ETHICS

Reason

 Reason the faculty or process of drawing logical references.

 Reason is the human intelligence exercised upon religious truth whether by way of discovery or
by way of explanation.

Moral Judgement

 Moral judgments are evaluations or opinions formed as to whether some action or inaction,
intention, motive, character trait, or a person as a whole is (more or less) Good or Bad as
measured against some standard of Good.

Impartial Decision

 Impartiality is the idea that the same ethical standards are applied to everyone.

Emotion vs Feelings

 Feelings are sparked by emotions and colored by personal experiences, beliefs, memories, and
thoughts linked to that particular emotion. Strictly speaking, a feeling is the side product of your
brain perceiving an emotion and assigning a certain meaning to it.
 Emotions are physical and instinctive. While they are complex and involve a variety of physical
and cognitive responses (many of which are not well understood), their general purpose is to
produce a specific response to a stimulus.

Ethical Requirement

 Ethical standards are a set of principles established by the founders of the organization to
communicate its underlying moral values. This code provides a framework that can be used as a
reference for decision making processes.

Moral Standard

 Norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or
wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
 Moral standards normally promote “the good”.
 Norms plus values equal moral standards.

Cultural Relativism

 View that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture are equally valid and no
one system is really better than any other.

Culture

 Has t he most profound influence on our definition of morality or what we deem to be moral or
immoral

Dilemma

 A dilemma is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable.

 Moral dilemmas, therefore, are situations where persons, who are called “moral agents”
in ethics, are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of
which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner.

6 Types of Moral Dilemmas

There are several categories of moral dilemmas within philosophical thought. They can seem
complex, but learning the basics of them can help identify them and mould a solution for them:
1. Epistemic moral dilemmas

 “Epistemic” means to do with the knowledge ofsomething.

 More information and knowledge are neededbefore making an informed decision.

2. Ontological moral dilemmas

 ‘‘Ontological’ means the nature of something or the relation between things.

 Options in this dilemma are equal in their moral consequences.
 The individual cannot choose between the two.

3. Self-imposed moral dilemmas

 Caused by the individual’s mistakes ormisconduct.

 Self-inflicted
 Can cause a number of complications when attempting to make a decision.

4. World-imposed moral dilemmas

 Events that we can’t control have created an unavoidable moral conflict

 An individual must resolve a moral dilemma,eventhough the cause of it is beyond
his/her control

5. Obligation moral dilemmas

 We are obliged to opt for more than one choice

 An individual feels obliged to opt for several of the choices in front of them but can only
choose one

6. Prohibition moral dilemmas

 All choices are considered wrong, but we must choose one

 They could be illegal, or just plain immoral.

Freedom

 Idea of reason
 the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.

Freewill

 It is freedom to do what one ought

Moral acts based on

 the object chosen;

 the end sought or the intention;
 the circumstances of the action.Circumstances

Responsibility

 The exercise of freedom always brings with it responsibility before God: in every free act
we either accept or reject God's will.

Intention

 Intention is not limited to directing individual actions, but can guide several actions
toward one and the same purpose; it can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end .
One and the same action can also be inspired by several intentions.
Indirect Voluntary Actions

 An effect can be said to be “willed indirectly” when it is not willed either as an end or a
means for anything else, but it is something that necessarily accompanies the desired
action.

Merit

 Merit refers in general to the recompense owed by a community or a society for the
action of one of its members, experienced either as beneficial or harmful, deserving
reward or punishment.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

 1. Deal with matters that we think can seriously injured or benefit humans, animals, and
the environment.
 2. Not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative or bodies;

Levels of Dilemma

 Level 1: Preconventional level

At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by

authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This
perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is
personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.

Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

- Behaviour is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid

punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation

- Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving

rewards or satisfying personal needs.

 Level 2: Conventional level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual.
However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and social
systems.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

- Behaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win

the affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

- Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now takes into consideration
a larger perspective, that of societal laws. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain
social order that is worth preserving.

 Level 3: Postconventional or principled level

 At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her
own society.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

- Individual rights determine behaviour.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

- According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. At this stage, the
appropriate action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience.

Moral Act

 Any action that results from a deliberate choice between good and evil or between
different degrees of goodness is moral act.

Culture

 Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,

encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
 Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,
encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
 -Culture plays a vital role in shaping the society and the country. A good culture makes it
easy and natural to progress, a collective progressive behaviour is a boon to a country. It
seems like progress is happening automatically.
 -Culture describes a collective way of life, or way of doing things. It is the sum of
attitudes, values, goals, and practices shared by individuals in a group, organization, or
society. Cultures vary over time periods, between countries and geographic regions, and
among groups and organizations.
 -Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and standards that speak to how people
should behave and interact with others.

Kinds of Norms

 Folkways are traditional behavior or way of life of a particular community or group of

people.
 Mores are norms of morality
 Taboos, a culture absolutely forbids like incest