Chapter 4

Reactions between ions and

molecules in aqueous solutions

4.1 Solution Terminology

• Solution – homogeneous mixture in which
the two or more components mix freely
• Solvent – the component
p ppresent in the
largest amount
• Solute – is any substance dissolved in the
solvent
• Concentration – the ratio of solute to
solvent in a solution
2

Solution formation

Chapter 4 1
 Solution Concentration
• Percentage
concentration:
number of grams of
solute per 100 g of
solution
l i

• The dilute solution

on the left has less
solute per unit
volume than the
(more) concentrated
solution on the right.
4

Solubility
• Solubility – the number of grams that dissolve in 100g
of solvent at a given temperature.
• A solution is said to be saturated when no more solute
can be dissolved at the current temperature.
• A solution containing less solute is called unsaturated
because it is able to dissolve more solute.
• Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than
required for saturation at a given temperature.

Supersaturated Solutions
• How are they prepared?
– Lower the temperature of a
saturated solution
• They are not stable.
• If a single crystal of solute
is added to a supersaturated
solution, the extra solute
crystallizes.

Chapter 4 2
 Precipitates
• Many ionic compounds dissolve in water.
• Those that do not form a solid.
• Precipitate – a solid substance that separates
from solution.
• Precipitates can also form during reactions,
specifically precipitation reactions.

4.2 Ionic compounds conduct

electricity when dissolved in water
• Ionic compounds that
are soluble in water
will conduct
electricity.
l i i
• Why?
– Separation of charge
– The charged ions
dissociate.
• These solutions are
called electrolytes. 8

Types of Electrolytes
• Strong electrolyte – dissociates completely, totally
soluble in water

• N
Nonelectrolyte
l l – does
d not dissociate,
di i but
b isi totally
ll
soluble in water.

Chapter 4 3
 Dissociation equations
• Represent what happens when an ionic
compound dissolves in water.
• Remember,
Remember ionic compounds dissociate into
ions! Don’t make up new ions when doing
so.
Na 2SO 4 ( s) → 2 Na + (aq ) + SO 24- (aq )
Na2SO4 → 2 Na+ + SO24-
10

Practice Problem
• Write the dissociation reactions for the
following compounds when dissolved in
water:
– (NH4)2SO4

– MgCl2

– Al(NO3)3
11

Equations for Ionic Reactions

• Ionic compounds often react when their
aqueous solutions combine.
• Let
Let’ss look at Pb(NO3)2 reacting with KI

12

Chapter 4 4
 13

Representing Ionic Reactions

• Complete (molecular equation):
Pb(NO3 ) 2 + 2KI → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3
• Ionic:
Pb 2 + + 2NO 3- + 2K + + 2I - → PbI 2 ( s ) + 2K + + 2NO 3-
• Net Ionic:
Pb 2 + + 2I − → PbI 2 ( s )
• The most compact notation is the net ionic
equation.
• It eliminates the spectator ions from the equation.
14

Ionic and Net Ionic Equations

• Criteria for balanced ionic and net ionic
equations:
– Material balance – the same number of each
type of atom on each side of the arrow

– Electrical balance – the net electrical charge on

the left side of the arrow must equal the net
electrical charge on the right side of the arrow

15

Chapter 4 5
 Practice Problem
• Write the ionic and net ionic equations for
the following reaction:
CdCl2 + Na2S Æ CdS (s) + 2 NaCl

16

4.3 Acids and bases are classes of

compounds with special properties
• Acids
– Have a tart (sour) taste
– Turn litmus red
– Vinegar
g and lemon jjuice
– Corrode metals
• Bases
– Have a bitter taste
– Turn litmus blue
– Milk of magnesia
– Can feel slippery

17

Neutralization reactions
• Arrhenius gave first comprehensive theory of acids
and bases.
• He proposed that acids form hydrogen ions (H+) and
bases released hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution.
– Acids Æ H+
– Bases Æ OH-
• The characteristic reaction between acids and bases is
neutralization.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) Æ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• In general, the reaction of an acid and a base produces
water and a salt.
18

