NASA News

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Washington . D C 20546
AC 202 755-8370

ForRelease 10 a.m. EDT. TUESDAY.

May 9 . 1 9 7 8

Press Kit Project P i o n e e r Venus

RELEASE NO: 78-68

Contents

GENERAL RELEASE .................................. 1-11

M I S S I O N PROFILE .................................. 12-29

P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r M i s s i o n .................. 1 2 - 2 0
............... 2 0 - 2 9
P i o n e e r V e n u s Multiprobe Mission

THE PLANET VENUS ................................. 30-44

MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS ...................... 45-46

HISTORICAL DISCOVERIES ABOUT VENUS ............... 4 7 - 4 9

EXPLORATION O F VENUS BY SPACECRAFT ............... 5 0 - 5 1

THE PIONEER VENUS SPACECRAFT ..................... 52-66

T h e O r b i t e r S p a c e c r a f t ......................... 57-62
T h e M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t ...................... 62-66

VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES ......................... 67-80

T h e L a r g e Probe ................................ 67-74
The S m a l l P r o b e s............................... 74-80
 ii

S C I E N T I F I C INVESTIGATIONS ........................ 81-100

Orbiter ........................................ 81-89
O r b i t e r R a d i o Science .......................... 89-92
L a r g e Probe E x p e r i m e n t s ........................ 92-96
L a r g e and S m a l l I n s t r u m e n t s .................... 96-97
S m a l l Probe E x p e r i m e n t s ........................ 98-99
M u l t i p r o b e R a d i o S c i e n c e E x p e r i m e n t s ........... 9 9 - 1 0 0
P R I N C I P A L I N V E S T I G A T O R S AND S C I E N T I F I C
INSTRUMENTS .................................... 101-104

LAUNCH V E H I C L E ................................... 105-106

LAUNCH F L I G H T SEQUENCE ........................... 106

LAUNCH V E H I C L E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S ................... 107

ATLAS CENTAUR F L I G H T SEQUENCE ( A C - 5 0 ) ............ 108

LAUNCH O P E R A T I O N S ................................ 109

M I S S I O N OPERATIONS ............................... 109-111

DATA RETURN. COMMAND AND TRACKING ................ 112-115

P I O N E E R VENUS TEAM ............................... 116-118

CONTRACTORS ...................................... 118-121

VENUS S T A T I S T I C S ................................. 122

NOTE TO E D I T O R S :

T h i s press k i t covers t h e l a u n c h and c r u i s e phases of b o t h

t h e P i o n e e r V e n u s O r b i t e r and the Multiprobe s p a c e c r a f t .

Much of t h e m a t e r i a l i s a l s o p e r t i n e n t t o t h e V e n u s e n c o u n t e r .

b u t a n u p d a t e d press k i t w i l l be i s s u e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e

a r r i v a l a t t h e planet i n D e c e m b e r 1978 .
NfEANews
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Washington, D.C.20546
AC 202 755-8370

For Release:
N i c h o l a s Panagakos 1 0 a . m EDT, TUESDAY,
H e a d q u a r t e r s , Washington, D .C. May 9 , 1 9 7 8
(Phone: 20 2/75 5-3 6 8 0 1

Peter Waller
A m e s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f .
(Phone: 415/9 6 5-509 1)

RELEASE NO: 78-68

PIONEER VENUS 1 LAUNCH SET FOR MAY 20

NASA i s p r e p a r i n g t o l a u n c h t h e f i r s t o f t w o s p a c e c r a f t

toward Venus t h i s month for a d e t a i l e d s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of

t h a t cloud-shrouded p l a n e t .

P i o n e e r Venus 1 w i l l b e l a u n c h e d a b o u t May 20 from N A S A ' s

Kennedy S p a c e C e n t e r , F l a . , a t o p an A t l a s Centaur rocket.

The s e c o n d s p a c e c r a f t , P i o n e e r Venus 2 , w i l l b e l a u n c h e d

toward t h e p l a n e t t h r e e months l a t e r , a b o u t Aug. 7 .

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P i o n e e r Venus 1, a n o r b i t e r , w i l l r e a c h Venus on Dec. 4 ,

1 9 7 8 , and P i o n e e r Venus 2 , a m u l t i p r o b e s p a c r a f t , w i l l a r r i v e

f i v e d a y s l a t e r a f t e r s p l i t t i n g i n t o a b u s and f o u r atmos-

p h e r i c e n t r y probes, 13 m i l l i o n kilometers ( 8 m i l l i o n m i l e s )

and 20 d a y s o u t from t h e p l a n e t .

The f l i g h t s may s h e d new l i g h t on s o m e of t h e most

p u z z l i n g q u e s t i o n s i n p l a n e t a r y s c i e n c e , s u c h as t h e f o l l o w i n g :

a Why do t w o p l a n e t s w i t h about t h e same mass, p r o b a b l y

formed o u t o f s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s and s i t u a t e d a t comparable

d i s t a n c e s from t h e Sun, h a v e a t m o s p h e r e s t h a t h a v e e v o l v e d

so d i f f e r e n t l y ?

0 Why i s t h e s u r f a c e o f Venus baked by a s e a r i n g h e a t ,

while E a r t h l u x u r i a t e s i n a climate f r i e n d l y t o l i f e ?

The answers t o b o t h of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s depend on a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t g o v e r n t h e e v o l u t i o n of

a p l a n e t ' s atmosphere.

I n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d by t h e t w o i n s t r u m e n t - l a d e n P i o n e e r s

a t Venus may a l s o h e l p u s l e a r n more a b o u t t h e f o r c e s t h a t

d r i v e t h e w e a t h e r on o u r own p l a n e t .

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The f l i g h t s are t h e f i r s t o n e s d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y t o a

s t u d y of t h e a t m o s p h e r e and w e a t h e r of a n o t h e r p l a n e t on a

g l o b a l scale. They w i l l employ t h e l a r g e s t number of v e h i c l e s

e v e r u s e d i n s u c h s t u d i e s , and make measurements a t t h e

g r e a t e s t number of l o c a t i o n s .

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The f l i g h t s a l s o w i l l seek t o l e a r n more a b o u t t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of V e n u s ' s u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e ,

a s w e l l as t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e . They w i l l s t u d y t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n s of t h e s e r e g i o n s w i t h t h e s o l a r wind -- the continuous

stream of i o n s a n d e l e c t r o n s f l o w i n g outward from t h e Sun --

and t h e s o l a r m a g n e t i c and e l e c t r i c f i e l d s .

C i r c l i n g t h e p l a n e t f o r a t l e a s t e i g h t months, t h e

P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r w i l l make t h e l o n g e s t o b s e r v a t i o n s

y e t of Venus. I t w i l l b e t h e f i r s t U.S. spacecraft t o orbit

the planet.

To r e a c h Venus, t h e O r b i t e r w i l l f l y m o r e t h a n h a l f way

a r o u n d t h e Sun o n i t s seven-month j o u r n e y , some 4 8 2 . 8 m i l l i o n

km ( 3 0 0 m i l l i o n m i . ) , traveling outside the Earth's orbit for

the f i r s t t h r e e months, and i n s i d e i t f o r t h e l a s t f o u r months.

T h i s wide-swinging f l i g h t p a t h w i l l a l l o w a slower approach

t o t h e p l a n e t , p e r m i t t i n g a smaller o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n motor
and more s p a c e c r a f t w e i g h t .

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A t Venus, the O r b i t e r w i l l follow a highly-inclined

( 7 5 - d e g r e e ) , 24-hour o r b i t p l a n n e d so t h a t s p a c e c r a f t e v e n t s

a r e t i m e d w i t h t h o s e on E a r t h . A t periapsis (orbital low

p o i n t ) , t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l d i p a s low a s 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . )

a l t i t u d e , e n t e r i n g Venus' t h i n u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . Its o r b i t a l

h i g h p o i n t o r a p o a p s i s w i l l b e 6 6 , 6 0 0 km ( 4 1 , 0 0 0 m i . ) from

the planet.

The O r b i t e r w i l l make d a i l y p i c t u r e s in u l t r a v i o l e t

l i g h t of Venus' clouds f o r s t u d i e s of t h e i r four-day r o t a t i o n .

E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l u s e p r e c i s e o r b i t measurements t o

c h a r t Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of p l a n e t a r y

s h a p e and d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s . The 1 2 O r b i t e r s c i e n t i f i c

i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l make a v a r i e t y of o t h e r r e m o t e - s e n s i n g and

d i r e c t measurements o f t h e p l a n e t ' s atmosphere and s u r r o u n d -

i n g environment.

The O r b i t e r ' s p r i m a r y m i s s i o n of e i g h t months i n Venus

o r b i t w i l l c o v e r o n e c o m p l e t e r o t a t i o n of Venus on i t s a x i s

-- 243 E a r t h days. I t c i r c l e s t h e Sun i n 2 2 5 d a y s .

The O r b i t e r ' s companion s p a c e c r a f t , t h e M u l t i p r o b e , i s

made up of a t r a n s p o r t e r Bus, a L a r g e P r o b e and t h r e e i d e n t i -

c a l smaller p r o b e s .

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These s p a c e c r a f t , i n c l u d i n g t h e Bus, w i l l e n t e r a t

p o i n t s s p r e a d o v e r Venus' e n t i r e E a r t h - f a c i n g h e m i s p h e r e ,

about 1 0 , 0 0 0 km ( 6 , 0 0 0 m i . ) a p a r t . The Bus Obtain

d a t a on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e b e f o r e b u r n -

i n g up. T h e o t h e r f o u r p r o b e s w i l l measure t h e a t m o s p h e r e

from t o p t o bottom a s t h e y f l y down t o Venus' searing sur-

face. T h e probes are n o t designed t o s u r v i v e a f t e r impact.

S c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e coordinated atmospheric

m i s s i o n s combined w i t h s i m i l a r o n e s t o Mars, J u p i t e r and

o t h e r p l a n e t s , w i l l l e a d t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of atmos-

p h e r i c mechanisms i n g e n e r a l . S t u d i e s of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s

of t e m p e r a t u r e s , p r e s s u r e s , c o m p o s i t i o n , c l o u d s and atmos-

p h e r i c dynamics d i f f e r e n t from E a r t h ' s s h o u l d p r o v i d e i n s i g h t s

i n t o i m p o r t a n t mechanisms which a r e o f t e n p r o m i n e n t on j u s t

one p l a n e t . Such f i n d i n g s may h e l p u s b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d

t h e E a r t h a t m o s p h e r e and i t s complex w e a t h e r machine.

S c i e n t i s t s t h i n k Venus may be a n u n u s u a l l y good p l a c e

t o s t u d y t h e mechanics of a t m o s p h e r e s b e c a u s e t h e p l a n e t
r o t a t e s s l o w l y and t h e r e a r e no o c e a n s . The a t m o s p h e r e a p p e a r s

t o b e a r e l a t i v e l y " s i m p l e " w e a t h e r machine, and t h e i m p o r t a n t

atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n motions appear t o b e g l o b a l . Hence,

c o n t i n u o u s measurements f r o m o r b i t , combined w i t h t h o s e of

t h e p r o b e s from many p o i n t s i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , c o u l d p r o v i d e

a t l e a s t a rough p i c t u r e of Venusian w e a t h e r p r o c e s s e s .

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The O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t , l i k e t h e M u l t i p r o b e b u s , con-

s i s t s p r i n c i p a l l y of a s p i n - s t a b i l i z e d , 2.4-meter (8-foot)-

diameter, f l a t c y l i n d e r c o n t a i n i n g m o s t s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s .

Above t h e c y l i n d e r , on a 1-m (lO-ft.)maSt aligned with t h e

s p i n a x i s , i s t h e d e s p u n , narrow-beam, p a r a b o l i c d i s h a n t e n n a .

The d i s h i s u s e d f o r h i g h - s p e e d d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n and f a c e s

toward t h e E a r t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e m i s s i o n , w h i l e t h e s p a c e c r a f t

spins beneath it.

W i t h i n t h e c y l i n d e r i s a t h e r m a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d equipment

compartment, which h o u s e s t h e 1 2 O r b i t e r s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s ,

a m i l l i o n - b i t d a t a memory and t h e communications a n d d a t a -

handling systems. O t h e r O r b i t e r s y s t e m s a r e t h e Sun and s t a r

s e n s o r s f o r s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n ; t h r u s t e r s t o make s p i n -

r a t e , o r i e n t a t i o n and course corrections; the solid-fuel

o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n motor; and t h e b a t t e r y and power s y s t e m .

The e x t e r i o r o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s c o a t e d w i t h p o w e r - g e n e r a t i n g

solar cells. A 4.6-m (15-ft.) boom e x t e n d s r a d i a l l y outward

t o p l a c e two magnetometer s e n s o r s beyond s p a c e c r a f t m a g n e t i c

fields .

The O r b i t e r ' s l a u n c h w e i g h t is a b o u t 580 k i l o g r a m s ( 1 , 2 8 0

pounds) w i t h 4 5 kg ( L O O lb.) o f s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . Weight

i n o r b i t a f t e r m o t o r b u r n w i l l be 3 7 2 kg (820 l b . ) .

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The O r b i t e r ' s d e s t i n a t i o n , Venus, i s t h e s e c o n d p l a n e t

from t h e Sun, and t h e c l o s e s t o n e t o E a r t h . Because o f i t s

h i g h l y r e f l e c t i v e c l o u d c o v e r , Venus i s t h e b r i g h t e s t o b j e c t

i n t h e s k y a f t e r t h e Sun and t h e Moon. I t s year i s 225 Earth

days. I t s mean d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun i s 1 0 8 . 2 m i l l i o n km

(67.2 million m i . ) . T h i s i s n e a r l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of E a r t h ' s

d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun.

When Venus i s c l o s e s t t o E a r t h , d i r e c t l y between E a r t h

and Sun, t h e p l a n e t i s o n l y 4 2 m i l l i o n km ( 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . )

away. W h i l e E a r t h and Venus a r e a l m o s t t w i n s i n s i z e and

mass, t h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y d i f f e r e n t i n o t h e r ways. Earth is

a w a t e r - r i c h p l a n e t o n which l i f e t h r i v e s . Venus i s a d r y

and d e s o l a t e w o r l d , a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t l i f e . Scientists

want t o know how two s i m i l a r p l a n e t s c a n e v o l v e s o d i f f e r e n t l y

and i f t h e r e i s any c h a n c e of E a r t h becoming l i k e Venus.

A v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t Venus h a s a d r a m a t i -

c a l l y rugged s u r f a c e , b u t i t i s less mountainous t h a n E a r t h

and M a r s . Its surface temperature i s h o t t e r than t h e melting

p o i n t s of l e a d and z i n c , a b o u t 4 7 0 d e g r e e s C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F . ) ,

and t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s a b o u t 1 0 0 t i m e s t h a t of E a r t h .

S u r f a c e f e a t u r e s on Venus c a n n e v e r be s e e n b e c a u s e of i t s

permanent c l o u d c o v e r . The a t m o s p h e r e o f Venus a p p e a r s t o

b e predominantly carbon d i o x i d e -- about 97 per cent. Only

m i n u t e amounts of w a t e r v a p o r h a v e b e e n detected i n i t .

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Venus h a s no s i g n i f i c a n t m a g n e t i c f i e l d . So t h e

p l a n e t ' s upper atmosphere i n t e r a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s o l a r

wind. Venus i s o n e of t h e three p l a n e t s i n o u r s o l a r system

which has no moons, t h e o t h e r s b e i n g Mercury and P l u t o .

The m a s s , d i a m e t e r and mean d e n s i t y of E a r t h and Venus

a r e almost i d e n t i c a l . Venus' high o v e r a l l d e n s i t y suggests

a d e n s e core something l i k e E a r t h ' s n i c k e l - i r o n core.

Venus r e c e i v e s a l m o s t t w i c e as much s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a s

Earth. B u t w i t h o u t t h e t r a p p i n g of s o l a r h e a t by i t s atmos-

p h e r e , the p l a n e t ' s p o l a r r e g i o n s would h a v e h a b i t a b l e t e m -

peratures. T h i s t r a p p i n g i s called a greenhouse effect,

which means t h a t Venus' a t m o s p h e r e a l l o w s p a s s a g e of incoming

s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , b u t r e s t r i c t s r a d i a t i o n of h e a t o u t w a r d .

T h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t the poles of Venus i s o n l y a b o u t 1 0

degrees C (18 degrees F.) l e s s t h a n t h a t a t t h e e q u a t o r . Both

i t s day and n i g h t h e m i s p h e r e s h a v e t h e same t e m p e r a t u r e .

Hence, Venus' m a s s i v e a t m o s p h e r e c o n t a i n s c i r c u l a t i o n mech-

a n i s m s which d i s t r i b u t e s o l a r h e a t e v e n l y o v e r t h e whole p l a n e t .

I n a d d i t i o n t o c a r b o n d i o x i d e and water t r a c e s , Venus'

a t m o s p h e r e a l s o h a s some c a r b o n monoxide, h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d

and hydrogen f l u o r i d e .

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Venus' permanent c l o u d s a r e v e r y t e n u o u s , something

l i k e t e r r e s t r i a l smog. They a r e almost twice as d e e p a s

E a r t h ' s c l o u d l a y e r , a b o u t 1 8 km (11 m i . ) t h i c k , and a r e

b e l i e v e d t o b e composed m a i n l y of s u l f u r i c a c i d d r o p l e t s .

Somewhere below t h e bottom of t h e main c l o u d l a y e r s ,

t h e t e m p e r a t u r e becomes g r e a t enough f o r the s u l f u r i c a c i d

d r o p l e t s t o e v a p o r a t e i n t o w a t e r v a p o r and s u l f u r i c a c i d

vapor. A clear atmosphere r e s u l t s . Enough s u n l i g h t g e t s

through t h e clouds so t h a t t h e s u r f a c e appears as b r i g h t a s

on a n o v e r c a s t day on E a r t h .

From t h e M a r i n e r c l o u d p h o t o g r a p h s i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t ,

it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e of Venus i s i n c o n t i n u o u s

high-speed motion. The clouds seem t o move a b o u t 360 km/hr

( 2 2 0 mph) , c i r c l i n g the p l a n e t i n f o u r E a r t h days. However,

t h e S o v i e t Venera l a n d e r s showed t h a t wind s p e e d s i n t h e d e e p

atmosphere are extremely s l o w . I n t h e r e g i o n between atmos-

phere t o p and bottom, a n a b r u p t change i n wind v e l o c i t y a p p e a r s

t o take place. T h i s s e e m s t o o c c u r a t a b o u t 56 k m ( 3 6 m i . )

above t h e s u r f a c e , between t h e base of t h e c l o u d s and t h e

c l e a r a t m o s p h e r e below them.

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Some major q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o E a r t h and Venus a r e

these:

0 L i k e Venus, t h e E a r t h has a "greenhouse effect"

which a p p e a r s t o b e growing due t o i n c r e a s e s i n c a r b o n

d i o x i d e i n o u r atmosphere. These increases come from l a r g e -

scale b u r n i n g of f o s s i l f u e l s s i n c e 1 8 5 0 . Could t h e E a r t h ' s

g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t become s t r o n g enough t o c a u s e s e r i o u s ,

permanent rises i n t e m p e r a t u r e ?

0 S i n c e Venus presumably formed a s c l o s e t o E a r t h a s

i t i s t o d a y , w e m i g h t e x p e c t Venusian o c e a n s l i k e o u r own.

Y e t t h e r e i s a l m o s t no water on Venus. Where d i d t h e water

go, i f it ever e x i s t e d ?

One t h e o r y i s t h a t greater s o l a r h e a t i n g v a p o r i z e d any

o c e a n s , and forced w a t e r v a p o r i n t o t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e . There

i t would have s p l i t i n t o hydrogen a n d oxygen by s o l a r u l t r a -

violet radiation. The l i g h t - w e i g h t hydrogen would t h e n h a v e

e s c a p e d t o s p a c e l e a v i n g t h e oxygen b e h i n d . B u t t h e r e seems

t o be so l i t t l e f r e e oxygen l e f t , t h a t s c i e n t i s t s wonder

where i t a l l went.

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NASA's O f f i c e o f S p a c e S c i e n c e h a s a s s i g n e d p r o j e c t

management of t h e t w o P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t t o A m e s

R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w . C a l i f . , and t h e s p a c e c r a f t

w i l l be c o n t r o l l e d c o n t i n u o u s l y from t h e M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s

C e n t e r a t Ames. The s p a c e c r a f t were b u i l t by Hughes A i r c r a f t

Co., E l Segundo, C a l i f . , and t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s were

s u p p l i e d by NASA c e n t e r s , o t h e r government o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,

u n i v e r s i t i e s and p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y .

The s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e t r a c k e d by NASA's Deep Space N e t -

work, o p e r a t e d by the J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , P a s a d e n a ,

Calif. NASA's L e w i s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , C l e v e l a n d , i s r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e , which w a s b u i l t by G e n e r a l Dynamics,

San Diego, C a l i f .

C o s t o f t h e two P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t , s c i e n t i f i c

i n s t r u m e n t s , m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s and d a t a a n a l y s i s i s a b o u t

$175 m i l l i o n . T h i s does n o t i n c l u d e c o s t of l a u n c h v e h i c l e s

and t r a c k i n g a n d d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n .

Launch p e r i o d f o r t h e O r b i t e r f l i g h t i s 2 2 d a y s (May 20

t h r o u g h J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 7 8 ) , and d u r i n g t h e s e d a y s , t h e t i m e o f

l a u n c h window o p e n i n g v a r i e s between 6 : 0 8 and 9 : 2 4 a . m . EDT.

The window v a r i e s i n l e n g t h f r o m 1 5 m i n u t e s t o o n e h o u r .

Launch p e r i o d f o r t h e M u l t i p r o b e f l i g h t e x t e n d s from

Aug. 7 t o S e p t . 3, 1978.

( E N D O F GENERAL RELEASE. BACKGROUND I N F O R M A T I O N FOLLOWS.)

 -12-

M I S S I O N PROFILE

The t w o P i o n e e r f l i g h t s t o Venus r i l l e p l o r e t h e
a t m o s p h e r e of t h e p l a n e t , s t u d y i t s s u r f a c e u s i n g r a d a r
and d e t e r m i n e i t s g l o b a l s h a p e and d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .
The f i r s t s p a c e c r a f t , P i o n e e r Venus 1, a n O r b i t e r , w i l l
make e i g h t months o r more o f r e m o t e - s e n s i n g and d i r e c t
measurement. P i o n e e r Venus 2 , a M u l t i p r o b e , w i l l s e p a r a t e
i n t o f i v e atmospheric e n t r y c r a f t , e i g h t m i l l i o n m i l e s o u t
from t h e p l a n e t , a n d measure t h e a t m o s p h e r e from t o p t o
bottom i n a b o u t two h o u r s a t p o i n t s s p r e a d o v e r t h e e n t i r e
E a r t h - f a c i n g h e m i s p h e r e o f Venus.
The P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r M i s s i o n

The P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r w i l l be l a u n c h e d i n t o a c i r -
cular p a r k i n g orbit a s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y from Cape C a n a v e r a l ,
Fla., h e a d i n g i n a d i r e c t i o n v a r y i n g from 3 t o 1 8 d e g r e e s
s o u t h of due e a s t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 1 5 d a y s of t h e l a u n c h
period. I t w i l l pass over southern Africa shortly a f t e r
second s t a g e r e s t a r t and b u r n o u t . L a t e r , t h e l a u n c h direc-
t i o n w i l l b e e i t h e r 1 0 d e g r e e s o r 30 d e g r e e s n o r t h of due
e a s t , depending on t h e l a u n c h d a t e .
The seven-month f l i g h t t o Venus w i l l f o l l o w a trajec-
t o r y more t h a n h a l f way a r o u n d t h e Sun ( t h r o u g h a b o u t 2 0 0
d e g r e e s ) , and w i l l c o v e r a b o u t 480 m i l l i o n k i l o m e t e r s ) 3 0 0
m i l l i o n m i l e s ) . T h i s t r a j e c t o r y , t h r e e months l o n g e r t h a n
t h a t of t h e Multiprobe, a l l o w s a slower a r r i v a l speed a t
Venus, r e q u i r i n g l e s s w e i g h t f o r t h e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n motor.
I t also allows an o r b i t a l l o w p o i n t ( p e r i a p s i s ) a t a l a t i t u d e
of a b o u t 20 d e g r e e s n o r t h .
F o r t h e f i r s t 8 2 d a y s , P i o n e e r Venus 1 w i l l f l y o u t -
s i d e t h e E a r t h ' s o r b i t . I n August, i t w i l l c r o s s back i n -
s i d e t h e o r b i t of i t s home p l a n e t , and t h e n , d u r i n g t h e
l a s t f o u r months o f t h e j o u r n e y , w i l l c r o s s t h e 4 2 m i l l i o n km
( 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) between t h e o r b i t s of t h e E a r t h and Venus
on a l o n g , c u r v i n g t r a j e c t o r y . T h i s f l i g h t p a t h w i l l b e
s i m i l a r t o t h a t of i t s companion s p a c e c r a f t , t h e Venus M u l t i -
p r o b e . The M u l t i p r o b e w i l l b e l a u n c h e d a f e w d a y s a f t e r t h e
O r b i t e r crosses back i n s i d e E a r t h ' s o r b i t .

Launch p e r i o d f o r t h e O r b i t e r f l . i g h t i s 2 2 d a y s (May 2 0
t h r o u g h J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 7 8 ) . During t h e s e d a y s , t h e l a u n c h win-
dow opening t i m e s v a r y from 6 : 0 8 t o 9 : 2 4 a . m . EDT. The win-
dow v a r i e s i n l e n g t h from h a l f a n hour t o a n h o u r f o r t h e
f i r s t 1 8 l a u n c h d a y s , b u t e x t e n d s t o two h o u r s on t h e l a s t
two d a y s of t h e p e r i o d .

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0
 -14-

Launch d a t e s a r e timed so t h a t t h e O r b i t e r a r r i v e s a t
Venus on D e c . 4 , 1978, f i v e d a y s b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e
f i v e p r o b e s on Dec. 9 . Launch d a t e s were s e l e c t e d f o r op-
timum p a y l o a d s f o r b o t h O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e m i s s i o n s .
Both P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e l a u n c h e d by
a n A t l a s (SLV-3D) / C e n t a u r ( D - l A R ) two-and-a-half-stage
l a u n c h v e h i c l e . A i r F o r c e E a s t e r n T e s t Range p e r s o n n e l
w i l l conduct t r a c k i n g during t h e near-Earth p a r t o f t h e
m i s s i o n . NASA's Deep S p a c e Network (DSN) w i l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e
for t h e remainder.

A f t e r l i f t o f f , b u r n o u t o f t h e 1,917,000-newton (431,040-
p o u n d ) - t h r u s t , one-and-one-half-stage A t l a s booster w i l l
o c c u r i n a b o u t f o u r m i n u t e s . One-half m i n u t e b e f o r e t h i s
e v e n t , t h e 1 0 . 4 - m e t e r ( 3 4 - f o o t ) - l o n g aerodynamic n o s e f a i r i n g
which p r o t e c t s t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l s p l i t l e n g t h w i s e and b e
j e t t i s o n e d j u s t a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e atmosphere. S t a g e separa-
t i o n and i g n i t i o n o f t h e 130,000-N ( 3 0 , 0 0 0 - l b . ) t h r u s t C e n t a u r
second s t a g e w i l l t h e n t a k e p l a c e . S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d t h e
A n t i g u a s t a t i o n b e g i n s t r a c k i n g . The h y d r o g e n - f u e l e d C e n t a u r
e n g i n e w i l l b u r n f o r a b o u t f i v e m i n u t e s . The C e n t a u r e n g i n e s
w i l l t h e n s h u t down a t 173-km (107.5-mi.) a l t i t u d e , and t h e
O r b i t e r and t h e Centaur w i l l c o a s t f o r a b o u t 1 2 minutes i n
c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g o r b i t . A n t i g u a t r a c k i n g w i l l end a b o u t 1 3
m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h . The A s c e n s i o n I s l a n d s t a t i o n , j u s t
below t h e e q u a t o r i n t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c , p i c k s up t h e C e n t a u r -
Venus O r b i t e r a b o u t 1 0 m i n u t e s l a t e r . About 23 m i n u t e s a f t e r
l a u n c h , t h e C e n t a u r e n g i n e r e s t a r t s and b u r n s f o r a b o u t 2.5
m i n u t e s , p u t t i n g t h e O r b i t e r on i t s Venus f l i g h t p a t h . Dur-
i n g t h e next 2.3 minutes, Centaur w i l l o r i e n t t h e s p a c e c r a f t
w i t h t h e f o r w a r d ( a n t e n n a ) end p o i n t i n g t o c e l e s t i a l n o r t h
b u t t i l t e d 20 d e g r e e s toward t h e Sun. A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e
P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r s e p a r a t e s from t h e C e n t a u r , and t h e
s p a c e c r a f t command r e g i s t e r t h e n b e g i n s t o f u n c t i o n .

J u s t a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n , a b o u t 28 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h ,
the command r e g i s t e r w i l l command s t o r a g e o f t e l e m e t r y d a t a
and s t a r t t h e t h r u s t e r - f i r i n g s e q u e n c e f o r s p i n u p t o 6 . 5 rpm.
The O r b i t e r ' s m i l l i o n - b i t d a t a memory c a n s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n
for 68 m i n u t e s a t a b i t r a t e of 2 5 6 b p s a f t e r i t i s t u r n e d
on.

Twenty-eight m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h , and a f t e r C e n t a u r -
Orbiter separation, mission control w i l l s h i f t f r o m t h e
m i s s i o n d i r e c t o r a t Cape C a n a v e r a l t o t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t o r
a t t h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r (PMOC) a t Ames
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . Commands t o s p a c e -
c r a f t and incoming d a t a w i l l g o v i a t h e g l o b a l n e t o f D S N
t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s . DSN s t a t i o n s w i l l receive commands from,
and r e l a y d a t a t o , t h e PMOC a t A m e s .

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A t l a u n c h p l u s a b o u t one h o u r , t h e D S N s t a t i o n a t
C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , w i l l a c q u i r e t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and 1 0
m i n u t e s l a t e r w i l l have e s t a b l i s h e d command of t h e Venus
bound O r b i t e r and v e r i f i e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s h e a l t h . F l i g h t
c o n t r o l l e r s a t A m e s w i l l t h e n command t h e s p a c e c r a f t t e l e -
m e t r y p r o c e s s o r i n t o the l a u n c h - c r u i s e f o r m a t ( h a l f s c i e n c e ,
h a l f e n g i n e e r i n g ) . Gaps i n t r a c k i n g c o v e r a g e w i l l b e due
t o e a r l y f l i g h t a l t i t u d e s between w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d g l o b a l
tracking s t a t i o n s .

With C a n b e r r a a c q u i s i t i o n , A m e s m i s s i o n d i r e c t o r s w i l l
t u r n on t h e plasma a n a l y z e r ( s o l a r wind i n s t r u m e n t ) t o make
n e a r - E a r t h o b s e r v a t i o n s . They w i l l v e r i f y t h e s p i n p e r i o d
and Sun a n g l e and check s p a c e c r a f t wobble. When t h e wobble
h a s s u b s i d e d t o a n a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l , t h e y w i l l command t h e
f i r i n g of pyrotechnics t o deploy t h e t h r e e - s e c t i o n , hinged,
4 . 7 - m ( 1 5 . 5 - f t . ) magnetometer boom. Deployment of t h e boom
s l o w s s p a c e c r a f t s p i n from 6 . 5 t o 5 rpm. I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r -
w a r d s , t h e magnetometer i s t c r n e d o n . With t h e boom d e p l o y e d ,
c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l b e a b l e t o command s p a c e c r a f t s p i n u p t o 1 5
rpm i n e n s u i n g w e e k s .

Approximately 1 8 h o u r s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e O r b i t e r w i l l
be o r i e n t e d so t h a t i t s s p i n a x i s i s w i t h i n two d e g r e e s of
a r i g h t a n g l e t o t h e e c l i p t i c . M i s s i o n e n g i n e e r s c a n now
command o p e r a t i o n of t h e h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a d e s p i n system t o
p o i n t t h e narrow-beam a n t e n n a a t E a r t h . The a n t e n n a m a s t ,
which i s a l i g n e d w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t s p i n a x i s , i s commanded
t o s t o p r o t a t i n g so t h a t t h e antenna d i s h p o i n t s a t Earth
w h i l e t h e s p a c e c r a f t c o n t i n u e s t o s p i n under i t . E l e v a t i o n
o f t h e d i s h i s a d j u s t e d s o t h a t i t c e n t e r s on E a r t h .

Nine a n d o n e - h a l f h o u r s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e O r b i t e r
p i c t u r e - t a k i n g format i s t u r n e d on, and one-half hour l a t e r ,
t h e e l e c t r o n i c camera, t h e Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r , u s i n g
i t s imaging mode, b e g i n s t o t a k e p i c t u r e s of E a r t h a s
P i o n e e r moves away.

S u b s e q u e n t l y , m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s w i l l t u r n on t h e
gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r and t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d d e t e c t o r .

Midcourse C o r r e c t i o n s and C r u i s e

During t h e f i r s t f i v e d a y s , t r a j e c t o r y s p e c i a l i s t s a t
NASA's J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , P a s a d e n a , C a l i f . , w i l l
calculate the precise trajectory, establishing the precise
E a r t h d e p a r t u r e v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n . Ames c o n t r o l l e r s
w i l l t h e n command f i r i n g o f r a d i a l a n d / o r a x i a l t h r u s t e r s t o
e l i m i n a t e errors i n aiming a t Venus, Spacecraft orientation
may be changed somewhat f o r e f f i c i e n t a c c e l e r a t i o n , and t h e n
r e t u r n e d by f u r t h e r t h r u s t s t o i t s c r u i s e p o s i t i o n , p e r p e n -
dicular to the ecliptic.
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Once t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s i n a c r u i s e mode, t h e s i x s c i e n -
t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s p l a n n e d f o r u s e a t Venus w i l l be checked
o u t p e r i o d i c a l l y . C o n t r o l l e r s w i l l change p o i n t i n g d i r e c -
t i o n of t h e h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a d i s h e v e r y f i v e d a y s t o t w o
weeks o r more, t o k e e p i t c e n t e r e d on E a r t h .

Twenty d a y s a f t e r l a u n c h , a second c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n
c a n be made, and 30 d a y s b e f o r e t h e s p a c e c r a f t a r r i v e s a t
Venus, n a v i g a t o r s c a n command a t h i r d c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n f o r
a p r e c i s e i n s e r t i o n i n t o o r b i t around t h e p l a n e t . Several
weeks a f t e r l a u n c h , c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l command t h e s p a c e c r a f t
t o s p i n u p t o 1 5 rpm, a r a t e which w i l l be m a i n t a i n e d u n t i l
two d a y s b e f o r e Venus a r r i v a l . I t p r o v i d e s s o l a r wind
measurements.

Two d a y s b e f o r e a r r i v a l a t Venus, t h e s p a c e c r a f t s p i n
r a t e w i l l be increased t o 30 rpm a n d t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be
o r i e n t e d w i t h i t s 18,000-N ( 4 , 0 0 0 - l b . ) - t h r u s t , s o l i d - f u e l e d
r o c k e t e n g i n e p o i n t i n g f o r w a r d , o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of
t r a v e l a t t h e p o i n t of c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h t o Venus.
On D e c . 4 , 1978 ( t h e 1 9 8 t h day a f t e r l a u n c h , i f l a u n c h
occurs on May 2 0 ) , Ames M i s s i o n C o n t r o l e n g i n e e r s w i l l com-
mand a 28-second o r b i t - i n s e r t i o n b u r n . T h i s w i l l r e d u c e
s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y b y 3,816 km/hr ( 2 , 3 6 6 mph) , p l a c i n g
P i o n e e r i n a 24-hour o r b i t a r o u n d Venus. The p l a n n e d o r b i t
w i l l b e i n c l i n e d 75 d e g r e e s t o Venus' e q u a t o r , w i t h i t s l o w
p o i n t ( p e r i a p s i s ) n e a r 2 0 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e . The
o r b i t ' s high p o i n t (apoapsis) i s expected t o b e a t an a l t i -
t u d e of 6 6 , 0 0 0 km (41,000 m i . ) , and p e r i a p s i s i n i t i a l l y w i l l
b e a t 300 km (180 m i . ) , l a t e r r e d u c e d t o a b o u t 1 5 0 km (90 m i . ) .
P l a n n e d o r b i t a l i n j e c t i o n t i m e i s 11:OO a . m . EST.

