updated and revised version of the docu-
ment published in 1992 under the same title, in collaboration between
WHO and ECOTOX, at that time in the Department of Health and
Public Welfare, Geneva. The document may be reviewed, abstracted,
quoted, reproduced or translated, in part or in whole, with the prior
written permission of WHO or ECOTOX. Parts of this document may
be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means - electronic, mechanical or other - with the prior written per-
mission of WHO or ECOTOX. The views expressed in the document
by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors.
2
MOTOR VEHICLE AIR POLLUTION
Contents Page
Foreword
Executive Summary
1. Introduction
2. Factors Conditioning the Toxic Effects of Pollutants
3. Health Effects of Specific Pollutants
3.1. Nitrogen dioxide
3.2. Ozone and other photochemical oxidants
3.3. Sulphur dioxide, Suspended particulate matter and accid aerosols
3.4. Carbon monoxide
3.5. Lead
3.6. Benzene
3.7. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
3.8. Aldehydes
4. Conclusions
3
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
1. Introduction
2. Dose Description
3. Hazard Identification
4. Hazard Assessment and Risk Estimation
4.1. Physical effects
4.2. Physiological effects
4.3. Sleep disturbance
4.4. Psychological effects
5. Annoyance
6. Conclusions
1. Introduction
2. Typical Levels of Human Exposure
2.1. Studies using the direct approach
2.2. Studies using the indirect approach
2.3. Estimates of people exposed
3. Conclusions
1. Introduction
1.1. Elements of an overall pollution contrl strategy
2. Strategy Analysis
2.1. Controlling emissions per mile or kilometre driven
2.2. Controlling vehicle miles travelled
2.3. Strategy evaluation
2.4. Schedule/sequence
3. Vehicle Pollution Controls: The State of Art
3.1. Petrol fueled vehicles
3.2. Diesel fuelled vehicles
4
4. Worldwide Progress In Lowering Vehicle Emissions
4.1 . Petrol vehicles
4.2. Heavy duty trucks, busses and other diesels
4.3. Future prospects for vehicle trends
5
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
1. Introduction
2. Conclusions
Appendix A
Appendix B
6
The Division of Opertional Support in Environmental Health (EOS) of the World
Health Organization (WHO) consists of units for Urban Environmental Health (UEH)
and Rural Environmental Health (REH) and it is closely allied with the Programme
on Chemical Safety (PCS). UEH is responsible inter alia for the WHO/UNEP Glo-
bal Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Air Pollution Monitoring Network
(GEMS/Air), the Air Management Information System (AMIS), the Healthy Cities
Programme and the Water Quality Monitoring Network (GEMS/Water).
The fields of activity include air (indoor, outdoor, industrial emissions controls,
occupational exposure), water (biological, bacteriological and physical-chemical
controls of lakes, rivers and swimming pools), soils and toxic substances analysis,
ecotoxicological testing and environmental noise. ECOTOX is also involved in
forensic analysis, in emergency interventions in cases of environmental hazard and
in evaluation of environmental impact assessments.
7
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
PREFACE
In almost all the large cities of the world, air and noise pollution from
motor vehicles are, or are fast becoming, major problems for the physi-
cal and mental health of the people. The industrialized countries, where
86% of the world’s vehicles are to be found, have a long standing and
extensive experience of the problem. In the developing countries, rapid
industrial growth and population increase coupled with rising stand-
ards of living are likely to lead to patterns of motorization that resem-
ble those of the industrialized countries. Since the 1960s, the world’s
motor vehicle fleet has been growing faster than its population. The
problems are acute in certain cities in both the developing and the
industrialized world and unless controls are applied or strengthened
immediately, the damage to public health will become very serious.
The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations En-
vironment Programme (UNEP) have had a long standing project within
the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) to monitor the
air quality of urban areas of the world in this period of rapid change
during which nations strive to achieve a sustainable economy without
degradation of the environment. Recently, under the umbrella of the
Healthy Cities Programme, WHO has developed the Air Manage-
ment Information System (AMIS) as a successor of the GEMS/AIR
project which acts as an turntable for exchange of information on air
quality management in urban areas of this world.
8
Our report is intended to provide essential information and encour-
agement to all countries in their efforts to deal with the problems cre-
ated by the intense motorization process. Case studies (including an
in-depth report of the air pollution management plan of Geneva) are
provided of the situation in various cities in developing and industri-
alized countries and the motor vehicle emission control strategies that
have been used or proposed. Through the sharing of experience, coun-
tries may be able to avoid mistakes made in the past and introduce
effective measures in the near future to reduce or limit damage that
has already been incurred. Many countries will need to begin plan-
ning or applying more strictly, a progressive motor vehicle emission
control strategy that is feasible and affordable and that will alleviate
the immediate air pollution problems. This report is an updated and
revised version of a corresponding 1992 publication on motor vehicle
air pollution. It is developed in support of our common goals of elimi-
nating the impacts of environmental hazards on the health of the peo-
ple and attaining a state of sustainable development for the future. We
believe that if we all “Think Globally and Act Locally” our planet can
regain its health and our environment can be saved.
9
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report revises and updates the 1992 publication on motor vehi-
cle air pollution. It addresses the problems of air pollution and noise
created by the growth of motor vehicle traffic in the developed and
developing countries of the world. The conclusions and recommen-
dations of this report are intended to provide guidance to countries as
they go through various stages of development, in the formulation
and implementation of sound policies to prevent serious air quality
deterioration.
Motor vehicles are the major source of the following air pollutants
affecting the health of populations: suspended particulate matter which
contains lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide which is oxidated
to nitrogen dioxide, and photochemically reactive hydrocarbons which
react with nitrogen oxides to form ozone.
10
served during the London and New York smog episodes of the 1950’s
and 1960’s. At that time, suspended particulate matter was generated
from coual combustion, so their chemical constituenst are somewhat
different from those of motor vehicle emissions of suspended
particulate matter . However, it is well known that the respirable frac-
tion of particles below 10 µm from non-coal combustion processes
will have similar effects. Vehicle and non-vehicle suspended
particulate matter are related to observed adverse health effects in the
populations exposed. Excess mortality for exposures to these pollut-
ants is estimated to be 1 in 10,000 for current levels of PM 10 in Los
Angeles, and the same effects may be expected in metropolitan areas
of other countries with similar exposures.
Nitrogen dioxide, apart from its health effects, absorbs visible solar
radiation, contributes to impert atmospheric visibility, has a potential
role in the global climate change, regulates along with nitric oxide the
oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere and controls the build-up and
fate of radical species and of ozone through photolysis can cause res-
piratory problems in sensitive individuals, for example asthmatics and
young children. There is not evidence of a clearly definde concentra-
tion response relationship for nitrogen dioxide exposure. However,
asthmatics and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
are more susceptible for acute changes in lung function and airway
responsiveness. Qualitative evidence from outdoor epidemiological
studies has been found of an association between nitrogen dioxide
11
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
12
The controls described are either vehicle-based, to reduce the mass of
pollutants emmited per kilometer of travel or driver-based, to reduce
the number of kilometers of motor vehicle travels per day. The hard-
ware controls on emissions (catalyst, engine design, inspection and
maintenance etc.) are costly and driver incentives to reduce vehicle
use are not popular. Developing countries without high capital re-
sources will be faced with challenging problems to develop control
strategies that are acceptable both economically and socially.
The most important findings of the report are set out in the Summary
and Conclusions. It has been clearly demonstrated that motor vehicle
air pollution can have serious adverse health effects on the popula-
tion. These problems are likely to be particularly acute in the rapidly
growing cities of the developing world if uncontrolled growth of the
vehicle fleet is allowed to take place. It is concluded that planning
must begin now to provide for alternatives to the motor vehicle fleet
13
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
14
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Dieter Schwela
PhD, Air Pollution Scientist,
World Health Organization, Urban Environmental Health,
Geneva, Switzerland
and
Olivier Zali
Ph.D, Chemist, Head, Information unit,
Service of Ecotoxicology,
Geneva, Switzerland
This book examines three aspects of the problem of air pollution caused
by motor vehicles : the effects of traffic emissions and noise on health
(Chapter 2, Part 1 and 2), human exposure to the emitted pollutants
(Chapter 3) and control actions for limiting the emission of the pol-
lutants and their effectiveness (Chapter 4). Case studies are presented
for developing and developed countries (Chapter5, Chapter 6).
15
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Across the entire globe, motor vehicle traffic has increased tremen-
dously. In 1950, there were about 53 million cars on the world’s roads;
44 years later, the global automotive fleet has grown to 460 million, a
ninefold increase. On average, the fleet has grown by 9.5 million units
par year over this period. Simultaneously, as illustrated in Figure 1,
the truck and bus fleet has been growing by about 3.6 million vehicles
per year (Motor Vehicle Manufacturers' Association, 1991). While
the growth rate has slowed considerably in the industrialized coun-
tries, population growth and increased urbanization and industrializa-
tion are accelerating the use of motor vehicles elsewhere. If the ap-
16
Introduction
17
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
18
Introduction
[millions] [millions] [millions] [millions] [millions] [per 1000] [per 1000] [per 1000] [per 1000]
Table 1. Number of automobiles, commercial vehicles and motorized two wheelers by major
greographical region (1994 data)
Eastern Europe
North America Africa 5%
35% 2%
Figure 2b: Global Motor Vehicle Distribution (inc. trucks & buses), 1994
Oceania
Asia (w/o Japan) 2% Western Europe
14% 17%
Eastern Europe
3%
Africa
Japan 3%
16%
Latin America
5%
North America
40%
19
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
1980 1990
SO2
Vehicles 2144 1664
Fixed Sources 60075 38372
NOx
Vehicles 21613 15845
Fixed Sources 19629 14538
Particles
Vehicles 1967 1998
Fixed Sources 16038 12512
CO
Vehicles 122440 72824
Fixed Sources 40726 31260
VOC
Vehicles 14309 7947
Fixed Sources 19871 17890
3. Future Trends
the trends in global motor vehicle registration reveals that the global
fleet has been growing by approximately 16 million units per year,
not counting two-wheeled vehicles.
Worldwide registrations have been growing by about 1.8 cars per 1000
persons or 2.3 vehicles (cars plus trucks plus buses) per 1000 persons.
If this were to continue until 2010, there would be 215 motor vehicles
per 1000 persons (excluding motorcycles) compared with 178 in 1994.
Countries with large populations and low degrees of motorization such
as China are not included in the statistics. The world averages would
probably be lower by 20% to 30% l if one takes into account these
countries.
The number of vehicles per 1000 persons is expected to increase in all
regions of the world, although developed countries will remain domi-
nant. Vehicle number increase of Africa and of a large part of Asia
will remain small. However, atmospheric pollution caused by motor
vehicles is already a serious problem in the large cities of these re-
gions.
22
Introduction
23
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
24
Introduction
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barde J. P. & Button K., (Eds) Earthscan Publications Ltd. London 1990,
Transport Policy and the Environment, Six case studies.
ECMT Lisbon, 4th - 6th May 1992, Transport Growth In Question, 12th
International Symposium on Theory and Practice in Trnsport Economics,
Sub-Topic 5 Environment, Global and Local Effects (3 papers).
Faiz A., Sinha K., Walsh M., Varma A., WPS 492, World Bank, Wash-
ington DC, August 1990, Automotive Air Pollution, Issues and options for
developing countries.
Kumares Sinha et.al., World Bank, Policy Planning and Research Staff,
Infrastructure and Urban Development Department Report INU41. March,
1989, Environmental and Ecological Considerations in Land-Transport: A
Resource Guide.
25
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Public Health Alliance, London 1989, Health on the Move, Policies for
Health Promoting Transport, The Policy Statement of The Transport and
Health Study Group.
Quality of Urban Air Review Group, Diesel Vehicle Emissions and Ur-
ban Air Quality, December 1993, Department of the Environment, London,
UK.
Weaver C.S., Faiz A., Walsh M., Emission Control Measures for In-Use
Vehicles, World Bank, Washington D.C., September 1994.
WHO, Motor Vehicle Air Pollution: Teacher’s Guide, One Week Training
Workshop, WHO/EHG/96.16, 1996
WHO, Our Planet our Health, Report of the World Health Organization
Commission on Health and Environment, WHO Geneva, May 1992.
26
Health Effects of Air Pollution
Chapter 2
Part I
Isabelle Romieu
M.D., Dr.Sc., Medical Epidemiologist,
World Health Organization/Pan American Health Organization/Centro
Panamericano de Ecologia Humana y Salud,
Mexico City, Mexico
1. Introduction
Several major classes of air pollutants have the potential to affect the
health of populations. These pollutants result either from primary emis-
sions or atmospheric transformation. Motor vehicles are the major
source of a number of these pollutants, in particular, carbon monox-
ide, nitrogen oxides, unburnt hydrocarbons and lead and, in smaller
proportions, suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and vola-
tile organic compounds, and via atmospheric transformation of ozone
and other photochemical oxidants (Health Effects Institute, HEI, 1988).
With growing urbanization and increase in vehicle density, and the
great expense of pollution control, urban air pollution has become a
crucial problem, and it is now urgent to undertake risk assessments in
order to evaluate and prioritize control strategies.
27
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
29
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
31
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
More recent studies (Dijkstra, 1990; Neas et al., 1991 and Samet et
al., 1993) have concentrated on indoor air pollution through NO 2. These
studies could not establish a consistent trend in incidence or duration
32
Health Effects of Air Pollution
34
Health Effects of Air Pollution
35
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
5-10% Mean decrement in FEB Healthy young men 10 ppb with intermittent heavy exercise for 2h - O 3
in purified air
100 ppb with very heavy exercise for 0.5 h - O 3 in ambient air
Healthy children 100 ppb normal summer camp programme O 3 in ambient air
Increased cough Healthy young men 120 ppb with intermittent heavy exercise for 2h - O 3
in purified air
Healthy young men 80 ppb moderate exercise for 6.6 h - O3 in purified air
Healthy young men 120-130 ppb heavy exercise for 16-28 min - O 3 in purified air
and women
Reduced athletic performance Healthy young men 180 ppb with exercise at V E of 54 L/min for 30 min, 120 L/min
for 30 min - O 3 in purified air
Healthy young men 120-130 ppb with exercise at V E of 30-120 L/min for 16-28 min
and women - O3 in purified air
Increased airway reactivity Healthy young men 80 ppb with moderate exercise for 6.6h - O 3 in purified air
Healthy young adult 180 ppb with heavy exercise for 2h - O 3 in purified air
men with allergic
rhinitis
Increased airway permeability Healthy young men 400 ppb with intermittent heavy exercise for 2h - O 3
in purified air
Increased airway inflammation Healthy young men 80 ppb with moderate exercise for 6.6h - O 3 in purified air
Accelerated tracheo-bronchical Healthy young men 200 ppb with intermittent light exercise for 2h - O 3
in purified
particle clearance air
Recently, some studies have linked acute daily mortality with ozone
exposure in Los Angeles County and New York City (Kinney 1991;
1992), but data from a study conducted in Mexico City do not con-
firm these results (Borja-Aburto et al., 1995, HEI, 1996). Studies of
hospital admissions in relation to O 3 exposure reported an increase in
hospital-admission rates for respiratory diseases (Bates & Sizto, 1983;
1987) and asthma attacks (Whittemore & Korn, 1980; White et al.,
1991, 1994; Romieu et al., 1995). Summer haze pollutants (including
ozone) have also been related to hospitalization and emergency room
visits for respiratory diseases (Cody et al., 1995; Thurston et al., 1992;
1994).
