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Q1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of
research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c)
Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research. (10 marks).
It is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme
caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a
perceived problem does not actually exist.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the
results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and
"when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".
Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.
It also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the
population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions
who, what, where, when and how...
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot
describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a
causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive
research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often
the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey
investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may
follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of
the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But
there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the
people around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that
disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.
Q2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a)
Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 errors c) Two tailed and one
tailed test d) Parametric and non parametric tests. (10 marks).
Ans: a) Null and alternative hypothesis- In the context of statistical analysis, we often
talk null and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about
its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good,
then this assumption is termed as null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the
method A is superior, it is alternative hypothesis. Symbolically presented as:
Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the
hypothesis mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that the
population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can express
as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0,
then we are accepting Ha. For H0: µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible
alternative hypotheses as follows:
b) Type 1 and type 2 errors- In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically
two types of errors that researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may
accept H0 when it is not true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as
Type II. In other words, Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have
been accepted & Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been
rejected. Type I error is donated by á (alpha), also called as level of significance of
test; and Type II error is donated by (beta).
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the
level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there
are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I
error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the
maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced
simultaneously. There is a tradeoff in business situations, decision-makers decide the
appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types
of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that
should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire
group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one
should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of
users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should
prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I error in one’s
testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one must make
all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error.
c) Two tailed and one tailed test- In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms
are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null
hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized
value of the mean of the population. Such a test inappropriate when we have
If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of the
rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of the
acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates
significantly from µ, in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are
situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be
used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean in either lower than or higher
than some hypothesized value.
d) Parametric and non parametric tests- The hypothesis testing determines the validity
of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose
between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the
value of the population of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on
the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true
or false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of
significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as:
Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which
we draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample
size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must
hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher
cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical
methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests
do not depend on any assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides,
most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or original data, where as parametric test
require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric
test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I &
Type II error.
Ans: Economic and business variables are related. For instance, demand and supply of a
commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls.
Demand for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand and price are
inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when
its price rises. Supply of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply and
price are directly related or positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates the
relationship between two such variables in which changes in the value of one variable is
accompanies with a change in the value of other variable.
According to L.R. Connor, “if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that
movements in the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the
other(s) they are said to be correlated”.
W.I. King defined “Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there
exists some casual connection”.
The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship
between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the
relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in
the value of one variable result in a corresponding change in the value of other variable.
Heights and weights of a group of people, age of husbands and wives etc., are examples
of bi-variant data that change together.
Although, the term correlation is used in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more
variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause and effect relation. Even a high
degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause and
effect relationship between them.
1. Cause and effect relationship: Heat and temperature are cause and effect variable. Heat
is the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the temperature.
2. Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance, price
of rice and price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any cause and
effect relation between price of rice and price of sugar.
3. Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is either a
cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases when price rise
due to increased demand.
4. The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show
correlation between wages and productivity. That is, higher wage leading to lower
productivity. In real life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to chance.
The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship and it does
not necessarily signify a cause and effect relationship between the variables.
Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique.
What are the characteristics of a good sample?(10 marks).
Ans: A part of the population is known as sample. The method consisting of the selecting
for study, a portion of the ‘universe’ with a view to draw conclusions about the ‘universe’
or ‘population’ is known as sampling. A statistical sample ideally purports to be a
miniature model or replica of the collectivity or the population constituted of all the items
that the study should principally encompass, that is, the items which potentially hold
promise of affording information relevant to the purpose of a given research.
Sampling helps in time and cost saving. It also helps in checking their accuracy. But on
the other hand it demands exercise of great care caution; otherwise the results obtained
may be incorrect or misleading.
(1) Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to
generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an appropriate
probability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a particular type of
probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey and the size and the
nature of the population under study.
Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and
primary sources to gather the required information. (10 marks).
Ans: For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and
secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary
sources of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data
related to human beings consist of:
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual
data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based
on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The
relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a
study.
Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the
facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are
analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and
tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific
process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of
relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies.
The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that
have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on
brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior
from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first hand
information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing
etc.
Advantage of Primary Data
• It is original source of data
• It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.
• It flexible to the advantage of researcher.
• Extensive research study is based of primary data
In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary
data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological
studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social
problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls,
attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-
awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management
studies etc.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’ while
a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the
method.
For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are
(a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation and
(f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent
sections in the later chapters.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the
firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register
of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection
and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by
others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using
them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of
research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared
with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested
against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research
project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies,
Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical
studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports
of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public
Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Q6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a
leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order
to ascertain reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study; define the
research problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study. (10
marks).
Ans: Generally, there is a significant relationship between the race or ethnic group and
the language medium of the newspapers. Generally, Kannada newspapers are mostly read
by the kannadigas respondents, Tamil newspapers by the tamilians etc. However, there is
no significant relationship in the readership of English newspapers whereby they are read
by all the ethnic groups.
Title:
Reader’s habits and interests in Bangalore
Research Problem:
To ascertain the reader habits and interests and to increase news paper circulation in
Bangalore City.
2. How much time do you spend reading web pages each day?
a. I don’t read web pages.
b. Less than two hours.
c. Two to four hours.
d. Five or more hours.
4. Have you ever pretended that you read a book when you hadn’t?
a. Yes.
b. No.
6. Have you ever pretended that you read a web page when you hadn’t?
a. Yes.
b. No.
7. What is the last book that you read? If you haven’t read a book, write “Not
Applicable.”
ASSIGNMENTS
Subject code: MB0034
(4 credits)
Set 2
16
Research Methodology
Marks 60
SUBJECT NAME: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Q1. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of
distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study. (10 marks).
Ans:
Q2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion? (10 marks).
Ans:
Q3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research
design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and
diagnostic studies. (10 marks).
Ans:
Q4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific
examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research. (10 marks).
Ans: In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a
complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is
needed to unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-depth study of a firm’s top sales
people and comparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to
stellar performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and
willingness to deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of
enquiry, might prove more productive.
Q5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or
interviewing would be more appropriate. (10 marks).
Ans:
Q6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most
appropriate? Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections. (10
marks).
Ans:
17