Within hours a f t e r t h e o r b i t i n s e r t i o n r o c k e t burn,

members o f t h e O r b i t e r n a v i g a t i o n t e a m w i l l h a v e d e t e r m i n e d
any s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h e o r b i t . A f t e r s l o w i n g t h e s p i n r a t e
and a d j u s t i n g o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l command f i r i n g of
t h r u s t e r s t o t r i m up t h e o r b i t t o a c c e p t a b l e d i m e n s i o n s .

A t t e n t i o n i n t h e Mission Operations Center w i l l then

switch t o t h e probes scheduled t o a r r i v e f i v e days l a t e r ,
b u t f i n e tuning of t h e o r b i t w i l l c o n t i n u e a f t e r completion
of t h e p r o b e m i s s i o n .

-more-
 -17-

PERSPECTIVE V I E W OF PIONEER V E N U S O R B I T

+3 +4
 -18-

In-Orbit Operations

F o r e f f i c i e n t o r b i t a l o p e r a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e 243-day
p r i m a r y O r b i t e r m i s s i o n (one c o m p l e t e Venus r o t a t i o n on i t s
a x i s ) , t h e o r b i t w i l l h a v e a p e r i o d v e r y close t o 2 4 h o u r s .
T h i s means t h a t most a c t i v i t i e s w i l l o c c u r a t t h e same t i m e
o n E a r t h e v e r y day. T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e most i n t e n s i v e p e r i o d s
of d a t a r e t u r n during p e r i a p s i s . Data r e t u r n v i a t h e h i g h -
g a i n a n t e n n a w i l l be a t t h e t w o h i g h e s t r a t e s , 1 , 0 2 4 o r
2 , 0 4 8 bps .
The 24-hour o r b i t h a s been d i v i d e d i n t o two p e r i o d s ,
r e f l e c t i n g t h e k i n d o f measurements b e i n g t a k e n . T h e p e r i -
a p s i s ( o r b i t a l low p o i n t ) p e r i o d i s a b o u t f o u r h o u r s l o n g .
The a p o a p s i s ( o r b i t a l h i g h p o i n t ) p e r i o d i s 20 h o u r s l o n g .
S i n c e t h e O r b i t e r d i p s i n t o t h e upper atmosphere i t s e l f a t
p e r i a p s i s , which may b e a s low a s 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) t o make
d i r e c t measurements, t h e p e r i a p s i s p e r i o d i s t h e t i m e of
highest data return.

Mission o p e r a t i o n s w i l l u s e f i v e data formats during

t h e p e r i a p s i s p e r i o d . These f o r m a t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p e r m i t
emphasis on c e r t a i n i n s t r u m e n t s when d e s i r a b l e ; f o r example,
o n e p r o v i d e s i n t e n s i v e aeronomy c o v e r a g e a t p e r i a p s i s ,
a n o t h e r stresses o p t i c a l c o v e r a g e .

The mapping format g i v e s 4 4 p e r c e n t of t h e d a t a s t r e a m

t o t h e radar mapper f o r Venus s u r f a c e s t u d y , and d i v i d e s t h e
rest between t h e u l t r a v i o l e t s p e c t r o m e t e r and t h e i n f r a r e d
radiometer.

Normally, c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l u s e o n l y two d a t a f o r m a t s
i n t h e 20-hour a p o a p s i s segment. The f i r s t o f these w i l l be
f o r t a k i n g p i c t u r e s of t h e whole p l a n e t i n u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t ,
which w i l l show t h e f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n of Venus' c l o u d s i n
s e q u e n c e . Known a s t h e imaging f o r m a t , it a l l o c a t e s 6 7 p e r
c e n t of t h e d a t a stream t o t h e imaging i n s t r u m e n t and t h e
c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r , and d i v i d e s t h e rest among t h r e e
s o l a r w i n d - p l a n e t i n s t r u m e n t s and t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l e x p e r i -
m e n t ' s gamma b u r s t d e t e c t o r . The o t h e r f o r m a t , known as t h e
g e n e r a l f o r m a t , a l l o c a t e s d a t a r e t u r n among a l l O r b i t e r ex-
periments except t h e p i c t u r e - t a k i n g cloud photopolarimeter
and t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r . A s much as t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of
t h e t o t a l a p o a p s i s p e r i o d w i l l b e d e v o t e d t o imaging, which
has very l a r g e data requirements.

S p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l l e r s have d e s i g n e d a number of s e q u e n c e s
u s i n g t h e s e f o r m a t s . During t h e eight-month O r b i t e r m i s s i o n ,
t h e y w i l l work w i t h e x p e r i m e n t e r s , s e l e c t i n g f o r m a t combina-
tions for best scientific results.
-more-
 O R B I T IN SPACECRAFT O R B I T PLANE
TIME FROM PERIAPSIS, hours
22 '21 20
19

>ER IAPSIS A ORBIT PERIOD = 24hours

PERIAPSIS ALTITUDE = 200km
VENUS RADIUS = 6050 km (3750 mi) APOAPSIS k13

I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
DISTANCE, VENUS RADII
 -20-

During t h e f i r s t 4 0 d a y s i n o r b i t , t h e O r b i t e r w i l l
p a s s b e h i n d Venus ( o c c u l t a t i o n ) f o r p e r i o d s o f up t o 2 3
minutes. T h i s a l l o w s t h e r a d i o s c i e n c e t e a m t o measure
e f f e c t s o f Venus' a t m o s p h e r e down t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 km
( 3 1 m i . ) on t h e s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l a s i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h
i t . S i n c e t h e narrow beam s i g n a l i s b e n t by t h e p l a n e t ' s
a t m o s p h e r e , t h e a n t e n n a ' s d i s h r e f l e c t o r c a n b e commanded
a s much as 1 7 d e g r e e s away from t h e E a r t h - l i n e t o e x t e n d t h e
t i m e of r e c o r d i n g t h e s i g n a l a s it i s r e f r a c t e d around t h e
solid planet.

A l s o d u r i n g o c c u l t a t i o n s , when communications a r e c u t
o f f , t h e Venus O r b i t e r w i l l s t o r e d a t a i n i t s m i l l i o n - b i t
memory. C o n t r o l l e r s w i l l t h e n command memory s t o r a g e , and
a f t e r emergence of t h e O r b i t e r , t h e d a t a memory r e a d o u t f o r -
m a t f o r r e t u r n of s t o r e d d a t a .

During t h e e i g h t months on o r b i t , h e a l t h of t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t w i l l b e monitored through t h e continuous flow of engi-
n e e r i n g d a t a ( s e e O r b i t e r Data H a n d l i n g S e c t i o n ) , and re-
dundant systems f o r t h e most c r i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s (such as
command and d a t a r e t u r n ) w i l l b e used i f needed. M i s s i o n s
Operations engineers also w i l l t r i m t h e o r b i t about every
1 0 d a y s e i t h e r t o lower p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e which i s c o n s t a n t l y
raised by s o l a r g r a v i t y o r t o a d j u s t t h e o r b i t a l p e r i o d when
i t d r i f t s from t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e .

The p r i m a r y m i s s i o n e n d s a f t e r 2 4 3 d a y s . S h o r t l y a f t e r -
w a r d s , t h e O r b i t e r and Venus w i l l b e b e h i n d t h e Sun and com-
munications w i l l b e g a r b l e d o r c u t o f f f o r s e v e r a l days.
A f t e r emergence from t h e s o l a r b l a c k o u t , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l
b e a v a i l a b l e f o r e x t e n d e d m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s which a r e n o t
c u r r e n t l y a p a r t of t h e approved m i s s i o n .
P i o n e e r Venus M u l t i p r o b e M i s s i o n

P i o n e e r Venus 2 , t h e m u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t , w i l l b e
l a u n c h e d toward Venus on a c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g - o r b i t a s c e n t
t r a j e c t o r y from Cape C a n a v e r a l A i r Force S t a t i o n by N A S A ' s
Kennedy Space C e n t e r p e r s o n n e l . The l a u n c h v e h i c l e w i l l
head i n a d i r e c t i o n 3 t o 1 8 d e g r e e s s o u t h o f s t r a i g h t e a s t ,
p a s s i n g o v e r s o u t h e r n A f r i c a s h o r t l y a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t from t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e .

The four-month t r i p t o Venus f o l l o w s a more d i r e c t

t r a j e c t o r y t h a n t h a t of t h e O r b i t e r , g i v i n g t h e probes
a p p r o a c h s p e e d s o f a b o u t 1 9 , 5 0 0 h / h r ( 1 2 , 0 0 0 mph). T h i s
i s 6 , 5 0 0 h / h r ( 4 , 0 0 0 mph) f a s t e r t h a n O r b i t e r a r r i v a l , and
i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e p r o b e s a r e slowed a t a t m o s p h e r e
e n t r y t o a few hundred m i l e s p e r h o u r by t h e b r a k i n g o f
atmospheric f r i c t i o n .

-more-
 PIONEER VENUS
TRAJECTORIES

ORBITER LAUNCH
MAY/JUNE 1978

VENUS AT
DPAPC I A l l h l P U VENUSAT
ORBITER LAUNCH'q I
tu
VENUS AT PROBE 0
ENCOUNTER P
I
DECEMBER 1978
\
ORBITER ARRIVES

-/ EARTH A T ORBITER
ENCOUNTER
H+M"TEF

PROBE RELEASE
SEQUENCE
 -21-

The M u l t i p r o b e f l i g h t w i l l c o v e r a b o u t 354 m i l l i o n km
( 2 2 0 m i l l i o n m i . ) , g o i n g a b o u t t w o - f i f t h s of the way a r o u n d
t h e Sun (135 d e g r e e s ) i n f o u r months a s i t crosses t h e 4 2
m i l l i o n km ( 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) between t h e o r b i t s o f E a r t h and
Venus.

Launch p e r i o d f o r P i o n e e r Venus 2 f l i g h t i s 2 7 d a y s ,
from Aug. 7 t o S e p t . 3 , 1978. During t h i s p e r i o d , t h e
l a u n c h window o p e n s e a r l i e r e a c h day from 3:36 a . m . t o
1 2 : 1 6 a . m . EDT. This launch p e r i o d w i l l a l l o w t h e probes
t o a r r i v e a t Venus on D e c . 9 , 1978, f i v e d a y s a f t e r a r r i v a l
o f t h e O r b i t e r . The e a r l i e r O r b i t e r a r r i v a l w i l l a l l o w
t h e O r b i t e r ' s r e m o t e and d i r e c t s e n s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s t o
e s t a b l i s h c o r r e s p o n d i n g d a t a o n t h e Venus s p a c e environment,
c l o u d s and u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e t h a t c a n b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e
p r o b e measurements i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

P i o n e e r Venus 2 w i l l be l a u n c h e d by a n A t l a s (SLV-3D)
C e n t a u r ( D - l A R ) two-and o n e - h a l f - s t a g e l a u n c h v e h i c l e .
A f t e r l i f t o f f , burnout of t h e 1,917,000-N ( 4 3 1 , 0 4 0 - l b . ) -
t h r u s t , stage-and-one-half A t l a s booster w i l l occur i n about
f o u r minutes. S t a g e s e p a r a t i o n and i g n i t i o n of t h e 130,000-N
( 3 0 , 0 0 0 - l b . ) - t h r u s t Centaur second s t a g e w i l l t h e n t a k e p l a c e .

A t s i x minutes a f t e r l i f t o f f , t h e Antigua s t a t i o n b e g i n s
t r a c k i n g . The h y d r o g e n - f u e l e d C e n t a u r e n g i n e w i l l b u r n f o r
about f i v e minutes w i t h t h e f i r s t engine c u t o f f a t 9 minutes,
4 2 seconds a f t e r l i f t o f f . T h i s b e g i n s t h e 18-minute c o a s t
p e r i o d i n c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g o r b i t a t 167 k m (104 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .
A t a b o u t l a u n c h p l u s 1 3 m i n u t e s , A n t i g u a w i l l end i t s t r a c k -
i n g c o v e r a g e ; a t a b o u t 20 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e A s c e n s i o n
s t a t i o n b e g i n s t r a c k i n g and a t l a u n c h p l u s 2 4 m i n u t e s M u l t i -
probe-Centaur c o m b i n a t i o n p a s s beyond A s c e n s i o n r a n g e .

A t 2 7 m i n u t e s and 30 s e c o n d s , C e n t a u r b e g i n s i t s s e c o n d
b u r n and 2 m i n u t e s and 8 s e c o n d s l a t e r ( l a u n c h , p l u s 2 9 . 6
m i n u t e s ) i t s e n g i n e c u t s o f f p u t t i n g t h e M u l t i p r o b e on t r a -
j e c t o r y t o Venus. About 2 7 . 6 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h a n A i r
F o r c e Range I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n A i r c r a f t b e g i n s f i v e m i n u t e s of
t r a c k i n g coverage.

A t 2 9 . 7 minutes a f t e r launch, Centaur o r i e n t s t h e

M u l t i p r o b e s p i n a x i s t o w i t h i n 1 2 d e g r e e s of p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e e c l i p t i c ( E a r t h ' s o r b i t p l a n e ) w i t h i t s f o r w a r d end
p o i n t e d n e a r t h e s o u t h e c l i p t i c p o l e . One hundred t h i r t y -
f i v e s e c o n d s a f t e r t h e second C e n t a u r e n g i n e c u t o f f , a l s o
a t l a u n c h p l u s 31.9 m i n u t e s , P i o n e e r s e p a r a t e s from C e n t a u r ,
and t h e s p a c e c r a f t command r e g i s t e r i n i t i a t e s t h e s p i n u p
s e q u e n c e . S p a c e c r a f t t h r u s t e r s t h e n s p i n up M u l t i p r o b e t o
15 rpm.

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 -22-

During powered f l i g h t , as w i t h P i o n e e r Venus 1, l a u n c h

v e h i c l e and s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e m o n i t o r e d from t h e P i o n e e r
M i s s i o n C o n t r o l C e n t e r a t Cape C a n a v e r a l v i a DSN and E a s t e r n
T e s t Range t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g A n t i g u a and A s c e n s i o n .

Thirty-two minutes a f t e r launch, a f t e r Centaur-Multi-

p r o b e s e p a r a t i o n , m i s s i o n c o n t r o l w i l l s h i f t from t h e A m e s
M i s s i o n D i r e c t o r a t Cape C a n a v e r a l t o t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r
a t t h e P i o n e e r M i s s i o n O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r (PMOC) a t A m e s
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r i n C a l i f o r n i a . Commands t o and d a t a r e t u r n e d
from t h e P i o n e e r Venus w i l l l e a v e and a r r i v e a t E a r t h v i a t h e
g l o b a l n e t of t h e DSN t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s . The s t a t i o n s i n
t u r n r e c e i v e commands from and r e l a y d a t a t o t h e PMOC a t A m e s .

A t 50 m i n u t e s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e DSN's C a n b e r r a s t a t i o n
a c q u i r e s t h e s p a c e c r a f t and 1 0 m i n u t e s l a t e r command capa-
b i l i t y i s e s t a b l i s h e d . D a t a r a t e through t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s
a f t omni a n t e n n a i s 2 5 6 b p s .

F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g two weeks communications between

s p a c e c r a f t and E a r t h w i l l b e p r i m a r i l y " h o u s e k e e p i n g , I' s i n c e
t h e p r o b e and Bus i n s t r u m e n t s make no i n t e r p l a n e t a r y measure-
m e n t s . They a r e d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e .
Data w i l l b e s p a c e c r a f t h e a l t h and e n g i n e e r i n g measurements.

F i v e days a f t e r launch, t h e space n a v i g a t i o n s e c t i o n a t

t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory w i l l have c a l c u l a t e d t h e Multi-
p r o b e Venus t r a j e c t o r y p r e c i s e l y , and c o n t r o l l e r s a t t h e PMOC
a t A m e s w i l l command t h e t h r u s t e r f i r i n g s e q u e n c e f o r t h e
f i r s t t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n maneuver. About 1 4 d a y s a f t e r
l a u n c h , t h e two Bus i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l b e checked o u t f o r t h r e e
h o u r s a t a d a t a r a t e o f 1 , 0 2 4 b p s . Twenty d a y s a f t e r l a u n c h ,
o p e r a t i o n s e n g i n e e r s w i l l make a second c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n .

About 6 0 d a y s a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e s e v e n i n s t r u m e n t s and
t h e s y s t e m s on t h e L a r g e P r o b e w i l l b e checked o u t f o r t h r e e
h o u r s a t d a t a r a t e s o f 256 and 1 2 8 b p s . C o n t r o l l e r s a t PMOC
check o u t t h e t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s and s y s t e m s on e a c h o f t h e
S m a l l P r o b e s f o r a n h o u r of o p e r a t i o n e a c h a t a d a t a r a t e of
6 4 and 1 6 b p s . They p e r f o r m s i m i l a r c h e c k s on t h e two i n s t r u -
ments a b o a r d t h e Bus a t 512 b p s . T h e Bus communications and
power s y s t e m w i l l b e u s e d f o r t h e s e c h e c k s .

About 9 4 d a y s a f t e r l a u n c h I 3 0 d a y s b e f o r e a t m o s p h e r e
e n t r y ) , c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l i n i t i a t e t h e t h i r d t r a j e c t o r y cor-
r e c t i o n maneuver. A t a b o u t t h e same t i m e , t h e s p a c e c r a f t
i s o r i e n t e d so t h a t t h e a f t - f a c i n g medium-gain h o r n a n t e n n a
looks a t E a r t h . T h i s allows a h i g h e r d a t a r a t e f o r probe
s e p a r a t i o n maneuvers.

- m o r e-
 -23-

E N T R Y POINTS FOR PIONEER - V E N U S

ATMOSPHERE PROBES
 -24-

Twenty-seven d a y s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e Bus and L a r g e

P r o b e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e checked o u t .

Twenty-four d a y s b e f o r e a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , and 1 3
m i l l i o n km ( 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) from Venus, c o n t r o l l e r s r e o r i e n t
t h e s p a c e c r a f t s o t h a t t h e L a r g e P r o b e w i l l e n t e r t h e atmos-
phere with i t s h e a t s h i e l d aligned with i t s e n t r y f l i g h t
p a t h . T h i s means a l i g n i n g t h e Bus s p i n a x i s w i t h t h e p l a n n e d
L a r g e P r o b e e n t r y t r a j e c t o r y b e c a u s e t h e L a r g e P r o b e i s cen-
tered on t h e s p i n a x i s . The L a r g e P r o b e i s t h e n l a u n c h e d by
a p y r o t e c h n i c - s p r i n g mechanism toward i t s e q u a t o r i a l e n t r y
p o i n t on Venus' day s i d e , becoming a n i n d e p e n d e n t s p a c e c r a f t .

The n e x t 2 3 days from a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , t h e Bus i s

maneuvered f o r s e p a r a t i o n of t h e S m a l l P r o b e s by c h a n g i n g
i t s f l i g h t p a t h , p o i n t i n g i t toward t h e c e n t e r o f Venus. A t
2 2 days b e f o r e e n t r y t h e t h r e e Small Probe i n s t r u m e n t s are
checked o u t . A t 20 days b e f o r e e n t r y the Bus i s r e o r i e n t e d
so t h a t t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s c a n b e t a r g e t e d f o r t h e i r
e n t r y p o i n t s -- one on t h e day s i d e a t m i d - s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s ,
t h e second on t h e n i g h t s i d e , a l s o a t m i d - s o u t h e r n l a t i t u d e s ,
and t h e t h i r d on t h e n i g h t s i d e a t h i g h n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s .
M i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s t h e n commands l a u n c h of t h e t h r e e S m a l l
P r o b e s . A f t e r t h e t r a n s p o r t e r Bus i s spun up t o a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y 48 rpm, t h e p r o b e s a r e l a u n c h e d by r e l e a s i n g t h e
clamps t h a t h o l d them. C e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e o f t h e Bus s p i n
throws t h e p r o b e s t a n g e n t i a l l y from t h e Bus i n t o t h e i r e n t r y
t r a j e c t o r i e s . A s a r e s u l t of t h i s l a u n c h p r o c e s s , t h e S m a l l
P r o b e s r e t a i n t h e 48-rpm s p i n e s t a b l i s h e d w h i l e a t t a c h e d t o
t h e Bus.

With l a u n c h o f a l l f o u r p r o b e s , f i v e s p a c e c r a f t --
i n c l u d i n g t h e Bus -- e a c h w i t h i t s own i n s t r u m e n t and com-
mand and d a t a s y s t e m -- a r e headed f o r Venus.

Eighteen days before e n t r y , a f t e r S m a l l Probe s e p a r a t i o n ,

c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l r e t a r g e t t h e Bus f o r e n t r y . Bus e n t r y i s
d e l a y e d a b o u t 85 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y of t h e l a s t S m a l l . P r o b e
t o p r o v i d e a r a d i o s i g n a l r e f e r e n c e f o r p r e c i s e computa'2ons
of t h e p r o b e d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r i e s . ( T r a j e c t o r y d a t a w i l l be
u s e d t o measure winds i n Venus' a t m o s p h e r e . )

From t h i s p o i n t o n , t h e f o u r p r o b e s w i l l be commanded
by onboard timers and o t h e r s e n s o r s and e l e c t r o n i c s , and
t h e y w i l l n o t b e h e a r d from by c o n t r o l l e r s on E a r t h u n t i l
22 minutes b e f o r e atmospheric e n t r y .

A t e n t r y minus e i g h t d a y s , f i n a l a d j u s t m e n t s w i l l be
made t o t h e B U S ' e n t r y a n g l e by ground command, and a t e n t r y
minus two d a y s , t h e Bus s y s t e m s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
w i l l be c h e c k e d .

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Approximately two h o u r s b e f o r e Bus e n t r y , t h e s c i e n -

t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l b e warmed up and commanded i n t o t h e
o p e r a t i o n mode f o r e n t r y .

On Dec. 9 , 1 9 7 8 , a t about 2 p.m. E S T , t h e f o u r p r o b e s

w i l l a r r i v e a t Venus and e n t e r t h e a t m o s p h e r e . The Large
P r o b e w i l l d e s c e n d t o Venus' s u r f a c e i n 55 m i n u t e s and t h e
t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s i n a b o u t 5 7 m i n u t e s , depending on e n t r y
angle.

L a r q e Probe Entrv Events

A t 2.5 h o u r s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e L a r g e P r o b e command u n i t
w i l l o r d e r warmup o f t h e b a t t e r y and r a d i o receiver. Twenty-
two m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e p r o b e w i l l b e g i n t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f r a d i o s i g n a l s t o E a r t h . A t e n t r y minus 1 7 m i n u t e s , t h e
Large P r o b e b e g i n s t r a n s m i t t i n g d a t a a t 2 5 6 b p s . The com-
mand u n i t i n i t i a t e s warmup of t h e s e v e n s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u -
ments a b o a r d , p l u s i n s t r u m e n t c a l i b r a t i o n . F i v e m i n u t e s
b e f o r e t h e peak e n t r y d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e of 3 2 0 G , t h e p r o b e
w i l l b e t r a v e l i n g 41,600 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph). E n t r y o c c u r s
a t 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e , where t h e p r o b e e n c o u n t e r s t h e
t e n u o u s t o p of t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

T h e t i m e r w i l l command d a t a s t o r a g e f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i m e n t d u r i n g e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t .

T h i r t y - e i g h t seconds a f t e r e n t r y , t h e Large Probe begins

t h e d e s c e n t p h a s e , d e p l o y s i t s p a r a c h u t e and j e t t i s o n s i t s
forward a e r o s h e l l - h e a t s h i e l d . F o r t y - t h r e e seconds a f t e r
e n t r y , a t a n a l t i t u d e of 6 6 km ( 4 0 m i . ) , all i n s t r u m e n t s
s h o u l d b e o p e r a t i n g . S e v e n t e e n m i n u t e s l a t e r , a t 4 7 km ( 2 8
m i . ) a l t i t u d e , t h e p a r a c h u t e i s j e t t i s o n e d , and t h e a e r o -
dynamically s t a b l e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l descends t o t h e s u r f a c e
i n 3 9 m i n u t e s , i m p a c t i n g 55 m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y . A s t h e
p r o b e d e s c e n d s , t h e a t m o s p h e r e g e t s s t e a d i l y h o t t e r and
denser, u n t i l a t t h e s u r f a c e i t s temperature i s 470 degrees
C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F . ) , and i t s p r e s s u r e i s n e a r l y 1 0 0 t i m e s
t h a t a t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The L a r g e P r o b e j e t t i s o n s i t s
p a r a c h u t e t o s p e e d i t s d e s c e n t t h r o u g h t h i s v e r y d e n s e atmos-
p h e r e , s o t h a t i t reaches t h e s u r f a c e b e f o r e h e a t d e s t r o y s i t .

During d e s c e n t , t h e L a r g e P r o b e ' s s e v e n i n s t r u m e n t s
w i l l h a v e o b t a i n e d d a t a t o d e t e r m i n e a l t i t u d e and c o m p o s i t i o n
of cloud l a y e r s , atmosphere c o n s t i t u e n t s , temperature, pres-
s u r e , d e n s i t y , wind f l o w and v a r i a t i o n s o f h e a t f l o w i n t h e
atmosphere.

The Large P r o b e w i l l i m p a c t t h e s u r f a c e a t a b o u t 3 6
km/hr ( 2 2 mph). None o f t h e p r o b e s i s d e s i g n e d t o s u r v i v e
impact.
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S m a l l Probe E v e n t s

The t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s , t o o , w i l l e n t e r t h e p l a n e t ' s
a t m o s p h e r e a t a b o u t 4 1 , 6 0 0 km/hr ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph). H o w e v e r ,
b e c a u s e t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s a r e s p r e a d o v e r a n e n t i r e hemi-
s p h e r e o f Venus, and t h e y a r e l a u n c h e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from
t h e Bus, t h e a n g l e s o f t h e i r f l i g h t p a t h s i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e
v a r y g r e a t l y . T h i s means t h a t e n t r y h e a t i n g and d u r a t i o n s
of maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e s v a r y w i d e l y . Peak d e c e l e r a -
t i o n f o r c e s v a r y from 2 0 0 G t o 5 6 5 G . Entry t i m e s a l s o d i f f e r
by up t o 1 0 m i n u t e s , a n d d e s c e n t t i m e s by one m i n u t e . A s w i t h
t h e L a r g e P r o b e , e n t r y i s d e f i n e d as o c c u r r i n g a t a n a l t i t u d e
o f 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) .

Three hours b e f o r e atmospheric e n t r y , t h e s t a b l e o s c i l -

l a t o r i n t h e r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r f o r one-way Doppler t r a c k i n g
and t h e b a t t e r y o n e a c h S m a l l P r o b e a r e warmed up by commands
from t h e onboard command u n i t . Twenty-two m i n u t e s b e f o r e
e n t r y , e a c h S m a l l P r o b e b e g i n s t r a n s m i s s i o n of r a d i o s i g n a l s
t o E a r t h . Seventeen minutes b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e S m a l l Probes
b e g i n t r a n s m i t t i n g d a t a a t 6 4 b p s . The command u n i t i n i t i a t e s
warmup and c a l i b r a t i o n f o r t h e t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s on e a c h S m a l l
Probe.

F i v e m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , t h e t w o c a b l e s and w e i g h t s
o f t h e yo-yo d e s p i n s y s t e m a r e d e p l o y e d t o r e d u c e t h e s p i n
r a t e s o f t h e S m a l l P r o b e s from 48 t o 1 5 rpm. The h i g h s p i n
r a t e s i m p a r t e d by t h e Bus a r e needed t o d i s p e r s e t h e p r o b e s
t o e n t r y p o i n t s w i d e l y s p a c e d o v e r t h e p l a n e t . However, t h i s
wide d i s p e r s i o n a l s o means t h a t t h e S m a l l Probes e n t e r Venus'
h i g h u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e somewhat t i l t e d t o t h e i r f l i g h t p a t h s .
The "spindown" of t h e p r o b e s i s needed t o make i t e a s i e r f o r
aerodynamic f o r c e s t o l i n e up t h e a x e s of t h e p r o b e s w i t h
t h e i r e n t r y f l i g h t p a t h s . T h i s must occur q u i c k l y b e f o r e
h e a t i n g a t t h e edges of t h e p r o b e s ' c o n i c a l h e a t s h i e l d s
becomes s e r i o u s . C a b l e s and w e i g h t s a r e j e t t i s o n e d imme-
d i a t e l y a f t e r spindown.

F i v e m i n u t e s b e f o r e t h e peak d e c e l e r a t i o n p u l s e o f
a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y , t h e command u n i t o r d e r s t h e " b l a c k o u t "
format f o r s t o r a g e of s p a c e c r a f t d a t a , plus h e a t s h i e l d
t e m p e r a t u r e and a c c e l e r o m e t e r measurements f o r t h e atmos-
p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i m e n t . T h i s i s t o a s s u r e no loss of
d a t a d u r i n g t h e 10-to-15-second communications b l a c k o u t a t
entry.

Within t h e f i r s t minute ( 1 8 t o 4 6 seconds) a f t e r e n t r y ,

t h e n e p h e l c m e t e r window i s opened, and t h e a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c -
t u r e and n e t f l u x r a d i o m e t e r h o u s i n g d o o r s a r e opened and
i n s t r u m e n t booms d e p l o y e d .

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A t t h i s t i m e , t h e upper d e s c e n t p h a s e b e g i n s , w i t h t h e
p r o b e s in t h e a l t i t u d e r a n g e o f 7 2 t o 65 km ( 4 3 t o 39 m i . )
and a l l i n s t r u m e n t s o p e r a t i n g . The i n s t r u m e n t compartment
d o o r s on e a c h s i d e o f t h e S m a l l P r o b e a f t e r b o d i e s s e r v e t o
d e s p i n t h e p r o b e s . A s m a l l v a n e on t h e p r e s s u r e s e n s o r i n l e t
s e r v e s t o p r e v e n t t h e s p i n r a t e from f a l l i n g t o z e r o rpm
e n a b l i n g i n s t r u m e n t s t o make o b s e r v a t i o n s o v e r a f u l l c i r c l e
of probe r o t a t i o n .

A t e n t r y p l u s 1 6 . 4 minutes, as t h e t h i c k e n i n g atmosphere
i n t e r f e r e s w i t h radio t r a n s m i s s i o n , t h e data r a t e i s reduced
t o 1 6 b p s . T h i s o c c u r s a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 30 km ( 1 8 m i . ) .

From t h i s p o i n t , t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s d e s c e n d i n t o
Venus' i n c r e a s i n g l y d e n s e lower a t m o s p h e r e , i m p a c t i n g on t h e
s u r f a c e a t 3 6 km/hr ( 2 2 mph) from 56 t o 57 m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e
e n t r y t i m e of each probe. Unlike t h e Large Probe, t h e S m a l l
P r o b e s r e t a i n t h e i r h e a t s h i e l d s t o t h e s u r f a c e . The d e n s i t y
of t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s so g r e a t t h a t t h e d r a g o f t h e s e a e r o -
dynamic s u r f a c e s s l o w s them t o t h e d e s i r e d d e s c e n t s p e e d .
L i k e t h e L a r g e Probe, t h e S m a l l Probes are n o t d e s i g n e d t o
s u r v i v e on t h e s u r f a c e .

Bus E v e n t s

E i g h t y m i n u t e s a f t e r a l l p r o b e s h a v e e n t e r e d t h e Venus
a t m o s p h e r e , t h e Bus w i l l e n t e r on t h e day s i d e o f t h e p l a n e t
a t h i g h l a t i t u d e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere. Unlike t h e
p r o b e s , t h e Bus h a s no h e a t s h i e l d f o r h i g h - s p e e d e n t r y , and
i s e x p e c t e d t o b u r n up o n e t o t w o m i n u t e s a f t e r e n t r y . The
Bus c a r r i e s t w o e x p e r i m e n t s on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e atmos-
p h e r e , and i o n and a n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o m e t e r . T h e s e i n s t r u -
ments measure c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e i o n o s p h e r e and u p p e r atmos-
p h e r e from 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . ) down t o 1 1 5 km ( 6 9 m i . ) , making
t h e m i s s i o n s ' o n l y a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n measurements between
1 5 0 and 1 1 5 km . The Bus, w i t h i t s more p o w e r f u l t r a n s m i t t e r ,
r e t u r n s t h i s data t o Earth a t 1 , 0 2 4 bps.

A l l d a t a from t h e p r o b e m i s s i o n s w i l l be recorded s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y by t h e D S N s t a t i o n s a t G o l d s t o n e , C a l i f . , and Can-
b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , and more t h a n 50 m u l t i p r o b e e x p e r i m e n t e r s
w i l l spend a y e a r o r more a n a l y z i n g t h e s e d a t a . The i n v e s -
t i g a t o r s w i l l b e e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n comparing r e s u l t s
from t h e w i d e l y - s p a c e d p r o b e f l i g h t p a t h s on t h e day and n i g h t
s i d e s and i n b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s of Venus.

Atmospheric wind v e l o c i t i e s and d i r e c t i o n s w i l l b e c a l -

c u l a t e d from measurements of t h e p r o b e v e l o c i t i e s , t h r o u g h
t r i a n g u l a t i o n measurements from f o u r s t a t i o n s a t o n c e . Two
STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam and S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l r e c o r d Bus
and p r o b e d a t a a l o n g w i t h t h e DSN s t a t i o n s .

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THE PLANET VENUS

Venus i s t h e p l a n e t most s i m i l a r t o E a r t h i n s i z e , m a s s
and d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun. But i t s s u r f a c e i s much h o t t e r ,
i t s atmosphere much d e n s e r , and i t s r o t a t i o n much slower t h a n
t h a t of Earth.

The d i a m e t e r of Venus i s 1 2 , 1 0 0 k m (7519 m i . ) , compared

w i t h E a r t h ' s 1 2 , 7 4 5 km ( 7 9 2 0 m i . ) . The m a s s of Venus i s
0 . 8 1 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e E a r t h . The mean d e n s i t y o f Venus i s
5.26 grams p e r c u b i c c m compared w i t h E a r t h ' s 5.5 grams p e r
cubic cm.

Because Venus i s c l o s e r t o t h e Sun, it receives a b o u t

t w i c e a s much e n e r g y a s E a r t h . However, it i s more r e f l e c t i v e
t h a n E a r t h b e c a u s e of i t s c l o u d y a t m o s p h e r e . A s a r e s u l t o f
t h e s e two competing f a c t o r s , Venus a b s o r b s a b o u t t h e s a m e
amount o f s o l a r e n e r g y as E a r t h . Thus Venus would be e x p e c t e d
t o have a t e m p e r a t u r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o E a r t h ' s . In fact, the
s u r f a c e of Venus i s v e r y h o t , a b o u t 480 d e g r e e s 2 ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F ) .

T h i s t h e o r y f o r t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e of Venus assumes t h a t
t h e a t m o s p h e r e a l l o w s t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e incoming s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
t o t h e l o w e r atmosphere and t h e s u r f a c e . However, t h e a t m o s p h e r e
r e s t r i c t s t h e p a s s a g e of h e a t r a d i a t i o n from t h e s u r f a c e and t h e
l o w e r atmosphere back i n t o s p a c e . The h e a t i s t r a p p e d . E a r t h
h a s a modest g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t h a t r a i s e s i t s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
by a b o u t 35 d e g r e e s C ( 9 5 d e g r e e s F . ) , b u t i n some p a r t s o f t h e
i n f r a r e d s p e c t r u m h e a t c a n e s c a p e by d i r e c t r a d i a t i o n from t h e
E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t o s p a c e . Because o f i t s d e n s i t y , c o m p o s i t i o n
and c l o u d s , t h e Venus atmosphere i s v e r y t h i c k , and b e c a u s e i t
i s m o s t l y c a r b o n d i o x i d e , it i s e s s e n t i a l l y opaque t o o u t g o i n g
h e a t r a d i a t i o n a t a l l important wavelengths.