36
Health Effects of Air Pollution
100
Aggregate Group Mean Symptom Score
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Effective O3 Dose (micrograms delivered in 2 hrs)
Source: Kleinman et al., 1989
37
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
38
Study No. of sujects Age range Activity level Exposure O3 conc. Mean rate of functional change
and gender [yrs] (min. vent. [L] ) (exercise) [ppb]
time [min]
FVC FEV 1 PEFR FEF25-75
[ml ppb -1 ] [ml ppb -1 ] [ml s -1 ppb-1 ] [ml s -1 ppb-1 ]
Folinsbee et al., 10M 18-23 Moderate 395 (300) 120a -3.8 -4.5 - -5.0
1988 (40)
Gibbons & 10F 22.9 +2.5* High 60 (60) 150a -1.1 -1.0 - -0.6
Adams, 1984 (55)
Avol et al., 42M,8F 26.4 +6.9* High 60 (60) 153b -1.2 -1.3 - -
1984 (57)
160a -1.5 -1.5 - -
McDonnel et al., 22M 22.3 +3.1* High 120 (60) 120a -1.4 -1.3 - -2.9
1983 (65)
20M 23.3 +3.2* High 120 (60) 180a -1.8 -1.6 - -3.0
(65)
Kulle et al., 20M 25.3 +3.1 High 120 (60) 150a -0.5 -0.2 - -2.1
1985 (68)
Linn et al., 24M 18-33 High 120 (60) 160a -0.7 -0.6 -1.1 -1.1
1986 (68)
Spektor et al., 20M, 10F 22-44 Varied 29.3 +9.2* 21-124b -2.1 -1.4 -9.2 -6.0
1988 (78.6 +34.8*)
7M, 3F 22-40 Varied 26.7 +8.7* 21-124b -2.9 -3.0 -13.7 -9.7
(64.6 +10.0*)
Table 3a. Mean functional changes per ppb+ O3 in adults after exercise. Comparison of results from field
Source: Lippmann, 1989a
39
Health Effects of Air Pollution
Lioy
et al., 17M, 22F 7-13 Low 150-550 20-145b -0.1 -0.3 -3.0 -0.6
1985
Kinney
et al., 94M, 60F 10-12 Low 1440 7-78b -0.9 -1.0 - -1.9
1988
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Lippmann
et al., 34M, 24F 8-13 Moderate 150-550 46-110b -1.1 -0.8 - -
1983
Spektor
et al., 53M, 38F 7-13 Moderate 150-550 19-113b -1.0 -1.4 -6.8 -2.5
1988
Avol
et al., 33M, 33F 8-11 Moderate 60 (60) 113b -0.3 -0.3 -0.4 -
1988 (22)
Avol
et al., 46M, 13F 12-15 High 60 (60) 150a -0.7 -0.8 -1.6 -0.7
1985 (32)
McDonnel
et al., 23M 8-11 High 150 (60) 120a -0.3 -0.5 -1.8 -0.6
1988 (39)
Table 3b. Mean functional changes per ppb+ O3 in children after exercise. Comparison of results from
field and chamber exposure studies with O3. Source: Lippmann, 1989a
Health Effects of Air Pollution
for FVC and 250 ml for FEV 1 for a concentration of 400 µg/m 3 (0.2
ppm) O3 (1 hour average). From these data, the average decrease in
FVC, FEV1 and PEFR (Peak Expiratory Flow Rate) of 4.9%, 7.7%
and 17% respectively were predicted for the current U.S. EPA stand-
ard of 240 µg/m 3 (0.12 ppm). Further studies conducted among chil-
dren have shown similar decrease in lung function and reported the
persistence of a measurable functional deficit into the following day
even for peak concentrations below or equal 300 µg/m 3 on the day
before (0.15 ppm) (Lippman, 1993).
41
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
et al., 1992; Hoek et al., 1993; Ostro et al., 1995; Romieu et al., 1997;
Neas et al., 1995). Other studies were unable to find an adverse effect
of ozone exposure on respiratory health (Vedal et al., 1987; Roemer
et al., 1993). However, in these studies, ambient ozone levels were
low and this could partly explain results. O 3 may exacerbate asthma
by facilitating the entry of allergens or because of the inflammation it
induces. There is some evidence that O 3 may act synergistically with
other pollutants, such as sulphate and NO 2 (Kleinman et al., 1990).
Koenig et al. (1989) showed that inhaling low concentrations of O 3
may potentiate the bronchial hyperresponsiveness of people with
asthma to sulphur dioxide exposure. A similar effect has been ob-
served with exposures to O 3 and NO2 (Hazucha et al., 1994).
42
Health Effects of Air Pollution
43
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
44
Health Effects of Air Pollution
20
0,1 ppm
0,2 ppm
15
Change in FEV 1.0 (%)
0,3 ppm
0,4 ppm
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Effective Ozone Dose (micrograms) Source: Kleinman et al., 1989
Health outcome C h a n g e s i n 1 h O 3 ( µ g / m 3) C h a n g e s i n 8 h O 3 ( µ g / m 3)
Symptom
excerbarations among
healthy children and
adults or asthmatics-
normal activitiy
Hospital admissions
for respiratory
conditions
5% 30 25
10% 60 50
45
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
46
Health Effects of Air Pollution
47
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
During the first half of this century, episodes of marked air stagnation
have resulted in well-documented excess mortality in areas where
fossil-fuel combustion produced very high levels of SO 2 and SPM
(U.S. EPA, 1982b). In one notable episode in Donora, Pennsylvania
in October 1948, 43% of the population of approximately 10,000 were
adversely affected. A similar event occurred later in London where
48
Health Effects of Air Pollution
concentrations of SO2 and smoke rose above 500 µg/m 3. The people
primarily affected were those with preexisting heart and lung disease
and the elderly, although with closer examination of these data, it
seems that children under 5 years old were also severely affected
(Ministry of Health, 1954).
49
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
showed the relative increase was higher for chronic obstructive lung
diseases and pneumonia. Also, almost all cardiovascular deaths on
days with high particulate air pollution have a respiratory cause as a
contributing factor (Schwartz, 1994b). It is important to note the con-
sistency of the results across locations.
Relatvie risk of daily mortality in different cities related to a 100µg/m3 increase in PM10
Sao Paulo
Santiago
Mexico City
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Santa Clara
Utah Valley
Source: Romieu I; Saldivar et al., in press; Borja et al., 1995; Ostro et al., in press.
50
Health Effects of Air Pollution
It has been proposed that the true culprit pollutant could be a constitu-
ent of particulate matter such as combustion particles, sulphate parti-
cles, fine- or ultra-fine particles (Pope et al., 1995). Also, some groups
of individuals seem to be more susceptible to particulate matter and
SO2 pollution. These include persons with heart or lung conditions, in
particular chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), asthma,
ischemic heart disease, moreover infants, elderly persons, and per-
haps persons with acute respiratory infections (Bascom et al., 1996).
It has been suggested that exposure to air pollution would decrease
the life expectancy of more susceptible persons only insignificantly.
However, a mortality effect of long-term or chronic exposure to
particulate air pollution has also been observed in several cross-sec-
tional studies.
51
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
3.4% (weighted mean, 0.8%) for each 10 µg/m 3 increase in daily mean
PM10. In studies on respiratory-related emergency visits, an increase
of 0.5% to 3.4% for each increase of 10 µg/m 3 in PM 10 has been re-
ported (Schwartz et al., 1993; Samet et al., 1981; Sunyer et al., 1993).
52
Health Effects of Air Pollution
53
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
More recently, Dockery et al. (1994) and Pope et al. (1995) have de-
termined cross-sectional differences in mortality among cohorts of
adults in the United States. The results from the first study suggest
that a 10 µg/m 3 increase in average PM 10 exposure was associated
with an increase in daily mortality equal to 9% (odds ratio of 1.04
with 95% confidence interval between 1.03 and 1.15 ). This estimate
includes odds ratios for fine particles (PM 2.5) of 1.14 with a 95% con-
fidence interval between 1.04 and for sulphates of 1.33 with a 95%
confidence interval between 1.10 and 1.62. In the second study (Pope
et al., 1995) an increase of 7% was observed for total mortality for
each 10 µg/m 3 increase in PM 2.5. The strongest association was ob-
served with cardio-pulmonary disease and lung cancer deaths (Pope
et al., 1995).
54
Health Effects of Air Pollution
175
150
Frequency of chronic cough
125
100
75
50
25
0,0044x
y = 65,273e
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
3
Mean SPM (µg/m )
Figure 5. Plot of adjusted frequency of chronic cough against
total particulate levels. Source: Ware et al., 1986.
55
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The maximum level observed were 114 µg/m 3 for SPM, 68 µg/m 3 for
SO2 and 18 µg/m 3 for total sulphates (TSO 4). Rates of bronchitis and
composite measure of respiratory illness were significantly associ-
ated with average particulate concentration. Similar results have been
confirmed in a second cross-sectional survey of the same population
(Dockery et al., 1989). A subject with asthma and permanent wheeze
experienced a higher rate of pulmonary symptoms in relation to in-
creased pollutants. There was no evidence of impaired lung function
associated with pollutant levels.
56
Health Effects of Air Pollution
57
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
58
Health Effects of Air Pollution
The WHO guidelines for ambient levels of sulphur dioxide are the
following: 500 µg/m 3 (0.175 ppm) for 10 minutes, 125 µg/m 3 (0.044
ppm) for 24- hour average and 50 µg/m 3 (0.017 ppm) for annual aver-
age (WHO, 1995a). For particulate matter, given the recent epide-
miological findings that suggest the absence of a threshold for effects
on morbidity and mortality of particulate matter, no guidelines values
were set by WHO but risk considerations were recommended.
altered due to the presence of COHb in the blood thereby further im-
pairing the oxygen supply to the tissues (the affinity of haemoglobin
for CO is about 240 times that of oxygen). CO is also bound to
myoglobin (Mb) in cardiac and skeletal muscle (MbCO) which will
limit the rate of O 2 uptake by these tissues and impair oxygen deliv-
ery to intercellular contractile processes (Agostoni et al., 1980). The
main factors conditioning the uptake of CO are its concentration in
the inhaled air, the endogenous production of CO, the intensity of
physical effort, body size, the condition of the lungs, and the baro-
metric pressure. Table 6 presents the expected COHb levels after ex-
posure to CO concentrations from 11.5 to 115 mg/m 3 during different
types of physical activity.
In absence of CO exposure, COHb concentrations are approximately
0.5%, and one-pack per day cigarette smokers may achieve COHb
saturation of 4 to 7 percent (WHO, 1979).
The main effect of CO is to decrease the oxygen transport to the tis-
sues. The organs dependent on a large oxygen supply are the most at
risk, in particular, the heart and the central nervous system, as well as
the foetus.
Four types of health effects are reported to be associated with CO
exposure: neurobehavioural effects, cardiovascular effects, fibrinolysis
60
Health Effects of Air Pollution
61
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n m a x im a l o x y g e n
5 - 5.5 c o n s u m ption and exercise tim e i n y o u n g h e a l t h y m e n
d u r in g s t r e n u o u s e x e r c i s e .
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n m a x im a l o x y g e n
7 - 20 c o n s u m p tion during strenuous exercise in young
healthy m e n .
fects are reduced birth weight (Mathai et al., 1990; Ash et al., 1989;
Hebel et al., 1988) and retarded postnatal development (Campbell et
al., 1988). Impairment of neurobehavioural development has also been
related to maternal smoking during pregnancy (U.S. EPA, 1983).
Ambient CO exposure has been related to low birth weight in a case-
control study conducted in Denver, U.S. A (Alderman et al., 1987).
Mothers who lived in neighbourhoods with a mean CO concentration
below 3.4 mg/m 3 (3 ppm) during the last trimester of their pregnancy
had a 50% increase in the risk of having an infant with low birth
weight when compared with their counterpart (odds ratio 1.5 with a
95% confidence interval between 0.7 and 3.5). However, in this study
personal smoking history was not recorded which may have biased
the results.
62
Health Effects of Air Pollution
3.5. Lead
In those countries which do not yet use unleaded petrol, the addition
of alkyl lead additives in motor fuels accounts for an estimated 80-
90% of lead in ambient air. The degree of pollution from this source
differs from country to country, depending on motor vehicle density
and efficiency of efforts to reduce the lead content of petrol (WHO,
1987e). About 1% of the lead in petrol is emitted unchanged as
tetraalkyl lead (organic lead). There is in addition, some evaporation
of organic lead from the engine and fuel tank. Concentration of
tetraalkyl lead amounting to more than 10% of the total lead content
of ambient air has been measured in the immediate vicinity of service
stations (National Swedish Institute of Environmental Medicine,
NSIEM, 1983).
Most of the lead in ambient air is in fine particles (10 µm). For adults,
the retention rate of airborne particulate matter range from 20% and
60%. Young children inhale proportionately higher daily air volume
63
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
per unit measure (weight, body area) than do adults (Barltrop, 1972).
It was estimated that children have a lung deposition rate of lead that
can be up to 2.7 times higher than that of adults on a unit body mass
basis.
64
Health Effects of Air Pollution
The central nervous system is the primary target organ for lead toxic-
ity in children. Exposure to high concentrations of lead can result in
an encephalopathy which is more frequent in childhood lead poison-
65
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
ing than in adult poisoning. The reason may be due to the ease with
which lead crosses the blood-brain barrier in children. Encephalopathy
has occurred in children at blood lead levels in excess of 800 to 1000
µg/l (National Academy of Sciences, NAS, 1972). The brain seems
more sensitive to alkyl lead exposure (NSIEM, 1983).
66
Health Effects of Air Pollution
cal studies, Needleman & Gatsonis (1990) concluded that blood lev-
els as low as 100 to 150 µg/l are associated with IQ impairment in
children. Based on this body of data the lowest-observed-adverse-
effect-level has been defined as possibly <100 µg/l (ATSDR, 1990).