Chapter 4 6
 Acids (what’s really happening)
• Acid – a substance that reacts with water to produce
hydronium ion, H3O+.
• In general, acids are molecular compounds that react with
water to produce ions
• This is called ionization:
Acid molecule + H2O Æ H3O+ + anion

19

Acids continued
HCl( g ) + H 2O → H 3O + (aq ) + Cl - (aq )

• It is common to encounter the hydrogen ion

(H+) instead of the hydronium ion (H3O+)

HCl( g ) ⎯H⎯
⎯
2O
→ H + (aq) + Cl - (aq )

20

Acids and Protons

• Monoprotic acids are capable of furnishing
only one hydrogen ion per molecule
– HCl, HNO3, HF, HCO3-, etc…

• Acids that can furnish more than one

hydrogen ion per molecule are called
polyprotic acids
– H2SO4, H3PO4, H2PO4, H2CO3, etc…

21

Chapter 4 7
 Bases
• Base – a substance that produces hydroxide ion
, OH-, in water.
• Typically, they will be ionic compounds
containing either OH- or O2-.
• Exceptions: molecular bases
B + H2O Æ HB+ + OH-
• For example
NH3 + H2O Æ NH4+ + OH-

22

Strong Acids and Strong Bases

• Acids and bases that are strong electrolytes Æ conduct
electricity very well.
• Complete ionization
STRONG ACIDS STRONG BASES
HCl Hydrochloric acid LiOH Lithium hydroxide
HBr Hydrobromic acid NaOH Sodium hydroxide
HI Hydroiodic acid KOH Potassium hydroxide
HNO3 Nitric acid RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
HClO4 Perchloric acid CsOH Cesium hydroxide
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide 23

Weak Acids and Bases

• Acids and bases that are weak electrolytes.

• Theyy do not ionize completely

p y in water,, and
therefore only conduct electricity a little.

• What does it mean “to ionize”

24

Chapter 4 8
 25

Dynamic Equilibrium
HC2 H 3O + H 2O ⇔ H 3O + + C2 H 3O −

• An dynamic
equilibrium exists
between the weak
acid and ion.
• Note the double
arrow indicating
the equilibrium 26

Same with weak bases

NH 3 + H 2O ⇔ NH 4+ + OH − 27

Chapter 4 9
 We are skipping
section 4.4
How to recognize…
• An acid: look for a polyatomic anion with
extra hydrogens
– H3PO4
– HC2H3O2
– H2CO3
• A base: look for hydroxide ion (OH-) or an
organic compound containing nitrogen
– NH3
– CH3NH2
28

How to write dissociation RXNS

for Acids/Bases
Acid/Base Strong or Weak? Dissociation RXN
NH3
NaOH
Ca(OH) 2
HC2H3O2
H3PO4
H2SO4
29

4.5 Ionic reactions can often be

predicted
• In general, a net ionic equation will exist (a
reaction occurs) if one of the following
occurs:
– A precipitate forms
– An acid reacts with a base
– A weak electrolyte is from strong electrolytes
– A gas is formed

30

Chapter 4 10
 Metathesis Reactions
• Also called double replacement reactions (think of
switching dance partners)
• Must form a product = usually ppt or water

• Solubility rules allow the prediction of when a

precipitation reaction will occur.
• Water will form from the reaction of strong
acids/bases. 31

The Solubility Rules

1. All compounds of alkali metals are soluble.
2. All salts containing NH4+, NO3-, ClO4-, ClO3-
and C2H3O2- are soluble.
3 All chlorides,
3. hl id bromides
b i did (Cl-, Br
id andd iodides B -, I -)
are soluble except when combined with Ag+,
Hg22+ and Pb2+.
4. All sulfates (SO42-) are soluble except those of
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Hg22+ and Pb2+.
5. Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 are soluble.
You need to memorize these. 32

Soluble or Insoluble?
• KCl

• MgCO3

• MnO2

• CaI2

• BaSO4

33

Chapter 4 11
 Reactions of ionic solutions
• What happens when we mix two different
ionic solutions?
– Either they react to form a precipitate or they
don’t.