One of t h e most p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f Venus i s i t s l a c k of

water. I f Venus i s a s d r y as it seems, where d i d t h e o c e a n s o f
Venus g o , i f any e v e r e x i s t e d ? One s p e c u l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e
w a t e r rose i n t o t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e a n d w a s d i s s o c i a t e d by
s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n i n t o hydrogen and oxygen. The
hydrogen e s c a p e d i n t o s p a c e from t h e t o p o f t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e ,
and t h e h e a v i e r oxygen d i f f u s e d down t o t h e o x i d i z e d c r u s t .
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s shows t h a t it m i g h t n o t be p r a c t i c a l f o r Venus
t o have l o s t a n o c e a n of water by s u c h a r o u t e . P e r h a p s Venus
formed close enough t o t h e Sun so t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e p r e v e n t e d
w a t e r from b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s o l i d m a t e r i a l t h a t formed
the planet. I f s o , Venus would n e v e r have had enough w a t e r
w i t h i n i t s r o c k s t o form e a r l y d e e p o c e a n s l i k e t h o s e o f E a r t h .
Direct measurements o f g a s e s w i t h i n t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e may
p o i n t toward one o f two a l t e r n a t i v e s : E i t h e r t h a t w a t e r w a s
n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o Venus a s much a s on E a r t h , o r t h a t water
o u t g a s s e d and w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y l o s t .
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 -31-

O r b i t and R o t a t i o n of Venus

The r o t a t i o n o f Venus i s v e r y slow and i n a r e t r o g r a d e

d i r e c t i o n , t h a t is, opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s
r e v o l u t i o n a b o u t t h e Sun and t o t h e r o t a t i o n of m o s t o t h e r
p l a n e t s . Venus t u r n s on i t s a x i s o n c e i n 2 4 3 . 1 E a r t h d a y s .

S i n c e Venus' r o t a t i o n on i t s a x i s and r e v o l u t i o n i n o r b i t
a r o u n d t h e Sun a r e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , t h e l e n g t h o f a s o l a r
day on Venus i s 1 1 7 E a r t h d a y s (58.5 E a r t h d a y s of " d a y l i g h t "
58.5 E a r t h d a y s of n i g h t ) .

The o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus are t i l t e d t o each o t h e r

a b o u t 3.5 d e g r e e s . Venus' a x i s i s t i l t e d a b o u t 6 d e g r e e s
from p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of t h e p l a n e t ' s o r b i t . T h i s
compares w i t h E a r t h ' s a x i a l tilt of 23.5 d e g r e e s which p r o d u c e s
o u r s e a s o n s . Thus, s e a s o n a l e f f e c t s on Venus are small.

Some s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t n a t Venus' p e r i o d of r o t a t i o n
i s t i e d t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n of t h e E a r t h and Venus a r o u n d t h e
Sun. Venus p r e s e n t s t h e same h e m i s p h e r e toward E a r t h a t each
c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h ; t h a t i s , e a c h t i m e t h e p l a n e t p a s s e s between
Sun and E a r t h . I f t h e r o t a t i o n of Venus i s locked t o t h e close
a p p r o a c h e s of E a r t h and Venus, t h e n t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
mass w i t h i n Venus s h o u l d be s l i g h t l y asymmetric.
Why d o e s Venus r o t a t e so s l o w l y when most o t h e r p l a n e t s
r o t a t e i n p e r i o d s of h o u r s r a t h e r t h a n months? One s p e c u l a t i o n
i s t h a t a l a r g e body h i t Venus and s t o p p e d i t s r o t a t i o n . This
l a r g e body m i g h t have been c a p t u r e d as a s a t e l l i t e i n t o a
r e t r o g r a d e o r b i t and l a t e r i m p a c t e d w i t h Venus t=,s t o p i t s
normal r o t a t i o n and r o t a t e i t s l o w l y i n a n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .

I t c o u l d b e t h a t Venus w a s formed f r o m l a r g e f r a g m e n t s ,
and a s a r e s u l t of t h e combined i m p a c t s of these f r a g m e n t s n e v e r
had much r o t a t i o n . According t o a n o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n , s o l a r t i d a l
e f f e c t s i n Venus' d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e may have slowed r o t a t i o n
and t h e n " t u r n e d t h e p l a n e t o v e r " , a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s backward
rotation.

Radar a s t r o n o m e r s have mapped a n area on t h e E a r t h - f a c i n g

side of t h e p l a n e t a s l a r g e as A s i a and have found w h a t a p p e a r s
t o b e a rugged s u r f a c e . According t o t h e r a d a r r e s u l t s , t h e r e
are huge s h a l l o w c r a t e r s a s w e l l a s a n enormous v o l c a n o which
may b e as large i n area, though n o t a s h i g h , a s Olympus Mons
on Mars ( t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ' s l a r g e s t d i s c o v e r e d s o f a r ) . Radar
a s t r o n o m e r s a l s o d e t e c t e d what a p p e a r s t o b e a n enormous canyon.
T h i s chasm i s 1 4 0 0 km ( 8 7 0 m i . ) l o n g , 1 5 0 km ( 9 5 m i . ) w i d e , and
several k i l o m e t e r s d e e p .

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 -32-

Venus' Interior and Absence of Magnetic Field

Unlike the Earth, Venus has no significant magnet,e fie d.
The generation of Earth's field is attributed to a self-sustaining
dynamo in the fluid core of the planet. Convection currents in
the core give rise to electric currents that produce the external
magnetic field. This theory, which also seems to apply to
Jupiter, predicts that slow-spinning planets like Venus should
not have magnetic fields.
Venus is a planet whose shape could be very close to a
sphere according to radar measurements. They show its equator
to be almost a perfect circle. Because the poles do not rotate
into view as do points on the equator, circularity around the
poles cannot be measured. The lack of irregularities in
shape, and of a satellite makes it difficult to determine the
internal density distribution of the planet. Most models of
the interior are based on its similarity to Earth, consisting
of a liquid core, a solid mantle and a solid crust. But the
true nature of the interior of the planet is very much in
doubt because scientists do not know Venus' thermal structure
or the nature of the materials which make up its mass.

The Atmosphere of Venus

Carbon dioxide is the dominant gas in the Venusian
atmosphere. There are a l s o traces of water, carbon monoxide,
hydrochloric acid and hydrogen fluoride. Free oxygen has never
been found.
The clouds which obscure the surface of Venus consist of
thick hazes of droplets believed to be made of sulfuric acid.
Venus' clouds are pale yellow and very reflective, returning
into space some 75 per cent of the sunlight falling on them.
Space probe measurements have shown that there are distinct
cloud layers much higher than terrestrial clouds. Photographs
taken in ultraviolet light reveal a four-day rotation of the
markings in these clouds. This rotation is like that of the
planet, in a retrograde direction. Unusual dynamics of the
atmosphere are required to account for this high-speed cloud
motion.
The generally accepted figure for atmospheric carbon
dioxide on Venus is 97 per cent. However, measurements made
by early Venera spacecraft (USSR) differ from radio occulation
measurements suggesting the presence of about 7 0 per cent
carbon dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere. And, if there
is much argon in the atmosphere, the amount of carbon dioxide
could be as low as 2 5 per cent.
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 -33-

Adding to the uncertainty is the fact that the percentages

determined by the Veneras were obtained by sampling the
atmosphere in regions where there are sulfuric acid droplets.
The presence of the acid may have contaminated these measurements.
It is therefore possible to argue that the carbon dioxide is
considerably less than 97 per cent, with the remainder being
made up by some combination of nitrogen and argon.
The amount of carbon dioxide is important because it plays
a major role in the interpretation of the microwave spectrum
of the planet. If the atmosphere is 9 7 per cent carbon dioxide,
the microwave observations permit the presence of as much as
0.1 per cent water below the clouds. Some instruments on the
most recent Veneras 9 and 10 indicated that water vapor
constituted about 0.1 per cent of the atmosphere below the
main c l o u d s . A t t h e c l o u d t o p s it is only 0.0001 p e r cent,
however. But, if there is another gas in the atmosphere of
Venus that is not a good microwave absorber, the planet's
atmosphere might contain more water than is now believed.
Carbon dioxide is also important to theories about the
evolution of the atmosphere of Venus, and to the radiative
properties of the present atmosphere and its dynamic
characteristics.
The atmospheres of both Venus and Earth are assumed to
have originated from gases that were released from the interiors
of the planets which were hot when the planets first formed. In
the case of Earth, most of the outgassing may have occurred soon
after formation, from the heat of formation. Venus may never
have had much water to outgas in the first place if it was
formed from parts of the solar nebula that were poor in water,
Or it may be that Venus formed with as much water as the Earth,
but this water has now been lost.
The Earth holds its water in its oceans because it is much
cooler than Venus and there is a "lid" on its atmosphere. This
lid is the very cold tropopause where the temperature rises
with altitude. This prevents heated water vapor from rising
by convection to cooler heights where it could be dissociated
by solar ultraviolet radiation. But if Earth were moved to
the same distance from the Sun as Venus, conditions could
change drastically. The additional solar energy would be
sufficient to evaporate all of Earth's oceans.

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 -34-

If Venus had been formed from the same mix of materials

as Earth and then outgassed its volatiles, we would expect it
to have an atmosphere about 3 5 0 times as massive as Earth's.
Carbon dioxide would account for a surface pressure of about
100 atmospheres, and water vapor would account for about 150
atmospheres. On Earth most of the 100 atmospheres of carbon
dioxide is tied up in carbonate rocks which are chemically
stable at terrestrial temperatures, but unstable at Venus
temperatures. Earth's oceans, if vaporized, would result in
an atmospheric pressure of about 2 5 0 atmospheres. Venus
does indeed have nearly 100 atmospheres of carbon dioxide,
but the water is apparently absent. There are no oceans,
and the atmospheric water vapor is a minor constituent.
One of the major questions to be answered by Pioneer Venus
is just how much water vapor is present. Water vapor would
be broken down by solar ultraviolet radiation into oxygen
and hydrogen. The hydrogen would escape into space leaving
the oxygen behind. Effectively the oceans would be leaking
into space.
This could have happened to Venus. If the primitive
atmosphere of Venus consisted mostly of steam (because the
planet is closer to the Sun than Earth), the resulting
convective atmosphere could not have had a barrier to
convection. The water vapor would have dissociated into
hydrogen and oxygen. Calculations suggest that within
about 3 0 million years perhaps 90 per cent of the water
could have been lost to the planet, but all could not be
lost in this way.
Furthermore, there is no easy way to explain what
happened to the leftover oxygen other than that it reacted
with the surface rocks. Yet without running water to
continually expose fresh rocks for oxidation, the process
might be insufficient to remove all the oxygen. Continental
drift might be a possible mechanism to expose fresh rocks.
There is a question, too, of what happens to the oxygen now
released in the upper atmosphere by photodissociation of
carbon dioxide to produce the carbon monoxide observed
spectroscopically. The incorporation of oxygen with sulfur
to form the sulfuric acid droplets does not seem to account
for all the missing oxygen.

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 -35-
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 -36-

On Venus, because of the high surface temperatures,

reactions between rocks, minerals and the atmosphere are
expected to be much faster than on Earth. However, on Earth
the action of running water constantly exposes new rocks to
the action of the atmosphere and aids oxidation and other
reactions between the rocks and the atmosphere. This is not
happening on Venus. If fresh rocks are not being exposed by
some other mechanism, the atmosphere of Venus may not have
achieved equilibrium with surface materials.
The Venus atmosphere can be divided into three distinct
regions: a region above the visible cloud tops which includes
the ionosphere and the exosphere; a region of clouds; and a
region from the base of the clouds to the surface.

Upper Atmosphere
The upper atmosphere of Venus has an ionosphere which is
different from that of Earth. Because Venus does not have a
significant magnetic field, the solar wind interacts directly
with the upper atmosphere and the ionosphere of the planet.
Among the atmospheric regions of Venus, the upper atmosphere
above the cloud tops is best understood. It has been investigated
from Earth and from flyby and orbiting spacecraft. Above 150 km
( 9 0 mi.) it is more rarefied than the atmosphere of Earth at the
same height. Like Earth's atmosphere, it is ionized by incoming
solar radiation to produce positively-charged ions and free
electrons of an ionosphere, which is thinner and closer to the
surface of the planet than Earth's ionosphere. Like Earth's
ionosphere, the ionosphere of Venus has layers at which the
number of electrons per cubic centimeter (electron density)
peaks. In Earth's ionospheric layers, the peak electron density
is about 100,000 to 1,000,000 electrons per cubic centimeter, and
occurs at an altitude of about 2 5 0 to 300 km (150 to 180 mi.).
The major ion is singly-charged carbon dioxide.
Mariner 10 found two clearly defined layers in the nighttime
ionosphere: a main layer at 1 4 2 km ( 8 7 mi.) altitude and a
lesser layer at 1 2 4 km ( 7 6 mi.). The peak intensity of the latter
was about 7 8 per cent of the higher layer. On the dayside there
was one main layer at 1 4 2 km ( 8 7 mi.) and several minor layers,
including one at 1 2 8 km ( 7 8 mi.) and another at about 180 km
(110 mi.). The Venera 9 and 10 orbiters obtained similar results,
but single layers seem to be the most common.
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 -37-

SOLAR WIND - VENUS INTERACTIONS

TRANSITION

I/ ,
REG ION

/-
- -
R~REFACTION

gJ
IONOPAUSE WAVE

PLASMA

SOLAR
 -38-

From a practical standpoint, Venus has no intrinsic

magnetic field. The field of Venus is less than 1 / 1 0 , 0 0 0 of
Earth's field. There is a region of rarefaction (lessened
density) of the solar wind flow at Venus, and the characteristics
of the plasma there indicate that Venus absorbs part of the flux
of the solar wind. On the dayside of Venus, there is a sharp
- boundary to the ionosphere at 3 5 0 to 5 0 0 km (210 to 3 0 5 mi.).
This is believed to be caused by the interaction of the solar
wind with Venus' atmosphere. On the night side of the planet,
- the ionosphere extends high into space and probably into a
plasma tail stretching away from the Sun.
Temperatures have been measured in regions above the visible
cloud layers by radio occultation. The temperature of the
exosphere (region where particles escape the planet) was derived
from density variation with altitude found by the ultraviolet
experiments of spacecraft. From observations of the ultraviolet
radiation from hydrogen and helium atoms, it is calculated that
the temperature of the exosphere of Venus when Mariner 10 flew
past the planet was about 1 2 7 degrees C ( 2 6 0 degrees F). At such
a temperature, the thermal escape of helium gas would be negligible.
Accordingly it is thought that if helium outgassed from the rocks
of Venus as it did on Earth the gas might have accumulated in
the upper atmosphere of Venus. A corona of hydrogen begins at
about 800 km (480 mi.) and contains up to 10,000 atoms per
cubic centimeter.

Haze Lavers
At least two tenuous layers of haze can be seen in high
resolution pictures of the limb (edge of the disc) of Venus.
They extend from equatorial regions to higher latitudes. They
may be associated with temperature inversions in the high
atmosphere, and may result from processes similar to those in
Earth's atmosphere which produce layers of aerosols in the
stratosphere. Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended
in an atmosphere. The stratified layers of haze are in the
region 80 to 90 km ( 5 0 to 5 6 mi.) above the surface of Venus
where the atmospheric pressure is between 50 and 0.5 millibars.
(Pressure at Earth's surface is 1000 millibars). These haze
layers are extremely tenuous. At the topmost haze layer, if
the atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide, the temperature should
be - 7 5 degrees C. However, temperatures determined from
occultations differ appreciably above 6 0 km ( 3 7 mi.), suggesting
temperature inversions that separate the haze layers from the
topmost convective cloud deck as well as the upper from the
lower haze layers. In the region above 5 0 km ( 3 0 mi.), the
daytime atmosphere is about 15 degrees C (59 degrees F)
warmer than the temperature at night.

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 -39-

The Cloud Lavers

Below the upper atmosphere is the 18-km (ll-mi.)-thick
region containing the clouds of Venus visible from Earth. While
the clouds of Venus look extremely opaque, they are in fact very
tenuous. Veneras 9 and 10 determined that visibility within the
clouds is between 1 and 3 km (0.6 to 1.8 mi.). They are more
like thin hazes than terrestrial clouds. The particles making
up the clouds of Venus are spherical and about one to two
microns in diameter. These droplets apparently consist of
sulfuric acid, with concentrations varying from 50 to 500
per cubic centimeter.
The presence of sulfuric acid clouds explain the extreme
dryness of the Venus upper atmosphere. Nearly all the water
has chemically bound up in the sulfuric acid droplets. The
density of Venus' atmosphere at this level is about one-tenth
the density of Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Sulfuric acid
clouds remain as clouds over a wider range of temperature than
water clouds, although high temperatures cause some of the
water to evaporate from the droplets. There is evidence of
the presence of fluorine in the Venus atmosphere. This element
probably combines with water into the extremely stable and
corrosive fluorosulfonic acid. But none of these acids can
account for the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the
clouds. There must be an unknown ultraviolet absorber in the
clouds which gives rise to the dark markings seen in ultraviolet
pictures of Venus.
One speculation is that the dark regions seen in ultraviolet
light are oxygen-depleted regions where a significant amount of
ultraviolet-absorbing sulfur is being produced. There appears
to be a whole series of compounds of sulfur, oxygen and halo-
gens that enter into the chemistry of the atmosphere of Venus.
The Pioneer Venus measurements of the constituents of the
atmosphere of Venus with a mass spectrometer and gas chromatograph
should contribute greatly to our understanding of these chemical
processes that are responsible for the Venusian clouds and their
markings.
The dark markings of the clouds, seen in ultraviolet light,
have characteristic forms that have been studied from Earth.
There are horizontal Y-shaped features which sometimes have a
tail. There are features that look like a reversed letter C.
The features in the form of a reverse letter C appear more
often on the evening terminator than on the morning terminator.
Other features are like a reversed C with a bisecting bar.
Sometimes there are two parallel equatorial bands. The
patterns are also almost always symmetrical about the equator
of Venus. The arms of these features are always open in the
direction of their retrograde motion which varies between
180 and 4 7 0 kph (112 to 2 6 5 mph).
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 -40-

VENUS ATMOSPHERE

WEAKLY
IONIZED

MAIN
140 I O N I2AT ION UPPER
WEAKLY ATMOSPHERE
IONIZED
120 LAYERS

100 I

60
TROPOPAUSE
CLOUDS

WIND
SHEAR
1
CLOUDS

LOW HAZES
AEROSOLS LOWER
DUST
20 ATMOSPHERE
CLEAR

V I SUR FACE

1-V
O CRUST

i5 io i5 100
WIND SPEED m/s
 -41-

I n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e t h e e f f e c t s o f s o l a r h e a t i n g are
s i g n i f i c a n t , and t h e C-bar, C- and Y-shaped f e a t u r e s are a l l
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u b - s o l a r p o i n t , which i s t h e p o i n t where
t h e Sun s h i n e s down on t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e from d i r e c t l y
o v e r h e a d . However, t h e f e a t u r e s move around t h e p l a n e t and
are n o t f i x e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u b - s o l a r p o i n t .
A b i g q u e s t i o n a b o u t Venus' atmosphere i s whether t h e
a p p a r e n t motions of t h e u l t r a v i o l e t markings are a r e s u l t of
a c t u a l movement o r m e r e l y a wave m o t i o n . The e v i d e n c e t o d a y
p o i n t s t o a n a c t u a l movement o f m a s s ; i . e . , w i n d s . B u t t h e r e
i s some e v i d e n c e o f wave m o t i o n s , d i u r n a l t i d e s and p a r a l l e l
equatorial belts.

The d i v i s i o n between t h e h i g h wind v e l o c i t i e s of t h e

s t r a t o s p h e r e , and t h e n e a r c a l m of t h e d e n s e s u r f a c e a t m o s p h e r e
seems t o come a t a b o u t t h e 56 km (36 m i . ) l e v e l . The b i g c h a n g e
i n wind v e l o c i t y t h u s a p p e a r s t o t a k e p l a c e a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
c l o u d s where t h e r e must b e a s h e a r zone. Thus, t h e c l o u d b o t t o m s
a r e e x p e c t e d t o be e x t r e m e l y r a g g e d .
The S o v i e t p r o b e s measured t h e amount of s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
down t o t h e s u r f a c e . Above 50 km ( 3 1 m i . ) , s c a t t e r i n g a p p e a r s
t o b e by t h e c l o u d p a r t i c l e s . B e l o w a b o u t 25 km ( 1 5 m i . ) , t h e
s c a t t e r i n g i s R a y l e i g h s c a t t e r i n g ; i . e . , by much smaller a i r
m o l e c u l e s . A t t h e s u r f a c e , w i t h t h e S u n ' s p o s i t i o n a b o u t 30
d e g r e e s f r o m o v e r h e a d , t h e i n t e g r a t e d f l u x w a s measured as
b e i n g a b o u t e q u a l t o t h a t on a n o v e r c a s t day on t h e E a r t h a t
sea l e v e l i n m i d - l a t i t u d e s .
The h i g h v e l o c i t y winds i n t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e m i g h t a r i s e
b e c a u s e t h e p l a n e t h a s s u c h a massive and d e e p a t m o s p h e r e . Large-
s c a l e e d d i e s c o n t a i n i n g a l o t o f e n e r g y c o u l d t r a n s p o r t momentum
f r o m low t o h i g h a l t i t u d e s w i t h a h i g h a m p l i f i c a t i o n . The i o n
wind s p e e d s i n t h e d e n s e lower a t m o s p h e r e produced by t h e h e a t
f r o m t h e Sun and t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e p l a n e t a r e a m p l i f i e d i n t o
t h e t h i n upper atmosphere.

L o w e r Atmosphere

The p e n e t r a t i o n o f Veneras 9 and 1 0 i n t o t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e

produced new i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h i s r e g i o n . A t a b o u t 50 km ( 3 0 m i . )
a l t i t u d e , t h e wind v e l o c i t y a p p e a r s t o b e a b o u t 1 3 0 kph ( 8 0 mph).
A t t h e l a n d i n g s i t e of Venera 9 , t h e l o c a l wind v e l o c i t y v a r i e d
f r o m 1 . 2 t o 2.5 kph ( . 9 t o 1 . 4 mph); a t t h e Venera 1 0 s i t e , it
v a r i e d from 2 . 9 t o 4 . 7 kph ( 1 . 8 t o 9 . 2 mph). The t w o l a n d e r s
t h u s c o n f i r m e d a l o w wind v e l o c i t y close t o t h e s u r f a c e , as w e l l
as l i t t l e d u s t c o n t e n t i n t h e low a t m o s p h e r e .
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 -42-

T h e r e a r e s t i l l many u n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e
a t m o s p h e r e o f Venus t h a t need t o be a n s w e r e d , s u c h as:

0 How d o e s t h e Venus w e a t h e r machine r e a l l y work?

0 I t i s r e a l l y a g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t h a t makes Venus
so h o t compared w i t h t h e E a r t h ? O r i s t h e r e a
dynamic c a u s e ?

D i d Venus once have a more moderate s u r f a c e

temperature?

0 What causes t h e d a r k markings i n t h e Venus c l o u d s ?

8 What a r e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e Venus a t m o s p h e r e ?

Thermal e m i s s i o n from t h e upper atmosphere d i f f e r s v e r y

l i t t l e between n i g h t and day and between low and h i g h l a t i t u d e .
T h i s i n d i c a t e s a dynamic a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and
s u g g e s t s t h a t h e a t i n s u b s t a n t i a l amounts i s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d
around t h e p l a n e t h o r i z o n t a l l y . There are dynamic a c t i v i t i e s
a t a l l levels because s p a c e c r a f t have determined t h a t t h e s o l a r
r a d i a t i o n p e n e t r a t e s through t h e c l o u d s and, t h e r e f o r e , a f f e c t s
t h e atmosphere down t o t h e s u r f a c e . D i r e c t s o l a r h e a t i n g i s
most i m p o r t a n t above 5 6 km ( 3 4 m i . ) ; dynamic e f f e c t s below t h a t .

Over t h e whole of t h e p l a n e t t h e r e i s a l s o t h e e f f e c t
o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t t h e e q u a t o r r i s i n g as it i s warmed by
s u n l i g h t , and s i n k i n g n e a r t h e P o l e s , a s i t c o o l s .

The S u r f a c e of Venus

Radar h a s r e v e a l e d l a r g e - s c a l e f e a t u r e s t h a t s u g g e s t
t e c t o n i c s and i m p a c t molding o f Venus' t o p o g r a p h y . D e t a i l s
of t h e s u r f a c e have been p r o v i d e d by t h e t w o S o v i e t l a n d e r
spacecraft.

The r a d a r o b s e r v a t i o n s reveal a l a r g e - s c a l e g r a n u l a r
s t r u c t u r e , s u g g e s t i v e of a r o c k - s t r e w n d e s e r t . Large b u t
s h a l l o w c i r c u l a r f e a t u r e s , m o s t l i k e l y c r a t e r s , a r e found i n
equatorial regions. S o m e a r e a s of h i g h r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y a r e
i n t e r p r e t e d a s e x t e n s i v e l a v a f l o w s and mountainous areas. A
major chasm s t r e t c h e s 1 4 0 0 km ( 8 7 0 m i . ) n o r t h and s o u t h across
the equator.

A t f i v e d e g r e e s s o u t h l a t i t u d e and 3 2 0 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e
i s t h e h i g h mountain B e t a w i t h a c r a t e r e d t o p l i k e t h e l a r g e
M a r t i a n volcanoes. There a r e a l s o a r c u a t e r i d g e s . One i s a t
l e a s t 8 0 0 km ( 4 8 0 m i . ) l o n g . T h e r e a r e mountainous a r e a s which
may b e v o l c a n i c o r a r e s u l t o f c r u s t a l p l a t e movements.

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P h o t o g r a p h s from one S o v i e t l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t c o n f i r m a
d r y r o c k y s u r f a c e t h a t h a s been f r a c t u r e d and moved a b o u t by
unknown p r o c e s s e s . The second l a n d e r produced a p i c t u r e o f
r o c k s w i t h rounded e d g e s and p i t t e d s u r f a c e s . The forms o f
t h e s e r o c k s may b e e x p l a i n e d by v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t i e s h a v i n g
t a k e n p l a c e on t h e s u r f a c e .

The e x i s t e n c e of c r a t e r s on Venus s u g g e s t s t h a t i t s s u r f a c e
h a s n o t been s u b j e c t e d t o t h e major t e c t o n i c c h a n g e s e x p e r i e n c e d
on E a r t h , b u t t h a t i t h a s p r o b a b l y e v o l v e d somewhat a l o n g t h e
s a m e l i n e s a s Mars. Some o l d c r a t e r e d t e r r a i n i s p r e s e r v e d
w h i l e o t h e r p a r t s have been m o d i f i e d by t e c t o n i c s and v o l c a n i s m .
Venus m i g h t , i n d e e d , have e v o l v e d t o a s t a g e between t h a t o f
Mars and t h a t o f t h e E a r t h .

Venera 9 l a n d e d a t 3 3 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e . Its p i c t u r e
shows h e a p s o f r o c k s , m o s t l y a b o u t 30 c m ( 1 2 i n . ) o r more i n
s i z e , and w i t h r a t h e r s h a r p e d g e s . The f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e r o c k s
i s b e l i e v e d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e c t o n i c p r o c e s s e s . The l a n d e r
i s b e l i e v e d t o be on t h e s i d e of a h i l l i n which t h e r e i s some
downward movement o f t h e r o c k s . The s h a r p e d g e s and l a c k of
r o u n d i n g of t h e r o c k s a t t h i s s i t e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y w e r e
formed from b r e a k a g e o f h a r d , l a y e r e d r o c k s , p o s s i b l y a lava
flow.

Venera 1 0 l a n d e d a t 1 5 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a t i t u d e , i n a n area
w i t h a much smoother s u r f a c e . T h i s i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a p l a t e a u
o r p l a i n of g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e a g e t h a n t h e s i t e of Venera 9 .
There a r e some r o c k y e l e v a t i o n s which a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a
r e l a t i v e l y dark, fine-grained s o i l . This implies t h a t t h e
r o c k s have been w e a t h e r e d , p o s s i b l y by c h e m i c a l a c t i o n w i t h
t h e a t m o s p h e r e . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e g e n t l e winds a t t h e
s u r f a c e c o u l d have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w e a t h e r i n g .
G e n e r a l l y a t t h i s s i t e t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e Venusian s o i l i s
d a r k , b u t t h e r e are o u t c r o p s o f l i g h t e r - c o l o r e d r o c k p e n e t r a t i n g
the soil. Some o f t h e d a r k s o i l f i l l s d e p r e s s i o n s of t h e
o u t c r o p s . T h i s s u r f a c e i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g much o l d e r and
more w e a t h e r e d t h a n t h e s u r f a c e s e e n a t t h e Venera 9 s i t e . The
w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s may b e a c h e m i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e
h o t r o c k s and t h e a t m o s p h e r e , p o s s i b l y by m i n e r a l a c i d s and
water v a p o r .
Measurements made by t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
s u r f a c e r o c k s have a d e n s i t y between 2 . 7 and 2 . 9 grams p e r
c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r , which i s t y p i c a l o f t e r r e s t r i a l b a s a l t i c
rocks.

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Surface temperatures appear to be high enough to make

portions of the surface glow a dull red. They are high enough
to melt zinc, but not most common rocks. The Venus rocks at
the two landing sites are about as radioactive as terrestrial
lavas and granites. This suggests that Venus, like Earth,
has differentiated by heating to form a dense core and a
lighter crust.
Though it has dramatic major features, the surface is
smoother than that of Earth and Mars. Radar-measured minimum
to maximum height differences are 10 km (6 mi.)-- the height
of Mt. Everest. This compares with 20 km (12.4 mi.) on the
Earth, from the bottom of the Mariannas Trench to the top
of Everest. It compares with 30 km (18.6 mi.) on Mars, from
the floor of the Hellas basin to the peak of Olympus Mons.
Craters on Venus seem to be shallower than on the other worlds
of the inner solar system.
On the Moon and Mercury, and to a somewhat lesser extent
on Mars, the ratio of craters diameter to depth is about 10
to 1. On Venus, according to the radar surveys, the ratio
is more like 100 to 1. The craters on Venus seem to be
extremely shallow; the reason is not known. It could result
from plastic deformation of the hot surface or from some
weathering process.

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MAJOR QUESTIONS ABOUT VENUS

0 A p a r t from c a r b o n d i o x i d e , of what d o e s t h e lower atmos-

p h e r e c o n s i s t , and how a r e i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s d i s t r i b u t e d ?

Venus p r o b a b l y h a s l e s s t h a n s e v e n p e r c e n t of g a s e s
o t h e r t h a n c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n i t s lower a t m o s p h e r e . Most
l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r o t h e r m a j o r g a s e s a r e a r g o n and
n i t r o g e n . T h e r e a r e no measurements o f l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e
g a s e s o t h e r t h a n t h e S o v i e t measurements o f c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and w a t e r v a p o r .

0 Of what m a t e r i a l s a r e Venus' c l o u d s made?

The v i s i b l e c l o c d s p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t of s u l p h u r i c a c i d
d r o p l e t s , p e r h a p s formed by s u l f u r compounds from t h e
surface.

0 What o t h e r c l o u d l a y e r s a r e t h e r e ?

Some k i n d s o f c l o u d p a r t i c l e s a b s o r b s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t
r a d i a t i o n . T h i s i s needed t o e x p l a i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
p h o t o g r a p h s which show d a r k r e g i o n s . T h e s e d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s o f c l o u d p a r t i c l e s c o u l d be m e t a l h a l i d e s o r s u l f u r .

0 What can t h e lowermost a t m o s p h e r e t e l l u s a b o u t t h e

p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e and i n t e r i o r ?

S u r f a c e c o n s t i t u e n t s ( p o s s i b l y hydrogen f l u o r i d e and
mercury and s u l f u r compounds) may b e d e t e c t a b l e i n t h e
bottom 20 km ( 1 2 m i . ) of t h e h o t , d e n s e a t m o s p h e r e .

0 How d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y v a r y g l o b a l l y
about t h e planet?

0 Why i s Venus' lower a t m o s p h e r e s o h o t ?

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o a runaway g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t i n
which h e a t from t h e S u n i s more e a s i l y a b s o r b e d t h a n
reradiated.

0 What r o l e do v a p o r i z a t i o n - c o n d e n s a t i o n c y c l e s p l a y i n t h e
a t m o s p h e r e , and how do t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t Venus'
weather?

0 What a r e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s of t h e
upper atmosphere?

0 How d o e s t e m p e r a t u r e v a r y i n s p a c e and t i m e i n t h e u p p e r
atmosphere?

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0 What a r e t h e r o l e s of g l o b a l c i r c u l a t i o n a n d l o c a l
t u r b u l e n c e i n s t a b i l i z i n g t h e upper atmosphere?

0 What a r e t h e e f f e c t s of t h e n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s on i o n o -
s p h e r e composition?

0 How h i g h d o e s s u p e r r o t a t i o n ( f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n ) of t h e
cloud tops extend?

0 S i n c e Venus h a s no m a g n e t i c f i e l d , t h e s o l a r wind i n t e r -
a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e . What mechanisms
d o e s t h i s c r e a t e , and do t h e y a f f e c t t h e lower atmosphere?

0 Where d i d Venus' a t m o s p h e r e come from and where i s i t

going?

T h e m a i n s o u r c e s o f Venus' atmosphere probably a r e o u t -

g a s s i n g from t h e i n t e r i o r , g a s e s from t h e o r i g i n a l s o l a r
n e b u l a and some s o l a r wind p a r t i c l e s .

Where i s t h e w a t e r t h a t may have once been on Venus?

The o b v i o u s a n s w e r s a r e t h a t i t e i t h e r " l e a k e d ' ' t o s p a c e

b e c a u s e o f h i g h Venus h e a t i n g , o r i t was n e v e r t h e r e .
B u t numerous q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n .

0 Why d o e s Venus' a t m o s p h e r e d i f f e r so much from t h a t of

i t s ''twin'' p l a n e t , E a r t h ?

0 I s a l l Venus t e r r a i n r e l a t i v e l y low compared t o E a r t h and

Mars o r d o e s Venus' " i n v i s i b l e hemisphere" c o n t a i n h i g h
m o u n t a i n s and d e e p canyons comparable t o t h o s e on E a r t h
and M a r s ?

0 Is Venus a s c l o s e t o a p e r f e c t s p h e r e a s t h e e q u a t o r i a l
measurements s u g g e s t ?

0 Does Venus' i n t e r i o r c o n t a i n l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of h i g h
d e n s i t y material.

The l o c k i n g of Venus' r o t a t i o n t o E a r t h ' s o r b i t s u g g e s t s

such m a s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

0 What i s t h e s u r f a c e topography?

0 What i s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e ?

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H I S T O R I C A L D I S C O V E R I E S ABOUT VENUS

684 BC Ninevah t a b l e t s r e c o r d o b s e r v a t i o n s of Venus.

1610 Using t h e newly-invented t e l e s c o p e , G a l i l e o

f i n d s t h a t Venus e x h i b i t s p h a s e s l i k e t h o s e o f
t h e Moon.

1761 M i k h a i l V . Lomonosov ( U . S .S . R ) i n t e r p r e t s o p t i c a l
e f f e c t s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t r a n s i t of Venus a s due
t o a n a t m o s p h e r e on t h e p l a n e t .

1792 J o h a n n H . S c h r o t e r (Germany) c o n c l u d e s Venus h a s

a n atmosphere because t h e cusps a t t h e c r e s c e n t
p h a s e e x t e n d beyond t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c r e s c e n t .

1807 J o h a n n Wurm (Germany) d e t e r m i n e s t h e d i a m e t e r of

t h e v i s i b l e d i s c of Venus a s 1 2 , 2 9 3 km ( 7 , 6 3 9 m i . ) .

1890 S c h i a p a r e l l i c o n c l u d e s from h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t
Venus r o t a t e s i n 225 d a y s .

1 9 20 Edward S t . J o h n ( U . S . ) and S e t h B . N i c h o l s o n
(U.S.) s u g g e s t t h a t Venus i s a d r y , d u s t y w o r l d
b e c a u s e t h e y c a n n o t d e t e c t any w a t e r v a p o r i n i t s
atmosphere.

1922 L y o t m e a s u r e s t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n o f s u n l i g h t re-
f l e c t e d from t h e c l o u d s of Venus and i n t r o d u c e s
a new method o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s i z e and n a t u r e
of p a r t i c l e s i n i t s clouds.

1932 Walter S . Adams (U.S.) and Theodore Dunham ( U . S . )

d e t e c t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f Venus.

1942 R u p e r t W i l d t (U.S.) shows t h a t t h e h i g h s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e of Venus c o u l d a r i s e f r o m a g r e e n -
house e f f e c t i n a n a t m o s p h e r e w i t h a h i g h p r o p o r -
t i o n of c a r b o n d i o x i d e .