Lead is transported to the foetus across the placenta since there is no
metabolic barrier to foetal lead uptake. Furthermore, the amount of
lead maternally circulating for foetal uptake may actually be higher
than usual, since part of the lead stored in the bone is set free into
blood during pregnancy. Prenatal exposure to lead produces toxic ef-
fects on the human foetus including reductions in gestational age,
birthweight, and mental development. These effects occur at relatively
low blood lead levels. An inverse association between maternal (or
cord) blood lead levels and gestational age was reported by different
authors (McMichael et al., 1986; Dietrich et al., 1986, 1987b). Based
on risk estimates of McMichael et al. (1986), the risk of premature
delivery increases by approximately four fold as cord or maternal blood
lead level increases from 80 to > 140 µg/l. Data from the Cincinnati
study suggest an inverse relationship of prenatal maternal blood lead
level and birthweight and postnatal growth rates (Dietrich et al., 1987a;
Shulka et al., 1987). Other studies also support this inverse associa-
tion (Bellinger et al., 1984; Ward et al., 1987).
A number of longitudinal studies currently in progress have investi-
gated the effect of early lead exposure and developmental effects.
Bellinger et al. (1987, 1989) in Boston, studied the relationship be-
tween umbilical cord blood lead and early cognitive development dur-
ing 6 and 24 months of age. Lead concentrations were measured in
249 umbilical cord blood samples of infants born to middle and up-
per-middle class parents. Cord blood lead levels were categorized as
low (mean = 18 µg/l), mid (mean = 65 µg/l) and high (mean = 146 µg/
l). After accounting for factors related to infant development such as,
mother’s age, race, IQ, education, care giving environment, social
class, and infant’s sex, birthweight, birth order and gestational age,
there was a significant inverse relation of performance on the Baylet
Mental Development Index (MDI) at 6, 12 and 24 months and cord
blood level (McMichael et al., 1988).
67
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
68
Health Effects of Air Pollution
per million. These results suggest that increased exposure to lead re-
sults in developmental deficit, not just developmental delay.
69
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
70
Health Effects of Air Pollution
Encephalopathic
Chronic
100-120 signs and
nephropathy
symptoms
80 Frank anemia
Female
60 --------------- reproductive
effects
Overt
Reduced hemoglobin subencephalopathic Altered testicular
50
projection neurological function
symptoms
Peripheral nerve
Increased urinary
dysfunction
40 ALA and elevated --------------- ---------------
(slowed nerve
coproporphyrins
conduction)
Elevated blood
30 --------------- pressure (white
males, aged 40-59)
Erythrocyte
25-30 protoporphyrin (EP)
elevation in males
Erythrocyte
15-20 protoporphyrin (EP)
elevation in females
71
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
70 Frank anemia
Peripheral
60
neuropathies
50 ?
Reduced hemoglobin Peripheral nerve
projection Elevated dysfunction CNS
40
coproporphyrin cognitive effects
Increased urinary ALA (IQ deficits, etc.)
Vitamin D
30 ? metabolism
interference
Erythrocyte Altered CNS
15 protoporphyrin electrophysiological
elevation responses
MDI deficits,
reduced gestational
10 ALA-D inhibition ?
age and birth weight
(prenatal exposure)
Py-5-N activity
?
inhibition
?
72
Health Effects of Air Pollution
3.6. Benzene
74
Health Effects of Air Pollution
75
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
3.8. Aldehydes
76
Health Effects of Air Pollution
77
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
4. Conclusions
78
Health Effects of Air Pollution
79
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
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106
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
Chapter 2
Part II
Ragnar Rylander
Professor in Environmental Medicine, University of Gothenburg,
Sweden
1. Introduction
107
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Persons who are kept under conditions of complete silence may de-
velop symptoms of mental disorder - absence of auditory communi-
cation due to deafness may induce personality changes and condi-
tions of complete silence can be experienced as frightening. As the
sound levels increase in intensity above a certain level, negative ef-
fects start to dominate and the ultimate effect is a direct physical trauma
when the receptor organ is destroyed. Although the positive reactions
after sound exposure are important, it is usually the negative effects
that attract attention.
However, the noise problems of the past are incomparable with those
of modern society. An immense number of cars regularly cross our
cities and the countryside. There are heavily laden lorries with diesel
engines, badly silenced both for engine and exhaust noise, in cities
and on highways day and night. Aircraft and trains add to the envi-
ronmental noise scenario. In industry, machinery emits high noise
levels and amusement centres and pleasure vehicles distract leisure
time relaxation.
108
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
109
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2. Dose Description
often given in micro Pascal (20 µPa). The sound pressure level is
given in units dB (decibel). Noise from different sources combine to
produce a sound pressure level higher than that from any individual
source. Two equally intense sound sources operating together, pro-
duce a sound pressure level which is 3 dB higher than one alone and
10 sources produce a 10 dB higher sound level. The dB values cannot
be directly added as they are logarithmic quantities. Apart from the
physical intensity, sounds contain many tones at different frequen-
cies. The soundwave’s frequency expresses the number of vibrations
per second in units of Hertz (Hz). Sound exists over a very wide fre-
quency range. Audible sound for young people lies between 16 Hz
and 20 000 Hz. Sound with frequencies below 16 Hz (normally inau-
dible) is called infrasound and sound over 20 000 Hz, which is also
normally inaudible, is called ultrasound. Low frequency sounds are
not strictly defined - generally one refers to frequencies from 16 to
110
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
250 Hz.
When measuring the sound pressure level, an instrument which du-
plicates the varying sensitivity of the ear to the sound of different
frequencies is usually used. This is achieved by building a filter into
the sound intensity recording instrument, with a similar frequency
response to that of the ear. This is called an A-weighted filter. Meas-
urements of sound pressure level made with this filter are called A-
weighted sound level measurements, and the unit is dB(A). The dB(A)
levels for some common sounds in our environment are shown in
Table 1.
Sources Level
111
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
100
80
dB(A)
60
40
20
0
13h59 14h00 14h01 14h02 14h03 14h04 14h05 14h06 14h07
Time
Figure 1. Illustraion of road traffic noise Source: ECOTOX, 1996
passages, whereas a larger number of vehicles will turn the exposure
situation into one of almost continuous noise, fluctuating between the
levels generated by particularly noisy vehicles such as trucks and the
lower levels generated by cars. This complex acoustical pattern tradi-
tionally is expressed as the summation of sound pressure level over a
certain period of time. Various methods of calculating an average
have been developed. The exposure to noise from various sources is
most commonly expressed as the A-weighted average sound pressure
level over a specific time period T, such as 24 hours. This gives a
value in the equivalent continuous sound pressure level L eqT in units
dB(A). It is derived from the following mathematical expression:
1 T L p ( t )
L eq T
= 10 log 10 ∫10 10 dt dB( A )
T 0
112
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
The integral is a measure of the total sound energy during the period
T. Thus, LeqTis the level of that steady sound which, over the same
interval of time T as the fluctuating sound of interest, has the same
effective sound pressure. For practical calculations of the equivalent
sound pressure level the integral in is replaced by a sum.
This is a physical concept that implies that the same average level of
chosen time can either consist of a larger number of events with rela-
tively low levels or fewer events with high levels. It does not neces-
sarily agree with common experience on how environmental noise is
experienced, nor with the neurophysiological characteristics of the
human.
The concept of average level has two critical features. A few events
with a high noise level will have the same L eq as a large number of
events at a lower noise level. From a biological point of view, it is
unlikely that these two noise scenarios will cause an equal effect in
the exposed populations.
A second critical feature for the average noise value relates to the
number of events. If the L eq value for a certain number of cars at a
certain distance from the road is, for example, 65 dB(A), then at that
distance passing cars will each cause a maximum noise level of 65
dB(A) and a few noisy trucks will reach 75 dB(A).
113
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
treme circumstances this may even imply that the Leq value of 65
dB(A) is present at a site, far away from the road where the noise
levels from individual vehicles, even very noisy ones, is very low
(figure 2). The critical factor in the situation described above is the
number of events. To what extent then is the number of events related
to the human perception of environmental stimuli?
Figure 2. Leq maximum noise levels from cars and trucks from two
different numbers of vehicles with the same proportion of trucks
Leq and maximum noise levels from cars and trucks from two differ-
ent numbers of vehicles with the same proportion of trucks.
114
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
receptor organs, not through the total amount of energy but through
density per unit of time - intensity - combined with frequency charac-
teristics. At a large number of events, however, the individual event
can no longer be discriminated (for instance, flickering of light or
applying pressure on the skin with high frequency). It is thus plausi-
ble that an increase in the number of noise events above a certain
number, will not lead to an increased effect in the exposed popula-
tion.
3. Hazard Identification
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Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The interaction of noise from road traffic with other sounds in the
environment is an important effect criterion. Levels causing speech
interference are often present outside and also within buildings close
to heavily congested roads. Vulnerable groups in the population are
116
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
117
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Habitation to the startle reflex is very poor and it can be induced re-
peatedly, both over the same day as well as during longer time peri-
ods (Rylander et al., 1978). In environmental noise, such reactions
will occur if noise levels exceeding the normal level appear for in-
stance when a motor cycle without silencers drives down a road, a
heavy truck comes through in the middle of the night or an usually
noisy aircraft passes over the house.
118
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
plant were assessed and appear to have been constant since 1954,
resulting in well defined noise exposures for these workers. A cross
sectional design was used in which blood pressures were determined
and questionnaires administered to the workers over a two month pe-
riod. As well as demographic information, data were gathered on per-
sonal and family history of hypertension, current use of prescription
drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and salt in the diet. Logistic regression indi-
cated that exposure to noise was a significant determinant of preva-
lence of hypertension, but third in order of importance behind family
history of hypertension and use of salt. Cumulative exposure to noise
was not an important dose-related variable, suggesting that for those
susceptible to the effect, hypertension was manifested within the first
five years of exposure.
A few studies have also been made in the general population, com-
paring those living along noisy streets with those living near quiet
streets. The results from some early studies show slightly higher blood
pressure among people living along roads with heavy traffic as com-
pared to those living in quiet areas (Knipschild and Sallé, 1979). In
those studies other risk factors for cardiovascular disease such as food
intake or smoking have not been controlled for. This has been done in
more recent studies. In a study designed to study risk factors for heart
disease, a total of 5.000 men was selected at random in two cities
(Babish et al 1993). Noise maps were made in the areas and measure-
ments performed of the road traffic noise exposure. Clinical examina-
tions included blood pressure, blood biochemistry, plasma lipids and
lung function. Questionnaires were used to obtain data on general
health, smoking and social class. The examinations were performed
on two occasions in 1979-1983 and 1984-1988. Using logistic regres-
sion techniques, several risk factors for cardiovascular disease were
controlled for in the analysis. No significant risk increases could be
related to the higher traffic noise exposure.
The results from these studies suggest that environmental noise expo-
sure is not an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. If a
119
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
120
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
Recording of body movements has also been used to study the effects
of sleep and good correlations have been found between EEG changes
and actimetry readings (wrist movements transmitted from a sensor,
about the same size as a large wristwatch, to a recording device).
Available information demonstrates that noise exposure induces
changes in sleep pattern or causes extra body movements. Consider-
ably less information exists on medical consequences of disturbed
sleep. Long term effects of noise induced sleep interruption could be
subjective fatigue, changes in performance and subjective mood
changes.
121
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Studies on sleep interference due to noise agree that the most impor-
tant exposure parameter is peak noise during night hours. As effects
are generally reported at levels from 45 dB(A) peak level indoors,
large parts of the population in our cities are regularly exposed to
noise levels which interfere with their sleep.
In conclusion, available evidence suggests that sleep disturbance is
one of the major effects of environmental noise and that it may have
serious adverse effects on normal functioning and health in exposed
persons. According to the findings of a WHO task group (Berglund &
Lindvall, 1995) measurable sleep disturbance effects start at equiva-
lent continuous sound pressure levels of about 30 dB(A). They in-
crease with increased maximum noise level. Even if the total equiva-
lent noise level is fairly low, a small number of noise events with a
high maximum sound pressure level will affect sleep. It is especially
important to consider the noise events exceeding 45 dB(A) when the
background level is low.
122
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
The latter authors made a careful analysis of possible reasons for the
contradictory results and convincingly demonstrated the various short-
comings in the first study which could have accounted for the ob-
served increase in admission rate observed in noise exposed areas.
Consequently no epidemiological evidence is at present available
which indicates that there is an increased risk for psychiatric disor-
ders among general populations exposed to noise.
123
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
124
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
felt depressed. Those persons who had windows facing the courtyard,
in the noisy area, however, were not more depressed than those who
lived in the quiet area. Psycho-social well-being (especially depres-
sion and relation) was related to annoyance about noise.
5. Annoyance
126
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
The few studies that have been performed with the aim of investigat-
ing the importance of the number of events, the noise levels and the
maximal noise levels as independent variables, have mostly come to
the conclusion that the relationship between L eq for traffic noise and
the effect, whether this be annoyance or sleep disturbance - in the
exposed population is less strong than for the MNL concept.
The noisiest events in road traffic are often from heavy vehicles. There
are several reasons why the number of heavy vehicles should be closely
related to the extent of annoyance. The noise levels from heavy vehi-
cles are clearly distinguishable from a background of lower levels
from passenger cars. Also, the noise from heavy vehicles has a differ-
ent acoustical character, mostly in the low frequency spectrum. The
effect of window attenuation, which in general is poor for low fre-
quencies, will give proportionally higher noise levels indoors from,
the heavy vehicles. Recent data suggest however that light lorries (de-
livery vans) may be the major source of high noise levels in city traf-
fic. Obviously noisy cars and motorcycles also contribute to the peak
levels.
The WHO Task Group on Community Noise noted that noise annoy-
ance varies with activity (Berglund & Lindvall, 1995). The threshold
of annoyance for steady-state, continuous noise is around an the equiva-
lent sound pressure level of 50 dB(A). Few people are seriously an-
noyed during the day time at noise levels below around 55 dB(A).
127
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
6. Conclusions
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129
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Fidell S. & Baber D.S., Updating a dosage-effect relationship for the preva-
lence of annoyance due to general transportation noise, Journal of the Acous-
tical Society of America 89, 221-233 (1991)
Öhrström E. & Björkman M., Sleep disturbance before and after traffic
noise attenuation in a block of flats, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 73, 887-879 (1983)
130
Health Effects of Environmental Noise
Rylander R., Sörensen S., Kajland A., Annoyance reactions from aircraft
noise exposure. Journal of Sound Vibration 24, 419-444 (1972)
Rylander R. & Dancer A., Startle reactions to simulated sonic boom ex-
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Vernet M., Effect of train noise on sleep for people living in houses border-
ing the railway line, Journal of Sound Vibration 66, 483-492 (1979)
131
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Chapter 3
Peter G. Flachsbart
Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai
1. Introduction
Air pollutants from motor vehicles come from the tail pipe, fuel tank,
canister, and carburettor. Tail pipe emissions come from fuel com-
bustion in the engine. Evaporative emissions occur while the vehicle
is moving, standing or refuelling. The principal health-related pollut-
ants include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x), sulphur
oxides, sulphurous and sulphuric acids , reduced sulphur compounds,
particulate matter, and aromatic hydrocarbons (HC) such as benzene,
toluene, ethyl benzene, the xylenes, and the trimethylbenzenes
(Atkinson, 1988). Lead (Pb) is a pollutant when it is added to fuel to
improve engine performance. Ozone (O 3) is a secondary air pollutant
created in the atmosphere through a photochemical process that in-
volves NO x, reactive non methane hydrocarbons, and volatile emis-
sions.
