Reproducing Ancient Perfume

Introduction
The purpose of this project was to find a way to produce a pleasant smelling, long lasting
perfume. We used mostly natural materials and we used all natural bases, such as oil,
lard, and water, because Cleopatra and the Ancient Egyptians, whose perfumes we tried
to recreate, would not have had access to synthetically created materials. We
hypothesized that the lard’s strong chemical bonds would retain the scent most
effectively and that the base fat would need to be heated to a high temperature to produce
a strong odor. The climate of Ancient Egypt, when Cleopatra made her perfumes, was
very hot, so we tried to reproduce these high temperatures. We believed that using our
own methods as well as Cleopatra’s ancient recipes, we would be able to reproduce
pleasantly fragrant perfumes.

Background
The earliest perfumes, dating from 1600 BC, were made using oil as a main ingredient to
shield the skin from the harmful Egyptian sun (1, 2). One method of making these oils
was to expose the desired plant matter to fat and let the oil from the plant get transferred
into the fat, then remove the oil from the fat using alcohol (3). These perfumes were
made with both animal fat and vegetable oils (2). While both are esters of fatty acids and
alcohol glycerol, animal fats have less unsaturated fatty acids than vegetables oils, such
as olive oil, chemically referred to as oleic acid as seen in Figure 1,
which means that they have fewer double bonds.

Figure 1: Oleic acid

We can tell how saturated a fat is by its iodine number: a lower number indicates more
saturated fat, because fewer moles of Iodine were added across a double bond. The
iodine number is the mole to mole ratio of how many iodine molecules it takes to saturate
the fat molecules (5). It only takes one iodine molecule to break the double bonds and
completely saturate ethene, as seen in Figure 2, so the iodine number for ethene would be
1.

Figure 2: The addition of iodine breaks the double bond to saturate ethene
Lard, for example, is relatively saturated, with an iodine number of 45-70, but oils like
olive oil and peanut oil are more unsaturated, with iodine numbers of 75-95 and 85-100.
Fats such as these, when mixed with alcohol, make up something known as esters, which
are often used in perfumes because of their strong fragrant odors (4). When oleic acid is
mixed with methanol, the ester known as methyl-olenolate is formed, as shown in Figure
3 (4, 5).

Figure 3: Methyl-olenolate is produced from oleic acid and methanol

The ancient Egyptians liked to mix these fats together with natural fragrances such as
aloe, citron, henna, lily, peppermint, and rose (1). Perfumes were made like this until
1320, when the Italians began to perfect the technique of distillation. The chemical
makeup of perfume changed, making it “a mixture of twenty-two to thirty percent
essential oil in ethyl alcohol, with a slight amount of water”, as can be seen in Figure 4
(2).

Figure 4: Ethyl alcohol

CH3CH2OH

In 1889, Guerlain introduced the first of the types of perfumes that we are familiar with
today (6). In modern times, unlike in ancient Egypt, only about 5% of ingredients used in
perfumes are derived straight from nature (3). Instead, many synthetics have been created
by chemists, such as scents for flowers like freesia, lilac, and lily, which cannot be
captured using natural methods (6). Chemists are able to analyze and attempt to
reproduce natural fragrances by capturing the scent of an organic material using a
mechanism known as Headspace equipment, a glass contraption resembling a dinner
plate cover connected to tubes, that removes the scent without hurting the substance.
Synthetic scents can be used to mimic all types of the fragrance, from the initial scent,
known as the head note, often reproduced using aliphatic aldehydes and monoterpene
esters, to the bulk of the scent, referred to as the heart note, and the most subtle elements
of the fragrance, called the base note (3).

Rose fragrances, which come in 17 different scents and are a primary element of over
75% of perfumes, can also be reproduced synthetically (1). The natural aroma of roses is
2-phenylethanol, seen in Figure 5, but it can be synthetically reproduced using geraniol
and citronellol (3).