1955 F r e d Hoyle ( U n i t e d Kingdom) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

Venus c l o u d s a r e a p h o t o c h e m i c a l h y d r o c a r b o n smog.

1956 Radio waves a t 3-cm w a v e l e n g t h a r e d e t e c t e d from

Venus and show t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e i s
v e r y h i g h ; a b o u t 330 d e g r e e s C (625 d e g r e e s F . ) .

1957 C h a r l e s Boyer ( F r a n c e ) d i s c o v e r s a f o u r - d a y r o t a -
t i o n p e r i o d of t h e u l t r a v i o l e t m a r k i n g s i n t h e
c l o u d s of Venus.

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1960 Adouin D o l l f u s [ F r a n c e ) d e t e r m i n e s p r e s s u r e a t
cloud tops as 90 m i l l i b a r s , using polarimetry.

1960 C a r l Sagan ( U . S . ) c a l c u l a t e s h e a t i n g i n atmos-

p h e r e w i t h l a r g e amounts o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e and
water vapor, concludes s u r f a c e temperature can
b e r a i s e d by g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t t o above t h e b o i l -
i n g p o i n t of w a t e r , 1 0 0 d e g r e e s C ( 2 1 2 d e g r e e s F . ) .

1962 Low r a d a r r e f l e c t i v i t y of Venus r u l e s o u t any

p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g l a r g e b o d i e s of w a t e r
on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .

1962 Radar o b s e r v a t i o n of Venus e s t a b l i s h e s r o t a t i o n

a s r e t r o g r a d e i n a p e r i o d of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 0
days.

1962 Mariner 2 f l y b y confirms h i g h s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e

( a t l e a s t 75 atmospheres)and temperature ( a b o u t
650 d e g r e e s K) and shows no s u b s t a n t i a l m a g n e t i c
field.

1967 M a r i n e r 5 f l y b y u s e s r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n t o measure
s t r u c t u r e of u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and l o c a t e h e i g h t
of c l o u d s above s u r f a c e ; d i s c o v e r s i o n o s p h e r e and
f i n d s t h a t c a r b o n d i o x i d e i s major compound of
atmosphere.

1967 J a m e s P o l l a c k (U.S.) and Sagan c a l c u l a t e g r e e n -

h o u s e e f f e c t f o r m a s s i v e Venus a t m o s p h e r e , show-
i n g t h a t s o l a r energy a l o n e can h e a t s u r f a c e t o
above 4 5 0 d e g r e e s C (845 d e g r e e s F.) .
1968 Radius of Venus s u r f a c e d e t e r m i n e d from r a d a r
t o b e 6,050 km ( 3 , 7 5 0 m i . ) w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y of
l e s s t h a n 5 km ( 3 m i . ) .

1968 S u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s a r e e s t i m a t e d
from r a d i o and r a d a r d a t a a s 4 7 7 d e g r e e s C ( 8 9 0
d e g r e e s F . ) and 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s .

1 9 69 U.S.S.R. p r o b e s , V e n e r a 5 and 6 , s u c c e s s f u l l y l a n d
on s u r f a c e , d e t e r m i n e a c c u r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e (750
d e g r e e s K) and p r e s s u r e ( 9 0 a t m o s p h e r e s ) , a l s o
s t r u c t u r e o f lower a t m o s p h e r e .

1971 A n a l y s i s of p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a by James Hansen

and A l b e r t Arking ( U . S . ) shows t h a t t h e c l o u d
p a r t i c l e s are s p h e r i c a l w i t h a r e f r a c t i v e index
of 1.44, r a d i u s of 1 . 0 5 um and a l o c a t i o n a t a
p r e s s u r e l e v e l o f 50 m i l l i b a r s .

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1972 A.T. Young and G . S i l l ( U . S . ) independently

c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n d a t a imply t h a t
Venus c l o u d s a r e composed o f s u l p h u r i c a c i d
droplets.

1972 U.S.S.R. Venera 8 l a n d e r m e a s u r e s r a d i o a c t i v e

c o n t e n t of s u r f a c e r o c k s , c o n c l u d e s Venus i s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . Also determines t h a t s u n l i g h t
( a few p e r c e n t ) p e n e t r a t e s t o s u r f a c e .

1973 O b s e r v a t i o n s of c a r b o n d i o x i d e a b s o r p t i o n s i n
Venus a t m o s p h e r e show a 20 p e r c e n t f l u c t u a t i o n
o v e r a f o u r - d a y p e r i o d , i n t e r p r e t e d a s upward
and downward m o t i o n s o f c l o u d deck p l a n e t w i d e .

1973 Radar scans of Venus reveal huge shallow c r a t e r s

on t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e .

1973 P o l l a c k makes o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Venus from h i g h -

f l y i n g a i r c r a f t and c o n c l u d e s t h a t c l o u d s are
deep hazes of s u l f u r i c a c i d d r o p s .

1 974 R i c h a r d G o l d s t e i n ( U .S .) p r o d u c e s h i g h r e s o l u -
t i o n r a d a r images o f small a r e a s o f t h e p l a n e t ' s
s u r f a c e showing many t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s .

1974 Mariner 1 0 ( f l y b y ) o b t a i n s detailed u l t r a v i o l e t

photographs of c l o u d s , determined c i r c u l a t i o n
p a t t e r n s i n upper atmosphere.

1976 U.S.S.R. Venera 9 and 1 0 l a n d e r s p h o t o g r a p h

s u r f a c e a t two l o c a t i o n s , showing exposed r o c k s
and e v i d e n c e o f e r o s i o n p r o c e s s e s .

1976 Arvydas K l i o r e ( U . S . ) and c o l l e a g u e s c o n c l u d e

from r a d i o o c c u l t a t i o n d a t a t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
discrete c l o u d l a y e r s e x i s t below t h e main s u l -
f u r i c acid clouds.

1977 Radar images w i t h t h e upgraded A r e c i b o r a d a r

i n d i c a t e l a r g e v o l c a n o e s and c r a t e r s on p l a n e t .

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EXPLORATION OF VENUS BY SPACECRAFT

Venus h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d by 1 3 s p a c e c r a f t of which t h r e e
w e r e American and 1 0 were R u s s i a n . F i v e o f t h e s e s p a c e c r a f t
w e r e f l y b y s and e i g h t w e r e l a n d e r s . S e v e r a l of t h e R u s s i a n
s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t e d of b o t h o r b i t e r s and l a n d e r s which s e p a -
r a t e d on a r r i v a l a t Venus. The r e c o r d i s a s f o l l o w s :

Venera 1 (U.S.S.R.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus

May 1 9 6 1 . No s c i e n c e d a t a w e r e
returned, according t o r e p o r t s .

Mariner 2 ( U . S . )
A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus
December 1 9 6 2 . D i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e
temperature averages 426 degrees C
( 7 9 9 d e g r e e s F . ) on b o t h n i g h t and
day h e m i s p h e r e s , and t h a t t h e p l a n e t
h a s v i r t u a l l y no m a g n e t i c f i e l d and
no r a d i a t i o n b e l t s .

Venera 2 ( U . S . S . R . ) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; p a s s e d Venus
February 1 9 6 6 . A n a t t e m p t t o photo-
g r a p h Venus a p p a r e n t l y was n o t
successful.

Venera 3 ( U . S . S . R . ) A lander spacecraft; entered the

Venera 4 (U.S.S.R.)
a t m o s p h e r e March 1 9 6 6 . N o r e p o r t s
of any s c i e n t i f i c d a t a b e i n g r e t u r n e d .
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t ; e n t e r e d atmos-
p h e r e o f Venus O c t o b e r 1 9 6 7 , and
returned data during descent t o a
few a t m o s p h e r e s . Determined t h e
atmosphere i s mainly carbon d i o x i d e .

Mariner 5 (U.S.) A f l y b y s p a c e c r a f t ; passed October

Venera 5 (U.S.S.R.)
1 9 6 7 . P r o v i d e d t e m p e r a t u r e and
p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s t o 527 d e g r e e s C
( 9 8 1 d e g r e e s F . ) and 1 0 0 a t m o s p h e r e s
a t t h e s u r f a c e . Determined t h e de-
t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ,
and d i s c o v e r e d t h e a t o m i c hydrogen
corona.
A lander spacecraft; descent capsule
e n t e r e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e i n May 1 9 6 9 .
Measured t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
atmospheric composition.

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Venera 6 CU.S.S.R.)
Venera 7 (U.S.S.R.)
Venera 8 ( U . S . S . R . )
Mariner 1 0 ( U . S . )
Venera 9 (U.S.S.R.)
Venera 1 0 CU .S . S . R . )
-51-
A lander spacecraft; capsule entered
t h e a t m o s p h e r e May 1 9 6 9 . Determined
low w a t e r v a p o r c o n t e n t ; s u g g e s t e d
p r e s e n c e o f n i t r o g e n . Measured car-
bon d i o x i d e a s 93 t o 9 7 p e r c e n t o f
a t m o s p h e r e , and oxygen less t h a n 0 . 4
p e r c e n t ; s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e of n e a r l y
1 0 0 atmospheres.
A lander spacecraft; entry capsule
p e n e t r a t e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e December
1 9 7 1 ; d a t a w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d f o r 23
m i n u t e s from t h e s u r f a c e . Measured
a s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 543 d e g r e e s C
( 1 , 0 0 9 d e g r e e s F . ) and a p r e s s u r e of
90 atmospheres.
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t : c a p s u l e landed
July 1 9 7 2 , and t r a n s m i t t e d s u r f a c e
d a t a f o r 1 0 7 m i n u t e s . Determined
amounts o f uranium, t h o r i u m and p o t a s -
sium i n s u r f a c e materials and showed
t h e y w e r e s i m i l a r t o amounts i n t e r -
r e s t r i a l r o c k s . Measured a s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 530 d e g r e e s C (986
d e g r e e s F .). ’
Mercury-bound s p a c e c r a f t ; Passed Venus
F e b r u a r y 1974. O b t a i n e d f i r s t p i c -
t u r e s from s p a c e c r a f t . Revealed t h e
s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of t h e c l o u d s i n
u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t . Confirmed t h e c-,
y- and p s i - s h a p e d c l o u d m a r k i n g s ,
and f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n of t h e s e mark-
i n g s . Found s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of
h e l i u m and c o n f i r m e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f
hydrogen i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
Photographed h i g h - a l t i t u d e h a z e l a y e r s .
A l a n d e r s p a c e c r a f t . Capsule reached
s u r f a c e O c t o b e r 1975 a t 33 d e g r e e s N .
l a t i t u d e , 293 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d f i r s t p i c t u r e from t h e s u r f a c e
o f Venus. Measured wind s p e e d s , p r e s -
s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n
f l u x t h r o u g h o u t t h e a t m o s p h e r e t o the
s u r f a c e . O r b i t e r surveyed p l a n e t .
A lander spacecraft; c a p s u l e reached
s u r f a c e O c t o b e r 1975 a t 1 5 d e g r e e s N .
l a t i t u d e , 295 d e g r e e s l o n g i t u d e . R e -
t u r n e d second s u r f a c e p i c t u r e . O r b i t e r
s u r v e y e d p l a n e t and l o o k e d a t s u r f a c e
w i t h b i s t a t i c r a d a r . Determined s u r f a c e
e l e v a t i o n s d i f f e r e d b o n l y a few k i l o -
meters a l o n g o r b i t e r r r a c k .
 -52-

THE P I O N E E R VENUS SPACECRAFT

The P i o n e e r Venus m i s s i o n w i l l b e accomplished by two

s e p a r a t e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e Q r b i t e r and t h e M u l t i p r o b e . The
Orbiter, carrying 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, w i l l globally
s u r v e y Venus' atmosphere and s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . It
w i l l s t u d y t h e Venusian s u r f a c e and p e r f o r m one a s t r o n o m i c a l
experiment.

The M u l t i p r o b e w i l l d i v i d e i n t o f i v e atmosphere e n t r y
c r a f t as i t a p p r o a c h e s Venus from E a r t h . These a r e t h e
t r a n s p o r t e r Bus, t h e Large and t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s . The
f o u r p r o b e s w i l l - m e a s u r e Venus' atmosphere from i t s t e n u o u s
b e g i n n i n g s down t o t h e d e n s e s u p e r h e a t e d r e g i o n s a t t h e s u r -
f a c e . A f t e r l a u n c h i n g t h e p r o b e s , t h e Bus, t o o , w i l l e n t e r
and measure c o m p o s i t i o n o f Venus' u p p e r atmosphere.

Together t h e f i v e atmospheric entry c r a f t w i l l carry

1 8 s c i e n t i f i c instruments. The Large Probe c a r r i e s s e v e n
i n s t r u m e n t s ; t h e S m a l l P r o b e s , t h r e e e a c h , and t h e Bus, two.

To m e e t t h e P i o n e e r Venus r e q u i r e m e n t f o r two r e l a t i v e l y
s i m p l e and low c o s t s p a c e c r a f t , d e s i g n e r s c h o s e s p i n n i n g ve-
hicles. Spinning c y l i n d r i c a l s p a c e c r a f t provide s t a b i l i t y
w i t h minimum w e i g h t , good s o l a r c e l l deployment, v i e w i n g
f o r e x p e r i m e n t s i n a f u l l c i r c l e and s p i n s c a n f o r t h e
imaging s y s t e m .

The Basic Bus

The Venus O r b i t e r and Venus M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t s h a r e

a " b a s i c bus" design. T h r e e q u a r t e r s o f t h e s y s t e m on t h e
b a s i c b u s e s a r e common t o b o t h s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h e Multi-
p r o b e d e s i g n , t h e f o u r atmosphere e n t r y p r o b e s are mounted
on t h e f l a t s u r f a c e which i s t h e t o p o r f o r w a r d end o f t h e
bus c y l i n d e r .

The common s y s t e m s on t h e . b a s i c b u s f o r b o t h s p a c e c r a f t
i n c l u d e a t h e r m a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d equipment and e x p e r i m e n t s com-
p a r t m e n t ; s o l a r - e l e c t r i c p a n e l s , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ; f o r w a r d and a f t 'Iomni" a n t e n n a s ; communi-
c a t i o n s s y s t e m ; d a t a - p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m ; Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s
f o r o r i e n t a t i o n r e f e r e n c e d u r i n g c r u i s e and maneuvers; hy-
d r a z i n e p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s ; and t h r u s t e r s f o r o r i e n t a t i o n ,
c o u r s e changes and s p i n - r a t e c o n t r o l .

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Structure

T h e b a s i c bus p o r t i o n s o f b o t h s p a c e c r a f t are t h e i r
main b o d i e s , f l a t c y l i n d e r s , 2 . 5 m ( 8 . 3 f t ) i n d i a m e t e r and
1 . 2 m ( 4 f t . ) high.

The b u s e s p r o v i d e a s p i n - s t a b i l i z e d p l a t f o r m f o r
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s , s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s and i n t h e case
of t h e M u l t i p r o b e , t h e f o u r p r o b e c r a f t . A c i r c u l a r e q u i p -
ment s h e l f w i t h an a r e a o f 4 . 3 7 sq. m ( 5 0 sq. f t . ) i s l o c a t e d
i n t h e u p p e r o r foward end of t h e b u s c y l i n d e r . The s h e l f
i s mounted on t h e f o r w a r d end of t h e t h r u s t t u b e , t h e r i g i d
s t r u c t u r e which c o n n e c t s t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e l a u n c h ve-
hicle. Twelve e q u a l l y s p a c e d s t r u t s s u p p o r t t h e equipment
s h e l f p e r i m e t e r from t h e b a s e o f t h e t h r u s t t u b e . The
c y l i n d r i c a l s o l a r a r r a y i s , i n t u r n , a t t a c h e d t o t h e equip-
ment s h e l f w i t h 24 b r a c k e t s .

Thermal l o u v e r s ( f i f t e e n on t h e O r b i t e r and e l e v e n on
t h e M u l t i p r o b e ) a t t a c h e d t o t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e of t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f , open and c l o s e ( w i t h h e a t - s e n s i t i v e - b i m e t a l l i c
s p r i n g s ) t o c o n t r o l h e a t r a d i a t i o n from t h e equipment
compartment. Large h e a t p r o d u c e r s , s u c h as r a d i o ampli-
f i e r s , are located over s e v e r a l of t h e s e louvers.

Maneuver Sys t e m

The maneuvering s y s t e m o f t h e b a s i c bus c o n t r o l s s p i n

r a t e s , makes c o u r s e and o r b i t c o r r e c t i o n s , and m a i n t a i n s
spin a x i s position--usually perpendicular t o t h e e c l i p t i c
f o r both spacecraft.

Beneath t h e equipment compartment, a l s o a t t a c h e d t o t h e

t h r u s t tube, are t w o conical-hemispheric p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s ,
3 3 cm. ( 1 2 . 8 i n . ) i n diameter. The t a n k s s t o r e h y d r a z i n e
p r o p e l l a n t f o r two a x i a l and f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s . These
can change s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t i a t i o n , s p i n r a t e o r v e l o c i t y .

The maneuver s y s t e m h a s one mid-range Sun s e n s o r , two

e x t e n d e d - r a n g e Sun s e n s o r s , and a s t a r s e n s o r t o s e n s e
s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n and p r o v i d e a r e f e r e n c e f o r f i n d i n g
spin-axis angle. The s t a r s e n s o r i s mounted on t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f and h a s a look a n g l e of a b o u t 5 7 d e g r e e s t o t h e
s p i n axis. Sun s e n s o r s a r e a l l a t one p o i n t on t h e e q u i p -
ment s h e l f p e r i m e t e r . They look r a d i a l l y t h r o u g h an open-
i n g i n t h e s o l a r a r r a y and see t h e Sun on e a c h r o t a t i o n .

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Redundant d a t a processor u n i t s f o r m a t t h e Sun and

star sensor outputs f o r telemetry transmission t o t h e Earth,
t o calculate spacecraft orientation. These d a t a processors
a l s o p r o v i d e sequenced f i r i n g commands t o t h e t h r u s t e r s t o
make o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y and s p i n r a t e changes.

The s y s t e m ' s two a x i a l t h r u s t e r n o z z l e s a r e a l i g n e d

w i t h t h e s p i n a x i s , and a r e l o c a t e d a t t o p and bottom o f
t h e b u s c y l i n d e r , d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . They p o i n t
i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , and t o t u r n t h e bus s p i n a x i s ,
b o t h f i r e i n p u l s e s i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . To s p e e d up o r
slow down t h e bus a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s s p i n a x i s , o n l y
one t h r u s t e r i s p u l s e f i r e d a t t w o p o i n t s 1 8 0 d e g r e e s a p a r t
around t h e c i r c l e of b u s r o t a t i o n . Either the top o r
bottom t h r u s t e r can be p u l s e d d e p e n d i n g on d e s i r e d d i r e c -
t i o n o f v e l o c i t y change.

The O r b i t e r h a s a t h i r d a x i a l t h r u s t e r . This i s loca-

t e d on t h e bottom o f t h e bus c y l i n d e r and a l l o w s c o n t i n u o u s
f i r i n g of t w o bottom t h r u s t e r s t o make t h e moves i n an a x i a l
d i r e c t i o n needed f o r o r b i t changes.

The f o u r r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s are a r r a n g e d i n two p a i r s ,

with the p a i r s pointing i n opposite directions. They a r e
mounted a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n
a x i s , and t h i s p l a n e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e center o f g r a v i t y .
The r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s change t h e v e l o c i t y i n a d i r e c t i o n
perpendicular t o the spin axis.

These r a d i a l t h r u s t e r s a l s o have been p l a c e d a t f o u r

e q u i d i s t a n t p o i n t s around t h e p e r i m e t e r of t h e bus c y l i n d e r .
T h i s h a s t h e e f f e c t o f p o i n t i n g them a t o p p o s i t e a c u t e an-
g l e s t o t h e c i r c l e of r o t a t i o n . The r e s u l t i s t h a t f i r i n g
t w o o f them 180 d e g r e e s a p a r t , t o g e t h e r , w i l l slow down
the spin rate. The o t h e r two w i l l s p e e d i t up.

Power Svstem

The b u s s o l a r power s y s t e m p r o v i d e s 2 8 - v o l t DC elec-

t r i c power t o O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s
and s p a c e c r a f t s u b s y s t e m s . Seven r e s i s t i v e s h u n t l i m i t e r s
h o l d t h e maximum v o l t a g e a t 3 0 . 8 v o l t s . When t h e v o l t a g e
d r o p s below 27.8 v o l t s , t h e b a t t e r i e s s t a r t t o s h a r e t h e
load through d i s c h a r g e c o n t r o l l e r s . Small s o l a r a r r a y s re-
charge t h e b a t t e r i e s .

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A s w i t c h p r o t e c t s t h e main power bus from c u r r e n t

o v e r l o a d s o r u n d e r v o l t a q e by a u t o m a t i c a l l y t u r n i n g
o f f i n s t r u m e n t s , s w i t c h e d l o a d s , and t r a n s m i t t e r b u s e s .
The s y s t e m ' s a r r a y of s o l a r c e l l s i s s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r f o r
t h e M u l t i p r o b e bus t h a n f o r t h e O r b i t e r bus b e c a u s e of t h e
h i g h e r power demands o f O r b i t e r ' s 1 2 e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e O r b i t e r
s o l a r a r r a y h a s 7 . 2 sq. m ( 7 7 . 8 sq. f t . ) of 2 x 2 c m ( . 8 x . 8 i n . )
c e l l s . When a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e Sun l i n e , these p r o v i d e 2 2 6
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 312 w a t t s a t Venus. T h e M u l t i p r o b e s o l a r
a r r a y h a s 6 . 9 s q . m ( 6 5 . 7 s q . f t . ) of c e l l s and p r o v i d e s 2 1 4
w a t t s n e a r E a r t h and 2 4 1 w a t t s a t Venus.
The power s y s t e m ' s two 7.5 ampere-hour nickel-cadmium
b a t t e r i e s p r o v i d e a t o t a l o f 252 w a t t h o u r s of e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g y . Power i s p r o v i d e d t o i n s t r u m e n t s from t h e s c i e n c e
power bus t h r o u g h r e d u n d a n t b u s e s i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e
unit. On-off power s w i t c h i n g i s performed i n t h e i n d i v i -
d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s f o r f l e x i b i l i t y i n s t e a d of c e n t r a l i z e d
s w i t c h i n g i n t h e power i n t e r f a c e u n i t . The power
i n t e r f a c e u n i t p r o v i d e s on-off s w i t c h i n g f o r p r o p u l s i o n
heaters.

Communications System

The communications s y s t e m f o r t h e two b u s e s can r e c e i v e

commands from E a r t h i n any s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h
t w o r e d u n d a n t S-band t r a n s p o n d e r s , c o n n e c t e d t o t w o omni
d i r e c t i o n a l antennas. (A t r a n s p o n d e r i s a r a d i o s y s t e m
which receives incoming s i g n a l s and t u n e s t h e o u t g o i n g
t r a n s m i t t e r t o a f r e q u e n c y which i s a t a c o n s t a n t r a t i o
t o t h e incoming s i g n a l . ) T h i s means t h a t Doppler s h i f t
i n r a d i o f r e q u e n c y due t o s p a c e c r a f t motion can be measured
p r e c i s e l y on r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n s from b o t h E a r t h t o s p a c e -
c r a f t and s p a c e c r a f t t o E a r t h - - b e c a u s e f r e q u e n c i e s , b o t h
l e a v i n g t h e E a r t h and a r r i v i n g a t t h e E a r t h are known p r e -
cisely. T h i s a l l o w s s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y measurements ac-
c u r a t e t o .003 kph.

The receiver p o r t i o n of e a c h t r a n s p o n d e r i s f r e q u e n c y -
a d d r e s s a b l e ( r e s p o n d s o n l y t o c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s , and
t h e receivers are a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e v e r s e d by t h e command p r o -
c e s s o r l o g i c i f no command i s received f o r 36 h o u r s . Hence,
if one f a i l s t h e o t h e r t a k e s over. The t w o r e c e i v e r o u t -
p u t s are c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d t o r e d u n d a n t e x c i t e r s , e i t h e r o f
which can b e selected by ground command. The t r a n s p o n d e r
p r o v i d e s e i t h e r a f i x e d - r a t i o incoming t o o u t g o i n g c a r r i e r
f r e q u e n c y , o r a f i x e d - f r e q u e n c y c a r r i e r s i g n a l i n case of
f a i l u r e o f t h e two-way s y s t e m .

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The s p a c e c r a f t - t o - E a r t h r a d i o l i n k i s p r o v i d e d by an
S-band t r a n s m i t t e r , which can r a d i a t e a t 10o r 20 w a t t s , w i t h
r e d u n c a n t power a m p l i f i e r s o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e
f o r e o r a f t "omni" a n t e n n a s . The omnis c o v e r a h e m i s p h e r e
looking forward o r a f t . Both O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e -
c r a f t h a v e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e two Bus omnis, s p e c i a l i z e d
a n t e n n a s which w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n s on t h i e r com-
munications. E i t h e r omni a n t e n n a can b e s e l e c t e d by ground
command. One omni a n t e n n a i s c o n n e c t e d t o o n e o f t h e t w o
r e d u n d a n t receivers, and t h e o t h e r omni ( o r o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t
a n t e n n a d e s i g n a t e d by command) i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o t h e r
r e c e i v e r . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t can b e r e v e r s e d by command.

Command System

The b a s i c b u s command s y s t e m a c c e p t s incoming commands

from t h e b u s r a d i o receivers. Command d e m o d u l a t o r s t u r n on
t h e system, convert t h e s i g n a l t o a u s a b l e b i n a r y b i t
s t r e a m , and p a s s i t on t o c r o s s - c o n n e c t e d command p r o c e s s o r s .
Commands a r e e i t h e r s t o r e d f o r l a t e r e x e c u t i o n , o r e x e c u t e d
immediately. S p a c e c r a f t u n i t s r e c e i v e commands from re-
d u n d a n t command o u t p u t modules. The command s y s t e m a c c e p t s
a pulse-code-modulated/frequency-shift-keyed/phase-modulated
(PCM/FSK/PM) d a t a stream a t f o u r b i t s p e r s e c o n d .

Each command word c o n s i s t s o f 4 8 b i t s i n c l u d i n g 1 3

b i t s f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , which g i v e s a o n e - i n - a - m i l l i o n
p r o b a b i l i t y o f a f a l s e command. T h e s y s t e m h a s a t o t a l o f
1 9 2 p u l s e commands and 1 2 magnitude commands. The command
memory can s t o r e up t o 1 2 8 commands ( r e d u n d a n t l y ) f o r l a t e r
execution.

Data Handling S y s t e m

The t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r f o r t h e b u s d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m
s a m p l e s s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g measurement s o u r c e s i n
sequence. I t t r a n s m i t s an i n s t r u c t i o n word t o t h e P i o n e e r
Command Module (CM) e n c o d e r which a d d r e s s e s a d a t a module
t o read o u t the s e l e c t e d channel.

The i n t e r r o g a t e d c h a n n e l can be e i t h e r a n a l o g , s e r i a l
d i g i t a l o r b i n a r y o n e - b i t ( y e s - n o ) i n f o r m a t i o n . The PCM
e n c o d e r s h i p s t h e encoded measurement t o t h e t e l e m e t r y p r o -
c e s s o r , where i t i s f r a m e - f o r m a t t e d , c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded
and u s e d t o b i p h a s e m o d u l a t e a s u b c a r r i e r . The s u b c a r r i e r
t h e n phase modulates t h e outgoing carrier s i g n a l .

The t e l e m e t r y p r o c e s s o r s and PCM e n c o d e r s a r e c r o s s -

c o n n e c t e d and f u l l y r e d u n d a n t .

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C r i t i c a l t e l e m e t r y measurements are a s s i g n e d d a t a chan-

n e l s on two d i f f e r e n t d a t a modules. The d a t a h a n d l i n g
s y s t e m s can a c c e p t up t o 2 5 6 c h a n n e l s of d a t a .

All P i o n e e r Venus t e l e m e t r y d a t a a r e b i n a r y ( a s e r i e s
o f ones and z e r o e s ) , and a l l d a t a “words” c o n s i s t o f e i g h t
o n e s and z e r o e s a r r a n g e d i n t h e o r d e r d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n -
f o r m a t i o n t h e y c a r r y . Analog d a t a a r e c o n v e r t e d t o e i g h t -
b i t words. Data i n p u t s are m u l t i p l e x e d and f o r m a t t e d i n t o
f r a m e s o f 64 e i g h t - b i t s words. Of t h e 64 w o r d s , t h r e e a r e re-
q u i r e d f o r s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h r e e
a r e subcommutated f o r s p a c e c r a f t h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a .

The o u t p u t of t h e d a t a s y s t e m i s an 8 t o 2048 b i t p e r
s e c o n d PCM/PSK c o n v o l u t i o n a l l y coded d a t a stream, b i p h a s e
modulated on a 16384 Hz subcarrier.

The O r b i t e r S p a c e c r a f t

The Venus O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e b a s i c P i o n e e r
Bus. I t a l s o c o n s i s t s of a despun, h i g h - g a i n d i s h a n t e n n a on a
3-m ( 1 0 - f t . ) m a s t t o r e t u r n t h e l a r g e volume of
O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and imaging d a t a t o E a r t h . The O r b i t e r
carries 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c instruments, a m i l l i o n - b i t d a t a
memory t o s t o r e o b s e r v a t i o n s (when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d
Venus, o r t h e y c a n n o t be t r a n s m i t t e d t o E a r t h f o r o t h e r
r e a s o n s ) , and a s o l i d - f u e l r o c k e t motor f o r i n s e r t i o n i n t o
o r b i t a t the planet.

The O r b i t e r , i n c l u d i n g a n t e n n a m a s t , i s n e a r l y 4.5 m
(15 f t . ) high. The b a s i c b u s c y l i n d e r making up i t s
main body i s a b o u t 2 . 5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and 1 . 2 m
(4 f t . ) h i g h . Launch w e i g h t of t h e O r b i t e r i s a b o u t 582 kg
(1280 l b s . ) w i t h 4 5 kg ( 1 0 0 I b s . ) o f s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s .
Weight a f t e r o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n i s 368 kg ( 8 1 0 l b s . ) .
T h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s ( t h e magnetometer e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o b e and e l e c t r i c f i e l d d e t e c t o r ) have s e n s o r e l e m e n t s
mounted on booms. The magnetometer s e n s o r s a r e mounted on
t h e t h r e e - s e c t i o n , d e p l o y a b l e 4 . 7 m (15.5 f t . ) boom. A
s i n g l e s e n s o r i s mounted a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e way o u t
from t h e bus c y l i n d e r , and a p e r p e n d i c u l a r p a i r are mounted
a t t h e boom’s end. The boom i s d e p l o y e d a f t e r l a u n c h by
f i r i n g p y r o t e c h n i c d e v i c e s , and e x t e n d s r a d i a l l y from t h e
u p p e r r i m of the c y l i n d e r . The boom p o s i t i o n s t h e s e n s o r s
a t a p o i n t o f minimum m a g n e t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e from t h e s p a c e -
craft.

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ORBITER SPACECRAFT

MAGNETOMETER OMNl ANTENNA

BOOM

\ - BACKUP HIGH GAIN

ANTENNA

'\
\
HIGH GAIN ANTENNA' e

THRUSTER

SUN SENSOR

STAR SENSOR

SOLAR ARRAY DESPIN BEAR1NG

RADIAL THRUSTER

ORBIT INSERTION MOTOF

 -59-

The b a l l - l i k e s e n s o r s ( a n t e n n a s ) f o r t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d
d e t e c t o r s p r i n g o u t 0.6 m (26 i n . ) a f t e r j e t t i s o n of t h e
launch f a i r i n g . The e l e c t r o n t e m p e r a t u r e probe u s e s two
s e n s o r e l e m e n t s mounted a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r .
The a x i a l s e n s o r i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e s p i n a x i s and
extends through t h e thermal t o p cover. The r a d i a l s e n s o r
i s on a 1 . 0 m ( 4 0 i n . ) boom, d e p l o y e d a f t e r o r b i t i n s e r t i o n .
The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r u s e s two d e t e c t o r s mounted
on t h e equipment s h e l f a b o u t 180 d e g r e e s a p a r t . This al-
lows complete c o v e r a g e of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e f o r a l l po-
s i t i o n s of s p a c e c r a f t r o t a t i o n .

Orbiter S c i e n t i f i c Instruments

A l l 1 2 s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e mounted d i r e c t l y on
the top s i d e of the equipment s h e l f . E i g h t of t h e i n s t r u -
ments view t h e p l a n e t t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e s i d e o r t o p o f
t h e bus c y l i n d e r . Of t h e e i g h t , two ( t h e c l o u d Photo-
p o l a r i m e t e r and t h e r a d a r mapper) employ s c a n n i n g s e n s o r s
which move t h r o u g h a r a n g e o f 1 4 0 d e g r e e s i n a p l a n e p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e bus e x p e r i m e n t s h e l f .

O r b i t e r Antenna Systems

A b a s i c p a r t of t h e O r b i t e r s y s t e m , n o t p a r t of t h e
b a s i c bus, i s t h e despun, high-gain p a r a b o l i c - r e f l e c t o r
a n t e n n a , which f o c u s e s a 7 . 6 degree-wide r a d i o beam on t h e
E a r t h throughout t h e mission. The a n t e n n a d i s h i s 1 0 9 c m
( 4 3 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and a m p l i f i e s t h e O r b i t e r r a d i o s i g -
n a l 316 t i m e s . Venus and t h e O r b i t e r w i l l b e 203 m i l l i o n km
( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r from E a r t h a t t h e end o f t h e
243-day O r b i t e r p r i m a r y m i s s i o n t h a n a t p l a n e t - a r r i v a l .
The a n t e n n a i s needed t o r e t u r n d a t a a t h i g h r a t e s over
t h e s e d i s t a n c e s . The h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a d i s h , a sleeve
d i p o l e a n t e n n a , and t h e f o r w a r d "omni" a n t e n n a are a l l
mounted on t h e despun 2.9-m ( 9 . 8 - f t . ) m a s t p r o j e c t i n g up
a l o n g t h e s p i n - a x i s from t h e t o p of t h e O r b i t e r c y l i n d e r .
The sleeve d i p o l e a n t e n n a b r o a d c a s t s a r a d i o beam which
f o r m s a p a n c a k e - l i k e p a t t e r n around t h e s p a c e c r a f t , p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r t o i t s s p i n a x i s , T h i s p r o v i d e s a backup f o r
t h e narrow-beam d i s h a n t e n n a i n case of f a i l u r e o f t h e d e s p i n
system. The bus a f t omni a n t e n n a p r o v i d e s t h e f o u r t h O r -
b i t e r a n t e n n a . The omnis b r o a d c a s t i n a h e m i s p h e r i c p a t -
t e r n , forward o r a f t .

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S i n c e t h e O r b i t e r d i s h a n t e n n a d o e s n o t s p i n , as d o e s
t h e s p a c e c r a f t below i t , i t c o n s t a n t l y f a c e s E a r t h , b o t h on
c r u i s e and o r b i t . The despun c o n d i t i o n of t h e a n t e n n a and
i t s m a s t i s m a i n t a i n e d by b e a r i n g , e l e c t r i c m o t o r , and
s l i p - r i n g arrangement.

A q u a d r i p o d s t r u c t u r e , mounted on t h e upper end of t h e

b u s t h r u s t t u b e , s u p p o r t s t h e B e a r i n g and P o w e r T r a n s f e r
Assembly (BAPTA) which m e c h a n i c a l l y d e s p i n s t h e a n t e n n a s .
The m a s t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e despun f l a n g e of t h e b e a r i n g
assembly. The t h r e e a n t e n n a s on t h e m a s t a r e c o n n e c t e d t o
t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s by a series of t r a n s f e r s w i t c h e s
through t h e d u a l frequency r o t a r y j o i n t . P u l s e commands
from E a r t h t o t h e s e s w i t c h e s a r e p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h t h e BAPTA
s l i p r i n g s and b r u s h e s .

The c o n t r o l s y s t e m p r o v i d e s r e d u n d a n t d e s p i n c o n t r o l
e l e c t r o n i c s t o d r i v e one o f two r e d u n d a n t BAPTA motors t o
d e s p i n and p o i n t t h e h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a toward t h e E a r t h .
The d e s p i n c o n t r o l s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s as a c l o s e d loop,
autonomously o p e r a t i n g t h e s y s t e m t o m a i n t a i n a n t e n n a
pointing.