132
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Ambient air quality data from fixed-site monitors are typically used
to estimate the risk that pollution poses to public health. In general,
fixed-site monitors are appropriate in situations where air pollutant
concentrations tend to be spatially homogeneous throughout the dis-
tricts represented by the monitors and the population of those dis-
tricts are fairly immobile. Spatial homogeneity also implies that in-
door and outdoor pollutant concentrations are nearly the same. Few
air pollutants satisfy these assumptions perfectly. The concentrations
of many air pollutants from motor vehicles, particularly CO and Pb,
are not spatially homogeneous throughout urban atmospheres. For
this reason, researchers have used personal exposure monitors to esti-
mate either the total exposure of a population or the exposures of
subpopulations in micro environments that pose higher risks of expo-
sure to these air pollutants. A micro environment exists for a pollut-
ant if the concentration of the pollutant at a particular location and
time is sufficiently homogeneous yet significantly different from the
concentrations at other locations (Duan, 1982). Examples of these
micro environments include congested roadways, parking garages,
service stations, street canyons, and passenger cabins of motor vehi-
cles in traffic.
Human exposure to an air pollutant occurs whenever a person or popu-
lation physically makes contact with a pollutant at a particular instant
of time (Ott, 1982). One’s dosage of an air pollutant is affected by the
amount of pollutant that enters the body, either through inhalation,
ingestion or dermal absorption (Lioy, 1990). Accurate estimation of
personal air pollution exposure and dosage are now considered nec-
essary to determine what risk that pollution poses to public health
(Sexton and Ryan, 1988).
This chapter selectively reviews studies of human exposure to air pol-
lutants from evaporative fuel losses and tail pipe emissions of motor
vehicles. The objectives are:
133
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
134
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Direct studies of the general population are rare because of their ex-
pense and the logistical problems of monitor distribution. The best
examples are the Denver, Colorado and Washington, D.C. studies of
CO exposures (Akland et al., 1985). In both studies, the target popu-
lation included non institutionalized, nonsmoking residents, who were
ages 18-70 and lived in the city’s metropolitan area during the winter
of 1982-83. Both studies found higher exposures associated with com-
muting. The two highest average CO concentrations occurred when
135
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
136
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
137
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
138
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
matter (SPM) that were two to ten times higher than guidelines of the
World Health Organization (WHO, 1987), and 100 % were exposed
to Pb beyond WHO’s annual average guideline of 0.5-1.0 µg/m 3.
Jeepney drivers, who worked about 10-12 hours daily, also had mean
24-hour exposures to CO and SO 2 that were above WHO’s guide-
lines. For comparison, the mean 24-hour exposures of air-conditioned
bus drivers and office building commuters to SPM and Pb were found
to be relatively lower but still above WHO’s guidelines in some cases.
In the Philippines, 28 % of all vehicles use diesel fuel, and the Pb
content in gasoline is high as it ranges from 0.6-0.8 grams per litre.
Exposure studies that used the indirect approach are more numerous
than those that used the direct approach. Studies of the exposures of
trip makers are discussed first. In this group, some looked at trips on
selected routes in urban areas and collected data at standardized inter-
vals in time and space using either real or hypothetical commuters.
Other studies focused solely on certain types of trips (e.g, work trips),
especially where vehicles moved slowly due to high traffic volumes
and/or constricted space. More elaborate studies involved many routes,
multiple modes of travel, and two or more times of the day and sea-
sons of the year. Some studies also tested vehicles under different
ventilation conditions.
Many of the remaining studies that used the indirect approach meas-
ured exposures in commercial districts and public facilities subject to
motor vehicle and pedestrian traffic. These studies focused on indoor
settings, such as retail stores and office buildings on busy streets, and
outdoor settings, such as sidewalks, street intersections, and service
stations. Other studies focused on confined spaces used by motor ve-
hicles, such as parking garages, tunnels, and underpasses. A few of
these studies measured air quality inside shopping centres and office
buildings where pollution could be traced to attached parking garages.
139
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Amiro (1969) found that engine and/or tail pipe emissions of CO leaked
into passenger cabins of 9 of 19 vehicles studied. CO concentrations
inside contaminated vehicles ranged up to 400 ppm. Clements (1978)
reported that of 645 school buses tested, 7.2 % had average readings
in excess of 20 ppm, and 5.4 % had maximum readings above 50
ppm. He estimated that CO concentrations in excess of 20 ppm ex-
isted in school buses ridden by up to 2.1 million U.S. school children
on a daily basis. Ziskind et al. (1981) identified which sustained-use
vehicles (buses, taxis and police cars) had faulty exhaust systems,
i.e., they leaked CO into passenger cabins. They found that 58 % of
120 rides taken in faulty vehicles exceeded the 8-hour U.S. National
Ambient Air Quality Standard of 9 ppm.
140
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
centage of older cars. Only 3.3 % of motor vehicles that passed his
car were made before 1970, but collectively they were responsible for
45 % of the total increase in concentration inside his car. Conversely,
76 % of all vehicles that passed his car were made between 1970 and
1977, but together they contributed only 12 % of the total increase in
CO inside his car.
141
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
142
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
(e.g., van pools), and 61 % less for those in express buses. These
differences occurred possibly because commuters in priority lanes
travelled faster than those in the congested lanes. The motion of faster
vehicles created more turbulence which may have helped to disperse
pollutants surrounding vehicles in priority lanes. Furthermore, these
differences existed even though the priority lanes were often down-
wind of the congested lanes. Although higher speeds were related to
lower exposures in priority lanes, differences in exposure could also
have been due to differences in vehicle type and ventilation which
were not controlled.
Recent studies have looked at the effect of routes in different loca-
tions on exposure to CO and other air pollutants. Chan et al. (1991a)
reported significantly different in-vehicle exposures to CO and vola-
tile organic compounds (VOCs), but not to NO 2 and O3, for standard-
ized drives on three routes that varied in traffic volume and speed in
Raleigh, North Carolina. The highest CO and VOC concentrations
occurred in the downtown area, which had heavy traffic volumes,
slow speeds and frequent stops. The next highest concentrations oc-
curred on an interstate beltway, which had moderate traffic volumes
and high speeds, and the lowest concentrations occurred on rural high-
ways, which had low traffic volumes and moderate speeds. Chan et
al. (1991b) reported a similar result in Boston, Massachusetts, where
in-vehicle concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, m-/p-
xylene, and o-xylene were 1.5 times greater for commuters on urban
routes than for commuters on interstate routes. Likewise, Dor et al.
(1995) reported higher exposures to CO and six monocyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (MAHs) for a route through central Paris than for two
suburban routes.
143
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
144
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
145
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.2.1.5. Ventilation
146
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Flachsbart et al. (1987) found that a highly polluted garage could spike
the CO concentration inside a vehicle parked in the garage. Once the
vehicle’s driver left the garage, the high concentration eventually dis-
sipated, but slowly because windows were kept closed.
147
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Two recent studies agree that in-vehicle exposures to VOCs are higher
than their ambient concentrations, but disagree on the ratio of per-
sonal to fixed-site concentrations. Chan et al. (1991a) reported that
the median VOC exposures inside two test vehicles in Raleigh, North
Carolina, were from five to ten times higher than the median ambient
concentrations at fixed-site monitors for benzene, ethyl benzene,
hexane, isopentane, m-/p-xylene, n-butane, n-pentane, o-xylene, 1,2,4-
trimethylbenzene, toluene, 2-methyl pentane, 2,3,4-trimethylpentane
and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane. Weisel et al. (1992) found that mean in-
vehicle concentrations of benzene, m-/p-xylene, and o-xylene were
3-12 times higher than ambient levels during commutes between New
Brunswick, New Jersey, and New York City.
148
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
149
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
150
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
151
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
152
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
153
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
154
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
doors. The study also reported that at heights greater than 30 metres
above the roadway, CO concentrations were larger indoors than out-
doors. This result was attributed to the trapping of CO within the
building.
Bellin and Spengler (1980) reported mean CO concentrations for 15-
minute periods at a terminal of Boston’s Logan International Airport.
The indoor (ticket counter) concentrations were significantly lower
than the outdoor (curb-side) concentrations. The 95 % confidence in-
terval for all indoor locations 5.7-6.8 ppm was lower than the interval
for all outdoor locations 9.7-12.5 ppm. The 1-hour maximum con-
centrations were 15 ppm (indoors) and 23 ppm (outdoors), both oc-
curring on the same day.
155
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
busy streets and into nearby stores, hotels, office buildings, restau-
rants, etc. located in five California cities. CO levels were above zero
in most indoor and outdoor settings due to emissions from nearby
traffic, but rarely were they higher than the U.S. ambient air quality
standards of 9 ppm for 8 hours and 35 ppm for 1 hour.
Studies in Iran and Thailand revealed higher curb-side concentrations
than in the United States. Rashidi and Massoudi (1980) reported that
CO concentrations ranged up to 140 ppm for 5 minutes averages on
sidewalks in Tehran, Iran. In Bangkok, Thailand, mean CO concen-
trations for 17 curb-side locations ranged from 3-24 mg/m 3 for 1 hour,
and from 2-26 mg/m 3 for 8 hours. In Thailand, the 1-hour and 8-hour
CO standards are 50 and 20 mg/m 3, respectively. Furthermore, daily
levels of particulate matter slightly exceeded the ambient standard of
330 mg/m 3, and at one location these levels were two to three times
the standard. Average daily Pb concentrations at 18 sites monitored
ranged from 0.6-3.5 mg/m 3, which was below the ambient standard of
10 mg/m 3 (Air and Noise Pollution in Thailand, 1989).
156
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
In some places, people pump their own fuel at service stations. This
practice potentially puts these people at risk to air pollutants from
motor vehicles, especially evaporative emissions during refuelling.
157
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Benzene 9 21 5 4
Carbon monoxide 4300 11000 4000 2000
Ethylene dichloride 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Formaldehyde 4 34 36 20
m- / p-xylenes 13 43 9 9
Toluene 36 49 26 29
garages and 10 office buildings near the garages in the Los Angeles,
Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties of Southern Cali-
fornia. They took 5-minute samples of 13 motor vehicle air pollutants
in each micro environment and in the ambient environment. Table 6
summarizes results for just the motor vehicle air pollutants. Service
station concentrations ranked second to parking garage concentrations
for most pollutants.
158
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
159
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.2.5.2. Tunnels
160
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
2.2.5.3. Underpasses
161
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
162
163
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Table 8. World’s Human and Automobile Populations by Economic Group and Region in 1990.
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
164
165
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Table 9. Estimates of Daily Vehicular Trips by Travel Mode and by Economic Group and Region in
1990.
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
166
167
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
Table 10. Estimates of Roadside Populations by Economic Group and Region in 1990.
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
3. Conclusions
168
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
169
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
170
Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
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Human Exposure to Motor Vehicle Air Pollutants
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180
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
Chapter 4
Michael P. Walsh
Consultant, 3105 N. Dinwiddie Street, Arlington, Virginia 22207, U.S.A.
1. Introduction
181
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2. Strategy Analysis
duced vehicles of the same design probably are not either. Conversely,
if manufacturers are able to build prototypes which demonstrate that
their designs are capable of meeting standards, the probability that
their production vehicles will also meet standards may be increased.
Given that the manufacturer has “certified” his intended design, pro-
duction vehicles may not meet standards, even when new, either be-
cause they are not constructed in all material respects of the same
design as the prototype (i.e. they are misbuilt), or the manufacturer
has failed to translate the design effectively into mass production.
The first situation is legally equivalent to introduction into commerce
of a non certified design and may be guarded against by the inspec-
tions and civil penalties mentioned above.
Vehicles may meet standards when new but may fail to meet stand-
ards during their useful life, even though properly maintained, due to
excessive deterioration in-use. Such deterioration may occur because
the manufacturer failed to translate effectively the design into mass
production, or because the certified design is inadequate due to the
inability of the accelerated certification testing to accurately simulate
in-use standards. In such cases, it is desirable that the manufacturer
183
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
be required to fix the vehicle at his own expense for two reasons:
Given that vehicles may have been designed and built to meet stand-
ards, they will not do so unless properly maintained. To the extent
that motor vehicles can be designed to eliminate or minimize neces-
sary maintenance, the magnitude of this vital task of assuring proper
maintenance can be reduced. A means for achieving reduced mainte-
nance requirements might be to force technology by gradually requir-
ing manufacturers to reduce maintenance performed during certifica-
tion testing and to similarly reduce the prerequisite maintenance for
warranty purposes. However, the inability of the certification process
to assess the need for time dependent (as opposed to mileage-depend-
ent) maintenance suggests that warranty requirements would be a prin-
cipal enforcement tool.
184
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
185
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
(such as labels in the filler inlet area and on the dashboard; fuel filler
inlet restrictors designed to accommodate only the slightly narrower
fuel nozzle that should be used for unleaded fuel) to be sure that vehi-
cle owners and drivers are fully aware of the need for unleaded fuel in
their vehicles.
Studies carried out in the United States (Auto/Oil, 1990, 1991) indi-
cate that exhaust HC, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides
(NO x) emissions decrease significantly with lower fuel sulphur in
gasoline vehicles equipped with catalytic converters.
186
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
Diesel fuel generally contains much higher levels of sulphur than gaso-
line. Therefore, many OECD countries have decided to take steps to
lower the sulphur levels as a strategy to reduce diesel particulate emis-
sions. This has the added benefit of increasing the potential for cata-
lytic control of diesel particulate and organic HC emissions.
These policies attempt to increase passenger miles per seat mile. In-
centives include car pool matching and information programmes, van
pool and commuter bus programmes, dial a ride, shuttle and jitney
services. Examples of disincentives are similar to those noted above.
188
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
189
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
190
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
The benefits of I/M, however, are limited by the adequacy of the short
test used, the ability of the service industry to make proper repairs and
the potential tampering which could occur following the test to allow
the vehicle to emit high emissions throughout the year.
It seems clear, therefore, that the ideal programme must include all of
the above elements.
2.4. Schedule/sequence
Significant progress has occurred during the past two decades in the
development of a wide variety of emissions reduction technologies
for petrol fuelled vehicles.
192
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
3.1.1. Electronics
193
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
ing must be closely coordinated with air-fuel ratio changes and de-
grees of EGR lest significant fuel economy or performance penalties
result from emissions reductions, or NO x emissions increase as CO
goes down. In addition, controls which can be much more selective
depending on engine load or speed have been found beneficial in pre-
venting widespread adverse impacts.