Figure 5: 2- phenylethanol

When made naturally, 15 mL of rose oil requires 30,000 roses, usually the Bulgarian rose
or the cabbage rose, or the celestial rose, which has the most authentic scent (8). Essential
oils, such as Rose oil, are generally produced by the process of steam distillation, where
the water is evaporated off until just the oil is left, except for some particularly fragile
flowers (6). Any plant that has an aroma will contain essential oils, which travel around
the interior of the plant and protect it by acting as an antiseptic, insect repellant, and
protector from heat (8). Certain fragrances are also reputed to kill bacteria (3). Essential
oils are generally separated by how quickly the scent is lifted into the air and dispersed,
known as oil’s volatility, or how easily it evaporates (whether it maintains its scent or
breaks down quickly). They can also be classified by the length of time that the fragrance
worn upon the body can be perceived, which is known as the relative tenacity (6).

The molecules that make up essential oils can enter the bloodstream in anywhere from
20-70 minutes, by either the scent-vibration impulse, the nasal mucous membranes, the
lungs, or the skin using the lymph and capillary bloodstreams (8).

Procedures

Experiment 1: Testing olive oil with flower petals

1. We measured out 100 mL of Bertolli olive oil using a 100 mL graduated cylinder,
and poured the oil into a small stock bottle.
 2. Next, in a small bowl, we mixed in 1 cup of rose petals with the oil.
3. We let the mixture sit in a sunny place at room temperature for 60 minutes, but
after 30 minutes, we stirred the mixture with a wire whisk, pushing the flower
petals to the bottom of the bowl. We then returned it to the sunny place to
continue soaking for another 30 minutes.
4. When the mixture was done soaking, we poured it through a layer of cheesecloth
into a plastic cup.
5. Then, we covered the cups with laboratory film for easy transportation.
6. We repeated steps 1-5 using Olitalia grape seed oil, Wesson pure sunflower oil,
and Hollywood peanut oil instead of the olive oil.
7. We smelled the perfumed oils and recorded our observations of the strength of
their odors.
8. Finally, we repeated steps 1-7 using 1/2 cup of hyacinth flowers in the place of
rose petals.

Experiment 2: Testing heated oil and lard with rose petals

1. We measured out 1 cup of olive oil and 1/2 cup of rose petals.
2. We poured the oil into a beaker and heated it in a water bath until it reached 40°
C, using a hot plate and a thermometer.
3. We then poured the heated oil and the rose petals into a blender, and blended
them until they were completely mixed.
4. We allowed the mixture to cool until it could be handled and poured it through
cheesecloth into a plastic cup.
5. We repeated steps 1-4 using grape seed oil and lard instead of olive oil.
6. Finally, we observed the odors and their strengths of the different products.

Experiment 3: Testing alcohol with hyacinth petals

1. We measured out 1 cup of ethanol alcohol and 1/2 cup of hyacinth petals.
2. We poured the alcohol into a beaker, and heated it until it reached 15° C, using a
hot plate and a thermometer.
3. We poured the heated alcohol into a juicer along with the hyacinth petals, and
blended them until they were completely mixed.
4. We poured the mixture into a beaker and heated the mixture until it reached 20°
C, using a hot plate and a thermometer.
5. Then, we allowed the mixture to cool until it could be handled, and poured it
through cheesecloth into a plastic cup.
6. W observed the odor and its strength, and saved the flower remnants for use in the
next procedure.

Experiment 4: Testing diluted alcohol with hyacinth petals

1. First, we put 1/2 cup of hyacinth petals in 1/2 cup of ethyl alcohol through a
juicer.
2. Then, we took the juiced flowers and ground them using a pestle and mortar.
3. We added 10 mL of water and poured the mixture into a beaker.
4. We heated it on a hot plate until it reached 50° C.
5. Then, we allowed the mixture to cool, stirring it occasionally.
 6. We let it sit for 48 hours in an incubator.
7. Then, we observed the odor.