Motor t o r q u e commands are g e n e r a t e d by t h e d e s p i n con-

t r o l e l e c t r o n i c s b a s e d upon Sun o r s t a r s e n s o r and BAPTA
m a s t e r i n d e x p u l s e s . An e l e v a t i o n d r i v e m a i n t a i n s a n t e n n a
pointing during occultations.

For t h e o c c u l t a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e O r b i t e r c a r r i e s an
e x t r a 750 m i l l i w a t t X-band t r a n s m i t t e r , whose s i g n a l f r e -
quency i s always m a i n t a i n e d a t a r a t i o of 1 1 . 3 t o t h a t o f
t h e main S-band t r a n s m i t t e r . Both S and X-Band s i g n a l s are
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e d i s h a n t e n n a , which can be moved 1 5 dz-
g r e e s from t h e E a r t h l i n e a s t h e O r b i t e r p a s s e s behind. Venus.
T h i s p e r m i t s k e e p i n g t h e r a d i o beam t o be aimed a t Venus'
u p p e r atmosphere f o r a l o n g e r t i m e . R e f r a c t i o n by t h e a t -
mosphere bends t h e narrow-beam s i q n a l around t h e p l a n e t so
it reaches Earth d e s p i t e t h e s e p o i n t i n g angles.
T h e X-band s i g n a l c a n n o t b e m o d u l a t e d , and is only f o r
s t u d y o f atmosphere e f f e c t s on r a d i o s i g n a l s a t two wave-
l e n g t h s . The X-band beam w i d t h i s 2 . 2 d e g r e e s compared w i t h
t h e S-band 7 . 6 d e g r e e s .

Ground commands c o n t r o l t h e a n t e n n a p o i n t i n g a n g l e .
The e l e v a t i o n d r i v e f o r t h e a n t e n n a d i s h c o n s i s t s o f a
motor-driven jackscrew. E l e c t r o n i c s c o n v e r t commands i n t o
d i s c r e t e p u l s e s t o c o n t r o l t h e motor.

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O r b i t e r Data S t o r a g e

For p e r i o d s when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s b e h i n d Venus and ra-

d i o communication i s c u t o f f , t h e d a t a memory c a n s t o r e up
t o a million data bits. O c c u l t a t i o n s l a s t up t o 2 6 m i n u t e s ,
and a m i l l i o n - b i t memory a l l o w s d a t a t o be t a k e n a t a min-
i m u m r a t e of about 700 b i t s p e r second i n t h i s t i m e . The
d a t a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y c a n a l s o h e l p when Deep Space Network
(DSN) s t a t i o n s a r e n o t l i s t e n i n g t o t h e O r b i t e r f o r v a r i o u s
r e a s o n s . S t o r e d d a t a are p l a y e d back a t a minimum r a t e of
1 7 0 b p s , and t h e O r b i t e r can p l a y back d a t a w h i l e t a k i n g
and t r a n s m i t t i n g new d a t a .

O r b i t e r Data-Handling System

T h e O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t data-handling system u s e s t h e
b u s d a t a s y s t e m components, p l u s i t s m i l l i o n - b i t memory. It
a c c e p t s i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s and t h e 1 2
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , a n a l o g and one-
b i t b i n a r y ( y e s - n o ) form. I t c o n v e r t s a n a l o g and yes-no
i n f o r m a t i o n t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form, and a r r a n g e s a l l i n f o r -
mation i n formats f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h i s c o n s i s t s of a
c o n t i n u o u s s e q u e n c e o f major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , e a c h composed
of 6 4 minor f r a m e s . Each minor frame c o n t a i n s 64 e i g h t -
b i t words ( 5 1 2 b i t s p e r minor f r a m e ) . The words i n a minor
frame a r e a r r a n g e d i n t o one of 1 3 preprogrammed f o r m a t s ,
s e l e c t a b l e by command. Each minor frame c o n t a i n s w i t h i n
it:
0 H i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a ( i n one
of t h e 1 3 formats);
0 Sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s :

0 S p a c e c r a f t d a t a ; and

0 Frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a .

The t h r e e sub-commutated d a t a f o r m a t s i n e a c h minor

frame c a r r y d a t a which c a n be r e p o r t e d a t low r a t e s . One
i s f o r l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e and s c i e n c e h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a , and
t h e two o t h e r s a L e f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a .

The O r b i t e r ' s 1 3 h i g h - r a t e d a t a f o r m a t s i n c l u d e s e v e n
s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r u s e on o r b i t . The o t h e r h i g h - r a t e f o r -
m a t s a r e Data memory p l a y b a c k ( c o n t a i n i n g some real-time
s c i e n c e ) , Data memory r e a d o u t ( s t o r e d d a t a o n l y ) , Launch-
c r u i s e , Engineering-only format, A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system
f o r m a t ( f o r m a n e u v e r s ) , and Command memory r e a d o u t f o r m a t .

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The d a t a s y s t e m o p e r a t e s i n r e a l - t i m e for t e l e m e t r y
s t o r a g e mode. I t s memory s t o r e s b o t h s c i e n c e and e n g i n e e r i n g
data. Twelve t e l e m e t r y s t o r a g e p l a y b a c k a n d r e a l - t i m e d a t a
r a t e s between 8 and 2 0 4 8 bps a r e a v a i l a b l e . A r a t e o f
1 0 2 4 bps i s u s e d d u r i n g i n t e r p l a n e t a r y c r u i s e .

Of t h e s e v e n s c i e n c e f o r m a t s used on o r b i t , f i v e are f o r
- the close-in p e r i a p s i s s e c t i o n of the o r b i t . Two a r e f o r
t h e far-out apoapsis portion of t h e o r b i t .

Of t h e f i v e c l o s e - i n f o r m a t s , two emphasize a c q u i s i -
t i o n of aeronomy d a t a . A t h i r d g e n e r a l f o r m a t a l l o w s d a t a
t a k i n g by v i r t u a l l y a l l e x p e r i m e n t s .

The f o u r t h c l o s e - i n f o r m a t , t h e O p t i c a l , i s f o r j u s t
two i n s t r u m e n t s . I t a l l o c a t e s 73 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a t a
s t r e a m t o t h e i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r , t h e rest of t h e photo-
p o l a r i m e t e r . The l a s t f o r m a t , t h e Mapping f o r m a t , g i v e s
4 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a t a s t r e a m t o t h e r a d a r mapper, and t h e
r e s t i s d i v i d e d among f o u r o t h e r "mapping" t y p e i n s t r u m e n t s .

Of t h e two s c i e n c e f o r m a t s f o r t h e f a r - o u t a p o a p s i s
o r b i t a l segment, t h e Imaging f o r m a t p r o v i d e s 6 7 p e r c e n t of
t h e d a t a stream f o r c l o u d p h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r p i c t u r e s o f
Venus' c l o u d s , and t h e r e s t f o r f o u r s p a c e e n v i r o n m e n t i n -
s t r u m e n t s . The G e n e r a l f o r m a t f o r a p o a p s i s c a r r i e s d a t a f o r
a l l i n s t r u m e n t s e x c e p t t h e i n f r a f e d and imaging i n s t r u m e n t s ,
b u t makes b i g a l l o c a t i o n s t o t h e s p a c e e n v i r o n m e n t measure-
ments o f t h e magnetometer, s o l a r wind i n s t r u m e n t and t h e
gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r .

O r b i t a l I n s e r t i o n Rocket

The o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n motor r e d u c e s O r b i t e r v e l o c i t y
by 3,816 kph (2,366 mph) f o r o r b i t a l c a p t u r e by Venus.
I t i s a s o l i d p r o p e l l a n t e n g i n e , a t t a c h e d t o t h e bus t h r u s t
t u b e below t h e equipment compartment. The e n g i n e h a s
1 8 , 0 0 0 Newtons ( 4 0 0 0 l b s . ) of t h r u s t , and t h e i n s e r t i o n r o -
c k e t b u r n r e d u c e s O r b i t e r w e i g h t by 181 kg ( 3 9 8 l b . ) .

The M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t

The f i r s t s i m u l t a n e o u s m u l t i p l e - e n t r y c r a f t measure-
ments o f t h e atmosphere o f a n o t h e r p l a n e t w i l l be accomplished
by t h e Venus M u l t i p r o b e .

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..
 MULTIPROBE SPACECRAFT

DECELERATION
/ MODULE
PR ESSUR E
VESSEL
MODULE

I
m
w
PROBE I
ADAPTER
STRUCTURE

THRUST TUBE/

1
 -64-

The f o u r p r o b e s w i l l b e l a u n c h e d from t h e M u l t i p r o h e
Bus 1 3 m i l l i o n km ( 7 . 8 m i l l i o n m i . ) from t h e p l a n e t and
w i l l t h e n f l y t o t h e i r e n t r y p o i n t s , two on t h e day s i d e
and two on t h e n i g h t s i d e of Venus.

The M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t weighs 9 0 4 kg ( 1 , 9 9 0 l b . )
and c a r r i e s 5 1 kg ( 1 1 2 l b s . ) of s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . The
- s p a c e c r a f t c o n s i s t s o f t h e P i o n e e r Venus b a s i c bus m o d i f i e d
t o c a r r y t h e f o u r atmosphere p r o b e s . I t s diameter i s t h a t
o f t h e Bus, 2 . 5 m ( 8 . 3 f t . ) . From t h e b o t t o m o f t h e Bus t o
- t h e t i p o f t h e main p r o b e , it i s 2 . 9 m ( 9 . 5 f t . ) h i g h .

During t h e f l i g h t t o Venus, t h e f o u r p r o b e s a r e c a r r i e d
on t h e Bus by a l a r g e i n v e r t e d cone s t r u c t u r e and t h r e e
e q u a l l y - s p a c e d c i r c u l a r clamps s u r r o u n d i n g the cone. These
a t t a c h m e n t s t r u c t u r e s a r e b o l t e d t o t h e Bus t h r u s t t u b e ,
t h e s t r u c t u r a l l i n k t o t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The Large Probe
i s c e n t e r e d on t h e Bus s p i n a x i s , and i s l a u n c h e d toward
Venus by a p y r o t e c h n i c - s p r i n g s e p a r a t i o n s y s t e m . The r i n g
s u p p o r t clamps a t t a c h i n g t h e S m a l l P r o b e s a r e h i n g e d . F o r
l a u n c h o f t h e S a m 1 1 P r o b e s , t h e clamps open by t h e f i r i n g
of explosive nuts. When o p e n , t h e y a l l o w t h e p r o b e s t o
s p i n off t h e Bus i n a t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n due t o Bus r o -
tation. C o n t r o l l e r s i n c r e a s e Bus s p i n from 1 5 t o 4 8 rpm
f o r Small Probe launch.

The M u l t i p r o b e ' s f o r w a r d omni a n t e n n a e x t e n d s above t h e

t o p of t h e Bus c y l i n d e r , and a n a f t omni e x t e n d s down below
it. Both omni a n t e n n a s have h e m i s p h e r i c r a d i a t i o i - : p a t t e r n s .
A t t a c h e d t o t h e equipment s h e l f i s an a f t - p o i n t i n g , medium-
g a i n h o r n a n t e n n a , f o r u s e d u r i n g c r i t i c a l maneuvers when
t h e a f t end o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s p o i n t e d toward t h e E a r t h ,
as i t i s when t h e p r o b e s are l a u n c h e d toward Venus.

The r e m a i n i n g s y s t e m s on t h e M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t a r e
t h o s e c a r r i e d on b o t h O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e b u s e s . These com-
mon b u s s y s t e m s a r e : The i n s t r u m e n t - e q u i p m e n t compartment and
b a s i c b u s s t r u c t u r e ; t h e s o l a r a r r a y , b a t t e r i e s and power d i s -
t r i b u t i o n system; t h e Sun and s t a r s e n s o r s , p r o p e l l a n t s t o r a g e
t a n k s and t h r u s t e r s o f t h e b u s maneuvering and s t a b i l i z i n g s y s -
t e m . O t h e r Bus s y s t e m s a r e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s , receivers and p r o -
c e s s o r s o f t h e b u s communications, command and d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m .

These s y s t e m s a l l o w t h e Bus t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t , as i t d o e s f o r t h e O r b i t e r , a s t a b l e , r o -
t a t i n g p l a t f o r m and a p r o t e c t i v e , t e m p e r a t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d
e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and s p a c e c r a f t
systems.

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They a l s o p r o v i d e e l e c t r i c power, make maneuvers, re-

ceive commands, p r o c e s s e x p e r i m e n t d a t a , and t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o Barth.

M u l t i p r o b e Data System

The d a t a s y s t e m f o r t h e M u l t i p r o b e s p a c e c r a f t u s e s t h e
s t a n d a r d b u s components. H o w e v e r , d a t a formats a r e or-
ganized t o m e e t requirements of t h e Multiprobe m i s s i o n .
The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m h a n d l e s d a t a from b o t h Bus and
probes b e f o r e probe launch. A f t e r probe launch, it handles
Bus d a t a o n l y . The p r o b e s have t h e i r own d a t a s y s t e m s .
(See s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e . )

The M u l t i p r o b e d a t a s y s t e m a c c e p t s e n g i n e e r i n g and
m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e f o u r p r o b e s a b o a r d
t h e s p a c e c r a f t , u n t i l p r o b e l a u n c h , a s w e l l a s from t h e
M u l t i p r o b e bus i t s e l f . I t a l s o h a n d l e s d a t a from t h e two
e x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d on t h e M u l t i p r o b e bus. A s on t h e O r -
b i t e r , t h e system a c c e p t s d a t a i n s e r i a l d i g i t a l , analog
and o n e - b i t b i n a r y s t a t u s (yes-no) form. I t converts the
a n a l o g d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l b i n a r y from and a r r a n g e s a l l
information f o r transmission t o Earth i n the standard P i -
o n e e r Venus s e r i e s of major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s , each composed
o f 64 minor f r a m e s .

Each minor frame i s composed o f a s e r i e s o f 6 4 e i g h t -

b i t words. The words i n a minor frame a r e a r r a n g e d i n
s e v e r a l f o r m a t s . Each minor frame c o n t a i n s h i g h - r a t e
s c i e n c e o r e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a , p l u s sub-commutated f o r m a t s ,
s p a c e c r a f t d a t a , and frame s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n d a t a . One sub-
commutated f o r m a t c a r r i e s l o w - r a t e s c i e n c e and s c i e n c e
h o u s e k e e p i n g d a t a : two a r e f o r l o w - r a t e s p a c e c r a f t i n f o r -
mation. Twelve r e a l - t i m e (no d a t a s t o r a g e o n t h e M u l t i -
p r o b e ) d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e s b e t w e e n 8 and 2 0 4 8 bps can
b e used. Like t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Multiprobe a l s o has high-
d a t a - r a t e f o r m a t s for A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l (used d u r i n g maneu-
v e r s ) , f o r E n g i n e e r i n g d a t a o n l y , and f o r command- memory
readout. A s i n g l e format foratmosphere e n t r y t r a n s m i t s
h i g h - r a t e s c i e n c e d a t a . Assuming t h e e x p e c t e d d a t a r a t e
o f 1 0 2 4 bps a t e n t r y , d a t a r a t e f o r t h e two M u l t i p r o b e Bus
e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be 256 b p s f o r t h e n e u t r a l mass s p e c t r o -
m e t e r , and 1 1 2 bps f o r t h e i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r .

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M u l t i p r o b e Bus Experiments

A f t e r l a u n c h of i t s f o u r p r o b e s 2 0 d a y s o u t from
Venus, t h e M u l t i p r o b e Bus becomes a p r o b e i t s e l f , p r o v i d i n g
t h e m i s s i o n ' s o n l y h i g h u p p e r atmosphere c o m p o s i t i o n
measurements. These o p e r a t e as t h e Bus e n t e r s b u t b e f o r e
i t s t a r t s t o b u r n up a t 1 1 5 km ( 7 1 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .
These two mass s p e c t o m e t e r i n s t r u m e n t s are a t t a c h e d t o
t h e equipment s h e l f w i t h t h e i r i n l e t s p r o j e c t i n g above
t h e f l a t t o p o f t h e Bus c y l i n d e r .

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VENUS ATMOSPHERIC PROBES

Because of its high pressures (nearly 100 times Earth's),

high temperatures and corrosive constituents, Venus'
atmosphere presents a difficult problem for flight designers.
The high entry speeds of about 41,600 kph ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph) add
to the problem.
The Large and Small Probes are geometrically similar.
The main component of each is a spherical pressure vessel,
which houses the scientific instruments and the following
spacecraft systems: communications, data, command and power.
The Large Probe weighs about 316 kg ( 6 9 8 lbs.); the Small
Probes, 9 3 kg ( 2 0 6 lbs.) each,
Conical aeroshells provide stable flight paths and heat
protection for all four probes during atmospheric entry. The
heat shield-carrying aeroshells are 45-degree cones with spheri-
cally blunted tips, whose radii are equal to half the base radii
of the cones.
All instruments within the pressure vessels of all four
probes require either observing or direct sampling access to
the hostile Venusian atmosphere. This access is one of the
hardest problems of the mission. The Large Probe has 14
sealed penetrations of several types. Each Small Probe has
seven. Pressure vessel penetrations for all probes include
1 5 sapphire and one diamond window.

The Large Probe

The Large Probe weighs about 3 1 6 kg ( 6 9 5 lbs.) and is
about 1 . 5 meters ( 5 feet) in diameter. It returns data at
2 5 6 bps. Its seven scientific instruments weigh 2 8 kg
( 6 2 lbs.). These include two instruments to identify atmos-
phere components. The other five instruments will measure
the clouds, atmospheric structure, energy distribution and
circulation. The probe enters at the equator on the day side
of the planet.

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Large Probe Structure

The Large Probe consists of the forward aeroshell-heat
shield, the pressure vessel and the aft cover. Both aero-
shell and aft cover are jettisoned at main chute deployment.
The spherical pressure vessel is 73.2 cm ( 2 8 . 8 in.) in
diameter, and is made of titanium for light weight and high
strength at high temperatures. Because it is jettisoned at
relatively cool, high altitudes, the aeroshell can be made
of less heat-resistant aluminum.
The weight limits on interplanetary spacecraft and the 14
hull penetrations required that the pressure vessel be designed
with great care and machined with precision for both lightness
and strength. The flight vessel has been tested successfully
under Venus-like conditions of 100 Earth atmospheres of pressure
.and 470 degrees C (900 degrees F) temperatures. Test vessels
have withstood higher pressures.
The vessel is made in three pieces, joined by flanges,
seals and bolts. Sections are the aft hemisphere, a forward
cap and a flat ring section between the two. The vessel has
14 sealed penetrations (one for the antenna, four for electri-
cal cabling, two for access hatches and seven for scientific
instruments). Four instruments use nine observation windows
through four of the hull penetrations. Eight windows are of
sapphire, and one of diamond. These materials admit light or
heat at the wavelengths being measured, while withstanding
Venusian heat and pressure. The solar flux radiometer has
five windows through one hull penetration; the nephelometer,
two windows and the infrared and cloud particle instruments,
one window each.
Three vessel penetrations are inlets for direct atmosphere
sampling by three instruments--mass spectrometer, gas chroma-
tograph and atmosphere structure experiment. At its aft pole
the spherical vessel has a hemisphere pattern antenna for
communication with Earth. Two four-inch arms on one side hold
the reflecting prism for the cloud particle instrument. A
single arm on the other side has a temperature sensor at its tip
Three parachute-shroud towers are mounted above aerodynamic drag
plates, spaced equally around the equator of the sphere. The
vessel has an electronics access port for system checkout, and
a cooling port used in ground tests.

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 LARGE PROBE
RADIO
TRANSPARENT WINDOW
PR ESSUR E
VESSEL/DECEL MOD
UMBILICAL
CABLE CUTTER CLOUD PARTICLE
SPECTROMETER
PARACHUTE TOWER WINDOW

SOLAR FLUX DESCENT MODULE

RADIOMETER
WINDOW
I
NEUTRAL PYROTECHNIC c
n
W
MASS SPEC. INLET CONNECTOR I
PRESSURE VESSEL
AERO FAIRING S EPARAT I ON ASSEM BLY

CUT OUT FOR

TEMPERATURE
SENSOR

UA
ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE
PILOT CHUTE
AND MORTAR
DEC E LE RAT ION PROBE/BUS I N FLIGHT
MODULE DI SCONN ECT
 L A R G E PROBE PRESSURE VESSEL

I
4
0
I

PRESSUR E VESSEL’
 -71-

Flight Sequence

About 20 minutes before atmospheric entry, with the probe

traveling at speeds of about 41,600 kph (26,000 mph), timer
commands turn on and warm up the Large Probe instruments and
systems. The craft establishes its radio link with Earth.
At an altitude of about 120 km (75 mi.), significant
atmospheric braking has begun, and three-axis accelera-
tions and heat shield temperature data are being stored
for later playback (providing spacecraft flight data for
use by the atmospheric structure experiment). Entry
occurs with peak deceleration of 3 2 0 G at about 78 km (49
mi.). As deceleration forces slack off, a G-switch starts
a timer, ending data storage and starting a timing sequence
for aeroshell and heat shield jettison.
Just below 68 km (42 mi.), when the Large Probe has slowed to
about 680 kph ( 4 2 0 mph), the pilot chute is mortar-fired
from a small compartment in the side of the aeroshell. This
small parachute is attached by lines to the aft cover which
is separated by an explosive nut and pulled free. The cover,
in turn, is attached to the main parachute. The pilot chute
then extracts the main chute from its compartment within the
conical aeroshell. The main chute then opens. After vehicle
stabilization, mechanical and electrical ties to the aeroshell
are severed by explosive nuts, or by cable cutters, and the
main chute pulls the spherical pressure vessel out of its
surrounding aeroshell. The aeroshell falls away.

Once the pressure vessel is freed of the aeroshell and aft

cover, the scientific instruments have full access to Venus'
atmosphere, and the parachute has slowed its descent rate to
270 kph (165 mph). Seventeen minutes later, at 47 km (28 mi.)
altitude, the main chute is jettisoned, and the aerodynamically
stable pressure vessel descends to the surface in 3 9 minutes.

Fliaht Svstems
Thermal protection during atmosphere entry is provided
by the carbon phenolic heat shield covering the forward facing
conical aeroshell, and by coating all other surfaces of the
aeroshell and aft cover with a low density elastomeric material.
The conical aeroshell is a one-piece aluminum structure with
integrally-machined stiffening rings. The ablative carbon
phenolic heat shield is bonded to this structure. The aeroshell
cone has a base diameter of 142 cm ( 4 . 7 ft.).

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The 4 . 9 meter (16.2 ft.)-diameter dacron main parachute is

of the conical ribbon type. Located in a curved compartment
on one side of the aeroshell, the mortar-deployed dacron pilot
chute is 76 cm (2.5 feet) in diameter. After separation of
the aeroshell, aft cover and main chute have occurred, the
pressure vessel descends to the surface. The motion is s t a -
bilized by locating the center of gravity of the pressure
vessel well forward and by an airflow separation ring around
the sphere's equator. Drag plates on the flow separation ring
slow the descent rate, and vanes attached to the airflow ring
maintain spin for continuous viewing in a full circle by the
experiments during descent. A fairing covers the forward
hemisphere of the pressure vessel, providing a smooth aerody-
namic surface during descent.

Heat Protection
The Large Probe pressure vessel is made of titanium for
heat resistance. Within the spherical vessel, instruments and
systems are mounted on two parallel shelves made of beryllium
to serve as heat sinks. Equipment inside the vessel is further
protected from heat by a 2.5 cm (1 in.)-thick kapton blanket,
which completely lines the interior.

Scientific Instruments
The seven scientific instruments on the Large Probe include
the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer, which measure the
composition of Venus' atmosphere directly. The other five instru-
ments either "look out" windows or sense vehicle motions and/
or temperature with accelerometers and a wire-connected heat
sensor, respectively.
The infrared radiometer requires a diamond window because
diamond is the only material transparent to the appropriate
wavelengths and able to withstand the high temperatures and
pressures of the atmosphere. This window is about three-
quarters of an inch in diameter and an eighth of an inch thick
(about the size of a quarter). It weighs 13.5 carats and was
shaped by diamond cutters in The Netherlands from a 205-carat
industrial grade rough diamond. The nephelometer (cloud-sensor)
uses two sapphire windows. The cloud particle instrument directs
a laser beam through a sapphire window to an outside reflecting
prism and back to its sensor. The solar flux radiometer has five
sapphire windows.

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Communications System

S c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t and s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s d a t a a r e
r e t u r n e d by t h e communications system. Spacecraft data in-
c l u d e i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measurements, elec-
t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w and v o l t a g e and o n - o r - o f f s t a t u s o f
s y s t e m s and i n s t r u m e n t s .

The p r o b e ' s s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r and h e m i s p h e r i c a l

c o v e r a g e a n t e n n a r e t u r n a 256-bps d a t a stream t o E a r t h . The
system u s e s f o u r 1 0 - w a t t s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r s p r o v i d i n g a
t r a n s m i t t e r power o f 4 0 w a t t s .

A t r a n s p o n d e r receives an S-band c a r r i e r wave a t 2 . 1 G H z ,

and s e t s t h e p r o b e t r a n s m i t t e r t o s e n d a t 2.3 G H z . The t r a n s -
ponder r e c e i v e r i s u s e d o n l y f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k i n g .
The incoming s i g n a l c a r r i e s no i n f o r m a t i o n , and t h e probe does
n o t receive commands.

Command Svstem

Once t h e Large Probe h a s s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e Bus, onboard

e l e c t r o n i c s p r o v i d e a l l p r o b e commands. The command s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s o f a command u n i t , a p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t and
t h e s e n s o r s t o s e r v i c e t h e command u n i t .

The s y s t e m can p r o v i d e 6 4 s e p a r a t e commands f o r s p a c e c r a f t

s y s t e m s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s . It contains the cruise
t i m e r ( t h e o n l y o p e r a t i n g u n i t d u r i n g t h e 24-day p e r i o d be-
tween Bus s e p a r a t i o n and e n t r y ) , a n e n t r y s e q u e n c e programmer
and a command d e c o d e r . Commands are i n i t i a t e d by a c l o c k
g e n e r a t o r o r a G-switch t o s e n s e d e c e l e r a t i o n f o r c e s . A t e m -
p e r a t u r e s w i t c h p r o v i d e s backup f o r t h e t i m e r a t p a r a c h u t e
jettison.

The p y r o t e c h n i c c o n t r o l u n i t i s made up o f 1 2 s q u i b d r i v e r s
which p r o v i d e c u r r e n t t o f i r e e x p l o s i v e n u t s f o r s e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e a e r o s h e l l , t h e a f t c o v e r and main c h u t e ; and a c t u a t o r s
f o r t h e cable c u t t e r , p i l o t c h u t e m o r t a r and m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
i n l e t cover.

Data Handling System

The L a r g e P r o b e d a t a h a n d l i n g u n i t can a c c e p t 36 a n a l o g ,
1 2 s e r i a l d i g i t a l , and 2 4 o n e - b i t (yes-no) s t a t u s c h a n n e l s ' f r o m
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s and p r o b e s y s t e m s . The u n i t c o n v e r t s
t h e a n a l o g and yes-no d a t a t o s e r i a l d i g i t a l form and a r r a n g e s
a l l d a t a i n major t e l e m e t r y f r a m e s composed of 1 6 minor frames
f o r t i m e - m u l t i p l e x e d t r a n s m i s s i o n t o E a r t h . Each minor frame
i s composed of a s e r i e s of 6 4 e i g h t - b i t words (512 d a t a b i t s
p e r minor f r a m e ) .

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 -74-

The data handling system provides for two data formats:

blackout and descent. A storage capacity of 3 0 7 2 bits is pro-
vided by a data memory, for use during entry blackout. Following
the blackout period, the stored data will be read out of the
memory and telemetered in the descent format. Data are stored
at 128 bps. In the descent format, transmission will be at
256 bps. Allocation of this bit rate among the seven Large
Probe experiments will range from 16 to 44 bps per experiment.
Only the atmospheric structure and nephelometer experiments
- will use the entry blackout storage format at 72 bps and 4 bps,
respectively. Two subcommutated formats for lowrate phenomena
also provide housekeeping data, and additional data for the
atmospheric structure, nephelometer, cloud particle spectro-
meter and solar flux radiometer experiments.

Power Svstem
The power system uses a silver-zinc battery, providing
40 ampere hours of energy at 2 8 volts. The system consists
of a battery, a power interface unit and a current sensor.
The power interface unit controls power and contains fuses
and power switching relays for vehicle systems. Power for
probe checkout and heating is provided by the Bus prior to
probe to probe separation. During this time, the batteries
are open-circuited by switches in the power interface unit.

The Small Probes

Atmosphere entry points for the Small Probes are spread
over the face of Venus--two on the night side at high northern
and mid-southern latitudes, and the third at mid-southern lati-
tudes on the day side.
Like the Large Probe, each of the Small Probes consists
of a forward heat shield, a pressure vessel and an afterbody.
The three small probes are identical. Each is 0.8 m (30 in.)
in diameter and weighs 90 kg (200 lb.). Each carries three
scientific instruments, weighing 3 . 5 kg (7.7 lb.). The three
Small Probe instruments return less detailed information than
the seven on the Large Probe. But except for the atmospheric
composition measurements, made only by two Large Probe instru-
ments, Small Probe atmosphere measurements are in many respects
comparable to Large Probe data. The Small Probes transmit
data at 64 bps during flight down to 30 km (18 mi.) altitude
and 16 bps from there to the surface.

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 -75-

Neither forward aeroshell nor afterbody of the Small

Probes ever separates from the pressure vessel, nor is a para-
chute used for deceleration as with the Large Probe. The
Small Probes are slowed entirely by aerodynamic braking, and
instruments gain access to the atmosphere through doors in the
integral afterbody. Both aeroshell and pressure vessel are
made of titanium for light weight and strength at high tempera-
tures. The afterbody is made of aluminum.

Small Probe Structures

The pressure vessel nests into the aeroshell and is
permanently attached to it. The afterbody also is permanently
attached to the pressure vessel, and its shape closely follows
the contours of the vessel's aft hemisphere, protecting it from
atmosphere heat. As in the case of the Large Probe, the pres-
sure vessels for the three small probes had to be very careful-
ly designed and machined because of weight limitations, the seven
hull penetrations required and the strength requirements at high
Venusian pressures and temperatures.
The pressure vessels are fabricated in two hemispheres
and joined with flanges, bolts and seals. The flight vessels
were tested at Venus surface temperatures and pressures, and
the test vessels tested even under more severe conditions.
Three doors in the afterbody open after entry heating
at about 70 km altitude (44 mi.), providing access by the three
instruments to the atmosphere. Two of these doors open out
from each of two protective housings--one for the atmospheric
structure and the other for the net flux radiometer instrument.
These housings project like ears from each side of the pres-
sure vessel sphere. The temperature sensor and atmospheric
pressure inlet for the atmospheric structure instrument extend
10 cm (4 in.) from the door of one housing, and the nex flux
radiometer sensor extends similarly on the opposite side.
When the doors to these two housings open after atmospheric
entry at 70 km (44 mi.) altitude, they are retained, rather than
jettisoned, and serve to slow spacecraft spin rate. A vane, less
than one square inch, is attached to the pressure sensor inlet
to assure that the vehicle will spin throughout the descent,
so that instruments can see in a full circle as the probe
rotates. The cloud sensor (nephelometer) cover opens and
folds down. A s with the Large Probe, a hemispherical-pattern
antenna is mounted at the aft pole of the pressure vessel
sphere.

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 SMALL PROBE
NET FLUX ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE DOOR

ATMOSPHERE
STRUCTURE
TEMPERATURE

ACCESS COVER INLET AND

SPIN CONTROL VANE

(SHOWN

I \
CABLE

CARBON PHENOLIC
RING FOR SEPARATION
HEAT SHIELD
CLAMP
DECELERATION MODULE
 -77-

Each S m a l l P r o b e p r e s s u r e vessel h a s a t o t a l of s e v e n
s e a l e d p e n e t r a t i o n s : o n e f o r t h e a n t e n n a , one f o r t h e two
s a p p h i r e n e p h e l o m e t e r windows, one f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s -
s u r e i n l e t - a n d a h a t c h f o r ground t e s t c o o l i n g and s y s t e m s
c h e c k o u t . The o t h e r t h r e e v e s s e l p e n e t r a t i o n s are f e e d -
t h r o u g h s f o r e l e c t r i c a l cables. Each e x t e r n a l r a d i o m e t e r
s e n s o r on e a c h s m a l l p r o b e h a s two diamond windows.

F l i g h t Sequence

F o r t h e t h r e e Small P r o b e s , a t m o s p h e r i c e n t r y s p e e d s
are a b o u t 4 2 , 0 0 0 kph ( 2 6 , 0 0 0 mph), and peak d e c e l e r a t i o n s v a r y
i n entry f l i g h t path angles.

Twenty m i n u t e s b e f o r e e n t r y , a l l s y s t e m s and i n s t r u m e n t s
are a c t i v a t e d and communications w i t h E a r t h a r e e s t a b l i s h e d .
J u s t b e f o r e e n t r y , s p i n r a t e s a r e c u t a b o u t t h r e e t i m e s from
48 t o 1 4 rpm The 48-rPm s p i n r a t e i m p a r t e d by s p i n - o f f
l a u n c h from t h e Bus d i s p e r s e s t h e p r o b e s o v e r t h e p l a n e t t o
desired entry points. But i t a l s o means t h a t t h e p r o b e s
e n t e r t h e u p p e r atmosphere somewhat t i l t e d t o t h e i r e n t r y
f l i g h t p a t h s . W i t h t h e s l o w e r 15-rpm r o t a t i o n , aerodynamic
f o r c e s q u i c k l y l i n e up t h e a x e s o f t h e p r o b e s w i t h t h e i r e n t r y
h e a t i n g damage c o u l d o c c u r on t h e e d g e s o f t h e p r o b e s c o n i c a l
heat shields.

A yo-yo s y s t e m s p i n s down t h e p r o b e s . Two w e i g h t s are

c u t l o o s e by a p y r o t e c h n i c c a b l e c u t t e r , and p r o b e s p i n
swings t h e w e i g h t s o u t on 2 . 4 m ( 8 - f t . ) c a b l e s . With t h i s
w e i g h t moved r a d i a l l y o u t w a r d , r o t a t i o n r a t e must s l o w t o
m a i n t a i n t h e s a m e r o t a t i o n a l momentum. Weights and cables
are t h e n j e t t i s o n e d .

I n o r d e r t o s a v e w e i g h t and a l s o b e c a u s e a l o n g e r s t a y -
t i m e a t upper a l t i t u d e s i s n o t needed, t h e small p r o b e s do
not use parachutes. On t h e l a r g e p r o b e , more t i m e i s needed
f o r measurements o f atmosphere and c l o u d c o m p o s i t i o n . The
s m a l l p r o b e s do n o t c a r r y a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n i n s t r u m e n t s .

A s w i t h t h e L a r g e P r o b e , h e a t s h i e l d t e m p e r a t u r e and
probe a c c e l e r a t i o n d a t a a r e s t o r e d f o r t h e atmospheric s t r u c -
t u r e e x p e r i m e n t d u r i n g t h e e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t . A
G-switch e n d s d a t a s t o r a g e a f t e r b l a c k o u t .

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 -78-

Flight Systems
Thermal protection during entry is provided by ablative
carbon phenolic heat shields, which are 45-degree cones with
the same geometry as the Large Probe heat shield. For fur-
ther heat protection, the entire afterbody is coated with
a low-density elastomeric material. The heat shield material
is bonded to the Small Probe titanium aeroshell. Base diameter
of the aeroshell heat shield cone is 76 cm (30 in.).
The conical aeroshell provides aerodynamic braking and flight
stability, as does location of the probe center of gravity well
forward in the vehicle. Designers chose the aeroshell cone
structure primarily for flight through the searing heat and
extreme deceleration of atmosphere entry. However, the cone
also provides stable flight and substantially slows descent
rate in Venus' thick lower atmosphere.

Heat Protection
As with the Large Probe, heat protection for the small
probes is provided by a kapton blanket completely lining the
interior of an 45 cm (18-in.) diameter spherical titanium pressure
vessel. It, too, has two shelves which carry all equipment
and scientific instruments, and are made of beryllium to
serve as heat sinks. Since the aeroshell descends to
the surface with the pressure vessel, it, too, is made of
light-weight, heat-resistant titanium.