Therefore, electronics have begun to replace more traditional mechani-
cal controls. For example, electronic control of ignition timing has
demonstrated an ability to optimize timing under all engine condi-
tions and has the added advantage of reduced maintenance and im-
proved durability compared with mechanical systems. When coupled
with electronic control of EGR, it has been demonstrated that NO x
emissions can be reduced with no fuel economy penalty and in some
cases with improved fuel economy.
Starting with 1975 model year cars, catalysts have been placed on
upwards of 80 per cent of all new cars sold in the United States; in the
194
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
last few years, either oxidation or three-way catalysts have been placed
on all new petrol fuelled cars. In Japan and Canada, catalysts are also
widely used to meet emission standards. Many cars in Austria, the
Netherlands, Sweden and Germany are sold with these systems and
they are required on new cars in Australia and Switzerland. One of
the unique advantages of catalysts is their ability to selectively elimi-
nate some of the more unhealthy compounds in vehicle exhaust such
as aldehydes, reactive and polycyclic hydrocarbons.
It is worth noting that modern two stroke engines are emerging which
are starting to demonstrate very low emissions, excellent fuel economy,
and low cost. Foremost among these is the Orbital Engine which has
195
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
196
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
Basic approaches to diesel engine emission control fall into three ma-
jor categories:
NOx control techniques being phased into the diesel population in-
clude variable injection timing and pressure, charge cooling, and ex-
haust gas re-circulation. Retarding injection timing, while a well known
method of reducing NO x formation, can lead to increases in fuel con-
sumption, particulate and hydrocarbon emissions. These problems can
be mitigated by varying the injection timing with engine load or speed.
Also, high pressure injection can reduce these problems. If coupled
with electronic controls, it appears that NO x emissions could be re-
duced significantly with a simultaneous improvement in fuel economy
(although not as great as could occur if electronics were added with-
out any emission requirements).
197
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
199
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
older, higher polluting ones, there has been a clear downward trend in
emissions of all three pollutants. This is especially encouraging in
light of the continued rapid growth in vehicles and vehicle miles trav-
elled by cars during this same period; in 1990 there were 50 million
more cars on U.S.A. highways than there were in 1970. Had emis-
sions per mile not been reduced, passenger cars in 1990 would have
emitted 65% more CO, HC and NO x than they did in 1970. In other
words, as illustrated in Table 1 instead of passenger car CO having
been reduced from 68 million metric tons to 27, these emissions would
have climbed to 112 million tons.
The Table 1 ”ACTUAL“ denotes the actual emission trends, while
”POTENTIAL“ denotes what would have occurred had pollution con-
trols not been put on cars over the period 1970-1990.
Figure 1 illustrates the auto emissions reductions to date, 61% for
CO, 70% for non methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and 47% for NO x.
Lead emissions from all highway vehicles have also been reduced
dramatically; between 1970 and 1993, highway vehicle lead emis-
sions declined from 171,960 short tons to 1,380. The point of this
example is to show that adoption of a strong motor vehicle pollution
control programme can be very effective in reducing vehicle emis-
sions.
Year CO HC NOx
200
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40 VMT
NOx
20 CO
NMHC
0
1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
During the mid 1980’s, Austria, the Netherlands and the Federal Re-
public of Germany adopted innovative economic incentive approaches
to encourage purchase of low pollution vehicles. Since then, Aus-
tralia, Canada, Finland, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Swit-
201
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
While delayed about 18 months from the original deadline set by the
Council of Ministers, end December 1994, the proposal appears in
many ways to have been worth the wait. It not only establishes the
linkage between vehicle and fuel standards and public health needs,
but also introduces on board diagnostics and for the first time in the
EU an in use recall liability for vehicle manufacturers. In spite of
substantial resistance by some companies, it also includes additional
targets for vehicles in 2005, which can serve as the basis for fiscal
incentives by individual member states.
202
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
above is adjusted to account for this test procedure revision. The Step
4 - 2005 - values shown above reflect the Commission’s judgement
of standards which would be slightly more stringent than best avail-
able technology for 2000.
Emission standards [g/km]
Year CO HC NOx
203
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
In general, the initial focus was on smoke control because it was clearly
visible and a nuisance. As the evidence has grown in recent years
204
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
test and 20 % during the lugging portion; 1974 and later model years
are subject to smoke opacity standards of 20 % during acceleration,
15 % during lugging, and 50 % at maximum power.
The first diesel exhaust particulate standards in the world were estab-
lished for cars and light trucks by U.S. EPA on March 5, 1980. Stand-
ards of 0.6 g/mile (0.37 g/km) were set for all cars and light trucks
starting with the 1982 model year dropping to 0.2 g/mile (0.12 g/km)
and 0.26 g/mile (0.16 g/km) for 1985 model year cars and light trucks,
respectively. In early 1984, U.S. EPA delayed the second phase of the
standards from 1985 to 1987 model year to provide more time for
manufacturers to comply. Almost simultaneously, California decided
to adopt its own diesel particulate standards : 0.4 g/mile (0.25 g/km)
in 1985, 0.2 g/mile (0.12 g/km) in 1986 and 1987, and 0.08 g/mile
(0.05 g/km) in 1989.
205
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
haust, this has not yet been the basis for regulation of these emis-
sions.
4.2.2. Canada
4.2.3 Japan
Smoke standards have applied to both new and in-use vehicles since
1972 and 1975, respectively. The maximum permissible limits for
both are 50 % opacity; however, the new vehicle standard is the more
stringent because smoke is measured at full load, while in-use vehi-
cles are required to meet standards under the less severe no-load ac-
celeration test. The Japanese EPA also continues to move forward
with their regulation of diesel vehicles. The Long Term Targets iden-
tified in 1989 will be phased in over the period from 1997 to 1999 as
shown in Table 7, in which GVW means "Gross Vehicle Weight".
206
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
[g/kWh] [g/kWh]
207
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
1
Direct injection engine
208
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
CO HC NOx PM
[g/kWh] [g/kWh] [g/kWh] [g/kWh]
EC Step 3
(2000) To Be Determined; New test possible
Table 6. EC heavy duty diesel requirements.
nity reached a "common position" on the first European legislation to
regulate emission from non-road mobile equipment such as road con-
struction tractors, graders, loaders, compressors, and some agricul-
tural devices. The primary goal of the legislation is to help the Euro-
pean Union reduce smog and unhealthy or acid rain-inducing chemi-
cals such as oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and particulate
matter. The legislation also will help the EU meet its legal require-
ments under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s
protocol that call for reductions in oxides of nitrogen and volatile or-
ganic compounds (VOC). The new requirements are expected to go
into force by 1998. They will be phased in over two stages and will
set restrictions based on the size of the engines.
Parameter Unit Average Proposed Proposed
today average maximum
Polyaromatics % (v) 9 6 11
209
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Studies carried out by the Commission indicate that once fully imple-
mented, the proposals will led to reductions in emissions from non-
road mobile machinery of up to 42 % in the case of nitrogen oxides
and 67 % in the case of particulate matter. According to the Commis-
sion, "the total annual costs for technically upgrading the engines are
estimated to be in the range of 31 million ECU (US$ 38 million) for
Stage I and 125 million ECU ($153 million) for Stage II. This will
result in an increase in retail prices of about 1 % during Stage I and 3
to 8 % during Stage II".
The common position on the new legislation was reached after mem-
ber states led by the united Kingdom demanded that economic incen-
tives originally proposed by the commission be dropped. The Com-
mission had argued that tax incentives would push industry to adopt
stricter environment standards as outlined in the second stage of the
directive.
210
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
211
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
ter is also associated with visibility degradation and has been linked
with a range of adverse health effects, for which there appears to be a
continuous dose-response relationship without a no effect threshold.
212
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
213
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
214
Motor Vehicle Emission Control Measures
REFERENCES
Hall J., et al., The Automobile, Air pollution Regulations and the Economy
of southern California, 1965-1990, Institute for Economic and
Environemental Studies, California State University (1995)
Quality of Urban Air Review Group , Diesel Vehicle Emissions and Ur-
ban Air Quality, Second Report prepared at the request of the Department
of the Environment, London (1993)
Sugiura & Kagaya, A Study of Visible Smoke Reduction from a Small Two-
Stroke Engine Using Various Lubricants, SAE 770623 (June 1977)
215
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Chapter 5
David T. Mage
Scientist, United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
and
Michael P. Walsh
Consultant, Arlington, Virginia, USA
216
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
217
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Safety, IPCS, 1996). The air pollution problem in many urban areas is
compounded by the life style and climate in many of the warmer Asian
cities. As a result, and as pointed out in Chapter 3, there is much
greater public exposure to the emissions from vehicles which are emit-
ted directly into the breathing zones of many millions of people.
218
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
A 21.4 5.3 - 81 - -
B 5.9 33.3 - 81.8 68.1 -
C 6.0 20.0 78.6 90.7 86.8 70.0
D 3.1 5.6 33.3 88.6 60.0 13.3
E 10.2 - 41.4 82.4 88.0 -
F 5.4 30.8 - 84.8 72.5 -
G - - - - - 9.4
H 6.7 20.0 40.5 77.8 62.7 -
I 7.5 16.7 27.6 80.9 77.4 -
J 5.1 - 63.3 - - -
220
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
221
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
8.8 % 2.9 %
38.7 %
40.2 %
54.0 %
48.1 %
4.3 % 3.0 %
11.4 %
22.8 %
8.5 %
38.1 %
1.6 %
3.7 %
71.9 %
42.0 %
11.8 %
23.0 %
77.0 %
88.2 %
SULPHUR
Cars
Diesel trucks
LPG Vehicles
Motorcycles
77.1 %
222
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
2500 CO
HC
2000
NOx
1500
1000
500
0
Base Base I/M Motor- 0.15Pb CNG Car/Truck
1987 2005 cycles Diesel Buses Standards
standards 0.3S
70
S
60 Pb
50 Part
40
30
20
10
0
Base 1987 Base 2005 I/M Motor- 0.15Pb CNG Car/Truck
cycles Diesel Buses Standards
standards 0.3S
223
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
- Reduction of the maximum allowable lead in gasoline from 0.4 to 0.15 g/l
(effective as of January 1, 1992),
- Reduction of the sulphur content of diesel fuel from 1.0 to 0.5% (weight) as of April 1992
in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area and after September 1992 throughout the whole coun-
try; the use of low sulphur diesel fuel has been mandatory in Bangkok since September
1993.
- Reduction of the 90% distillation temperature of diesel fuel from 370 0C to 357 0C as of
April 1992 in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area and after September 1992 throughout the
whole country.
- Required all new cars with engines larger than 1600 cc to meet the ECE R-83 standards
after January 1993; all cars were required to comply after September 1, 1993.
- Taxis and tuk-tuks have already been largely converted to operate on liquified petro-
leum gas (LPG).
- ECE R40 requirements for motorcycles were introduced in August 1993 and followed
soon afterward by ECE R40.01; the government has decided on a third step of control
which will be phased in this year.
- ECE R49.01 standards for heavy duty diesel engine vehicles are now in effect.
- The government has decided to reduce the sulphur level in diesel fuel from the current
0.5 % (weight) to 0.25 % by 1996 and 0.05 % by the year 2000.
Currently, noise and emission testing are required and are conducted
under the Land Transport Department’s (LTD) general vehicle in-
spection programme. All new vehicles are subject to such inspection.
For in-use vehicles, only those registered under the Land Transport
Act (buses and heavy-duty trucks) and commercial vehicles regis-
tered under the Motor Vehicles Act (taxis, tuk-tuks and rental vehi-
cles) are subject to inspection during annual registration renewals.
It is expected that LTD will require all in-use vehicles to be inspected
soon. Vehicles in use for ten or more years are subjected to an annual
inspection while the newer vehicles will be subjected to inspection at
different time periods. This will be determined by the LTD. Private
inspection centres are being licensed.
224
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
2.1.3. Conclusions
Bangkok, like many other megacities in the world, has serious prob-
lems associated with the use of energy in transport sector. Several
factors, including population growth and rapid economic expansion
and etc., are fundamental factors needed to be considered for long-
term planning. Rapid industrialization and urbanization, coupled with
the lack of land use planning in the past, has contributed to the atmos-
pheric pollution associated with the transport sector. This problem
has been intensified by the inadequate road infrastructures to absorb
the rapidly growing vehicle population which in turn causes conges-
tion and by the lack of mass transport system to offer good substitutes
for private vehicles. These two factors encourage people to rely more
on their private vehicles and hence have further contributed to the
congestion problem.
It is recognized that this problem can be alleviated through several
means including the following measures: source reduction through
improvement of fuel quality, inspection/maintenance programme,
vehicle standards, and traffic and demand management (such as hav-
ing good mass rapid transit system). A great deal of work remains to
225
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.2. Singapore
226
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
in leaded petrol was gradually reduced from 0.8 g/l to 0.15 g/l. The
use of unleaded petrol was promoted in 1990 through a differential
tax system which made unleaded petrol 10 cents per litre cheaper
than leaded petrol at the pump. All petrol-driven vehicles registered
for use in Singapore after 1 July 1991 must be able to use unleaded
petrol. These measures have resulted in the greater use of unleaded
petrol. About 57% of all petrol sold in Singapore at the end of 1993
was unleaded.
The sulphur content in diesel is currently limited to 0.5% (weight)
and will be reduced to 0.3% (weight) from 1 July 1996 onwards. The
emission standards for petrol vehicles have been progressively tight-
ened since 1984 and the standards currently in force are the European
Union Consolidated Emissions Directive 91/441 and the Japanese
emission standards (Article 31 of Safety Regulations for Road Vehi-
cles). Since October 1992, motorcycles and scooters have been re-
quired to comply with the emission standards stipulated in the U.S.
Code of Federal Regulation 86.410-80 before they can be registered
for use in Singapore. Since January 1991, all diesel vehicles have
been required to comply with smoke standards stipulated in the UN/
ECE Regulation No. 24.03 before they can be registered for use in
Singapore. All in-use vehicles are required to undergo periodic in-
spections to check their roadworthiness and exhaust emissions while
idling. Vehicles which fail the inspections are not allowed to renew
their road tax.
227
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
motor vehicles, the need to control their impact on traffic flow and the
environment has given rise to a unique set of traffic management meas-
ures.
As high taxes alone would not ensure that the vehicle population grow
at an acceptable rate, a vehicle quota system was introduced to achieve
228
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
that objective. Since 1 May 1990, any person who wishes to register
a vehicle must first obtain a vehicle entitlement in the appropriate
vehicle class, through bidding. Tender for specified number of vehi-
cle entitlements is conducted monthly. Successful bidders pay the
lowest successful bid price of the respective category in which they
bid. A vehicle entitlement is valid for ten years from the date of reg-
istration of the vehicle.
Weekend cars can be driven outside those hours but owners must
display a special day license. Each weekend car owner is given five
free day licenses per year and can buy additional ones at $20 each.