Experiment 5: Testing diluted alcohol and grape seed oil with lilies
1. We crushed 2 Lilly flowers using a mortar and pestle, and poured 1/4 cup of grape
seed Oil into a beaker, and a mixture of 1/4-cup ethanol and 1/4-cup water into
another beaker.
2. We evenly divided the crushed lilies between the 2 beakers, and placed laboratory
film over the tops of the beakers.
3. We placed the two beakers in an incubator, set at a temperature of around 35°C,
and let them sit for a period of 48 hours.
4. We removed the two beakers from the incubator and observed their odors.

Experiment 6: Testing water and grape seed oil with boronea heather
1. First, we measured out 1/4 cup of boronea heather flowers using a measuring cup.
2. Then, we poured the flowers into a juicer and juiced them.
3. We poured the juiced flower remains into a pestle and mortar and ground them
until they became very soft and all of the oils were out of the petals.
4. We measured out approximately 10 mL of water using a graduated cylinder and
mixed the water with the ground flowers.
5. Then, we thoroughly mixed them together.
6. We measured out 1/2 cup grape seed oil using a measuring up and poured it into a
beaker.
7. We poured the flower and water mixture into the oil, and heated it until it reached
50° C.
8. Then, we removed it from the heat and allowed it to cool, stirring occasionally.
9. We let it sit for 24 hours and observed the odor.

Experiment 7: Testing lard with rosemary

1. To begin, we placed one large teaspoon full of lard on the indented side of a large
watch glass.
2. We spread the lard over the watch glass until it was dispersed evenly, covering
the majority of the glass face.
3. Then, we placed a thin layer of rosemary over the lard.
4. We put another large watch glass over the one with the lard and rosemary, with
the indented side up.
5. We pressed down, squishing the rosemary and lard between the two watch
glasses.
6. Then, we let it sit overnight.
7. We added more rosemary, and let it sit for another 24 hours.
8. We repeated this one more time, so that the rosemary would change two times in
all.

Experiment 8: Testing different methods of releasing the essential oils in boronea

heather
Part 1: Testing diluted vodka with boronea heather
 1. First, we measured out 1/2 cup of boronea heather into a measuring cup.
2. We put the flowers through a juicer and collected the remnants of the petals.
3. We poured them into a pestle and mortar and ground them until they were soft
and fragrant.
4. We added 30 mL of vodka to the ground flowers and continued to grind them
until the vodka picked up a little of the color from the flowers.
5. Then, we poured the mixture from the pestle and mortar through cheesecloth into
a beaker and separated the flowers from the liquid.
Note: It was necessary to save the flower remains.
6. We boiled 100 mL of water in a beaker.
7. We added the flower and vodka liquid mixture to the boiling water in the beaker
and put it back on the heat for 60 seconds.
8. We removed the beaker from the heat and stirred it until it cooled.
9. We let it sit for 48 hours.
10. Then, we observed the odor and how long it lasted on skin.
Part 2: Testing product of Part 1 with grape seed oil and boiled
1. We measured out 40 mL of the final product from Part 1.
2. We measure out 10 mL of grape seed oil.
3. Then, we mix the two together in a beaker.
4. We place the beaker on heat and boiled off the water.
5. We let it sit for 48 hours.
6. Then, we observed the odor and how long it lasted on skin.
Part 3: Testing remnants of Part 1 with grape seed oil
1. We measure out 8.21 grams of the flower remains from Part 1.
2. We placed them in a beaker.
3. Then, we measure out 20 mL of grape seed oil.
4. We added the grape seed oil to the flowers in the beaker.
5. Then, we let it sit for 48 hours.
6. We observed the odor and how long it lasted on skin.