Scientific Instruments
The three scientific instruments on the small probes
measure atmospheric structure (pressure, temperature and
acceleration from which altitude and density are determined),
cloud particles and layers and heat distribution in the
atmosphere. These measurements, and claculations based
on them, will allow characterization of Venus' atmosphere.
For the atmospheric structure experiment, the outside
inlet for the pressure sensor, and the arm carrying the harp-
like temperature sensor both extend from the experiment housing.
The pressure sensor itself and temperature-sensor electronics
internal, as are the accelerometers used for density cal-
culations.

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 -79-

The c l o u d s e n s o r i n s t r u m e n t ( n e p h e l o m e t e r ) i s e n t i r e l y
i n s i d e t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l , and l o o k s o u t t h r o u g h two s a p p h i r e
windows. For t h e n e t f l u x r a d i o m e t e r ( h e a t d e p o s i t i o n i n s t r u -
ment) s e n s o r s a r e c o m p l e t e l y e x t e r n a l , mounted on a s m a l l boom
e x t e n d i n g from t h e e x p e r i m e n t h o u s i n g . The r a d i o m e t e r s e n s o r
w i t h i t s two diamond windows t u r n s c o n s t a n t l y i n a h a l f c i r c l e ,
f i r s t l o o k i n g up and t h e n down. Instrument e l e c t r o n i c s are
internal.

Communications

Communications s y s t e m s f o r t h e Small p r o b e s c o n s i s t o f
s o l i d s t a t e t r a n s m i t t e r s and h e m i s p h e r i c a l c o v e r a g e a n t e n n a s ,
i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e f o r t h e Large P r o b e . Each t r a n s m i t t e r
h a s one 1 0 - W a t t , s o l i d s t a t e a m p l i f i e r . T h i s compares w i t h
4 0 w a t t s f o r t h e L a r g e P r o b e . T h i s s y s t e m can t r a n s m i t d a t a
t o t h e DSN's 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f o o t ) a n t e n n a s a t a r a t e o f 6 4 bps above
30 km ( 1 9 m i . ) a l t i t u d e and 1 6 b p s below t h a t t o i m p a c t . The
S m a l l P r o b e s do n o t c a r r y a r e c e i v e r f o r two-way Doppler t r a c k -
i n g as d o e s t h e Large P r o b e , and Doppler t r a c k i n g i s done u s i n g
an o s c i l l a t o r ( s t a b l e t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y one p a r t i n a b i l l i o n )
on t h e p r o b e s a s a r e f e r e n c e f r e q u e n c y f o r ground t r a c k i n g
comDutations.
D a t a r e t u r n e d i n c l u d e s c i e n t i f i c and e n g i n e e r i n g i n f o r -
m a t i o n . T h i s i n c l u d e s i n t e r n a l t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e measure-
m e n t s , e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w and v o l t a g e s , and on-off s t a t u s
of i n s t r u m e n t s and p r o b e s y s t e m s .

Command System
The command s y s t e m on t h e S m a l l P r o b e s i s i d e n t i c a l t o
t h a t on t h e L a r g e P r o b e . I t p r o v i d e s 6 4 commands, a l l o r i g i -
n a t e d on b o a r d t h e p r o b e s by t i m e r s , programmers, G-switches
and o t h e r l o g i c s and d e v i c e s .

Data Handling System

Components o f t h e d a t a h a n d l i n g s y s t e m on t h e S m a l l
P r o b e s a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e f o r t h e L a r g e P r o b e . The d a t a -
h a n d l i n g u n i t can a c c e p t 36 a n a l o g , 1 2 d i g i t a l and 2 4 one-
b i t c h a n n e l s from i n s t r u m e n t s and s y s t e m s . Logic of d a t a
formats a l s o i s i d e n t i c a l .

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 -80-

The s y s t e m f o r e a c h S m a l l Probe p r o v i d e s f o r t h r e e
h i g h - r a t e d a t a f o r m a t s : u p p e r d e s c e n t , l o w e r d e s c e n t and
e n t r y b l a c k o u t . A s w i t h t h e Large Probe, a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y
o f 3072 b i t s i s p r o v i d e d by t h e d a t a memory. Following t h e
e n t r y communications b l a c k o u t , s t o r e d d a t a w i l l be p l a y e d
back and t e l e m e t e r e d i n t h e u p p e r d e s c e n t f o r m a t a t 6 4 b p s .
Real t i m e t r a n s m i s s i o n w i l l occur i n i t i a l l y a t 6 4 bps i n t h e
upper d e s c e n t f o r m a t , c h a n g i n g t o 1 6 b p s a t 30 km ( 1 9 m i . )
altitude ( l o w e r d e s c e n t f o r m a t ) . Data r a t e a l l o c a t i o n among
t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e i n s t r u m e n t s r a n g e s from 6 t o 2 0 b p s i n
t h e u p p e r f o r m a t and 1 . 5 t o 7 . 2 5 bps i n t h e lower f o r m a t .

Power Sys t e m s

S m a l l Probe power s y s t e m s a r e s i l v e r - z i n c b a t t e r i e s
which p r o v i d e 11 ampere-hours o f e n e r g y a t a normal 2 8
volts. The s y s t e m j n c l u d e s a b a t t e r y , power i n t e r f a c e u n i t
and c u r r e n t s e n s o r . O t h e r components a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e
f o r t h e Large P r o b e .

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 -81-

SCIENTIFIC I N V E S T I G A T I O N S

Orbiter

Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e
v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s and ob-
s e r v e s u l t r a v i o l e t a t m o s p h e r i c m a r k i n g s and c l o u d c i r c u l a -
tions. U l t r a v i o l e t images p r o v i d e t h e v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e f o r
d a t a from o t h e r O r b i t e r e x p e r i m e n t s and f o r t h i s i n s t r u m e n t ' s
polarization readings.

A 3.7-cm ( 1 . 5 - i n . ) t e l e s c o p e w i t h a r o t a t i n g f i l t e r
wheel o b s e r v e s t h e p l a n e t a t f i x e d a n g l e s , u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r
r o t a t i o n f o r s c a n s across t h e p l a n e t and motion a l o n g t h e
s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r y a r o u n d Venus f o r c o m p l e t e p l a n e t a r y
mapping. T h e a n g l e of t h e telescope may be v a r i e d by ground
command f o r s e l e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s from any p o i n t i n o r b i t .

The i n s t r u m e n t u s e s a n u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) f i l t e r ( f o r
maximum c o n t r a s t ) t o t r a c k t h e p u z z l i n g fast-moving UV
a b s o r b i n g m a r k i n g s . F i v e p l a n e t a r y images c a n b e made i n
e a c h s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . The f i e l d of view i s a b o u t o n e - h a l f
m i l l i r a d i a n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a r e s o l u t i o n of a b o u t 30 km
(19 m i . ) d i r e c t l y below t h e O r b i t e r .

The i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s s c a t t e r e d s u n l i g h t p o l a r i z a t i o n
based on c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i z e , s h a p e and d e n s i t y .
V e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of c l o u d and h a z e p a r t i c l e s i n r e l a -
t i o n t o atmospheric pressure i s e x t r a c t e d from t h i s d a t a .

While t h e O r b i t e r i s a t p e r i a p s i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o b s e r v e s
i n v i s i b l e l i g h t t h e high-haze l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere.
These " l i m b s c a n s " h a v e a r e s o l u t i o n as s m a l l a s .5 k m ( .3 m i . ) .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5 kg (11 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 4 w a t t s .

S u r f a c e Radar Mapper -- The r a d a r mapping e x p e r i m e n t

makes f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s t u d i e s o f l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f t h e
p l a n e t ' s h e m i s p h e r e n o t v i s i b l e from E a r t h . T h i s e x p e r i m e n t
w i l l p r o v i d e t h e o n l y d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e t o
b e o b t a i n e d from t h e O r b i t e r . From o b s e r v i n g t h e echo of
s e v e r a l r a d i o frequencies, experimenters d e r i v e s u r f a c e
h e i g h t s along t h e o r b i t a l t r a j e c t o r y t o an accuracy of 1 0 0 m
(300 f t . ) o r b e t t e r , g i v i n g a good e s t i m a t e of g l o b a l topo-
graphy and s h a p e . S u r f a c e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c a n a l s o
b e d e r i v e d from t h e r a d a r d a t a .

A low power ( 2 0 w a t t s peak p u l s e power) S-band ( 1 . 7 5 7

GHzlradar system o b s e r v e s t h e s u r f a c e f o r o n e o u t of e v e r y
1 2 s e c o n d s of s p a c e c r a f t r o t a t i o n .

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 ORBITER EXPERIMENTS

MAGNETOMETER MAGNETOMETER

RETARDING

ELECTRIC FIELD

I
SPECTROMETER CO
h,
I

ULTRAVIOLET
SPECTROMETER

ELECTRON
TEMPERATURE

NEUTRAL MASS
SPECTROMETER GAMMA BURST
DETECTOR ON
SHELF NOT
VISIBLE

RADIOMETER RADAR MAPPER ANTENNA

 -83-

Measurements a r e made whenever t h e O r b i t e r i s below

3 , 0 0 0 km ( 1 , 8 6 0 m i . ) , s u b j e c t t o c o n s t r a i n t s s e t by t h e
r e v o l v i n g r a d a r a n t e n n a and by c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r ex-
p e r i m e n t s f o r t h e l i m i t e d t e l e m e t r y c a p a c i t y . The i n s t r u -
ment a u t o m a t i c a l l y compensates f o r Doppler s h i f t c a u s e d
by t h e r a d i a l m o t i o n o f t h e O r b i t e r .

T e a m s c i e n t i s t s s u b t r a c t t h e o b s e r v e d d i s t a n c e between
t h e O r b i t e r and t h e s u r f a c e from t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s o r b i t a l
r a d i u s ( o b t a i n e d from D S N t r a c k i n g ) t o f i n d a b s o l u t e topo-
g r a p h i c a l measurements. S u r f a c e r e s o l u t i o n i s b e s t a t a p e r i a p s i s
a l t i t u d e of 2 0 0 km ( 1 7 4 m i . ) : 2 0 km ( 1 2 m i . ) l o n g and 1 6
km ( 9 . 6 m i . ) a c r o s s t h e s u b o r b i t a l t r a c k . D a t a gathered
by t h e i n s t r u m e n t and t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h w i l l b e computer-
assembled i n t o r a d a r maps of t h e p l a n e t .

R e s o l u t i o n i s comparable t o t h e E a r t h - b a s e d r a d a r
s t u d i e s ; enough t o d i s c e r n major s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 9 . 7 kg ( 2 1 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 1 8

watts.

I n f r a r e d Radiometer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e
" h e a t " ( i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n ) e m i t t e d by t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t
v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s from 6 0 km (36 m i . ) a t t h e t o p o f t h e
d e n s e c l o u d l a y e r s o u t t o 1 5 0 km ( 9 0 m i . ) . In addition,
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r w a t e r v a p o r above t h e c l o u d
l a y e r s , measures t h e s i z e of h e a t t r a p p i n g cloud l a y e r s
and measures t h e p l a n e t a r y s o l a r r e f l e c t a n c e ( a l b e d o ) .
The r a d i o m e t e r ' s d a t a y i e l d s a v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e
of t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e a s w e l l as a h o r i z o n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e along t h e s u b o r b i t a l track. Such i n f o r m a t i o n i s
i m p o r t a n t i n u n c o v e r i n g t h e e x t e n t and d r i v i n g f o r c e s o f
t h e seeming f o u r - d a y c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .

The i n s t r u m e n t f e a t u r e s e i g h t d e t e c t o r s , e a c h s e n s i t i v e
t o a d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n of t h e i n f r a r e d spectrum. F i v e
d e t e c t o r s measure t h e i n f r a r e d e m i s s i o n s a t f i v e s e l e c t e d
w a v e l e n g t h s of t h e p ( m i c r o m e t e r s ) , a b s o r p t i o n band o f
c a r b o n d i o x i d e . Each w a v e l e n g t h samples a s p e c i f i c d e p t h
i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , depending on h e a t a b s o r b i n g c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s of t h e C 0 2 m o l e c u l e and t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e
w i t h a l t i t u d e . One d e t e c t o r e x c l u s i v e l y d e t e c t s and maps
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s ) i n t h e
upper a t m o s p h e r e . Another d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s t h e s i z e and
s h a p e o f c l o u d l a y e r s , and t h e l a s t d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s t h e
total solar reflectance.

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A 48-mm-aperture t e l e s c o p e m i r r o r f e e d s a l l e i g h t
c h a n n e l s . The t e l e s c o p e i s set a t 4 5 d e g r e e s t o t h e
O r b i t e r s p i n a x i s s o t h a t s c a n s are made by s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t i o n . When l o o k i n g a t o n e p l a n e t ' s l i m b t h e narrow
f i e l d o f view g i v e s v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n of 5 k m ( 3 m i . )
a t p e r i a p s i s . When t h e O r b i t e r i s i n b e s t p o s i t i o n f o r
limb s c a n n i n g of t h e p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r i c " e d g e , 'I t h e
i n s t r u m e n t o b t a i n s a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on c l o u d l a y e r s and
t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of water v a p o r .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 5 . 9 kg ( 1 3 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 2

watts.

Airglow U l t r a v i o l e t S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The u l t r a v i o l e t
s p e c t r o m e t e r o b s e r v e s t h e numerous a t m o s p h e r i c m a r k i n q s
which c a n b e s e e n o n l y t h r o u g h u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) fi1te;s.
The i n s t r u m e n t t r a c k s t h e UV a b s o r b i n g masses which r o t a t e
i n f o u r d a y s , m e a s u r e s the e s c a p e r a t e of atomic hydrogen
from t h e o u t e r a t m o s p h e r e and m e a s u r e s t h e u l t r a v i o l e t
s c a t t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c l o u d t o p s and h a z e s a t a b o u t
80 k m ( 5 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e .

A b s o r p t i o n of UV r a d i a t i o n i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e
p r o d u c e s o p t i c a l UV e m i s s i o n s known a s t h e " a i r g l o w " .
V a r i o u s a i r g l o w e m i s s i o n s a r e c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l
p r o c e s s e s ( e . g . , s p l i t - u p of molecules i n t o e l e c t r o n i c a l l y
e x c i t e d a t o m s ) . By v i e w i n g day and n i g h t a i r g l o w a t wave-
l e n g t h s between 1 , 1 0 0 Angstroms and 3,400 Angstroms, t h e
s p e c t r o m e t e r c a n t h u s i d e n t i f y t h e mechanism which e x c i t e s
t h e g a s e s o f t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . The t e m p e r a t u r e s of
t h e upper a t m o s p h e r e a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s c a n a l s o be
i n f e r r e d from d a t a from limb s c a n s a t t h e a t m o s p h e r e ' s
e d g e , a t selected w a v e l e n g t h s .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e Lyman Alpha c o r o n a t o f i n d

hydrogen e s c a p i n g from t h e f a r t h e s t r e a c h e s of Venus'
atmosphere. These data are i m p o r t a n t because escaping
atomic hydrogen i s t h e l a s t s t e p when a p l a n e t i s l o s i n g
water.

The s p e c t r o m e t e r f e a t u r e s a 125-mm t e l e s c o p e and mono-

c h r o m a t o r t o r e s t r i c t (upon ground command) t h e v i e w i n g
s p e c t r u m t o any UV w a v e l e n g t h . P h o t o m u l t i p l i e r t u b e s con-
v e r t t h e impinging W r a d i a t i o n t o e l e c t r i c a l impulses,
which a r e t h e n t e l e m e t e r e d t o E a r t h f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t o
u l t r a v i o l e t p l a n e t a r y maps.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 1 kg ( 6 . 9 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 7

watts.

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N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s
t h e d e n s i t i e s o f n e u t r a l i o n i z e d atoms and m o l e c u l e s i n
Venus' u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e between 150 km ( 9 0 m i . ) a t p e r i -
a p s i s and 2 0 0 k m ( 1 2 0 m i . ) . F i n d i n g t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i -
z o n t a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e n e u t r a l g a s molecules w i l l h e l p
d e f i n e t h e c h e m i c a l s t a t e of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . V a r i a -
t i o n s of hydrogen and h e l i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l t e l l t h e
e x t e n t o f g a s e s c a p e from t h e a t m o s p h e r e . R e s e a r c h e r s w i l l
f i n d t h e h e i g h t of t h e homopause (above which a t m o s p h e r e
mixing s t o p s ) by comparing t h e d e n s i t i e s of i n e r t g a s e s a t
t h e O r b i t e r a l t i t u d e s w i t h measurements made by t h e L a r g e
P r o b e and Bus n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r s below 150 km ( 9 3 m i . ) .

Noble g a s e s , o t h e r n o n - r e a c t i v e g a s e s and c h e m i c a l l y
a c t i v e g a s e s up t o 4 6 atomic m a s s u n i t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d and
measured. G a s m o l e c u l e s are f i r s t i o n i z e d and t h e n d e f l e c t e d
by a m a g n e t i c f i e l d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r mass. The a v e r a g e
v e r t i c a l s p a c i n g o f sample p o i n t s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 0 m
( 2 4 0 f t . ) a t 5 0 0 k m (300 m i . ) a l t i t u d e w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l
s p a c i n g f o r sampling a l o n g t h e O r b i t e r p a t h i s a b o u t 2 km
(1.2 m i . ) .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4.5 kg ( 9 . 8 lb.) and u s e s 1 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The i o n m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r
m e a s u r e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d i o n s i n t h e Venusian u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e from 1 5 0 km
( 9 0 m i . ) t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e . The i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t l y mea-
s u r e s i o n s i n a m a s s r a n g e from hydrogen i o n ( p r o t o n ) t o
i o n s o f i r o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o from 1 t o 56 atomic mass
units. Such d a t a a r e i m p o r t a n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e b a s i c
n a t u r e o f t h e i o n o s p h e r e and i t s r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e s o l a r wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t makes f i r s t a n e x p l o r a t o r y sweep o f 1 . 5

s e c o n d s , d u r i n g which a s e a r c h i s made f o r up t o 1 6 d i f -
f e r e n t i o n s . I t t h e n makes a series o f sweeps, r e p e a t i n g
t h e sampling of t h e e i g h t m o s t p r o m i n e n t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d
d u r i n g t h e e x p l o r a t o r y sweep. (The Bus i n s t r u m e n t i s i d e n -
t i c a l t o the Orbiter version except t h a t these operating
s e q u e n c e s c a n n o t b e m o d i f i e d by ground command as t h e y c a n
on t h e O r b i t e r . )

I n f l i g h t , a s e n s o r i s exposed t o a stream of atmos-

p h e r i c i o n s , which f l o w i n t o a n aluminum c y l i n d e r e n c l o s i n g
a series o f p a r a l l e l w i r e g r i d s . Each i o n s p e c i e s i s accel-
e r a t e d by a s p e c i f i c v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d s so t h a t
t h e i o n s impinge on a c o l l e c t o r a t t h e rear of t h e s e n s o r
c y l i n d e r . The i o n stream's a c c e l e r a t i n g v o l t a g e w i l l y i e l d
i t s i d e n t i t y and i t s a m p l i t u d e w i l l r e v e a l i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 kg ( 6 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 5 w a t t s .

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S o l a r Wind P l a s m a A n a l y z e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t measures
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o l a r wind and i t s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and upper a t m o s p h e r e . The i n s t r u m e n t
m e a s u r e s v e l o c i t y , f l o w d i r e c t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
s o l a r wind. Such f i n d i n g s s h o u l d h e l p e x p l a i n how t h e
i o n o s p h e r e r e a c t s w i t h t h e s o l a r wind and p o s s i b l y t h e
r o l e t h e s o l a r wind p l a y s i n Venus' w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s .

The r e g i o n around Venus, t h e c a v i t y ''shadowed" by t h e

s o l a r wind, i s d e t e r m i n e d t o t h e e x t e n t a l l o w e d by t h e
s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t . The i n s t r u m e n t s e a r c h e s f o r streams o f
s o l a r p a r t i c l e s i n t h i s region.

The plasma a n a l y z e r i s a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c / e n e r g y - p e r -
u n i t c h a r g e s p e c t r o m e t e r . The s o l a r wind f l u x ( r a t e of
f l o w of t h e s o l a r wind) i s measured by t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f
i n - r u s h i n g p a r t i c l e s by a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d between
two m e t a l p l a t e s . I f t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e w i t h i n t h e energy
r a n g e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p l a t e s ' v o l t a g e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y
e x i t between t h e p l a t e s , h i t t i n g o n e o f f i v e d e t e c t o r s .
Which t a r g e t t h e p a r t i c l e s h i t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s o l a r wind
d i r e c t i o n . By v a r y i n g t h e v o l t a g e between t h e p l a t e s , t h e
i n s t r u m e n t y i e l d s a complete p a r t i c l e spectrum of t h e s o l a r
wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 3 . 9 kg ( 8 . 6 l b . ) and u s e s 5 . 2

watts.

Magnetometer -- The magnetometer s t u d i e s Venus' mag-

n e t i c f i e l d and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s o l a r wind w i t h t h e
planet. I t "searches" f o r s u r f a c e - c o r r e l a t e d magnetic f e a -
t u r e s , s u c h as r e g i o n s of c r u s t m a g n e t i z e d i n t h e p a s t p e r -
h a p s when Venus had much s t r o n g e r m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s . The
measurements o f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d of E a r t h ' s sister p l a n e t
may s h e d l i g h t on what i n t e r n a l f l u i d m o t i o n s p r o d u c e p l a n e -
t a r y magnetic f i e l d s . ( I t i s s t i l l n o t known what m o t i o n s
are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d s . )
I t a p p e a r s Venus h a s a v e r y weak m a g n e t i c f i e l d ; y e t ,
i t may p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind
interaction. The magnetometer s h o u l d f i n d w h e t h e r i t i s
t h e weak i n t r i n s i c m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a n i n d u c e d m a g n e t i c
f i e l d o r t h e i o n o s p h e r e i t s e l f which d e f l e c t s t h e s o l a r
wind.

The i n s t r u m e n t c o n s i s t s of t h r e e s e n s o r s o n 4.7-m
( 1 5 . 5 - f t . ) booms, l o n g enough t o i s o l a t e them from much
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The i n b o a r d s e n s o r ,
t i l t e d 45 d e g r e e s t o t h e s p i n a x i s e x c l u s i v e l y m e a s u r e s
t h e O r b i t e r ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d , which w i l l be s u b t r a c t e d from
t h e outboard sensors' readings.

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Each s e n s o r c o n s i s t s o f a r i n g around which i s wrapped

a r i b b o n of p e r m e a b l e m e t a l . Any e x t e r n a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d
c a u s e s t h e core t o p r o d u c e a n e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l . A f e e d -
back s i g n a l t h e n c a n c e l s t h e e x t e r n a l f i e l d so t h a t t h e
magnetometer always o p e r a t e s i n a z e r o f i e l d c o n d i t i o n .
The s t r e n g t h o f t h e f e e d b a c k s i g n a l i s a measure o f t h e
e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 kg ( 4 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 2

w a t t s power.
E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector=-- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t w i l l h e l p
answer q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i n t e r -
a c t i o n s between Venus and t h e s o l a r wind, t h e m i l l i o n - m i l e -
an-hour i o n i z e d g a s t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y streams outward from
t h e Sun t o t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

The d e t e c t o r w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e k i n d s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s
between t h e plasma ( t h e mass o f i o n s and e l e c t r o n s ) of
Venus' i o n o s p h e r e and t h e s o l a r wind, t h e e x t e n t t o which
t h e s o l a r wind i s d e f l e c t e d a r o u n d Venus, t h e e x t e n t t o
which t h e s o l a r wind h e a t s t h e i o n o s p h e r e , t h e e x t e n t o f
i o n i z a t i o n c a u s e d by e x o s p h e r e - s o l a r wind i n t e r a c t i o n and
s o l a r wind t u r b u l e n c e . The i n s t r u m e n t a l s o s e a r c h e s f o r
n w h i s t l e r s n -- e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e s which t r a v e l
along a p l a n e t ' s magnetic f i e l d l i n e s .

The i n s t r u m e n t measures e l e c t r i c components o f plasma

waves and r a d i o e m i s s i o n s i n t h e f r e q u e n c y r e g i o n from
1 0 0 t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 H e r t z which i n d u c e a c u r r e n t i n t h e i n s t r u -
m e n t ' s V-type e l e c t r i c d i p o l e a n t e n n a . The c u r r e n t i s
a m p l i f i e d and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e d and r e l a y e d back
t o E a r t h . Four 30 p e r c e n t bandwidth c h a n n e l s are employed;
each i s u s e f u l a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s along t h e O r b i t e r tra-
j e c t o r y , as i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h v a r y i n g d e n s i t i e s of t h e
s o l a r wind. The 0.6-m ( 2 6 - i n . ) - l o n g a n t e n n a i s d e s i g n e d
t o l e a n on t h e O r b i t e r s h r o u d and d e p l o y a u t o m a t i c a l l y
when t h e s h r o u d i s e j e c t e d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 0 . 8 kg ( 1 . 7 4 l b . ) and u s e s 0 . 7

w a t t s of power.

E l e c t r o n T e m p e r a t u r e P r o b e s -- The p r o b e s measure t h e
t h e r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Venus' ionosphere: electron
t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i o n plasma mass and con-
c e n t r a t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s own e l e c t r i c a l
p o t e n t i a l . Such measurements w i l l h e l p s c i e n t i s t s under-
s t a n d t h e h e a t i n g mechanisms of Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , c u r r e n t l y
b e l i e v e d t o i n c l u d e h e a t i n g a t h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s by t h e s o l a r
wind and a t lower a l t i t u d e s by s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n .

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Two c y l i n d r i c a l probes 7 c m ( 3 i n . ) by 0.25 c m ( 0 . 5

i n . ) are used. One p r o b e i s mounted p a r a l l e l t o t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t s p i n a x i s on a 0 . 4 - m ( 1 6 - i n . ) boom, and t h e o t h e r
p r o b e i s mounted p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s p i n a x i s on a 1-m
( 4 0 - i n . ) boom. (The booms a r e l o n g enough t o p l a c e t h e
s e n s o r s beyond much o f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n c l o u d and i o n
s h e a t h s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t which m i g h t d i s t o r t r e a d -
ings.) The l o n g e r boom a l l o w s measurement of e l e c t r o n con-
t e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e f o r c o n d i t i o n s of v e r y l o w e l e c t r o n
concentrations.

Each p r o b e h a s i t s own power g e n e r a t o r w h i l e s h a r i n g

i n f l i g h t d a t a a n a l y s i s c i r c u i t r y . A s a w t o o t h v o l t a g e sweeps
e a c h p r o b e t w i c e p e r second and i s e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a d a p t e d t o
match t h e e x i s t i n g e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g
measured.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 2 kg ( 4 . 7 6 l b . ) and u s e s 4 . 8

w a t t s of power.

Charged P a r t i c l e R e t a r d i n g P o t e n t i a l A n a l y z e r -- T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t measures t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e l o -
c i t y of t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t i o n s i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e ( p r e s u m a b l y
c a r b o n d i o x i d e and oxygen i o n s . ) I t a l s o m e a s u r e s t h e con-
c e n t r a t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e and e n e r g y of s u r r o u n d i n g photo-
e l e c t r o n s i n the ionosphere.

The i n s t r u m e n t i s d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r d e t e c t i n g
t h e low e n e r g y plasma p a r t i c l e s i n Venus' i o n o s p h e r e , as
opposed t o t h e much more h i g h l y e n e r g i z e d s o l a r wind p a r -
t i c l e s . However, t h e a n a l y z e r s h o u l d p r o v i d e d a t a c o n c e r n -
i n g t h e s o l a r w i n d - i o n o s p h e r e i n t e r a c t i o n a t a n a l t i t u d e of
4 0 0 t o 5 0 0 km ( 2 4 0 t o 3 0 0 m i . ) a t t h e p o i n t where t h e s o l a r
wind streams i n t o t h e i o n o s p h e r e .

B y v a r y i n g e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l s , c o l l e c t o r g r i d s of
6 cm (2.5 i n . ) diameter s e l e c t i v e l y allow various ionospheric
p a r t i c l e s t o s t r i k e a d e t e c t o r . C u r r e n t i n d u c e d i n t h e de-
t e c t o r i s a m p l i f i e d by a n electrometer.

Measurements a r e t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s a l o n g a 1 2 0 - k m ( 7 2 -
m i . ) o r b i t segment t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma r e g i o n .
Onboard a n a l y s i s s e l e c t s t h e optimum p o i n t i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t i o n a t which t o sample t h e i o n o s p h e r i c plasma, s o t h a t
e a c h s c a n i s completed i n a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of a s p i n p e r i o d .
The i n s t r u m e n t a c h i e v e s a 20-km ( 1 2 - m i . ) r e s o l u t i o n f o r
total ion concentration.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 4

w a t t s of power.

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G a m m a Ray B u r s t Detector -- The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r

o b s e r v e s t h e i n t e n s e s h o r t d u r a t i o n ( o n e - t e n t h second t o a
f e w t e n t h s of s e c o n d s ) ' ' b u r s t s " of h i h e n e r q y p r o t o n s from
B
o u t e r s p a c e . T h i s phenomenon w a s n ' t i s c o v e r e d u n t i l 1 9 7 3 ,
and t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n of t h e s o u r c e s a r e s t i l l unknown.
The gamma r a y b u r s t s o c c u r randomly i n t i m e ( r o u g h l y 1 0 p e r
y e a r ) and a p p e a r t o o r i g i n a t e from random p o i n t s i n t h e u n i -
v e r s e . The gamma r a y b u r s t d e t e c t o r i s t h e o n l y e x p e r i m e n t
on P i o n e e r Venus which i s n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i r e c t s t u d y
of Venus and i t s e n v i r o n s .

The Venus O r b i t e r , s e p a r a t e d from E a r t h by r o u g h l y one

a s t r o n o m i c a l u n i t ( 1 4 9 m i l l i o n km o r 9 3 m i l l i o n m i . ) p r o v i d e s
a means t o o b t a i n a " f i x " on t h e s t r a n g e b u r s t s , by correla-
t i n g i t s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e made by o r b i t i n g E a r t h
s a t e l l i t e s . Measurements o f t h e gamma r a y sources w i l l b e
made w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f less t h a n one a r c m i n u t e , p r e c i s e
enough f o r a n a t t e m p t a t o p t i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s o u r c e s .

Two sodium i o d i d e p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r d e t e c t o r u n i t s s e n -
s i t i v e t o photons i n t h e 0 . 2 t o 2 . 0 m i l l i o n e l e c t r o n v o l t s
(MeV) energy r a n g e p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u o u s t i m e h i s t o r y f o r
t h o s e b u r s t s i n t e n s e enough t o b e d e t e c t e d and g i v e a coarse
p r o f i l e o f t h e gamma b u r s t e n e r g y r a n g e . A memory u n i t of
20,000 " b i t s " f o r s t o r i n g data for l a t e r readout i s required
t o accommodate t h e v e r y h i g h d a t a r a t e s t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g a
brief burst.

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 3 5 l b . ) and u s e s 1 . 3

w a t t s o f power.

O r b i t e r Radio Science

I n t e r n a l D e n s i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n Experiment -- T h i s e x p e r i -
m e n t ' d e t e r m i n e s Venus's i n t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e pro-
cesses which h a v e produced t h a t d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e p l a n e t ' s
g l o b a l s h a p e and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Venus' surface
f e a t u r e s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n t e r n a l d e n s i t i e s . R e -
s e a r c h e r s hope t o c o n s t r u c t a model of t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s
which governed Venus' p l a n e t a r y e v o l u t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p o f
t h i s experiment's data.

S c i e n t i s t s u s e t h e two-way Doppler t r a c k i n g o f t h e
O r b i t e r , which i s a l s o used f o r n a v i g a t i o n , t o f i n d v e r y
s m a l l changes i n i t s o r b i t . They u s e t h e s e o r b i t changes
t o c h a r t Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d . T h i s g r a v i t y i n f o r m a t i o n
c a n t h e n b e used t o c a l c u l a t e v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a n e t d e n s i t y .

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An S-band s i g n a l o f 2 . 2 G H z i s t r a n s m i t t e d from a DSN

a n t e n n a , r e c e i v e d by t h e O r b i t e r s p a c e c r a f t and r e t r a n s -
m i t t e d back t o t h e DSN a n t e n n a . Doppler s h i f t s i n f r e q u e n c y
of t h e s e s i g n a l s mean c h a n g e s i n s p a c e c r a f t v e l o c i t y . Most
of the v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s a r e due t o t h e r e l a t i v e o r b i t a l
m o t i o n s o f E a r t h , Venus and t h e P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r . How-
e v e r , local anomalies i n t h e i n t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of
Venus i n d u c e a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s . A n a l y s i s of t h e
v e l o c i t y c h a n g e s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i n -
t e r n a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Venus.

Comparison of t h i s d a t a w i t h t h e radar mapping d a t a

may s u p p o r t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f b a s i c on-going p h y s i c a l p r o -
cesses, s u c h a s E a r t h - l i k e p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ( t h e movement
o f m a s s i v e c r u s t a l p l a t e s s l o w l y p a s t one a n o t h e r ) . The
d a t a a l s o w i l l i n f e r t h e l i k e l y c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e
of Venus' i n t e r i o r .

C e l e s t i a l Mechanics Experiment -- The c e l e s t i a l mechanics

e x p e r i m e n t s t u d i e s Venus' g r a v i t y f i e l d , l e a d i n g t o c a l c u -
l a t i o n s o f i t s g l o b a l s h a p e and i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e dynamics
of t h e p l a n e t ' s u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e . The e x p e r i -
ment a l s o m e a s u r e s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f Venus' s p i n a x i s , rota-
t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s p o l e s , d e n s i t y of t h e upper atmosphere,
r e l a t i v i s t i c e f f e c t s o f s o l a r g r a v i t y on t h e O r b i t e r t r a c k i n g
s i g n a l and improves o u r knowledge o f t h e e x a c t p l a n e t a r y t r a -
j e c t o r i e s of Venus and E a r t h .

S c i e n t i s t s u s e Doppler t r a c k i n g t o c h a r t t h e p l a n e t ' s
g r a v i t y f i e l d . A D S N a n t e n n a on E a r t h t r a n s m i t s a r a d i o
s i g n a l of 2 . 2 G H z t o t h e O r b i t e r , which r e t r a n s m i t s t h a t
s i g n a l , m u l t i p l i e d by 2 4 0 / 2 2 1 ( t o d i s c r i m i n a t e o u t g o i n g from
incoming s i g n a l s ) . Unexpected f r e q u e n c y s h i f t s i n t h e s e
s i g n a l s mean c h a n g e s i n s p a c e c r a f t p o s i t i o n . T h e s e changes
a r e c a u s e d by t h e m a s s and g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d o f Venus,
g r a v i t y f i e l d o f t h e Sun and Venus' own a t m o s p h e r e , which
e x e r t s a d r a g on t h e O r b i t e r . More d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of t h e
a t m o s p h e r e a r e p o s s i b l e j u s t b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e o c c u l t a -
t i o n s o f t h e O r b i t e r by Venus, when t h e r a d i o s i g n a l must
p a s s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e p l a n e t s u r f a c e on i t s way t o E a r t h .
D i s t o r t i o n s ( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) of t h e O r b i t e r s i g n a l d u r i n g
t h e s e p e r i o d s r e v e a l v a r i a t i o n s i n upper atmosphere d e n s i t y .

Simultaneous r a d i o t r a c k i n g of t h e O r b i t e r w i t h e x t r a -
g a l a c t i c radio sources w i l l allow very precise determination
of t h e o r b i t s of E a r t h and Venus w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e e x t r a -
galactic objects.

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Dual Frequency Radio O c c u l t a t i o n Experiment -- T h i s

e x p e r i m e n t s t u d i e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e of Venus by o b s e r v i n g
h o w O r b i t e r X- and S-band r a d i o s i g n a l s p e n e t r a t e Venus'
a t m o s p h e r e on t h e way t o receivers on E a r t h . T h e 4 0 o c c u l -
t a t i o n s w i t h Venus which t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y e n c o u n t e r s
o v e r i t s m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e w i l l p r o d u c e 80 p r o f i l e s of t h e
s i g n a l d i s t o r t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p l a n e t ' s l o w e r and upper
a t m o s p h e r e and i o n o s p h e r e .