229
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.2.4. Conclusions
230
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
With regard to diesel fuel, as of April 1, 1995, the sulphur level was
reduced to 0.2% (weight), and it is planned to lower it to 0.05%
(weight) by 1997 or 1998. Diesel vehicle emissions standards were
also tightened by this date. All new passenger cars and taxis after that
date must comply with either the U.S. 1990 standards (SPM = 0.12 g/
km, NO x = 0.63 g/km) or the European Union Step 1 standards (93/
59/EEC: SPM = 0.14 g/km, HC & NO x = 0.97 g/km) or the Japanese
standards (SPM = 0.34 g/km, NO x = 0.72 g/km for vehicles weighing
less than 1.265 t or 0.84 g/km for those above).
Similar requirements will apply to all light and medium goods vehi-
cles and light buses. For goods vehicles and buses with a design weight
of 3.5 t or more, either the 1990 U.S. (SPM = 0.80 g/kWh, NO x = 8.04
g/kWh) or the EURO 1 standards (PM = 0.61 g/kWh for engines pro-
ducing less than 85 kW or 0.36 g/kWh for engines producing more;
NOx = 8.0 g/kWh for all engines) will apply.
In use smoke limits based on the EEC free acceleration test (72/306/
EEC) will be lowered to 50 Hartridge smoke units (HSU); in certifi-
cation, the limits will be 40 HSU. Encouraged by a price differential
of 1 HK $ per litre price reduction for unleaded petrol compared to
leaded, unleaded petrol is now responsible for 71% of total petrol
sales. Notably, the benzene content of the unleaded petrol is only
3.44%, virtually the same as leaded petrol.
231
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.5. Taipei
Light Duty
Trucks [< 3t] 1987 7/1 CVS-75 6.21 1.43 0.50 2.0
[< 2t] 2000 1/1 CVS-75 2.11 0.62 0.25 2.0
[2t - 3t] 2000 1/1 CVS-75 6.21 1.43 0.50 2.0
Heavy Duty 1980 1/1 6-Mode 1.6% 2200 ppm 520 ppm -
Vehicles 1987 7/1 U.S. Transient 15.5 10.7 1.3 4.0
1991 2/1 13 Mode 33.5 11.4 1.3 -
2000 2/1 13 Mode 33.5 5.5 1.4 -
Table 2. Emission Standards of the Republic of Korea for New Gasoline
and LPG Vehicles.
unique to Taipei is motorcycles. "Taiwan has the highest density of
motorcycles in the world. Because 80% of motorcycles are equipped
with two-stroke engines ... [they] contribute about 33% and 10% of
HC and CO emissions respectively. It is apparent that to significantly
improve the air quality in the Taiwan area, something must be done
to control vehicular pollution, especially of motorcycles" (Shen and
Huang, 1989).
233
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Passenger Cars
Light Duty
Trucks [< 3t] 1980 1/1 Full Load - - - - 50
Heavy Duty
Vehicles
[dir. injection]
Passenger 1984 7/1 6-Mode 980 1000 670 - 50
Cars
Light Duty
Trucks [< 3t] 1988 1/1 6-Mode 980 850 670 - 50
Heavy Duty
Vehicles 1993 1/1 6-Mode 980 750 670 - 40
[ind. injection]
Passenger 1984 7/1 6-Mode 980 590 670 - 50
Cars
Light Duty
Trucks [< 3t] 1988 1/1 6-Mode 980 450 670 - 50
Heavy Duty
Vehicles 1993 1/1 6-Mode 980 350 670 - 40
In their analysis of the air quality problem, the Taiwan EPA has de-
veloped a comprehensive approach to motor vehicle pollution con-
trol. Building on its early adoption of U.S. ’83 standards for light duty
vehicles (starting July 1, 1990) it recently moved to U.S. ’87 require-
ments, which include the 0.2 g/mile suspended particulate matter stand-
ard, as of July 1, 1995. Heavy duty diesel suspended particulate mat-
ter standards almost as stringent as U.S. ’90, 6.0 g per brake horse-
power hour (g/bhph), NO x and 0.7 g/bhph suspended particulate mat-
234
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
235
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The first standards for new motorcycles were imposed in 1984; 8.8 g/
km for CO and 6.5 g/km for HC & NO x, combined, using the ECE
R40 test procedure. In 1991, the limits were reduced to 4.5 g/km for
CO, and 3.0 g/km for HC & NO x combined. These requirements were
phased in over two years and by July 1, 1993 were applied to all new
motorcycles sold in Taiwan. As a result of these requirements, the
engines of four stroke motorcycles have been redesigned to use sec-
ondary air injection. All new two stroke motorcycles are fitted with
catalytic converters. Since 1992, electric motorcycles have been avail-
able in the market but sales have been modest. Motorcycle durability
requirements have been imposed since 1991. All new motorcycles
tested since that time are required to demonstrate that they can meet
emissions standards for a minimum of 6,000 kilometres. Since 1991,
all new motorcycles must be equipped with evaporative controls. In
order to reduce the pollution from in-use motorcycles, the Taiwan
EPA is actively promoting a motorcycle Inspection and Maintenance
(I/M) system. In the first phase, from February through May, 1993,
the Taiwan EPA tested approximately 113,000 motorcycles in Taipei
City. Of these, 49% were given a blue card indicating that they were
clean, 21% a yellow card indicating that their emissions were mar-
ginal, and 30% failed. Between December 1993 and May 1994, ap-
proximately 142,000 motorcycles were inspected with 55% receiving
blue cards, up 6% from the earlier programme, and 27% failed, a drop
of 3%. The major repair for failing motorcycles was replacement of
the air filter at an average cost of $20.
In continuing regulations for the control of motorcycle emissions, the
Taiwan EPA has adopted the Third Stage Emission Regulation to be
implemented from 1998. The new standards will lower CO to 3.5 g/
km, and HC & NOx to 2 g/km. In addition, the durability requirement
will be increased to 20,000 kilometres. Finally, the market share for
electric powered motorcycles will be mandated at 5%. In addition,
the EPA will extend the periodic motorcycle I/M programme.
236
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
These values are well above the WHO guidelines and Philippines
national standards for these pollutant variables, and are indicative of
the severity of the automotive exposures of people who have occupa-
tional contacts with automotive exhaust, which can lead to chronic
problems. The high COHb found in jeepney drivers, many of whom
are chain smokers, represents a 7% increment above the expected
value of 15% COHb as found in other adult chain smokers, which in
turn is 13% higher than the 2-3% COHb in nonsmokers as found in
the Manila area. The mean values of blood lead level in the children
are well above the U.S. Centre for disease control (CDC) recommended
limit of 10 mg/dl, which is exceeded by more than 80% of both chil-
dren cohorts. Comparison of pulmonary function between Metro
Manila and rural school children showed that the urban children were
more compromised than the rural children (decrements from the ex-
pected values for sex, height, and age) by a factor of two.
237
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2.7. Conclusions
Pb blood
[mg/dl] 19.9 14.0 17.7 10
COHb [%] 22 - - 2
238
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
239
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
- The standards for new vehicles adopted to date are less strin-
gent than those currently in effect in the United States for virtu-
ally all vehicle categories, and this gap will widen in the future
unless standards are gradually tightened to keep pace with tech-
nological advances. Beyond standards themselves, Mexico is
not getting the full benefits of technological advances such as
inboard diagnostics which could play an important role in mini-
mizing in use vehicle emissions.
240
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
Comm.
Vehicles
[<2.726t]
HC 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 1.00
CO 35.2 35.2 35.2 35.2 14.0
NOx 3.68 3.68 3.68 3.68 2.30
Light Duty
Trucks
[2.727t-3t]
HC 4.8 4.8 3.20 3.20 1.00
CO 56.0 56.0 35.2 35.2 14.0
NOx 5.60 5.60 3.68 3.68 2.30
241
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
1994-1997
Large buses 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.07
Medium buses 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.10
1998 & later
Large buses 1.3 15.5 4.0 0.05
Medium buses 1.3 15.5 4.0 0.10
Table 7. Heavy duty vehicle emissions standards (g/bhph).
in use.
Up until the end of 1995 a dual I/M system had been in effect in
Mexico City combining both centralized (test only) facilities and de-
centralized private garages (combined test and repair). It was increas-
ingly clear that the private garage system was not working. As one
measure, for example, the failure rate in the private garages averaged
about 9 per cent whereas in the centralized lanes, the failure rate was
about 16 per cent. Stations conducting improper or fraudulent inspec-
tions were taken to court on several occasions with the courts usually
agreeing to shut them down. By the end of 1995, as part of the devel-
opment of the “Programa para Mejorar la Calidad del Aire en el Valle
de Mexico, 1995-2000” (the New Programe), and in recognition of
the critical role that I/M has and will play in the Mexico City strategy,
it was decided to close all the private garage inspection stations and
to switch to a completely decentralized system. In addition, it was
agreed in principle that the SoM would proceed to the same approach
but with a delayed schedule. The upgraded I/M programme has three
main stages and if fully implemented as planned will be a substantial
improvement over the original programme. Major improvements in-
clude:
243
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
There are several additional issues regarding standards for in use ve-
hicles which must be addressed; the status of each will be discussed
below.
3.1.4. In use standards for exempting vehicles from the two day hoy
no circulo ban during air pollution alerts
244
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
As above, INE plans to decide such standards soon. They are leaning
toward 1.0% CO and 100 ppm HC. Also adjustments will be made
later in the year for the ASM test.
245
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
replace all pre-1982 taxis with 1982 or newer vehicles. The medium-
term aim was to facilitate ongoing fleet renewal so that no MCMA
taxi would be more than 6 years old. This would necessitate the re-
placement of approximately 55'000 vehicles (93% of the fleet).
The MCMA fleet comprises about 200 000 gasoline and 50 000 die-
sel trucks, which together are the second largest mobile source of air
pollution, after cars. A regulation issued by the City of Mexico re-
quires that all trucks built prior to model year 1977 must be replaced.
By the end of 1995, 25 000 vehicles have been converted to LPG
using systems designed for low emissions. Almost all include a 3-
way catalytic converter and closed loop control. Plans are to continue
the conversion of additional vehicles, although the rate of conversion
has declined to only about 3 500 per year. Kits have been certified for
over 200 models.
3.1.7. Fuels
Over the last few years, according to PEMEX (Mexican National Pe-
troleum Co.), fuels improved significantly in Mexico City. The lead
content of leaded fuel has been reduced to about 0.15 g/l, sulphur
levels are down and a grade of unleaded petrol has been introduced.
Further, new detergents have been added to the petrol which are de-
signed to reduce CO, HC and NO x emissions.
246
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
sure fuel quality. This allows and encourages fears that even pro-
posed improvements in fuel quality such as the elimination of lead,
may be done in a manner to worsen environmental problems. Some
have even raised concerns that the introduction of unleaded fuel has
increased ozone levels. Most recently, it appears that PEMEX has
raised the lead levels to previous levels. Substantial progress in im-
proving fuel quality has occurred to date and progress is continuing.
The price of leaded Nova gasoline is 2.39 pesos per litre whereas
Magna Sin costs 2.47 pesos. In early May, 1996 an additional sur-
charge was to be added to provide a second fund within the Trust
Fund. The surcharge will be 3c per litre for Nova and 1c per litre for
Magna Sin thereby lowering the differential between leaded and un-
leaded fuel to 6c per litre after the surcharge and the monthly price
increase to gasoline.
It has now been decided as part of the New Plan to retain these winter
specifications throughout the summer and PEMEX (Mexican National
Petroleum Co) agreed.
247
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
PEMEX has taken action to reduce the lead content of gasoline sold
in the MCMA, and emissions standards requiring the use of catalytic
converters in new vehicles require these vehicles to use unleaded gaso-
line. Current levels of atmospheric lead in the MCMA are consist-
ently near or below international norms; however, the current consen-
sus is that no amount of lead in the environment can be considered
safe.
Available data indicates that peak ozone levels increased steadily from
1986 to 1992 but have declined steadily since then. As indicated be-
248
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
low, the number of days over the standard has been unchanged over
the past decade.
249
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Year Days over 100 Days over 200 Days over 250 Days over 300
1988 329 67 11 1
1989 329 15 3 0
1990 328 84 27 3
1991 353 173 56 8
1992 333 123 37 11
1993 324 80 14 1
1994 344 93 4 0
1995 324 88 6 0
sales of Magna Sin, the premium unleaded gasoline, have been solely
responsible for the improvement in ambient lead levels noted above.
Reduction in diesel fuel sulphur content to 0.05 % (weight), the same
levels which exist in the United States have contributed to the lower
SO2 levels. Other fuels improvements including lower volatility and
aromatics content, and the addition of oxygenates have also been ben-
eficial in lowering hydrocarbon emissions; this would tend to lower
ozone and toxic concentrations in the air.
250
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
The DDF has funded a laboratory run by the University which among
other things conducts independent tests of gasoline quality. Since 1993,
the Bacteriology and Physical Chemistry Laboratory of the DDF has
conducted an independent gasoline quality assurance programme. The
acquisition of a chromatographic system using PIANO (Paraffins,
isoparaffins, aromatics, napthenes, and olefins) software allows the
laboratory to determine the percentages of more than 250 different
hydrocarbons. About 20 samples are tested per week, including aro-
matics, olefins, benzene and lead, among other constituents.
251
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
252
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
them to land during the day allows air pollutants to build up in the air
shed until the passage of a new weather front.
Los Angeles air quality has been a major concern since the early 1940's
when the postwar boom brought rapid population growth and indus-
trial expansion. Since 1947, the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control
District (LAAPCD), the precursor of the South Coast Air Quality Man-
agement District (SCAQMD), began enforcing air pollutant emission
controls. Hourly ozone concentrations exceeding 0.6 ppm were re-
ported and in the 1960's ozone frequently exceeded 0.5 ppm. In 1966
the State of California began instituting vehicle emission standards
which were stricter than those promulgated later by the U.S. EPA for
the nation at large. Despite their strict controls, the maximum ozone
during the period 1986-1991 only decreased to 0.35 ppm because of
an 81% population increase from 1960 to 1990 and allied increases in
industrial activity and vehicular traffic. This enormous population in-
crease resulted in many motorists commuting 60-80 miles each way
to secure affordable single-family housing outside the central area.
253
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
standards are shown in Table 9. Note how lower values were often
implemented by California several years before the U.S. EPA. For
example, the NO x standard of 0.25 g/km which was adopted in Cali-
fornia in 1992, has been adopted by the USEPA in 1995. The progres-
sive tightening of petrol-powered automotive emissions is well illus-
trated in Table 9.
254
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
255
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
256
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
In addition, the plan calls for increasing the average vehicle ridership
from the present day 1.13 to 1.5 by 1999. This will be achieved by
increasing funding for transit improvements and high occupancy ve-
hicle (HOV) facilities, using parking fees to discourage single pas-
senger commuting and providing facilities for commuting bicyclists.