Experiment 9: Testing lard with boronea heather

1. To begin, we placed one large teaspoon full of lard on the indented side of a large
watch glass.
2. We spread the lard over the watch glass until it was dispersed evenly, covering
the majority of the glass face.
3. Then, we placed a thin layer of boronea heather over the lard.
4. We put another large watch glass over the one with the lard and boronea heather,
with the indented side up.
5. We pressed down, squishing the boronea heather and lard between the two watch
glasses.
6. Then, we let it sit overnight.
7. We added more boronea heather, and let it sit for another 24 hours.
8. We repeated this one more time, so that the boronea heather was changed two
times in all.
 Results

Table 1: Perfume Ingredients

Perfumes Ingredients
1 100 mL olive oil, 2 cups rose petals
2 100 mL grape seed oil, 2 cups rose petals
3 100 mL sunflower oil, 2 cups rose petals
4 100 mL peanut oil, 2 cups rose petals
5 100 mL olive oil, 1/2 cup hyacinth petals
6 100 mL grape seed oil, 1/2 cup hyacinth petals
7 100 mL sunflower oil, 1/2 cup hyacinth petals
8 100 mL peanut oil, 1/2 cup hyacinth petals
9 1 cup olive oil, 1/2 cup rose petals
10 1 cup grape seed oil, 1/2 cup rose petals
11 1 cup lard, 1/2 cup rose petals
12 1 cup ethanol, 1/2 cup hyacinth
13 1/4 cup grape seed oil, 1 lily
14 1/4 cup ethanol, 1/4 cup water, 1 lily
15 1/2 cup ethanol, 10 mL water, 1/2 cup hyacinth petals
16 1 tsp. Lard, covered with rosemary (twice)
17 30 mL vodka, 100 mL water, 1/2 cup boronea heather
40 mL of product of Perfume 17, 10 mL grape seed oil, heated to a
18 boil
19 8.21 g flower remnants from Perfume 17, 20 mL grape seed oil
20 1 tsp. Lard, covered with boronea heather (twice)

Table 1 shows the different ingredients of each of the 20 various perfumes that we
attempted to produce during our project. It was important to refer to these differing
ingredients when viewing the graphs so that we could watch for trends of the same initial
ingredients.
 Figure

6
Figure 1 shows the comparison of all 20 attempted perfumes on the basis of how long
their individual odor was potent as compared to the rest of the perfume samples. The
highest ratings were given to the perfumes whose odors lasted the longest. While a
majority of the perfumes exhibited no lasting odor, perfumes 16 and 17 displayed
particularly long lasting odors, followed by perfumes 18 and 20.
5
Figure 2: P
Duration of
4
Odor Rating
10

3
8

2
6

1
4
Figure 2 is a representation of a comparison of all 20 perfumes based on the pleasantness
of their odors. Those perfumes with pleasant odors received a positive rating, while those
perfumes with unpleasant odors were given a negative rating. Perfumes 16 and 17 were
the most pleasant smelling, with smell ratings of 9, and perfume 11 had the most
unpleasant odor, with a perfume rating of -5.

Figur

10

Figure 3 shows the comparison of all 20 perfumes bases on how strong their scent was.
7
The scent rated was that of the desired perfume ingredient, such as rose or hyacinth, not
of any other scents related to production process of the perfume. All except for 5 of the
perfumes exhibited a significant strength of odor, with perfumes 16 and 20 having the
strongest desired odor, followed by perfumes 17 and 11.

Discussion 6
The intent of this project was to produce a perfume with a pleasant and long lasting
Scent
aroma. To do this, we used many different ingredients, as can be seen in Table 1, as well
as various production methods to attempt to diversify our range of perfumes in order to
Strength 5
obtain positive results. Once all 20 perfumes had been created, employing a myriad of
different bases, shown in Table 1, such as lard or olive oil, and original scents, such as
Rating
rosemary or hyacinth, we compared them against one another and rated them based on
how long the perfumed odor lasted, how pleasant the odor emitted was, and how strong
the desired odor was in comparison to the overall final odor, as seen in Figures 1, 2, and
3. 4