By a n a l y z i n g t h e s c i n t i l l a t i o n s i n r a d i o s i g n a l s c a u s e d
by v a r i o u s a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n i n f e r t h e
r e f r a c t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t i e s of t h e atmos-
p h e r e from 3 4 km ( 2 0 m i . ) a l t i t u d e up t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
A s t h e radio s i g n a l s p i e r c e t h e ionosphere, i n v e s t i g a t o r s
c a n measure s i g n a l d i s t o r t i o n due t o v a r y i n g e l e c t r o n den-
s i t i e s i n t h i s barely-known r e g i o n . S i n c e most of t h e s e
measurements a r e made on V e n u s t : n i g h t s i d e , d a t a i s p r o v i d e d
on t h e r e p o r t e d l y v a r i a b l e Venusian n i g h t t i m e i o n o s p h e r e .

The O r b i t e r h i g h - g a i n a n t e n n a i s s p e c i a l l y aimed d u r i n g
o c c u l t a t i o n s so t h a t t h e refracted r a d i o s i g n a l i s o p t i m a l l y
aimed a t E a r t h . D S N s t a t i o n s on E a r t h a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
s p e c i a l r e c e i v e r s t o t r a c k t h e incoming s i g n a l s a s t h e i r
phase and f r e q u e n c i e s are modified d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
t h r o u g h Venus s a t m o s p h e r e .

Atmospheric and S o l a r Wind T u r b u l e n c e Experiment -- T h e

e x p e r i m e n t o b s e r v e s t h e s m a l l scale t u r b u l e n c e ( l e s s t h a n 1 0
k n - o r 6 m i . ) i n t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e above 35 km ( 2 2 m i . )
altitude. I t w i l l r e v e a l t h e v a r i a t i o n of a t m o s p h e r i c t u r -
b u l e n c e w i t h l a t i t u d e , l o n g i t u d e and a l t i t u d e c h a n g e s d u r i n g
t h e 4 0 o c c u l t a t i o n s when O r b i t e r spacecraft s i g n a l s must
p a s s t h r o u g h Venus' a t m o s p h e r e on t h e i r way t o E a r t h t r a c k -
i n g s t a t i o n s . Because t h e s i g n a l s t r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e i o n o -
s p h e r e as w e l l , f l u c t u a t i o n s i n e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y c a n a l s o be
i n f e r r e d from the d a t a .

F o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n of t h e normal m i s s i o n l i f e t i m e
( a r o u n d August 19791, t h e O r b i t e r w i l l p r o v i d e d e n s i t y and
v e l o c i t y measurements of t h e s o l a r wind n e a r t h e Sun. Venus
w i l l t h e n a p p r o a c h s u p e r i o r c o n j u n c t i o n ( E a r t h and Venus
w i l l b e on o p p o s i t e sides of t h e S u n ) . T h i s i s a n i d e a l
t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s o l a r w i n d , t h e stream of i o n i z e d
p a r t i c l e s c o n s t a n t l y s w i r l i n g o f f t h e Sun. Because t h e s o l a r
wind i s so c h a n g e a b l e , r e p e a t e d O r b i t e r o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e
s o l a r wind n e a r t o and f a r from t h e Sun w i l l p r o v i d e needed
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o l a r wind d e n s i t y , t u r b u l e n c e and v e l o c i t y
u n i f o r m i t y . Two D S N s t a t i o n s w i l l a n a l y z e t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s
( s c i n t i l l a t i o n s ) i n the O r b i t e r S- and X-band s i g n a l s as t h e y
p a s s t h e s o l a r wind o n t h e i r way t o E a r t h .

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Atmospheric Drag E x p e r i m e n t -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t a k e s
d r a g measurement f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e of a n o t h e r p l a n e t ' s atmos-
p h e r e , a s t h e a t m o s p h e r e " f r i c t i o n " o f Venus s l o w s t h e O r b i -
t e r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l u s e d r a g measurements t h r o u g h o u t
t h e O r b i t e r m i s s i o n t o s e a r c h f o r any v a r i a t i o n s i n atmos-
p h e r i c d e n s i t y t h a t correlate w i t h s o l a r w i n d a c t i v i t y changes
i n s o l a r u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n and d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y on
t h e p l a n e t ' s n i g h t side. I n a d d i t i o n , p r o j e c t s c i e n t i s t s are
l o o k i n g f o r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e seeming f o u r - d a y r o t a t i o n o f t h e
lower a t m o s p h e r e e x t e n d s i n t o t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .

D S N s t a t i o n s a n a l y z e t h e Doppler e f f e c t o n t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t ' s X- and S-band r a d i o s i g n a l , c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c
d r a g - i n d u c e d change i n t h e O r b i t e r ' s d i r e c t i o n and s p e e d .

The e n t i r e s p a c e c r a f t , e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s h a p e of a c y l i n -
d e r , a c t s a s t h e t e s t i n s t r u m e n t . Atmospheric d e n s i t y i s
d e t e r m i n e d b e s t i n t h e v i c i n i t y of p e r i a p s i s (between 1 5 0
and 2 5 0 km o r 9 3 and 1 5 5 m i . ) , w h e r e t h e d r a g e f f e c t i s much
g r e a t e r than elsewhere along t h e O r b i t e r t r a j e c t o r y . A s t h e
p e r i a p s i s a l t i t u d e c h a n g e s , v a r i a t i o n s of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y
with a l t i t u d e can b e p l o t t e d .

Knowledge of a t m o s p h e r i c d e n s i t y a i d s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
m a s s s p e c t r o m e t e r f i n d i n g s , i n f e r s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m -
p e r a t u r e of t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e and a i d s i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a
m o d e l of Venus' upper atmosphere.

Large Probe Experiments

Neutral M a s s Spectrometer -- The n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -

meter m e a s u r e s t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e lower 60 km
( 3 6 m i . ) of Venus a t m o s p h e r e ( l a r g e l y t h e a t m o s p h e r e below
t h e m a s s i v e c l o u d l a y e r s ) as t h e L a r g e P r o b e d e s c e n d s by
p a r a c h u t e . Knowledge o f t h e r e l a t i v e abundances of g a s e s
w i l l h e l p answer q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n , s t r u c t u r e
and h e a t b a l a n c e o f Venus.

The i n s t r u m e n t d e t e r m i n e s t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of n o n - r e a c t i v e g a s e s , c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e g a s e s
and r a t i o s o f i n e r t g a s i s o t o p e s . Water v a p o r ( i f i t e x i s t s )
i s a l s o measured.
The i n s t r u m e n t i s mounted i n s i d e t h e L a r g e P r o b e p r e s -
sure vessel. I t r e c e i v e s a c o n t i n u o u s f l o w of a t m o s p h e r i c
g a s t h r o u g h t w o u n i q u e ceramic i n l e t t u b e s t h a t p r o t r u d e
t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l w a l l . The i n l e t t u b e s a r e c a l l e d
C e r a m i c Micro Leaks (CMLS) and a r e made t o g r e a t l y l i m i t t h e
amount o f g a s e n t e r i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t , w i t h o u t c h e m i c a l l y
a l t e r i n g it.

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 LARGE PROBE EXPERIMENTS

I
W
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I

SOLAR FLUX ER IC STRUCTURE

ELECTRONICS A T M O ~ P H
RADIOMETER (BEHIND MASS SPECTROMETER
 -94-

The CMLs a r e p a s s i v e d e v i c e s and t h e amount of g a s

f l o w i n g t h r o u g h them i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a t m o s p h e r i c
pressure. T o p r e v e n t " f l o o d i n g " o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , one CML
i s s e a l e d when t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s a b o u t 1 . 5 b a r s .
A f t e r entering the instrument, t h e atmospheric gas i s f i r s t
i o n i z e d and t h e s e p a r a t e d i o n s s o r t e d o u t f o r m a s s and
q u a n t i t y of e a c h c o n s t i t u e n t by t h e i r d i f f e r e n t d e f l e c t i o n s
i n p a s s i n g through magnetic f i e l d s .

The s p e c t r o m e t e r c a n i d e n t i f y g a s e s w i t h masses up t o
2 0 8 atomic mass u n i t s , b e l i e v e d t o b e a l a r g e enough m a s s
range f o r a l l molecules l i k e l y t o b e encountered i n t h e
l o w e r atmosphere. S e n s i t i v i t y i s one p a r t p e r m i l l i o n .
S i x t y a t m o s p h e r i c s a m p l i n g s are p l a n n e d , w i t h a m a s s s p e c t r u m
t a k i n g 6 4 s e c o n d s . An o n b o a r d m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l s t h e
i n s t r u m e n t and a c c u m u l a t e s d a t a f o r t e l e m e t r y t o E a r t h .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 0 . 9 kg ( 2 4 l b . ) and u s e s 1 4 w a t t s .

G a s Chromatograph -- The g a s chromatograph m e a s u r e s t h e

g a s e o u s c o m p o s i t i o n of Venus' l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e . By f i n d i n g
t h e major s o u r c e s o f i n f r a r e d o p a c i t y ( t h o s e g a s e s t h a t t r a p
h e a t ) , s c i e n t i s t s s h o u l d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d why Venus h a s 4 8 0 -
d e g r e e C (900-degree F . ) s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e s . From t h e
measurement of g a s e s produced by r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y , s c i e n -
t i s t s c a n i n f e r t h e d e g r e e of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n Venus'
i n t e r i o r . E x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l a l s o b e a b l e t o deduce t h e
s i m i l a r i t y of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s o l i d p a r t s o f Venus
and E a r t h by t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of v a r i o u s s u l f u r i c g a s e s .

The i n s t r u m e n t s a m p l e s t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e t h r e e t i m e s
d u r i n g t h e L a r g e P r o b e ' s d e s c e n t . The a t m o s p h e r e f l o w s i n t o
a t u b e p e n e t r a t i n g t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e L a r g e P r o b e and i n t o
a h e l i u m g a s stream, which sweeps t h e sample i n t o two chroma-
t o g r a p h columns. Atmospheric g a s e s are i d e n t i f i e d by t h e
t i m e i t t a k e s them t o f l o w t h r o u g h t h e columns. A s a c a l i -
b r a t i o n c h e c k , t w o samples of f r e o n ( a g a s n o t l i k e l y t o b e
e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e ) a r e added t o t h e t h i r d sample,
and t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n n o t e d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 6 . 3 kg ( 1 3 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 4 2

w a t t s , t h e m o s t o f any P i o n e e r Venus i n s t r u m e n t .

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 -95-

S o l a r F l u x Radiometer --This i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s where

s o l a r e n e r g y i s d e p o s i t e d i n t h e l o w e r Venusian a t m o s p h e r e ,
g i v i n g a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of s u n l i g h t i n p u t . I t r e v e a l s
how much s u n l i g h t i s a b s o r b e d by t h e c l o u d s and how much
s u n l i g h t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e , i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r re-
s o l v i n g w h e t h e r Venus h a s a g r e e n h o u s e w e a t h e r machine and
e x p l a i n i n g why i t s s u r f a c e i s s o h o t .

The i n s t r u m e n t c o n t i n u a l l y measures t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
s u n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y d i r e c t l y above and below t h e L a r g e P r o b e
horizon a s the probe d r i f t s t o t h e p l a n e t surface. Five
q u a r t z l e n s e s o f 3 mm ( 1 / 8 i n . ) d i a m e t e r i n s i d e f i v e f l a t
s a p p h i r e windows c o l l e c t t h e l i g h t and t r a n s m i t i t by q u a r t z
rods t o an e l e c t r o n i c l i g h t detector. Sunlight intensity is
d e t e c t e d i n t h e s p e c t r a l range of 0 . 4 t o 1 . 8 pm (micrometers) ,
t h e wavelength range f o r m o s t solar energy. V e r t i c a l r e s o -
l u t i o n i s 7 0 0 t o 1 , 0 0 0 m ( 2 , 3 0 0 to 3,300 ft.). L e n s e s are
p o s i t i o n e d b o t h up and down t o f i n d t h e amount o f s o l a r
e n e r g y a b s o r b e d i n l a y e r s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T o a v o i d h a v i n g
t h e p r o b e o r i t s p a r a c h u t e i n t h e f i e l d of view, t h e r a d i o -
meter s a m p l e s s u n l i g h t i n narrow 5-degree f i e l d s of view.
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1 . 6 kg ( 3 . 5 l b . ) and u s e s 4 w a t t s .

I n f r a r e d Radiometer -- The i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r m e a s u r e s
t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n i n t h e atmos-
p h e r e from L a r g e P r o b e p a r a c h u t e deployment a t 6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . )
down t o t h e s u r f a c e . I t a l s o d e t e c t s c l o u d l a y e r s and w a t e r
v a p o r , b o t h o f which may w e l l b e t r a p p i n g enormous amounts
of h e a t and p r e v e n t i n g t h e i r r e r a d i a t i o n back i n t o s p a c e .
F i n d i n g major h e a t s o u r c e s ( a n d t r a p s ) i s e s s e n t i a l t o p r o v i n g
Venus h a s a g r e e n h o u s e h e a t i n g mechanism.

S i x p y r o e l e c t r i c i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r s w e r e chosen b e c a u s e
t h e y do n o t need s p e c i a l c o o l i n g equipment f o r t h e i r u s e i n
t h e e x t r e m e a t m o s p h e r i c h e a t . Each d e t e c t o r views t h e atmos-
phere v i a r o t a t i n g l i g h t p i p e s through a d i f f e r e n t i n f r a r e d
f i l t e r between 3 and 50 m i c r o n s . The views of t h e d e t e c t o r s
i s d i r e c t e d a t 45 d e g r e e s above and below t h e p r o b e h o r i z o n
t h r o u g h a diamond window h e a t e d t o p r e v e n t p a r t i c l e contami-
n a t i o n d u r i n g p a s s a g e t h r o u g h c l o u d s . The d i f f e r e n c e i n i n f r a -
red r a d i a t i o n , c l o u d o p a c i t y and w a t e r v a p o r between the two
v i e w i n g a n g l e s i s telemetered t o E a r t h e v e r y 6 s e c o n d s , g i v i n g
a v e r t i c a l i n f r a r e d s p a t i z l r e s o l u t i o n of 250 m (825 f t . ) o r
better.

Two of t h e s i x d e t e c t o r s m o n i t o r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and
o p t i c a l u n i f o r m i t y of t h e diamond v i e w i n g window, two d e t e c -
t o r s d e t e c t and measure water v a p o r , o n e d e t e c t o r measures
c l o u d o p a c i t y and t h e r e m a i n i n g d e t e c t o r m e a s u r e s t h e i n f r a r e d
i n t e n s i t i e s of t h e atmospheric l a y e r s t h e Large Probe p a s s e s
through.
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 2 . 6 kg ( 5 . 8 l b . ) and u s e s 5.5 w a t t s .
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Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t
m e a s u r e s t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e and s h a p e and d e n s i t y of Venus'
c l o u d s i n t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e from 6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . ) down t o
the surface.

Through measurements o f p a r t i c l e s i z e and m a s s , t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o v i d e s a v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e of p a r t i c u l a t e
concentration f o r 34 d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , ranging
from 1 t o 500 m i c r o n s i n d i a m e t e r ( a m i c r o n i s o n e m i l l i o n t h
o f a meter o r r o u g h l y t w o t e n - t h o u s a n d t h s o f a n i n c h ) . Such
measurements w i l l g i v e c l u e s t o b a s i c c l o u d f o r m a t i o n p r o -
cesses and c l o u d - s u n l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n s on Venus. The s p e c t r o -
m e t e r a l s o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s i c e c r y s t a l s -- i f any a r e p r e s e n t
-- from o t h e r c r y s t a l l i n e p a r t i c u l a t e s by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
i c e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " a s p e c t r a t i o " -- t h e r a t i o of p a r t i c l e
thickness t o s i z e .

The i n s t r u m e n t d i r e c t s a laser beam o n t o a n e x t e r n a l

m i r r o r s u p p o r t e d 1 5 c m (6 i n . ) from t h e p r e s s u r e v e s s e l ' s
o u t e r s u r f a c e . The m i r r o r d i r e c t s t h e beam back i n t o a
backscatter d e t e c t o r . A s a p a r t i c l e enters t h e instrument's
f i e l d o f view, i t s shadow i s imaged o n t o a p h o t o d i o d e a r r a y
d e t e c t o r , where i t s shadow s i z e i s measured and r e c o r d e d .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 4 . 4 kg ( 9 . 6 lb.) and u s e s 2 0 w a t t s .

Larae and S m a l l P r o b e I n s t r u m e n t s
Atmospheric S t r u c t u r e E x p e r i m e n t s -- T h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
d e t e r m i n e Venus' a t m o s p h e r i c s t r u c t u r e from 2 0 0 km ( 1 2 0 m i . )
t o impact a t f o u r e n t r y sites w e l l s e p a r a t e d f r o m one a n o t h e r .
T e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and a c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s on a l l f o u r
p r o b e s y i e l d d a t a on t h e l o c a t i o n and i n t e n s i t i e s of atmos-
p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e , t h e v a r i a t i o n of temperatures w i t h p r e s -
s u r e and a l t i t u d e , t h e a v e r a g e a t m o s p h e r i c m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t
and t h e r a d i a l d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t e r o f Venus. If the
P r o b e s s u r v i v e i m p a c t ( a remote p o s s i b i l i t y ) , t h e y w i l l re-
v e a l any seismic a c t i v i t y i n t h e c r u s t o f t h e p l a n e t .

The t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s a r e d u a l r e s i s t a n c e thermometers.
Each h a s o n e f r e e w i r e e l e m e n t p r o t r u d i n g i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e
f o r maximum s e n s i t i v i t y and o n e e l e m e n t bonded t o t h e s u p p o r t
frame f o r maximum s u r v i v a b i l i t y . I t s extreme temperature
r a n g e p e r m i t s i t t o r e c o r d t e m p e r a t u r e s from below f r e e z i n g
t o 4 7 0 d e g r e e s C ( 9 0 0 d e g r e e s F.).
Pressure sensors a r e m u l t i p l e range, miniature s i l i c o n
diaphragm s e n s o r s . The w i d e r a n g e needed from 30 m i l l i b a r s
t o 1 0 0 b a r s p r e s s u r e i s a c h i e v e d by 1 2 s e n s o r s of o v e r l a p p i n g
s e n s i t i v i t y . T h i s a l s o p r o v i d e s redundancy i n c a s e of a
sensor malfunction.
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A c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r s ( f o u r on t h e l a r g e r p r o b e , o n e
on e a c h o f t h e s m a l l p r o b e s ) h a v e a p e n d u l o u s mass, main-
t a i n e d i n n u l l ( z e r o ) p o s i t i o n by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a
c u r r e n t i n a c o i l i n s i d e t h e mass w i t h a m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
The n u l l i n g c u r r e n t i s t h e m e a s u r e of a c c e l e r a t i o n .

An e l e c t r o n i c s package d i s t r i b u t e s power t o a l l s e n -
s o r s , s a m p l e s t h e i r o u t p u t , c h a n g e s t h e i r r a n g e s and s t o r e s
data.

The i n s t r u m e n t s on t h e L a r g e P r o b e weigh 2.3 kg ( 5 . 1

l b . ) and u s e 4 . 9 w a t t s . O n each of t h e S m a l l Probes t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s weigh 1 . 2 kg ( 2 . 7 l b . ) and u s e 3.5 w a t t s .

Nephelometer -- The nephelometer searches for cloud

p a r t i c l e s ( s o l i d o r l i q u i d ) i n t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e from
6 7 km ( 4 0 m i . ) t o t h e s u r f a c e . By p r o v i d i n g a i l f o u r p r o b e s
w i t h nephelometers, i n v e s t i g a t o r s can determine whether
c l o u d l a y e r s v a r y from l o c a t i o n t o l o c a t i o n o r are u n i f o r m l y
d i s t r i b u t e d across t h e p l a n e t .

A l i g h t e m i t t i n g d i o d e (LED) o f 9 , 0 0 0 Angstroms t o g e t h e r
with a p l a s t i c Fresnel l e n s f o r focusing the l i g h t illuminate
t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h r o u g h a window mounted i n t h e p r o b e p r e s s u r e
v e s s e l . The t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t beam i s p r o j e c t e d a d i s t a n c e
beyond t h e t u r b u l e n t a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p r o b e s as
t h e y d e s c e n d . Through a second window, a r e c e i v e r m e a s u r e s
t h e i n t e n s i t y o f l i g h t b a c k s c a t t e r e d ( a b o u t 1 7 5 d e g r e e s ) by
atmospheric p a r t i c l e s . B o t h windows a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e
s e a r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s o f t h e Venusian atmosphere and from
stray light.

I n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l u s e t h e backward l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g
p r o p e r t y of c l o u d s and h a z e s t o c o n s t r u c t a v e r t i c a l p r o -
f i l e o f p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e t w o small probes descending i n t h e s u n l i t
s i d e w i l l b e measuring t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of solar
s c a t t e r e d l i g h t a t 3,500 Angstroms and 5,300 Angstroms.
The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 2 . 4
watts.

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S m a l l P r o b e ExDeriments

N e t F l u x Radiometer -- T h i s i n s t r u m e n t maps t h e p l a n e -
t a r y p o s i t i o n s of s o u r c e s and a b s o r b e r s o f r a d i a t i v e e n e r g y
and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a d i a -
t i v e e n e r g y ( h e a t and s u n l i g h t ) powers t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c i r -
c u l a t i o n on Venus a s w e l l as E a r t h . The i n s t r u m e n t d a t a w i l l
b e r e l a t e d t o t h e observed atmospheric motions, temperature
s t r u c t u r e and c l o u d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m o t h e r P i o n e e r Venus
- e x p e r i m e n t s t o g a i n a more a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of Venus' w e a -
t h e r machine.

T h e i n s t r u m e n t s on e a c h of t h e t h r e e S m a l l P r o b e s a r e
i d e n t i c a l and c a n o p e r a t e e q u a l l y i n e i t h e r day o r n i g h t
h e m i s p h e r e s . F o l l o w i n g d e s c e n t i n t o t h e lower a t m o s p h e r e
b e l o w 7 2 k m ( 4 5 m i . ) t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s s e n s o r i s deployed
from a p r o t e c t i v e e n c l o s u r e t o a p o s i t i o n l o c a t i n g i t beyond
t h e t u r b u l e n c e n e a r t h e b a s e o f t h e h e a t s h i e l d . D a t a col-
l e c t i o n c o n t i n u e s u n t i l impact.

The i n s t r u m e n t ' s f l u x p l a t e i s o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e
p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e . A d i f f e r e n c e between upward and downward
r a d i a n t e n e r g y f a l l i n g on t h e t w o sides of t h e p l a t e p r o d u c e s
a t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t t h r o u g h i t , which i n d u c e s a n e l e c t r i c a l
c u r r e n t . The p l a t e i s f l i p p e d 1 8 0 d e g r e e s e v e r y second t o
a s s u r e even d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .

The i n s t r u m e n t w e i g h s 1.1 kg ( 2 . 4 l b . ) and u s e s 3 . 8 w a t t s .

M u l t i p r o b e Bus E x p e r i m e n t s

N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- The n e u t r a l m a s s s p e c t r o -
m e t e r m e a s u r e s t h e v a r i o u s components (atoms and m o l e c u l e s )
of t h e a t m o s p h e r e s and t h e i r v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m
a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0 k m ( 6 0 0 m i . ) t o 1 3 0 km ( 8 0 m i . ) , e m p h a s i z i n g
t h e a l t i t u d e r a n g e 1 5 0 t o 1 2 0 km ( 9 0 t o 7 5 m i . ) which n e i t h e r
t h e O r b i t e r n o r t h e f o u r p r o b e s reach. ( T h e Bus i s e x p e c t e d
t o b u r n up a t a n a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 1 2 0 km ( 7 5 m i . ) .

From t h e i n s t r u m e n t d a t a , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n d e r i v e t h e
h e i g h t of t h e t u r b o p a u s e ( t h e r e g i o n above which a t m o s p h e r i c
g a s e s do n o t m i x ) , f i n d t h e r a t i o s of a t m o s p h e r i c i s o t o p e s
and d e r i v e eddy d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ( m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s -
s i o n s d e s c r i b i n g how r a p i d l y t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s m i x e d ) . T h e
c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i o n o s p h e r e ' s maximum d e n s i t y c a n a l s o b e
d e t e r m i n e d , a s w e l l as the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e e x o s p h e r e , t h e
o u t e r m o s t f r i n g e o f Venus ' a t m o s p h e r e .

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The i n s t r u m e n t i o n i z e s a t m o s p h e r i c components up t o 4 6
atomic mass (hydrogen t o i r o n ) by e l e c t r o n bombardment. It
t h e n s e p a r a t e s them a c c o r d i n g t o their masses by how f a r
t h e y a r e d e f l e c t e d by a m a g n e t i c f i e l d . T h e i n s t r u m e n t f e a -
t u r e s a f a s t d a t a s a m p l i n g and t e l e m e t e r i n g c a p a c i t y t o cope
w i t h t h e 3 km-per-second (110 mph) Bus d e s c e n t s p e e d . One
day b e f o r e Venus e n c o u n t e r , a known amount o f gas i s released
i n t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and measurement, t o b e
used as a r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s p e c t r o m e t e r ' s s e n s i t i v i t y .

The i n s t r u m e n t weighs 6 . 8 kg ( 1 5 l b . ) and u s e s 5 w a t t s .

I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r -- T h e i o n mass s p e c t r o m e t e r
m e a s u r e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o s i t i v e l y
c h a r g e d ions i n t h e u p p e r Venus a t m o s p h e r e from- 120 km (75
m i . ) up t h r o u g h the i o n o s p h e r e .
(See O r b i t e r I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r f o r i n s t r u m e n t
description.)

M u l t i m o b e Radio S c i e n c e ExDeriments

--
D i f f e r e n t i a l Long B a s e l i n e I n t e r f e r o m e t r y This
i n s t r u m e n t m e a s u r e s t h e v e l o c i t y and d i r e c t i o n of Venus'
winds a s t h e f o u r p r o b e s d e s c e n d t h r o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
By comparing the d e s c e n t p a t h s o f t h e p r o b e s w i t h s i m u l -
t a n e o u s measurements of a t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s -
s u r e from p r o b e s e n s o r s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s c a n assemble a b e t t e r
model of Venus' atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
r e g a r d t o wind s p e e d s .

While t h e f o u r probes d e s c e n d t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e Bus

f o l l o w s a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y i n t h e upper atmosphere.
T h i s t r a j e c t o r y s e r v e s as a r e f e r e n c e . P r o b e v e l o c i t i e s
c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d and measured v e r y a c c u r a t e l y r e l a t i v e
t h e b u s , and a b s o l u t e p r o b e v e l o c i t i e s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
f r o m t h e known b u s v e l o c i t y . I n v e s t i g a t o r s assume d e v i a -
t i o n s of t h e probe t r a j e c t o r i e s from a n a t m o s p h e r e l e s s
m a t h e m a t i c a l model a r e c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c winds.

Two w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d DSN s t a t i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a c k i n g
a l l s p a c e c r a f t d e t e r m i n e t h a t p a r t of t h e v e l o c i t y vector
a l o n g the Earth-Venus l i n e of s i g h t . D i f f e r e n t i a l l o n g - b a s e d
i n t e r f e r o m e t r y u s e s three DSN s t a t i o n s t o f i n d t h e o t h e r t w o
components of t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r t o t r i a n g u l a t e o r g e t a
" f i x " i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s on t h e c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g p a t h s
of the f a l l i n g probes.

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Atmospheric P r o p a g a t i o n Experiment -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n a t t e m p t s t o g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t Venus' surface
and a t m o s p h e r e b y - t h e e f f e c t s of t h e a t m o s p h e r e on t h e
p r o b e s ' r a d i o s i g n a l s . As t h e probes d e s c e n d , P i o n e e r
s c i e n t i s t s search f o r e v i d e n c e o f a v e r y w e a k s i g n a l t h a t
t r a v e l s downward, r e f l e c t s o f f t h e s u r f a c e o f Venus and
t h e n bounces t o E a r t h . Such a d i s t o r t e d s i g n a l i s Doppler
s h i f t e d away f r o m t h e p r o b e s i g n a l of 2 , 3 0 0 MHz ( m i l l i o n
H e r t z ) by less t h a n Hz and i s a l m o s t u n d e t e c t a b l e . I f t h i s
s i g n a l i s discovered, i t should r e v e a l information about
t h e Venusian s u r f a c e -- h e n c e , a i d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of t h e r a d a r mapping d a t a .

The d e s c e n d i n g p r o b e s a l s o r e v e a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
t h e a t m o s p h e r e . Probe r a d i o s i g n a l s weaken w i t h d e c r e a s i n g
a l t i t u d e due t o C 0 2 a b s o r p t i o n , a t m o s p h e r e r e f r a c t i o n and
a d d i t i o n a l a b s o r p t i o n f r o m c l o u d l a y e r s o r some o t h e r ab-
s o r b e r . The s t r e n g t h of t h e p r o b e s i g n a l s s h o u l d r e v e a l
t h e unknown a b s o r b e r ; i f i t i s a c l o u d l a y e r , i n v e s t i g a t o r s
can m e a s u r e t h e h e i g h t and t h i c k n e s s of t h e l a y e r .

Atmospheric T u r b u l e n c e E x p e r i m e n t s -- T h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s t u d i e s t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e , t h u s
a i d i n g i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e dynamics of Venus' atmos-
phere c i r c u l a t i o n . A s a l l f o u r probes descend t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
t h e i r t r a n s m i t t i n g s i g n a l s w i l l l i k e l y be d i s t o r t e d by s m a l l
r e g i o n s of t u r b u l e n c e c a u s e d by t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and
v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s . D S N r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n s on E a r t h w i l l
a n a l y z e t h e s i g n a l s f o r d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d by a t m o s p h e r i c t u r -
b u l e n c e . T h e p r o b e d a t a complements a t m o s p h e r i c t u r b u l e n c e
d a t a above 35 k m ( 2 1 m i . ) t a k e n by t h e O r b i t e r .

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P R I N C I P A L INVESTIGATORS AND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Orbiter Spacecraft

Dr. James Hansen Cloud P o l a r i m e t e r , Imaging

Goddard I n s t i t u t e of Space Experiment
Studies

D r . Gordon P e t t e n g i l l Radar Mapper

(Team Leader) , Massachusetts
I n s t i t u t e of Technology
D r . F r e d r i c Taylor T e m p e r a t u r e Sounding
J e t Propulsion Laboratory I n f r a r e d Radiometer

Dr. Ian Stewart Ultraviolet Spectrometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o

Dr. Hasso Niemann N e u t r a l Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

Harry Taylor I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . J o h n Wolfe S o l a r Wind/Plasma A n a l y z e r
A m e s Research C e n t e r

D r . Christopher Russell Magnetometer

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los Angeles
D r . Frederick Scarf E l e c t r i c F i e l d Detector
TRW, I n c .

L a r r y Brace E l e c t r o n Temperature Probe

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . W i l l i a m Knudsen Retarding P o t e n t i a l Analyzer

Lockheed Missiles and
Space C o .

D r . W . D . Evans G a m m a Ray B u r s t Detector

Los A l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c
Laboratory

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O r b i t e r Radio S c i e n c e

Radio s c i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t s measure i n t e r a c t i o n of
s p a c e c r a f t r a d i o s i g n a l s w i t h Venus and i t s a t m o s p h e r e ,
u s i n g t h e O r b i t e r and f i v e p r o b e c r a f t a s i n s t r u m e n t s .
D r . Gordon P e t t e n g i l l , M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Tech-
n o l o g y , i s t e a m leader.
D r . Roger P h i l l i p s Venus I n t e r n a l D e n s i t y
J e t Propulsion Laboratory Distribution

D r . I . I. Shapiro C e l e s t i a l Mechanics
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e
of Technology

D r . Arvydas K l i o r e Radio O c c u l t a t i o n
J e t Propulsion Laboratory
Dr. Thomas C r o f t R a d i o Occultation
S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e

D r . R i c h a r d Woo Atmospheric and S o l a r Corona

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

D r . Gerald Keating Atmospheric Drag

Langley Research C e n t e r

Multiprobe S p a c e c r a f t (Large Probe)

Dr. J o h n Hoffman Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r
U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s , D a l l a s

Vance Oyama G a s C h roma, t o g, r a p h

Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

Alvin Seiff Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e

Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

D r . M a r t i n Tomasko S o l a r F l u x Radiometer
U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a

R o b e r t Boese I n f r a r e d Radiometer
Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

Dr. Robert Knollenberg Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e

P a r t i c l e Measuring Systems, I n c . Spectrometer

D r . B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer ( c l o u d s e n s o r )
Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

D r . J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer
U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s -more-
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Multiprobe S p a c e c r a f t ( T h r e e Small Probes)

Alvin Seiff Atmosphere S t r u c t u r e

Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

D r . B o r i s Ragent Nephelometer
Ames R e s e a r c h C e n t e r

D r . J a c q u e s Blamont Nephelometer
U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s

D r . V e r n e r Suomi N e t F l u x Radiometer
U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin

M u l t i p r o b e S p a c e c r a f t (Bus)

D r . Ulf von Zahn Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

U n i v e r s i t y o f Bonn,
W e s t Germany

Harry Taylor I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r

Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

M u l t i p r o b e Radio S c i e n c e ( A l l P r o b e s )

D r . C h a r l e s C . Counselman D i f f e r e n t i a l Long-Baseline
M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of I n t e f erometry
Technology

Dr. Thomas C r o f t Atmospheric A t t e n u a t i o n

S t a n f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e

D r . R i c h a r d Woo Atmospheric T u r b u l e n c e
J e t Propulsion Laboratory
Interdisciplinary Scientists

I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n t i s t s have b e e n s e l e c t e d f o r
b o t h t h e M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r M i s s i o n s t o p r o v i d e assis-
t a n c e i n a n a l y s e s o f t h e Venusian a t m o s p h e r e . They are:

D r . S i e g f r i e d Bauer
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

D r . Thomas Donahue
U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

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D r . R i c h a r d Goody
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y

Dr. Donald Hunten

U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a
D r . James P o l l a c k
A m e s Research C e n t e r

Nelson Spencer
Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r

Harold Masursky
U .S .
G e o l o g i c a l Survey

Dr. George M c G i l l
U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s
Dr. Andrew Nagy
U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan
D r . Gerald Schubert
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles

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LAUNCH VEHICLE

T h e A t l a s C e n t a u r i s NASA's s t a n d a r d l a u n c h v e h i c l e
f o r intermediate weight payloads. I t i s used f o r t h e launch
o f l u n a r , E a r t h o r b i t a l , E a r t h synchronous and p l a n e t a r y
missions.

Developed and l a u n c h e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f NASA's

L e w i s Reaearch C e n t e r , C l e v e l a n d , Ohio, C e n t a u r w a s t h e
n a t i o n ' s f i r s t h i g h - e n e r g y , l i q u i d h y d r o g e n - l i q u i d oxygen
propelled launch vehicle. I t became o p e r a t i o n a l i n 1 9 6 6
w i t h t h e l a u n c h of S u r v e y o r 1, t h e f i r s t U . S . s p a c e c r a f t t o
s o f t l a n d on t h e Moon's s u r f a c e .

S i n c e t h a t t i m e , b o t h t h e A t l a s b o o s t e r and C e n t a u r
s e c o n d s t a g e h a v e undergone many improvements. A t p r e s e n t ,
t h e v e h i c l e c o m b i n a t i o n can p l a c e 4 , 5 3 6 kg ( 1 0 , 0 0 0 l b . ) i n
l o w E a r t h o r b i t , 1,882 kg (4,150 l b . ) in a synchronous
t r a n s f e r o r b i t and 9 0 7 kg ( 2 , 0 0 0 lb.) on a n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y
trajectory.