Alternative work weeks, telecommuting, employer rideshare incen-
tives are also to be introduced.
The effects of motor vehicle air pollutants on human health have been
investigated in several studies that have shown significant impacts on
the health of residents of the LA area (Detels et al., 1981; Hodgkin et
al., 1984; Euler et al., 1988; Abbey et al., 1990). It is estimated that
Los Angeles residents suffer ozone related symptoms on 17 days each
year and an increased mortality rate of 1/10,000 per year or 1600
excess deaths from PM10. According to recent estimates, air pollution
control to meet the national ambient air quality standards will cost
U.S. $10 billion (Hall et al., 1992).
257
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Since a great deal has been learned about reducing emissions from
vehicles, one should not conclude that this outcome — higher emis-
sions and more air pollution is inevitable. Strategies exist to both lower
emissions per kilometre driven and reduce actual driving; application
of both approaches can be used to ameliorate the otherwise likely
future pollution increases. By way of example, an assessment of two
representative cities is presented below.
The potential for reducing emissions and improving air quality must
start with an assessment of existing vehicle emissions. Many factors
affect the total inventory of motor vehicle emissions. Understanding
these factors helps one to better structure a total inventory of these
emissions and to determine optimal programs for their control. Hav-
ing inventories that accurately reflect different control measures per-
mit evaluation of the effectiveness of a given regulatory programme.
Some of the more important factors follow:
258
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
259
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
260
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
261
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
77.6 %
55.8 %
22.2 %
30.8 %
36.0 %
51.5 %
5.5 % 3.1 %
41.5 % 9.4 %
8.2 %
49.2 %
50.8 %
91.8 %
SULPHUR
11.3 % 11.1 %
2.4 %
Cars
Diesel Trucks
Bemos & Taxis
Motorcycles
75.2 %
262
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
Based on all the data available, it is estimated that a well run I/M
programme is capable of very significant emissions reductions, on
the order of 25% for HC and CO and about 10% for NO x. The less
significant NO x reductions reflect solely the lower tampering rates
from I/M and anti-tampering programs since at present there has been
no focused effort to specifically design I/M programs to identify and
correct NO x problems. It is also important to note that the reductions
start out slowly and gradually increase over time because I/M pro-
grams tend to lower the overall rate of fleet emissions deterioration.
Maximum I/M benefits are thereby achieved by adopting the pro-
gramme as early as possible.
500 CO
HC
400 NOx
300
200
100
0
Base Base I/M MC Stds 0.15Pb CNG Car/Truck
1987 2005 0.3S Buses Stds
14
S
12 Pb
10 Part
0
Base 1987 Base 2005 I/M MC Stds 0.15Pb CNG Car/Truck
0.3S Buses Stds
264
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
used would help significantly reduce HC, CO, and smoke emissions.
Even catalytic converters are technologically feasible for these en-
gines (OECD 1988a).
4.3.1. Petrol
Even when leaded fuel is used, the lead content should be reduced to
no more than 0.15 g/l.
265
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2,5
2
Emission [g/km]
1,5
0,5
TUK TUKs
Taxis
Utility gas
Utility Diesel
Vehicle Types
266
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
The most significant potential emission reductions that have been iden-
tified for gasoline “reformulation” have been through reducing vola-
tility (to reduce evaporative emissions), reducing sulphur (to improve
catalyst efficiency), and adding oxygenated blend stocks (with a cor-
responding reduction in the high-octane aromatic hydrocarbons which
might otherwise be required). The potential benefits of improving vari-
ous fuel parameters are summarized below.
267
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
emissions than gasoline with 64 kPa (10 psi) RVP (1.45 g/l vs. 1.89 g/
l dispensed). In response to data such as these, the U.S. EPA has es-
tablished nationwide summertime RVP limits for gasoline.
In its analysis of the RVP regulation, the U.S. EPA (1987) estimated
that the long-term refining costs of meeting a 62 kPa (9 psi) RVP
limit throughout the U.S.A. would be approximately US $ 0.0038 per
litre, assuming crude oil at US $ 20 per barrel. These costs were largely
offset by credits for improved fuel economy and reduced fuel loss
through evaporation, so that the net cost to the consumer was esti-
mated at only US $ 0.0012 per litre.
4.3.1.2. Oxygenates
268
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
Ethanol
269
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Sulphur
Other
According to the Auto/Oil study, “NO x emissions were lowered by
reducing olefins, raised when boiling temperature for 90 % of the fuel
(T90) was reduced, and only marginally increased when aromatics
were lowered.” (Auto/Oil, 1990). In general, reducing aromatics and
T90 caused statistically significant reductions in exhaust mass non
methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and CO emissions. Reducing olefins
increases exhaust mass NMHC emissions; however, “the ozone form-
ing potential” of the total vehicle emissions was reduced (Colucci and
Wise, 1992).
270
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
271
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
272
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
273
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
5. Conclusions
and buses that make life better in so many ways emit more than 800
million tons of carbon per year. From their tailpipes comes virtually
all of the carbon monoxide in the air of our cities. Less directly, they
are responsible for much of the ozone and smog. And motor vehicles
play a significant role in stratospheric ozone depletion. All of these
pollutants contribute directly or indirectly to global warming.
Over the last forty years, the global vehicle fleet has grown from un-
der 50 million to more than 500 million, and there is every indication
that this growth will continue. Over the next twenty years, the global
fleet could double to one billion. Unless transportation technology
and planning are fundamentally transformed, emissions of greenhouse
and other polluting gases from these vehicles will continue to increase,
many relatively clean environments will deteriorate, and the few ar-
eas that have made progress will see some of their gains eroded.
The worldwide challenges that these problems pose for motor vehicle
manufacturers and policy-makers are unprecedented. Nothing less than
a revolution in technology and thinking, at least as profound as the
initial mechanization of transportation, is needed. Manufacturers will
come under increasing pressure to produce petroleum-powered vehi-
cles that are ever cleaner, safer, more reliable, and more fuel efficient.
At the same time, they will need to develop new kinds of vehicles that
will emit no pollution whatsoever. The amount of capital needed to
accomplish these goals will be large and, making matters even more
difficult, the pressures for these changes will arise not so much from
traditional market forces but from public policies adopted in response
to climate change and other threats.
275
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
bon monoxide; developing and using cleaner fuels with lower volatil-
ity and fewer toxic components; enhancing inspection and mainte-
nance (I/M) programs, including inspections of anti-tampering emis-
sion-control equipment; and extending the useful life of pollution-
control equipment to ten years or 100,000 miles rather than the cur-
rent five years or 50,000 miles. The potential overall impact of tighter
standards, enhanced inspection and maintenance, and extended use-
ful life is especially significant because it helps to ensure that the
benefits of clean-air technology will persist for the full life of the
vehicle.
276
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
REFERENCES
Bolade T., Urban transport in Lagos, the Urban Age 2 (3), 7-8 (1993)
Colucci and Wise, What Is It and What Has It Learned?, Auto/Oil Air
Quality Improvement Research Program, Presented at XXIV Fisita Con-
gress, London, England (June 7, 1992)
Detels R., Sayre J.W., Coulson A.H.,Rokaw S.N., Massey F.J., Tashkin
D.P., Wu M.-M., The UCLA population studies of chronic obstructive res-
piratory disease, American Review of Respiratory Disease 124, 673-680
(1981)
277
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Euler G.L., Abbey D.E., Hodgkin J.E., Magie A.R., Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease symptom effects of long-term cumulative exposure to
ambient levels of total oxidants and nitrogen dioxide in California Seventh-
day Adventist residents, Archives of Environmental Health 43, 279-285
(1988)
Hall J.V, Winer A.M., Kleinman M.T., Lurmann F.W., Brajer V.,
Colome S.D.,, Valuing the health benefits of clean air, Science, 255, 812-
817 (1992)
Hodgkin J.E., Abbey D.E., Euler G.L., Magie A.R., COPD prevalence in
nonsmokers in high and low photochemical air pollution areas, Chest 86,
830-838 (1984)
Hong Kong EPA, Pollution in Hong Kong - a time to act, White Paper (5
June 1989)
Khosa M.M., Transport and the 'Taxi Mafia' in south Africa, The Urban
Age 2 (3), 8-9 (1993)
278
Case Studies of Cities Around the World
Raungchat S., Various factors associated with blood lead levels of traffic
policemen in Bangkok Metropolis, Thesis (undated).
Shen S-H. & Huang K-H. , Taiwan air pollution control programme: im-
pact of and control strategies for transportation-induced air pollution, Pre-
sented at UN Conference, Ottawa, Canada (1989)
Stickland R., Bangkok's urban transport crisis, The Urban Age 2 (1), 1-6
(1993)
TDRI, The 1990 TDRI Year End Conference, Industrializing Thailand And
Its Impact On The Environment, Research Report No. 7, Energy and Envi-
ronment: Choosing The Right Mix (December 1990)
279
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
280
The Case of Geneva
Chapter 6
François Cupelin
and
Olivier Zali
It was during the period of Roman domination that Geneva first be-
came established as a specific entity. As a junction for lake, road and
river traffic, it rapidly developed into a city.
281
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
From the late 16th century onward, Geneva became the starting point
of many coaching routes for mail and passengers. However, it was
not until the early 19th century that these activities began to extend
beyond the neighbouring regions.
In 1814 the Republic and Canton of Geneva joined the Swiss Confed-
eration.
Vaud Lake
(CH) of
location of the eight
Jura Geneva
N measurment stations
Ain
7 of the Geneva Air Pollution
Monitoring Network
8 (ROPAG)
4
3
GENEVA
2 1 5
Voirons
6 1 Ile 5 Foron
Rhône
Arve 2 Ste-Clotilde 6 Passeiry
3 Wilson 7 Anières
e-sion
Haute - Savoie
Vu
-d
ach
Mt
4 Meyrin 8 Jussy
e
0 10 km Pré-Alpes
282
The Case of Geneva
283
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
In the communes of the Canton other than the city itself the propor-
tion of commuters is over 50% and in some cases over 80%
(Primatesta, 1984).
With 644 motor vehicles per thousand inhabitants, including 526 pri-
vate cars (OCS, 1994), Geneva is also one of the most highly motor-
ized areas of the world (Figure 3). The parking problem is acute, mainly
because of the heavy commuter traffic.
284
The Case of Geneva
700
300
200
100
0
45 55 65 75 85 95
YEAR
Figure 3. Total number of motor vehicles (two-wheelers not included) and number of
cars per 1,000 inhabitants in the Canton of Geneva (OCS, various years).
Out of the 1,380,000 motor vehicle journeys made every day, 78%
are at present made by private cars (OTC, 1990). For a long time, car
285
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Geneva’s first tram line was inaugurated in 1862. The end of the last
century saw the rapid growth of this form of transport and the change
from animal traction to steam-driven vehicles. At the beginning of
this century 126 km of tram lines were electrified (Encyclopédie de
Genève, 1984).
With the increase in car traffic these tram lines were gradually taken
out of use. On the urban and suburban routes the trams have been
progressively replaced by trolley buses. The countryside is served by
diesel-driven buses. However, one tram line remained in use through-
out the period, and a second line was commissioned in 1995. The
trend is now being reversed. The plan to construct an automated rapid-
transit railway has led to a controversy, and no consensus has yet
been reached. This option remains open.
600 Hôtel-de-Ville
Carouge
500 Landecy
400
300
200
100
0
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
YEAR
286
The Case of Geneva
When the first air quality measurement network was set up in 1959,
emissions from heating systems were considered as the main prob-
lem. Temperature inversions, common in the Geneva basin, were driv-
ing smoke downwards, which led, understandably, to complaints from
the public.
The network consisted of 18 passive samplers (Owen gauges) which
were analysed for sulphur dioxide. It was abandoned in 1993. Due to
the increasing use of low sulphur content fuels the mean annual sul-
phur dioxide flow (Figure 4) decreased substantially. The advent of
natural gas and the fact that the proportion of diesel-powered private
cars is very low in Switzerland (less than 3%) contributed to this trend.
287
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The station at Anières is located in a rural area on the left shore of the
lake and has been operational since 1973 for monitoring ozone. Moni-
toring equipment was augmented in 1975 to include further compound
such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.
The air samples are taken on the roof of the station at a height of
about 3 meters, except at Jussy where a 16 meter mast is used for
taking measurements above the treetops. The atmospheric pollutants
m easured are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen di-
oxide (NO 2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O 3), total hydrocarbons
(HC) and, at four of the eight stations, methane (CH 4). Concentra-
tions of pollutants are measured continually. Every 30 minutes, a half-
hourly average is taken. Five stations are equipped for recording wind
speed and direction, two have equipment for taking dust samples, and
for measuring sunlight.
The prevailing winds in Geneva are the northeasterly (Bise) and the
southwesterly. The stations at Anières and Passeiry are located with
the objective to monitor and compare air pollutant concentrations of
air masses moving along the main wind direction.
288
The Case of Geneva
(1)
Suspended particulate matter 70 µg/m 3 Annual mean (arithmetic mean)
(SPM) 150 µg/m 3 95 % of 24-hour means over one year < 150 µg/m 3
3
Cadmium (Cd) in SPM 10 ng/m Annual mean (arithmetic mean)
2
Cadmium (Cd) in SPM 2 µg/m day Annual mean (arithmetic mean)
1) Fine suspended particulate matter whose terminal velocity is less than 10 cm/s.
289
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The requirement to protect not only people but also the most sensitive
forms of life has led Switzerland to adopt very low air quality stand-
ards. It should be noted that these standards correspond, except in a
few details, to the air quality guidelines recommended by the World
Health Organization (WHO, 1987).
290
The Case of Geneva
3
Sulphur dioxide
µg/m
70
60
50
40 a
30
20
10
0
75 78 81 84 87 90 95
Carbon monoxide
mg/m 3
3.5
3
2.5
2 b
1.5
1
0.5
0
75 78 81 84 87 90 95
Nitrogen dioxide
3
µg/m
70
60
50
40 c
30
20
10
0
75 78 81 84 87 90 95
Ozone
µg/m 3
80
60
d
40
20
0
75 78 81 84 87 90 93
Year
Figure 5. Trends in annual mean values for sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, and ozone at three stations representative of urban areas (Ste-
Clotilde), the suburbs (Meyrin) and rural areas (Anières).
291
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Ozone
Ste-Clotilde 219 166 91 661 400 731 284 160 142 60
Anières 280 783 758 1100 765 1169 827 427 487 377
Table 2. Annual number of times the daily ambient concentration limit values were
exceededfornitrogendioxide(NO2 ) and the number of times the hourly ambient
concentration limit value was exceeded for ozone (O3) from 1986 to 1995
(ECOTOX, 1996).
In the case of CO and SO2 the OPair standards are being attained.
This is not the case for O3 and NO2. In summertime O 3 concentrations
often exceed the hourly air quality standard even if the number of
these exceedances and their magnitude is tending to decrease (Table
2.).