– Let’s see what happens when we mix some

solutions and write the balanced equations
(complete, ionic and net ionic) for any reactions
that occur.
34

Predicting Acid/Base Reactions

• Strong acid with strong base
– Always forms water and a salt (soluble ionic
compound)

HNO3 + KOHÆ H2O + KNO3

• What would be the ionic and net ionic

equations? (best to use H+ instead of H3O+)
35

36

Chapter 4 12
 More neutralization reactions
• When one reactant is weak:

HC2 H 3O2 + NaOH → H 2O + NaC2 H 3O2

– Does not always form a salt and water

NH 3 + HCl → NH 4Cl
• Weak acid with weak base
HC2 H 3O2 + NH 3 → NH 4C2 H 3O2 37

Practice Problems
• Write the complete, ionic and net ionic equations
for the reaction of
– HCl with KOH
– H2CO3 with LiOH
– NH3 with HNO3
– CH3NH2 with HC2H3O2

We will be skipping the section on “Predicting

reactions in which a gas is formed”. You are not
responsible for this section.
38

Concentration
• Concentration – relationship of solute to
solvent in a solution.
• The molar concentration or molarity (M) is
defined as

molarity (M) = liters

moles of solute
of solution

• The molarity of a solution gives an

equivalence relation between the moles of
39
solute and volume of solution.

Chapter 4 13
 Concentration continued
• Notice that molarity has two units: mol/L
• It can be used as a conversion factor
between moles and volume
volume.

40

Diluting a solution

• Solutions of high concentration can be diluted to

make solutions of lower concentration Use only
for dilution
calculation.

Vdilute × M dilute = Vconcentrated × M concentrated

41

What is the molarity of a solution made by

dissolving 1.461 g of NaCl in 250.0 mL of water?
(MM of NaCl = 58.443 g/mol)

42

Chapter 4 14
 How many grams of AgNO3 are needed to prepare
250. mL of 0.0125 M AgNO3? (MM of = 169.87
g/mol)

43

How could 100. mL of 0.125 M H2SO4 solution be

made from 0.500 M H2SO4 solution?

44

4.7 Molarity is used for problems

in solution stoichiometry
• Very similar to our previous calculations.
• Instead of starting with grams we will usually start
with volume (L or mL)
• Follow the same steps as we did in Chapter 4.

How many milliliters of 0.124M NaOH contain

enough NaOH to react with 15.4 mL of 0.108M
H2SO4?
2NaOH + H2SO4 Æ2 H2O + Na2SO4
45

Chapter 4 15
 How many milliliters of 0.124M NaOH contain enough
NaOH to react with 15.4 mL of 0.108M H2SO4?

2 NaOH + H2SO4 Æ 2 H2O + Na2SO4

46

How many moles of BaSO4 will form if 20.0 mL of

0.600 M BaCl2 is mixed with 30.0 mL of 0.500 M
MgSO4?
BaCl2 + MgSO4 Æ BaSO4 + MgCl2

47

4.8 Chemical analysis and titrations

• Titration is a technique used to make quantitative
measurements of the amounts of solutions
• The end-point is often determined visually

48

Chapter 4 16
 Titration Tools
• A buret allows us to measure the volume of the
known solution.
– Always record to two decimal places
• An indicator is used to tell us when the reaction is
complete
– In lab, the indicator was phenolphthalein.
– It goes from colorless to light pink when you have
reached the end point.
• The indicator changes colors at the end point.
• The end point is the point at which the acid is
exactly neutralized.

Titration Calculations
Do not use the
1. Write a balanced equation. dilution equation!
2. Write down what you know.
3. Write down what you are looking for.
4
4. Start with what you know (not where the question marks
are!)….also, don’t start with a number that has 2 sets of
units.
5. Use stoichiometry to determine moles of question mark
6. Determine the concentration of the question mark.

50

10.00 mL of an unknown H2CO3 solution is titrated

with 0.0500 M NaOH and it requires 15.76 mL to
reach the end point. What is the concentration of the
H2CO3?
H2CO3 + 2 NaOH Æ Na2CO3 + 2 H2O

51

Chapter 4 17
 Stoichiometry Flow Chart

52

Chapter 4 18