The A t l a s C e n t a u r , s t a n d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 m ( 1 3 1 f t . )
h i g h , c o n s i s t s o f an A t l a s SLV-3D b o o s t e r and C e n t a u r D-1A
s e c o n d s t a g e . The A t l a s b o o s t e r d e v e l o p s 1 , 9 1 3 k i l i n e w t o n s
(430,000 l b . ) o f t h r u s t a t l i f t o f f , u s i n g two 822,920
newton (185,000 l b . ) t h r u s t b o o s t e r e n g i n e s , one
266,890 N ( 6 0 , 0 0 0 l b . ) t h r u s t s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e and two
v e r n i e r e n g i n e s d e v e l o p i n g 2,976 N ( 6 6 9 l b . ) t h r u s t e a c h .
The t w o RL-10 e n g i n e s on C e n t a u r p r o d u c e a t o t a l o f
131,222 N (29,500 l b . ) t h r u s t . Both t h e A t l a s and t h e
Centaur are 3 m ( 1 0 f t . ) i n d i a m e t e r .
C e n t a u r c a r r i e s i n s u l a t i o n p a n e l s which are j e t t i s o n e d
j u s t b e f o r e t h e v e h i c l e l e a v e s t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere. The
i n s u l a t i o n p a n e l s , w e i g h i n g a b o u t 553 k i l o g r a m s ( 1 , 2 2 0 l b . )
s u r r o u n d t h e second s t a g e p r o p e l l a n t t a n k s t o p r e v e n t h e a t
o r a i r f r i c t i o n from c a u s i n g b o i l - o f f of l i q u i d hydrogen
d u r i n g f l i g h t t h r o u g h t h e atmosphere.
The s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e e n c l o s e d i n a n 8.8-m
(23-?.) l o n q , 3-m (19-ft.)-diameter fiherqla-;s ?o?e-
f a i r i n g which i s j e t t i s G n c d a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e atmosphere.

U n t i l e a r l y 1 9 7 4 , Centaur w a s used e x c l u s i v e l y i n
combination w i t h t h e A t l a s b o o s t e r . I t w a s subsequently
u s e d w i t h a T i t a n I11 b o o s t e r t o l a u n c h h e a v i e r P a y l o a d s
onto interplanetary t r a j e c t o r i e s .

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T h e C e n t a u r D - 1 A h a s an i n t e g r a t e d e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m
which h a n d l e s n a v i g a t i o n and guidance t a s k s , c o n t r o l s
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n and v e n t i n g , p r o p e l l a n t management, t e l e -
metry f o r m a t s and t r a n s m i s s i o n and i n i t i a t e s v e h i c l e
e v e n t s . Most o p e r a t i o n a l needs can be m e t by changing t h e
computer s o f t w a r e .

LAUNCH FLIGHT SEQUENCE

A t l a s Phase

A f t e r l i f t o f f , AC-50 w i l l r i s e v e r t i c a l l y f o r a b o u t 1 5
seconds b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g i t s p i t c h program. Starting a t
t w o seconds a f t e r l i f t o f f and c o n t i n u i n g t o T p l u s 1 5 se-
conds, t h e v e h i c l e w i l l r o l l t o t h e d e s i r e d f l i g h t azimuth.

A f t e r 1 3 9 seconds of f l i g h t , t h e b o o s t e r e n g i n e s a r e
s h u t down (Booster Engine C u t o f f , BECO) and j e t t i s o n e d .
BECO o c c u r s when an a c c e l e r a t i o n of 5 . 7 G ' s i s s e n s e d by
a c c e l e r o m e t e r on t h e C e n t a u r and t h e s i g n a l i s i s s u e d by t h e
C e n t a u r guidance system. (The b o o s t e r package i s j e t -
t i s o n e d 3 . 1 seconds a f t e r R E C O . ) The A t l a s s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e
c o n t i n u e s t o b u r n for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 79 seconds a f t e r BECO
p r o p e l l i n g t h e v e h i c l e t o an a l t i t u d e of a b o u t 1 4 6 km
(91 m i . ) , a t t a i n i n g a speed of 1 3 , 6 5 9 km/hr ( 8 , 4 8 7 m p h ) .

P r i o r t o s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e c u t o f f , Centaur i n s u l a t i o n
p a n e l s and t h e n o s e f a i r i n g a r e j e t t i s o n e d .

The A t l a s and C e n t a u r s t a g e s a r e t h e n s e p a r a t e d . An
explosive charge s l i c e s through t h e i n t e r s t a g e adapter.
R e t r o r o c k e t s mounted on t h e A t l a s slow t h e s p e n t s t a g e .

C e n t a u r Phase

At 4 m i n u t e s 2 6 s e c o n d s i n t o t h e f l i a h t . t h e Cen-
t a u r ' s two RL-10 e n g i n e s i g n i t e f o r a p l a n n e d 5 m i n u t e 1 0
second burn. The C e n t a u r e n g i n e s t h e n s h u t down and Orbi-
t e r and C e n t a u r w i l l c o a s t f o r 9 t o 1 0 m i n u t e s , depending
on t h e d a t a of l a u n c h , i n a c i r c u l a r p a r k i n g o r b i t . A t the
end of t h e c o a s t p e r i o d , t h e C e n t a u r e n g i n e s r e s t a r t and
burn f o r 2 minutes and 1 7 s e c o n d s , p u t t i n g t h e O r b i t e r on
i t s Venus f l i g h t p a t h .

A t t h e end of t h e second C e n t a u r burn t h e C e n t a u r w i l l

o r i e n t t h e s p i n a x i s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t such t h a t i t i s
w i t h i n n i n e degrees of perpenducular t o t h e E a r t h ' s o r b i t plane,
and t h e P i o n e e r Venus Q r b i t e r w i l l s e p a r a t e from C e n t a u r .

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 LAUNCH VEHICLE-CHARACTERISTICS

* L i f t o f f weight including s p a c e c r a f t : 1 4 6 , 9 7 2 kilograms (324,018 l b s . )

Liftoff height: 40.3 m (132 f t . )
l a u n c h complex: 36A
Launch a z i m u t h sector: 93-108 d e g r e e s

SLV-3D Booster Centaur Stage

Weight: 1 3 0 , 3 9 0 k g (287,509 l b s . ) 17,678 kg ( 3 8 , 9 8 1 lbs.)

Height: 22.9 m (75 f t . ) 1 4 . 6 m ( 4 8 ft.)

(including interstage (with payload f a i r i n g )
adapter)
I
Thrust: 1 , 9 1 7 , 1 7 4 Newtons 1 3 1 , 2 0 0 Newtons P
0
( 4 3 1 , 0 0 0 lbs.) sea l e v e l ( 2 9 , 5 0 0 lbs.) vacuum 4
I
Propellants: L i q u i d oxygen a n d RP-1 L i q u i d hydrogen and
l i q u i d oxygen
Propulsion: MA-5 s y s t e m t w o 822,920-newton Two 65,611-newton (14,750-1b.)-
(185,000-lbs.) - t h r u s t engines, t h r u s t RL-10 e n g i n e s . Twelve
o n e 266 ,89 3-newton (60 ,000-lb . ) - small hydrogen p e r o x i d e t h r u s t e r s
s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e and t w o 2 , 9 7 6 - 26.7 newton ( 6 l b . ) t h r u s t e a c h
newton ( 6 6 9 - l b . ) - t h r u s t v e r n i e r
engines)

Velocity: 9 , 1 2 2 km/hr (5,668-mph) a t BECO; 2 6 , 5 8 0 km/hr ( 1 6 , 5 1 6 ) a t MECO-1

1 3 , 6 5 9 km/hr. (8487 mph) a t SECO 4 1 , 1 2 7 km/hr ( 2 5 , 5 5 5 mph) a t
MECO-2

Guidance : Pre-programmed p i t c h r a t e s t h r o u g h Inertial guidance

BECO.
Switch t o Centaur i n e r t i a l guidance
for s u s t a i n e r p h a s e ,

* Measured a t 5.08 c e n t i m e t e r s (two i n c h e s ) of r i s e .

 ATLAS/CENTAUR FLIGHT SEQUENCE (AC-50)

Seconds Altitude Surface S u r f a c e Range Re l a t i v e Relative

Time A 1t i t ud e Statute Range Statute Velocity Velocity
Seconds Kilometers Miles Kilometers Miles Kilometers/Hour Fiiles/Hour

Liftoff 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Booster Engine Cutoff 139.1 57.6 35.8 81.8 50.83 9122 5668

J e t t i s o n Booster 142.2 60.7 37.7 88.9 55.27 9215 5726

J e t t i s o n I n s u l a t i o n Panel 184.1 98.2 61.0 194.4 120.77 10,409 6468

J e t t i s o n Nose F a i r i n g 224.1 127 .O 78.92 312.4 194.40 12,035 7478

S u s t a i n e r l v e r n i e r Cutoff 254.2 145.4 90.37 416.5 258.81 13,659 8487 I

P
0
Atlas/Centaur Separation 256.1 146.5 91.00 422.9 262.80 13,657 8486 9"
Centaur I g n i t i o n 1 265.7 151.5 94.13 457.7 284.40 13,609 8456

Centaur Main Engine Cutoff 1 575.7 170.5 105.96 2051.0 1274.4 26,580 16,516

Centaur I g n i t i o n 2 MES2* 165.6 103.53 3c * 26,628 16,546

Centaur Main Engine Cutoff 2 MES2 + 137 192.0 119.30 * * 41,127 25,555

Spacecraft Separation MECO-2 + 135 400.9 249.12 * * 40,789 25,332

*Depends on P a r k i n g O r b i t Coast Time

 -109-

LAUNCH OPERATIONS

A NASA-contractor t e a m under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f Kennedy

Space C e n t e r ' s Expendable V e h i c l e s D i r e c t o r a t e i s r e s p o n s i -
b l e f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d launch of unmanned space ve-
h i c l e s from Cape Canaveral A i r Force S t a t i o n .

T h e A t l a s Centaur r o c k e t s t o be used f o r t h e two P i -

o n e e r Venus F l i g h t s - - AC-50 and AC-51--will b o t h be launched
from Pad A , northernmost of t h e two pads a t Launch Complex
36.
AC-50 w a s e r e c t e d on Pad A on February 21-23. The
P i o n e e r Venus O r b i t e r w a s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e Cape on March 1 5
and underwent i n i t i a l p r o c e s s i n g i n Hangar AO. The O r b i t e r
w a s moved t o S p a c e c r a f t Assembly and E n c a p s u l a t i o n F a c i l i t y -
2 (SAEF-2) i n t h e K S C I n d u s t r i a l A r e a on A p r i l 2 5 , w h e r e
i t w a s mated w i t h i t s o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n m o t o r on A p r i l
26. The O r b i t e r was s c h e d u l e d t o be e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n
i t s payload shroud t h e f i r s t week of May and t a k e n t o t h e
pad f o r mating w i t h AC-50 on May 8 . A series of e l e c t r i -
c a l and f u n c t i o n a l t e s t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o c l e a r t h e s p a c e
v e h i c l e f o r launch about May 2 0 .
The A t l a s and Centaur which w i l l comprise AC-51 w i l l
be e r e c t e d on Pad A i n e a r l y J u n e , o r approximately two
weeks a f t e r t h e launch of AC-50 w i t h t h e Venus O r b i t e r .
The P i o n e e r Venus Multiprobe i s t o be d e l i v e r e d t o
t h e Cape d u r i n g t h e f i r s t week of June. L i k e i t s prede-
c e s s o r , i t w i l l undergo i n i t i a l p r o c e s s i n g i n Hangar A 0
p r i o r t o b e i n g moved t o SAEF-2 i n e a r l y J u l y . The M u l t i p r o k e
w i l l be e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n i t s payload shroud d u r i n g t h e
t h i r d week of J u l y and moved t o Pad A f o r mating w i t h
AC-51 on J u l y 2 6 . A series of e l e c t r i c a l and f u n c t i o n a l
t e s t s w i l l be conducted t o c l e a r t h e s p a c e v e h i c l e f o r
launch a b o u t August 7 .

M I S S I O N OPERATIONS

For P i o n e e r Venus, m i s s i o n c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l be opera-

t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t w o d i f f e r e n t s p a c e c r a f t on two d i f -
f e r e n t missions. The O r b i t e r and Multiprobe a r e launched
w i t h i n t h r e e months of each o t h e r and a r r i v e a t t h e p l a n e t
l e s s t h a n a week a p a r t .

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 -110-

During t h e Venus e n c o u n t e r p e r i o d , l a u n c h of t h e
f o u r p r o b e s from t h e t r a n s p o r t e r Bus t o t h e i r a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y p o i n t s w i l l be accomplished: t h e Bus w i l l be r e t a r -
g e t e d f o r i t s e n t r y ; t h e O r b i t e r w i l l be p l a c e d on i t s
24-hour, h i g h - i n c l i n a t i o n , h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t . F i v e
days a f t e r O r b i t e r e n c o u n t e r , probe e n t r y w i l l be moni-
t o r e d , and t h e c r i t i c a l probe d a t a r e c e i v e d and s t o r e d
for l a t e r analysis.

With completion of t h e M u l t i p r o b e mission-- a f t e r i m - -

p a c t of t h e p r o b e s on t h e s u r f a c e and burn-up of t h e Bus
c o n t r o l l e r s w i l l continue t o operate the Orbiter f o r the
e i g h t months of i t s primary m i s s i o n . C o n t r o l l e r s may make
s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e o r b i t d u r i n g t h i s e x t e n d e d
mission period.

S i n c e a l l P i o n e e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y unautomated space-
c r a f t , m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s o f t e n r e q u i r e 24-hour-a-day
c o n t r o l and c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s and p l a n n i n g i n s h o r t t i m e
spans. Ground-controlled s p a c e c r a f t provide f l e x i b i l i t y
f o r changing p l a n s and o b j e c t i v e s . They a l s o o f f e r econ-
omies i n s p a c e c r a f t d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus c o n t r o l and s p a c e c r a f t o p e r a t i o n s w i l l
be a t t h e P i o n e e r Mission O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r ( P M O C ) , Ames
Research C e n t e r , Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . , from t h e t i m e b o t h
s p a c e c r a f t s e p a r a t e from t h e i r l a u n c h v e h i c l e s t h r o u g h
t h e end of t h e O r b i t e r m i s s i o n .

P i o n e e r Venus o p e r a t i o n s w i l l be made somewhat more

complex by t h e c o n t i n u e d o p e r a t i o n a t t h e PMOC o f t h e
p r e v i o u s l y launched P i o n e e r s p a c e c r a f t . P i o n e e r s 6 t o 9
c o n t i n u e t o c i r c l e t h e Sun and r e t u r n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y d a t a .
P i o n e e r 1 0 c o n t i n u e s t o e n t e r p r e v i o u s l y unexplored
s p a c e on i t s way o u t of t h e s o l a r system ( i t i s now ap-
p r a c h i n g Uranus' o r b i t ) . P i o n e e r 11 i s d e s c e n d i n g back
toward t h e e c l i p t i c and man's f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h S a t u r n
i n September 1 9 7 9 .

The PMOC i s t h e c e n t r a l m i s s i o n c o n t r o l c e n t e r . I t
i s under o p e r a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r .
T h i s a r e a w i l l o r i g i n a t e a l l command i n f o r m a t i o n and re-
c e i v e and d i s p l a y t e l e m e t r y d a t a r e q u i r e d f o r m i s s i o n con-
trol. Although all commands are o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e PMOC,
emergency p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e backup command g e n e r a t i o n a t
t h e DSN s t a t i o n s , i f n e c e s s a r y .

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 -111-

T h e PMOC has computing c a p a b i l i t y b o t h f o r commanding

t h e two s p a c e c r a f t and f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e d a t a stream
as it i s r e c e i v e d from t h e DSN s t a t i o n s f o r u s e by f l i g h t
c o n t r o l l e r s m o n i t o r i n g s p a c e c r a f t performance.
S e v e r a l groups o f s p e c i a l i s t s d i r e c t and s u p p o r t launch
i n t e r p l a n e t a r y , o r b i t a l and atmospheric e n t r y o p e r a t i o n s .
The P i o n e e r Mission O p e r a t i o n s team c o n s i s t s of p e r -
s o n n e l from government and c o n t r a c t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and
o p e r a t e s under c o n t r o l of t h e P r o j e c t Manager and Mission
O p e r a t i o n s System Manager.
Because P i o n e e r Venus i n c l u d e s two m i s s i o n s , t w o
f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s groups have been named f o r each--an O r -
b i t e r group and a Multiprobe group. Both groups have t h e
same e l e m e n t s . T h e S c i e n c e A n a l y s i s Team i n each group
i s composed of s c i e n c e o p e r a t i o n s p e o p l e from t h e p r o j e c t
and t h e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( o r t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s )
f o r each experiment on board t h e O r b i t e r and Multiprobe.
They d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a t u s of each s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t ,
and f o r m u l a t e command sequences f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s .
Both groups a l s o have S p a c e c r a f t Performance Analy-
s i s teams, made up o f e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s on space-
c r a f t systems such a s : communications, t h e r m a l c o n t r o l
and power. These teams a n a l y z e and e v a l u a t e s p a c e c r a f t
performance and p r e d i c t s p a c e c r a f t r e s p o n s e s t o commands.

A t h i r d organization serves both spacecraft. T h i s is

t h e N a v i g a t i o n and Maneuvers group, which h a n d l e s space-
c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n i n s p a c e ; o r b i t a l i n j e c -
t i o n , t r i m , and changes and p r o b e - t a r g e t i n g and launch.
T h i s group i s made up of e n g i n e e r i n g s p e c i a l i s t s i n
s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n geometry, t r a j e c t o r i e s , and maneu-
v e r s . T h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , under c o n t r a c t t o
Ames, does computer a n a l y s i s of D S N t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
t o determine s p a c e c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s .
The Mission O p e r a t i o n s T e a m a l s o i n c l u d e s a launch
s p e c i a l i s t , a hardware e x p e r t and a computer systems de-
velopment and o p e r a t i o n s group.
Support groups a t Ames and o t h e r NASA f a c i l i t i e s as-
s i s t t h e m i s s i o n o p e r a t i o n s team t o perform computer s o f t w a r e
development, m i s s i o n c o n t r o l and o f f - l i n e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g .

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 -112-

DATA RETURN, COMMAND AND TRACKING

N A S A ' s Deep Space N e t w o r k ( D S N ) w i l l t r a c k and re-

c e i v e d a t a d i r e c t l y f r o m all s i x P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t
( t h e O r b i t e r , t h e Bus and t h e f o u r p r o b e s ) . Commands a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d t o s p a c e c r a f t from t h e P i o n e e r Mission Opera-
t i o n s C o n t r o l C e n t e r t h r o u g h t h e DSN s t a t i o n s .
T r a c k i n g w i l l be by t h e D S N ' s g l o b a l network of 26-m
( 8 5 - f t . ) and h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s . The 6 4 s
w i l l be used d u r i n g c r i t i c a l p h a s e s of t h e m i s s i o n such a s
r e o r i e n t a t i o n , v e l o c i t y c o r r e c t i o n s , o r b i t i n s e r t i o n , and
e n t r y of t h e f o u r p r o b e s i n t o Venus' atmosphere -- as w e l l
a s f o r s p e c i a l science e v e n t s such a s o c c u l t a t i o n . A t t h e
end of t h e O r b i t e r primary m i s s i o n , Venus w i l l be 203
m i l l i o n krn ( 1 2 6 m i l l i o n m i . ) f a r t h e r from E a r t h t h a n a t
Orbiter arrival.

During t h e c r i t i c a l two-hour p e r i o d of a t m o s p h e r i c
e n t r y by t h e Bus and f l i g h t s down t o t h e s u r f a c e by t h e
f o u r p r o b e s , b o t h t h e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s a t Goldstone,
C a l i f . , and a t C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a , w i l l be used t o re-
ceive and r e c o r d Venus atmosphere d a t a , coming i n s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y from a l l f i v e probe c r a f t .
The Deep Space Network w i t h f a c i l i t i e s l o c a t e d a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 120-degree i n t e r v a l s around t h e E a r t h , w i l l
s u p p o r t t h e P i o n e e r Venus s p a c e c r a f t . The primary m i s s i o n
o f t h e O r b i t e r i s 1 5 months: s i x months i n t r a n s i t and e i g h t
months i n o r b i t . A s t h e O r b i t e r and M u l t i p r o b e " s e t " a t
one s t a t i o n due t o t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l r i s e
a t t h e n e x t one.

The D S N , o p e r a t e d by t h e J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y
( J P L ) , Pasadena, C a l i f . , h a s s i x 26-m ( 8 5 - f t . ) p a r a b o l i c - r e -
f l e c t o r d i s h a n t e n n a s , two a t G o l d s t o n e , i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s
Mojave Desert; two a t Madrid, S p a i n and two a t Canberra.
There a r e a l s o t h r e e 64-m ( 2 1 0 - f t . ) a n t e n n a s , one each a t Gold-
s t o n e , Madrid and Canberra.

Radio s c i e n c e e x p e r i m e n t e r s w i l l estimate wind s p e e d s

and d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e Venus atmosphere by computing t h e
t h e e x a c t f l i g h t p a t h s of t h e f o u r p r o b e s u s i n g DSN d a t a .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Goldstone and Canberra s t a t i o n s , two
NASA STDN s t a t i o n s a t Guam and S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , w i l l sup-
port this effort. Radio i n t e r f e r o m e t r y i n a t r i a n g u l a t i o n
p r o c e s s w i l l be used i n t h i s computation. (See M u l t i p r o b e
Experiments - Radio S c i e n c e . )

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PIONEER VENUS COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
GOLDSTONE,
DEEP SPACE MADRID,
NETWORK (DSN) DSN

I
P
P
w
I

SANTIAGO, SPACECRAFT GUAM, CANB~ERRA,

TRACKING A N D D A T A STDN DSN
NETWORK (STDN)
 -114-

During l a u n c h , t r a c k i n g w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
DSN w i t h t h e a i d o f o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s . These a r e t r a c k i n g
a n t e n n a s of t h e A i r Force E a s t e r n T e s t Range and e l e m e n t s
of NASA's S p a c e c r a f t T r a c k i n g Data Network ( S T D N ) t o g e -
t h e r w i t h s u p p o r t by f o u r i n s t r u m e n t e d a i r c r a f t , t h e
Apollo Range I n s t r u m e n t e d A i r c r a f t ( A R I A ) . The a i r c r a f t
are o p e r a t e d by Flright P a t t e r s o n A i r Force Base.

A t a l l t i m e s , incoming t e l e m e t r y d a t a from t h e
s p a c e c r a f t i s f o r m a t t e d a t D S N s t a t i o n s f o r high-speed
t r a n s m i s s i o n t o Ames computers. These computers w i l l
check f o r unexpected o r c r i t i c a l changes i n d a t a a n d p r o -
v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a n a l y s i s by s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e space-
c r a f t , e x p e r i m e n t s and ground system. T h e i r a n a l y s e s
w i l l b e used f o r s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l . Outgoing commands
a r e v e r i f i e d by Ames Computers and s e n t t o DSN s t a t i o n s
where t h e y a r e r e v e r i f i e d by computer and t h e n t r a n s m i t t e d .
N a v i g a t i o n d a t a and t r a j e c t o r y computations f o r t h e P i o n e e r
s p a c e c r a f t i s f u r n i s h e d by J P L ' s N a v i g a t i o n System S e c t i o n
under c o n t r a c t t o Ames. They do computer a n a l y s i s of D S N
Doppler and r a n g e t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r o v i d e space-
c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of Venus o r b i t and
planetary targeting.

For P o i n e e r Venus, t h e D S N h a s made a number of spe-

c i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s . Added receivers a r e needed t o h a n d l e
t h e f i v e d i f f e r e n t d a t a s t r e a m s a t once of t h e f o u r p r o b e s
and Bus. S p e c i a l wideband r e c o r d e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o
cope w i t h t h e l a r g e f r e q u e n c y s h i f t s which w i l l happen
w i t h t h e changes i n v e l o c i t y a t entry--and a t m o s p h e r i c
e f f e c t s on s i g n a l p r o p a g a t i o n a s t h e p r o b e s descend t o
Venus' surface. To s a v e a l l of t h e one-change-only d a t a ,
due t o v a r i a n c e s o u t s i d e t h e p r e d i c t e d range of f r e q u e n c y
changes, t h e DSN h a s p r o v i d e d s p e c i a l equipment t o a u t o -
m a t i c a l l y t u n e t h e r e c e i v e r s t o t h e s i g n a l t r a n s m i t t e d by
each probe.

Incoming t e l e m e t r y i s f o r m a t t e d a t D S N s t a t i o n s f o r
t r a n s m i s s i o n v i a NASA Communications S y s t e m (NASCOM)
high-speed c i r c u i t s t o t h e P i o n e e r Y i s s i o n Tomputing
C e n t e r (PMCC). There i t i s p r o c e s s e d t o s u p p l y v a r i o u s
t y p e s of r e a l t i m e d i s p l a y i n f o r m a t i o n on s p a c e c r a f t and
instruments s t a t u s .

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 -115-

I n a d d i t i o n t o use of t e l e m e t r y f o r providing m i s -
s i o n o p e r a t i o n s and q u i c k - l o o k d a t a , a l l t e l e m e t r y w i l l
b e p r o c e s s e d a t t h e PMCC t o p r o v i d e d a t a r e c o r d s f o r t h e
i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s i n t h e form o f Experimenter Data
Records. P r o v i d e d t o P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r s , i t becomes
t h e r a w m a t e r i a l f o r u s e by them i n p r o d u c i n g m i s s i o n
findings .
F o r a l l of N A S A ' s unmanned m i s s i o n s i n deep s p a c e ,
t h e DSN p r o v i d e s t r a c k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on c o u r s e and d i -
r e c t i o n of t h e f l i g h t , v e l o c i t y and r a n g e from t h e E a r t h .
I t s g l o b a l s t a t i o n s a l s o r e c e i v e e n g i n e e r i n g and s c i e n c e
telerr.etrv and sends comanfls, 3911 communications l i n k s
a r e i n S-band f r e q u e n c y (though Venus O r b i t e r o c c u l t a t i o n
e x p e r i m e n t s are X-band c a r r i e r o n l y . No t e l e m e t r y d a t a
are s e n t .

D S N s t a t i o n s r e l a y s p a c e c r a f t Doppler t r a c k i n g t o
JPL. High s p e e d d a t a l i n k s a l l o w r e a l t i m e t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f a l l d a t a f r o m s p a c e c r a f t d i r e c t l y t o t h e PMOC a t Ames.
Throughout t h e m i s s i o n , s c i e n t i f i c d a t a recorded on mag-
n e t i c t a p e w i l l b e s e n t from DSN s t a t i o n s t o A m e s f o r pro-
cess i n g .
N A S A ' s networks a r e d i r e c t e d by t h e O f f i c e o f Track-
i n g and Data A c q u i s i t i o n , NASA H e a d q u a r t e r s , Washington, D . C .

J P L manages t h e DSN f o r NASA, w h i l e S T D N and NASCOM

are managed by N A S A ' s Goddard Space F l i g h t C e n t e r , Green-
b e l t , Md.

The Goldstone D S N s t a t i o n s a r e o p e r a t e d by J P L , as-

s i s t e d by t h e Bendix F i e l d E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p o r a t i o n . The
Canberra s t a t i o n i s o p e r a t e d by t h e A u s t r a l i a n Department
of Supply. The Madrid s t a t i o n i s o p e r a t e d by t h e S p a n i s h
g o v e r n m e n t ' s I n s t i t u t o N a c i o n a l de T e c n i c a A e r o s p a c i a l
(INTA) .
 -116-

P I O N E E R VENUS TEAM

NASA H e a d q u a r t e r s

Dr. N o e l Hinners Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r

f o r Space Science

Andrew J . S t o f a n Deputy A s s o c i a t e A d m i n i s -
t r a t o r f o r Space S c i e n c e

A. Thomas Young D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y Programs

Dr. Geoffrey A. Briggs Deputy D i r e c t o r , P l a n e t a r y

Programs
Fred D . Kochendorfer P i o n e e r Venus Program Manager

P a u l Tarver Deputy P i o n e e r Venus Program

Manager

Dr. R o b e r t E . Murphy P i o n e e r Venus Program

S c i e n ti s t

John F. Yardley Associate Administrator f o r

S p a c e T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Systems

J o s e p h B . Mahon Director, Expendable Launch

V e h i c l e Programs

F. R o b e r t Schmidt Manager, A t l a s C e n t a u r

D r . W i l l i a m C. Schneider Associate A d m i n i s t r a t o r f o r
Space T r a c k i n g and Data
Systems

Arnold C . B e l c h e r Network O p e r a t i o n s

Maurice E . B i n k l e y Network S u p p o r t

A m e s Research C e n t e r

C . A. Syvertson Director

Dr. Dean R . Chapman D i r e c t o r o f Development

Charles F. H a l l P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

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 -117-

Ames Research C e n t e r ( c o n t ' d . )

D r . Lawrence C o l i n P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t
Scientist
Ralph W . Holtzclaw S p a c e c r a f t Systems Manager
J o e l Sperans Experiment Systems Manager

Robert U . H o f s t e t t e r Mission O p e r a t i o n s Manager

Henry A s c h R e l i a b i l i t y and Q u a l i t y
Assurance

Ernest J. Iufer Magnetics

J e t Propulsion Laboratory

D r . Bruce C . Murray Director

Richard B. M i l l e r Tracking and D a t a Systems
Manager
Eugene S . Burke, Jr. S u p e r v i s o r , DSN O p e r a t i o n s
P l a n n i n g Group

L e w i s Research C e n t e r

D r . Bernard Lubarsky A c t i n g Director

Dr. Seymour C . H i m m e l A s s o c i a t e Director
Lawrence J . R o s s C h i e f , V e h i c l e s Engineering
Division
C a r l B . Wentworth C h i e f , Program I n t e g r a t i o n
Division
Edwin Muckley Mission P r o j e c t Engineer

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 -118-

Kennedy S p a c e C e n t e r

D r . L e e R. Scherer Director
Gerald D . Griffin Deputy D i r e c t o r

D r . Walter J . Kapryan D i r e c t o r of Space V e h i c l e

Operations
George F . Page D i r e c t o r , Expendable V e h i c l e s
John D. Gossett Manager, C e n t a u r O p e r a t i o n s

Donald C . Sheppard Manager, S p a c e c r a f t and

Support Operations Division

C . A . Terhune Chief Engineer, A t l a s C e n t a u r

Barry Olton KSC P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r f o r

P i o n e e r Venus

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o .

S. D. Dorfman P i o n e e r Venus P r o j e c t Manager

f o r Hughes

CONTRACTORS

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . (Prime contractor) Spacecraft

Space and Communications Group and Radar Mapper
E l Segundo, C a l i f .

Hughes A i r c r a f t C o . Data S t o r a g e U n i t
D a t a Systems D i v i s i o n
Culver C i t y , C a l i f .

General E l e c t r i c C o . Deceleration Modules

Philadelphia, Pa.

Motorola, I n c . Transponders
Phoenix, A r i z .

T h i o k o l Chemical C o . O r b i t I n s e r t i o n Motor
E l k t o n , Md.

B a l l B r o t h e r s R e s e a r c h Corp. Star Sensors

B o u l d e r , Colo .
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 -119-

N o r t h r o p Corp. Thermal Louvers

L o s Angeles, C a l i f .

Frequency E l e c t r o n i c s , I n C . Stable Oscillators

N e w Hyde P a r k , N . Y .

General E l e c t r i c C o . Nickel-Cadmium B a t t e r y C e l l s
Gainesville, Fla.
Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc. Silver-Zinc Battery C e l l s
Joplin, Mo.

Spectrolab, Inc. S o l a r C e l l s and Covers

Sylmar, C a l i f .

Arcturns Manufacturing Co. P r e s s u r e Vessel F o r g i n g s

Oxnard, C a l i f .

Newbrook Machine Corp. P r e s s u r e V e s s e l Machining

S i l v e r C r e e k , N.Y.
Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e Pressure V e s s e l Testing
San A n t o n i o , Texas

Siliconix, Inc. Input Buffers

Santa C l a r a , C a l i f .

U n i v e r s i t y of Texas a t L a r g e P r o b e N e u t r a l Mass
Dallas Spectrometer

Western Aerospace L a b o r a t o r i e s L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e Atmos-

Gardena, C a l i f . phere S t r u c t u r e Instruments,
O r b i t e r Plasma Analyzer

S y s tron-Donner L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e
Concord, C a l i f . Accelerometers

University of Arizona Large Probe S o l a r Flux

Tucson, A r i z . Radiometer S e n s o r

M a r t i n Marietta Corp. Large Probe S o l a r Flux

Denver, C o l o . Radiometer E l e c t r o n i c s

B a l l B r o t h e r s R e s e a r c h Corp. L a r g e P r o b e I n f r a r e d Radiometer
Boulder, C o l o . and Cloud P a r t i c l e S i z e
Spectrometer

TRW Systems Group L a r g e P r o b e G a s Chromatograph,

TRW, I n c . L a r g e and S m a l l P r o b e Nephelo-
Redondo Beach, C a l i f . m e t e r s , Orbiter Electric
F i e l d Detector

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 -120-

U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n Small Probe N e t F l u x
Madison, W i s . Radiometer

Aiken I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . M u l t i p r o b e Bus and O r b i t e r

C o l l e g e P a r k , Md. I o n Mass S p e c t r o m e t e r s

Lockheed M i s s i l e s and S p a c e C o . O r b i t e r Retarding P o t e n t i a l

Sunnyvale, C a l i f . Analyzer

IPW O r b i t e r Retarding P o t e n t i a l
F r e i b u r g , W e s t Germany Analyzer Sensor
U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o O r b i t e r Ultraviolet Spectrometer
Boulder, C o l o .

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a t O r b i t e r Magnetometer
L o s Angeles

Westinghouse, I n c . O r b i t e r Magnetometer
B a l t i m o r e , Md.

J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory O r b i t e r I n f r a r e d Radiometer
Pasadena, C a l i f .

M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s ti t u t e M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground
o f Technology Based Radio Science
Cambridge, Mass. Experiments

P a r t i c l e Measuring S y s t e m s , I n c . L a r g e P r o b e Cloud P a r t i c l e
Boulder, C o l o . S i z e Spectrometer

DCA R e l i a b i l i t y L a b o r a t o r y Electronic P a r t s Procurement

Mountain V i e w , C a l i f . and S c r e e n i n g

Bendix F i e l d E n g i n e e r i n g Corp. M i s s i o n s O p e r a t i o n s and

Sunnyvale, C a l i f . S o f t w a r e Development

G e n e r a l Dynamics Launch V e h i c l e s
Convair D i v i s i o n
San Diego, C a l i f .

Los Alamos Scientific O r b i t e r Gamma R a y B u r s t

Laboratory Detector
Lo,, A l a m o s , N.M.

Sandia L a b o r a t o r i e s O r b i t e r G a m m a Ray B u r s t
Albuquerque, N .M. Detector

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S a n t a B a r b a r a Research O r b i t e r Cloud P h o t o p o l a r i m e t e r
Center
Santa Barbara, C a l i f .

U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l M a s s
M i n n e a p o l i s , Minn. Spectrometer

U n i v e r s i t y of Bonn M u l t i p r o b e Bus N e u t r a l Mass

Bonn, Germany Spectrometer

J e t Propulsion Laboratory M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r Ground

Pasadena, C a l i f . Based Radio S c i e n c e
Experiments

SRI International M u l t i p r o b e and O r b i t e r

Menlo P a r k , C a l i f . Ground Based Radio S c i e n c e
Experiments

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VENUS STATISTICS

Orbital

Mean d i s t a n c e from Sun: .723 a s t r o n o m i c a l u n i t s

1 0 8 . 2 m i l l i o n km
67.2 million m i .

I n c l i n a t i o n of o r b i t t o
p l a n e of e c l i p t i c : 3.3 degrees

Sidereal period (relative

to stars): 225 E a r t h days

Mean o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y : 126,180 h / h r
78,408 mph

C l o s e s t approach t o E a r t h : 4 2 m i l l i o n km
26 m i l l i o n m i .

Planetary

Diameter ( s o l i d surface) : 1 2 , 1 0 0 km
7,519 m i .

D i a m e t e r ( t o p of c l o u d s ) : 1 2 , 2 4 0 km
7,606 m i .

Mass: 0.815 E a r t h masses

Density : 5.26 gm/cm3

Axial r o t a t i o n period 243.1 E a r t h days

(retrograde)

Rotation period, cloud tops: 4 .O E a r t h days ( a p p r o x . )

(retrograde)

Length of s o l a r day: 1 1 6 . 8 E a r t h days

I n c l i n a t i o n of r o t a t i o n a x i s : 6.0 degrees

Surface atmospheric pressure: 95 atmospheres

9 , 6 1 6 kPa
1,396 p s i

Surface temperature: 480 degrees C (approx.)

9 0 0 d e g r e e s F. ( a p p r o x . )

-end-