3
Upon observation and comparison of these three different charts and their respective
ratings of each perfume, and referral back to the original perfume content in Table 1, I
noticed that perfumes 16, 17, and 20 were consistently rated the highest in each area of
comparison, often rated significantly higher than the other perfumes, as can be seen in
Figures 1, 2, and 3. Perfumes 16 and 17 were given an 8 for duration of the perfumed
odor, which was the highest rating given overall, as can be seen in Figure 1. Perfume 20
followed with a rating of 7. Perfume 20 was again rated just below perfumes 16 and 17 in
the comparison of the pleasantness of their odor, receiving an 8 while the other two were
given 9, as shown in Figure 2. Finally, referring to Figure 3, when all twenty perfumes
were rated based on the strength of their scent, perfume 20 was tied with perfume 16 at a
10, while perfume 17 was given a 9.

It is because these three perfumes were consistently rated among the highest of all of the
perfumes tested that we can assume a trend. Referring back to Table 1, we notice that
perfumes 16 and 20 were made in a very similar manner, using a combination of lard and
either rosemary or boronea heather, then being compressed together and left to sit for a
few days. Because of the positive results from these perfumes, especially when compared
to the other perfumes that we produced during this project, we are led to assume that this
was an effective method of perfume production. Also, although perfume 17 rated highly
in all three comparisons as well, perfumes 16 and 20 were the only two highly rated
perfumes made using the same base ingredient and production method, leading us to
believe that perfumes made by pressing a scented plant material into lard and letting it sit
are the best and most effective when it comes to a strong, long lasting, and pleasant odor.

Perfume 17 was also rated very highly in all three comparisons, although one notable
difference between this and other produced perfumes was that it used ethanol, as found in
vodka, rather than an fatty product, such as lard or oil, as its base, along with the natural
scent. However, as can be seen in Table 1 and Figure 2, other ethanol based perfumes,
such as perfumes 11 and 14, were not rated with nearly so pleasant a smell. Therefore,
because this particular perfume did not share particular ingredients and production
methods with another highly rated perfume, we cannot assume anything definite about
either the ingredients or the production method.

At the beginning of this experiment, we hypothesized that not only would be able to
produce a pleasant smelling, long lasting perfume, but that lard would be the most
effective ingredient for doing this, and heating the base fat the best form of production.
Our hypothesis that we would be able to produce a pleasant smelling, long lasting
perfume was correct, as well as our initial hypothesis about the use of lard as a base, as
can be seen from our positive results with perfumes 16 and 20, which use lard as a base.
However, our hypothesis that it would be necessary to heat the oil or other base fats to
produce the desired type of perfume was not proved. In fact, many of the perfumes
produced by heating the base fat ended up getting very low ratings on the pleasantness of
their odors, as can be seen in Figure 2.

Overall, we seemed to have a successful project, creating 20 different perfumes, at least

three of which rated highly in all three different criteria. However, we believe that future
students can study this subject further. There are many questions left to be answered and
many areas that we did not get a chance to study, such as whether citrus fruits make good
perfume scents, or whether there are different perfume production methods that we did
not think of. Also, it would be interesting to monitor the effect of light and temperature
exposure on perfume production.

Bibliography
1. N. Groom, The Perfume Handbook (Chapman & Hall, London, 1992), pp. 74, 107,
132, 209.
2. E. Morris, Scents of Time (Bulfinch Press/ Little, Brown and Company, Boston,
1999), pp. 8 19.
3. A. Fortineau, Journal of Chemical Education 81, 45-50 (2004).
4. J. Hill, D. Kolb, Chemistry for Changing Times (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, ed. 9, 2001), pp. 192, 253, 414-416, 516-517.
5. L. Fruen, personal communication, (2004 Apr. 22).
6. M. Aftel, Essence and Alchemy (North Point Press, New York, 2001), pp. 38, 50, 56,
70, 100.
7. L. Fruen, “Cleopatra’s Perfume Factory and Day Spa”, unpublished manuscript.
8. L. Bremness, Fragrant Herbal (Bulfinch Press/ Little, Brown and Company, Boston,
1998), pp. 10, 239.