292
The Case of Geneva
293
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
294
The Case of Geneva
295
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
296
The Case of Geneva
Dispersion
Emissions
Transport
Ambient Air
Concentrations
Emissions
297
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Questions Specifications
298
The Case of Geneva
299
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
In order to take these facts into account, the model is based on meas-
urements made within the Geneva network for observation of atmos-
pheric pollution (Reseau d'Observation de la Pollution Atmosphérique
à Genève, ROPAG). They have been correlated with data on esti-
mated emissions around the measuring station.
2.3.1.1. Transport
2.3.1.2. Heating
301
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The first type includes emissions from vehicle traffic and heating. It
is mapped in 500 by 500 square meter grid cells. Emissions produced
by aircraft moving on the airport ground are included in the traffic
emissions. Figure 8 shows the sum of these two sources of emission.
302
The Case of Geneva
Total 6567
Table 4. Global emissions of NOx in 1988 for the Canton of Geneva in tons NOx
per year.
The locations of the monitoring sites and their special features are
described above in the section on traffic and air pollution in Geneva.
The essential question is how representative they are of the whole
territory of Geneva. Sources in the vicinity of the site could make the
monitoring station representative of only a small area around the source
and distort any general air pollutant concentration picture. In theory,
the influence of a single source depends on the distance between the
303
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
For the latter maximum ambient air pollutant concentrations vary with
meteorological conditions and solar intensity. Therefore total emis-
sions in a grid square of one km 2 centred at the monitoring site have
been taken into account. This procedure provides a good correlation
between emissions and NO 2 concentrations.
Using the air pollutant concentration data for a reference year, the
parameters of the model for different groups of typical meteorologi-
cal situations are fixed. In this manner it is possible to calculate a
posteriori, for any year, the mean value of ambient air pollutant con-
centrations of NO 2 using the frequency of occurrence of the different
categories and the emissions for a reference year.
304
The Case of Geneva
305
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
All the control actions described here were developed by the cantonal
transport office and are described in full in the clean air implementa-
tion plan (CAIP, 1991). Only the main ones will be mentioned. All
the control measures proposed follow the guiding principles presented
in Table 5 which were established with political consensus.
Some of the control measures proposed can be put into practice im-
mediately, while others depend on completion of public works or trans-
port infrastructure. This means that they will be phased in gradually
until the year 2000.
< 25 µg/m3
25 - 29
30 - 34
35 - 39
40 - 44
45 - 49
50 - 54
55 - 60
Figure 9. Map of average nitrogen dioxide immissions in 1988 for the Canton of
Geneva (ECOTOX).
306
The Case of Geneva
307
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
aims to create a new structure for the urban network (trams and un-
derground trains) and to develop regional transport (trains and buses).
Taken together, these measures will encourage a larger proportion of
journeys to be made in public rather than in private transport.
The inventory of road traffic emissions shows that the centre of town
is the area where emissions are highest. The high density of emissions
leads to excess air pollutant concentrations. In order to reduce them
city centre traffic must be reduced. In order to reduce traffic towards
the centre, the ring based traffic system (Figure 10) is to be replaced
by a system based on sectors (Figure 11). In such a system, passage
from one sector to a neighbouring sector will still be possible along a
link road, whilest passage across two sectors will no longer be possi-
ble through the centre. Passage through two non-adjacent sectors will
only be possible using a road outside the sectors. This new traffic
system will maintain access to the centre, while reducing transit traf-
fic, OTC (1990). It is introduced gradually since the bypass motor-
way has been opened in 1993. It should gradually reduce traffic in
transit through the town by creating sealed areas that are accessible
only to terminal traffic.
There could be concern that these arrangements will lead to a dis-
placement of industry and housing towards the new routes, creating
unexpected traffic problems. This eventuality should be avoided if
the regulations preventing changes in land use zoning are strictly ap-
plied. The new traffic plan objectives must be backed up with appro-
priate land-use policies.
308
The Case of Geneva
The establishment of “park and ride” car parks at the entry to the city
will be encouraged. The building of underground car parks will allow
surface parking spaces to be removed, with road space being redis-
tributed for the benefit of public transport, deliveries, two-wheeled
vehicles, pedestrians and green spots. Present and planned parking
spaces for regular commuters will be counted and, where possible,
reallocated to the inhabitants of the districts and to visitors.
The Canton of Geneva enjoys a Federal concession for the use of its
airport. Its influence with regard to air pollution from aircraft is, there-
fore, rather limited.
The Federal authorities will be asked to consider, in the interests of
pollution control, to confine access to Swiss airports for certain types
of aircraft which are deemed too dirty. They should consider setting
landing surcharges for aircraft that cause too much pollution.
Control measures for the domestic and industrial sectors were also
developed and evaluated in the Geneva clean air implementation plan,
309
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Figure 11. Sector based traffic plan. (Source: Office des transports et de la
circulation, Département de justice et police, Genève).
310
The Case of Geneva
see Quotation. Figure 12 provides the absolute and relative total ni-
trogen oxide emissions according to their origin. These issues will,
however, not pursued further in this context.
7000 100%
90%
6000
80%
5000 70%
Industry 60%
4000
Heating 50%
3000
Aviation 40%
2000 30%
Lorries
20%
1000
10%
Cars
0 0%
1988 1994 2000 1988 1994 2000
a b
Figure 12. Sources of NOx emissions in the Canton of Geneva: a) absolute in tons
NOx per year and b) proportionally.
Control measures are evaluated in two phases. In the first phase, the
proposed measures are evaluated in relation to emissions. This in-
volves a sectorial approach for the various listed sources of total ni-
trogen oxides. In the second phase, the proposed model is used to
calculate future air pollutant concentrations. Emissions will be reduced
step by step. Two schedules for future air pollutant concentrations
have been selected, one for 1994, which is when the OPair ends, and
the other for the year 2000, by which time all the proposed measures
should have been carried out.
311
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
According to the Traffic and Transport Office (OTC) the set of meas-
ures proposed should reduce individual motor traffic by 15% overall,
with reductions of up to 40% in some parts of the city centre, and up
to 20% in some rural areas. On the other hand, the new traffic plan
will lead to more traffic on the bypass motorway. With this linear
reduction in road traffic, overall emissions calculated on the basis of
these hypotheses should be 2496 tons of NO x per year for 1994 and
1367 tons of NO x per year for 2000. These calculations take account
of the gradual introduction of the catalyser, which should cut the emis-
sion factors.
< 15 µg/m3
16 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 29
30 - 34
35 - 40
312
The Case of Geneva
< 20 µg/m3
20 - 24
25 - 29
30 - 34
35 - 39
40 - 44
45 - 49
> 50
3. Conclusions
The clean air implementation plan will permit the achievement of the
objectives of the legislation on environmental protection and mini-
mise health risks for the population. It will not give instant results and
its application must be rigorously supervised for years to come. Every
two years, revised estimates of the emissions are undertaken. Com-
parison of current ambient concentrations with estimated trends al-
low possible reinforcement of the proposed measures. The “Rapport
du suivi 1995” has recently been published (DIER, 1996). So far, the
clean air implementation plan adopted had only taken into account
the reduction of nitrogen oxides. It also deals with the problem of
volatile organic compounds (VOC). The measures have been ana-
313
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
314
The Case of Geneva
REFERENCES
Cupelin F., Landry J.-Cl., Lehmann P., Despot F., Modèle statistique
pour la gestion de la qualité de l’air, The Science of the total Environment
169, 45-52 (1995)
Landry J.-Cl., Levental M., Cupelin F., Schmidt M., Etude prospective
de quelques aspects de l’influence d’une autoroute sur son environnement,
Archives des sciences (Genève) 33, 1-87 (1980)
315
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
316
Summary and Conclusions
Chapter 7
Dieter Schwela
PhD, Air Pollution Scientist,
World Health Organization, Urban Environmental Health,
Geneva, Switzerland
This updated and revised report of the 1992 publication on motor ve-
hicle air pollution presents a comprehensive review of the health prob-
lems caused by motor vehicle air pollution and noise. These problems
are increasingly created by the growth of motor vehicle traffic in the
developed and developing countries of the world. The air pollutants
considered as important with respect to health effects include sus-
pended particulate matter including lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, hydrocarbons, ozone and sulfur dioxide. The health effects
of these compounds are extensively discussed and also those of mo-
tor vehicle noise. A description of how people are exposed to motor
vehicle air pollutants is given and an estimate of the numbers of peo-
ple exposed to traffic related air pollution presented. Motor vehicle
control actions are reviewed in terms of the efforts made to reduce
emissions and to reduce vehicle usage. Case studies of some megacities
show the different control action which are applied in various devel-
oped and developing countries in order to alleviate the problem of
traffic related air pollution. The conclusions and recommendations
presented here are intended to provide guidance to countries in vari-
317
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The most serious air pollution problem in the world today is caused
by motor vehicles in the metropolitan areas. The metropolitan areas
of the world are inhabitated by some 50% of the earth’s population.
According to increasing economic development these areas have or
soon will have motor vehicle traffic congestion problems that lead to
high air pollution concentrations. Although serious air pollution prob-
lems can also be caused locally by industrial emissions and regionally/
seasonally by high sulfur content fossil fuel (coal and oil) combus-
tion, the influence of emissions from the large and growing motor
vehicle fleets becomes more and more predominant.
Motor vehicle traffic and its emissions seriously damage the health of
urban populations. Suspended particulate matter, either emitted in
diesel exhaust or as formed as aerosols by atmospheric photochemi-
cal reactions, can cause pulmonary irritation, contributes to exacerba-
tion of respiratory illnesses, and increases total and respiratory dis-
ease related mortality. Lead is a pernicious component of suspended
particulate matter and creates a severe neurophysiological health haz-
ard, especially for children living near high traffic streets. Urban car-
bon monoxide affects people with cardiovascular deficiencies and is
almost entirely emitted by vehicular traffic. Nitrogen dioxide which
is mostly produced from nitrogen monoxide causes decrease in at-
mospheric visibilty, changes the oxidation behaviour of the
atmopshere, and can act a respiratory irritant. Hydrocarbons such as
benzene or benzo(a)pyrene which are found in all exhaust emissions
318
Summary and Conclusions
322
Summary and Conclusions
323
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
APPENDIX A
1. In-Vehicles
324
Appendices
tive of the mobility for all cities in the country containing the metro-
politan area. A regression analysis of these data enabled development
of the following model:
Yi 1 = 1.033295 + 0.000066 ( X i1 )
where:
Y i1 = urban vehicular trips per day per person of country i in the
1980s;
and
X i1 = GNP per capita of country i in 1988 U. S. dollars.
Vehicular Country´s
Trips per Capita
per Day GNP
Economic Group Metropolitan Area per Person (1988 US $)
Low Income Bombay, India 0.82 340
Jakarta, Indonesia 0.77 440
Karachi, Pakistan 1.76 350
Laogs, Nigeria 0.30 290
This model was statistically significant (F = 39.313, p < 0.001) for (1,
21) degrees of freedom. The predictive power (r 2 = 0.65) of this model
was respectable. This model was than used to astimate personal mo-
bility by vehicles in urban areas of countries throughout the world.
Studies by Zahavi (1976) also suggested that a crude modal split
astimate (i. e., percent of urban trips by automobile versus public /
paratransit) could also be made based on the extent motorization in a
particular country.
326
Appendices
Table 2. Data on modal split, motorzation and per capita GNP for
selected metropolitan areas.
327
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
2. Roadside
328
Appendices
on this subject. The following equation was used to make these esti-
mates:
Yi 4 = k ( X i 3 ) ( X i 4 )
where:
Y i4 = the number of people exposed to motor vehicle air pollution
in roadside settings of country i in 1990;
k = the proportion of the urban labor force working in roadside
settings ( i. e., 15 to 25 percent in developing countries and 5
to 10 percent in developed countries);
X i3 = the urban population of country i in 1990
and
X i4 = the percentage of the total population of country i in the labor
force in 1988 - 1990.
For lack of data, the assumption was made that the percentage of a
country’s total population in the labor force was similar to the per-
centage of its urban population in the labor force. Data on the percent-
age of the total population in the labor force came from two sources:
(UNDP, 1991; and Wright, 1991).
329
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
REFERENCES
Dimitriou H., Transport and third world city development, Transport Plan-
ning for Third World Cities, H. Dimitriou, ed., Routledge, London, Eng-
land, pp. 1-49, 1990.
Hoffman M., ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts, Pharos Books,
New York, New York, USA, 1991.
Wright J., ed. The Universal Almanac, Andrews and McMeel, New York,
New York, USA, 1992, pp. 345-476 (1991).
330
Appendices
APPENDIX B
331
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
The emission factors which have been used are those that have been
established by the OFEFP (OFEFP, 1988) for Swiss vehicles and by
the INRETS (INRETS, 1991) for the French commuter portion of
the traffic. The influence of the speed of the vehicles on the emis-
sions is calculated using the following relationship:
n=4
F=
∑
n =1
ao + an . vn
F = emission factor
a = parameters
v = speed determined by the traffic model
332
Appendices
A, B, C, D c = parameters
333
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
determined from emission and concentration data for the years 1988
and 1991.
Finally, the annual averages of NO x and NO2 are calculated taking
into account the percentage occurrence of the different categories dur-
ing the year under consideration.
0,616
[NO 2]i = Ki [NO x]i
K i = parameter
2.1. Methodology
1. type of fuel,
2. fuel consumption,
3. concentration of total nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases.
For each 500 x 500 element of the grid, the emissions were calculated
according to the OFEFP method (OFEFP, 1987 a), based on the
number of jobs, the number of inhabitants and the emission coeffi-
cients. Degree-days of heating, defined as the sum of the daily differ-
ences between the temperature of heated buildings (20 oC) and the
average daily temperature, provided is equal to or below 12 oC (OCS,
various years).
334
Appendices
The emission coefficients for total nitrogen oxides per resident and
per workplace are obtained in the following manner:
The city of Geneva owns an important part of the apartment and other
buildings. This enabled the heating service to control all their heating
installations in order to come up with real emission factors. This study
was able to confirm the emission factors that had been calculated
theoretically. The emission coefficient per resident of the apartment
buildings owned by the city of Geneva is 1.7 kg NOx per year. This
difference can be explained by the fact that most of the buildings also
contain offices, shops, etc. for which emissions are more important.
Furthermore, the concentrations of nitrogen oxides measured in ex-
haust gases are higher than those used for the theoretical calculations.
335
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
New and more binding standards governing air protection came into
force on 1 February 1992. This should result in a 40% reduction of
total nitrogen oxides emissions, according to the Confederation.
336
Appendices
2.6.1. Heating
2.6.2. Industry
337
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
REFERENCES
Joumard R. & Lambert J., Evaluation des émissions de polluants par les
transports en France de 1970 à 2010, rapport INRETS No 143, Bron, France
(1991)
338