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ENGR 466 Fall 2003

Gas Dynamics and Boundary Layer Flow


Class Notes
Instructor: Dr. Jonathan Posner
jonathan.posner@stanford.edu
650.723.2171

c 2003 by Jonathan D. Posner, Ph.D.


°
Contents
1 Introduction 4
1.1 Classification of Fluid Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Basic Laws Governing Fluid Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Integral vs. Differential Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 A Brief Note on Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Fluid Conservation Equations 12


2.1 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 Differential Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Differential Analysis – Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 Ideal Flows 34
3.1 Stream Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Velocity Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4 Boundary Layers 39
4.1 Laminar Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Differential and Integral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Turbulent Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 Flow about Immersed Bodies 44


5.1 Lift and Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6 Introduction to Compressible Flows 49


6.1 Review of Relevant Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 Classification of Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.3 Stagnation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

7 Steady 1-D Compressible Flows 57


7.1 Isentropic Flow in Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.2 Real Nozzles and Diffusers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Normal Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.4 Wind Tunnels and Shock Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8 Fluid Machinery 72
8.1 Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.2 Performance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
ENGR 466 Class Notes CONTENTS

Definitions
Symbols
× cross product
∇ gradient operator (1/m)
· dot product
s scalar
m mass kg
~a acceleration vector (m/s2 )
~ = uî + v ĵ + wk̂ velocity vector (m/s)
U
U velocity magnitude |U ~ |(m/s)
p pressure (kPa)
ρ density (kg/m3 )
µ dynamic viscosity (kg/m · s)
ν = µ/ρ kinematic viscosity/momentum diffusion coeff. (m2 /s)
M molecular mass (g/mol)
T temperature (K)
H enthalpy (J)
h specific enthalpy (J/kg)
V volume (m3 )
ψ stream function (1)
φ potential function
N number of mols (mol)
E total energy (J)
e specific total energy J/kg
Q heat transfer (J/s W )
S entropy (J/S · K)
W work (J/s W )

Constants
NA Avogadro’s number 6.022E23 (#/mol)
RU universal gas constant k · NA = 8.314 (kj/kgmolK)
k Boltzmann constant 1.38E-23 (J/K)
1

1
units are mostly in SI units. Equations in notes are not always in units listed here.

Fall 2003 3 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of stress (force/area),
no matter how small. Figure 1 shows the deformation of a solid which deforms a fixed
amount for a given stress and a fluid which deforms continuously over all time for the
same stress. Examples of fluids are all gases and a large number of liquids: water, alco-
hol, oil, and mercury. Knowledge and understanding of fluid mechanics allow analysis of

t0 t∞ t0 t1 t2

(a) solid (a) fluid

Figure 1: Deformation of a solid and a liquid by a linear stress

of systems with fluids. All modes of transportation have fluid aspects: aerodynamics of
cars, boats, trains, submarines, the lift and drag on an airplane wing, combustion inside
an engine, to name a few. Our weather is dominated by fluid mechanics in the ocean
currents and the atmosphere. The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was due to
resonant forcing of the suspension by pressure forces from a von Karman vortex street.
Designers of power plants, architects of skyscrapers, and golfers all use fluid mechanics.
The oil and water industries rely on the concepts of pressure, or “head loss”, to spec-
ify pipes and the fluid machinery. Biomedical engineers use fluid mechanics to design
breathing aids, heart-lung machines, and artificial heart pumps and valves. Lubrication
theory is derived from fluid mechanics and is used to design virtually all bearings found
in rotating machinery. A modern application of fluid mechanics is its use in describing
bioanalytical microfluidic systems. This list of fluid systems is just a snapshot of the
large number of fluids applications. Clearly, this course, and these notes, will not at-
tempt to cover all of these fluid systems, but it is important to keep consider the wide
spread application of fluid mechanics.

What you should have studied before:


• Inviscid, incompressible flow (stream function, Bernoulli equation)

• Viscous flows (laminar and turbulent flow internal flows (pipes))

• Basic thermodynamics (laws, internal energy, entropy)

• Basic calculus (derivative, integral)


What this course is about:
• External viscous flows (boundary layers)

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

• Compressible flows (shockwaves, supersonic flows)

• Fluid machinery (pumps)


A note from the author: Important terms and concepts will be denoted by italics
or bold face fonts. If a term is highlighted in this way, please be familiar with it.

1.1 Classification of Fluid Motions


In this course we will be dealing with fluids as a continuum. The continuum assumption
states that each fluid property has a definite value at every point in space. Thus each
fluid property has a value of velocity, pressure, temperature, density, viscosity (not a
complete list) at each point in space x, y, z and time t.

δm
δV

δV’ δV

Figure 2: Property of fluid as differential volume increases. Concept of continuum.

If we choose density for example (kg/m3 ) we can define a fluid continuum density as
the the limit of the volume where the density stabilizes
δm
ρ≡ lim (1.1)
δV →δV 0 δV
Density is still a scalar and is generally a function of space and time

ρ = ρ(x, y, z, t)

For gases a fluid continuum is one in which the mean free path of molecules (10−7 m
the distance they travel before colliding with another molecule)is much smaller than
the characteristic dimension of the system under consideration. The Knudsen number
is a nondimensional number used to describe if a fluid problem can be treated as a
continuum
λ
Kn ≡
L

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

u u

(a) t (b) t

Figure 3: Laminar and turbulent flow structure. Velocity of flow as measure by a single
point in time. (a) laminar flow (b) turbulent flow and average velocity (dotted line)

where L is the characteristic length and λ is the molecular mean free path. The Knudsen
number must be much less than 1 to be considered a continuum.
In this course we will only be dealing with Newtonian fluids. A Newtonian fluid is one
which stress (N/m2 ) is linearly related to strain (1/s) through viscosity (N s/m2 )

du
τyx ∝
dy

where the subscripts y and x are the shear plane and velocity coordinate, respectively.
Some fluids pose a larger resistance to stress than others (such as honey to water). We
say they have higher viscosity.

The first division of fluid motions is inviscid versus viscous flows. Inviscid flows neglect
viscosity, µ = 0, and thus all terms that include viscosity can be dropped. Viscosity is
physically the diffusion of momentum in a fluid. Although fluids without viscosity do
not exist, there are many problems that can be solved accurately assuming negligible
viscosity. Inviscid flows do not require that the no-slip boundary condition to be met.
The no-slip condition is a common boundary condition for fluid problems. It describes
the fluid velocity near a solid boundary. The no-slip condition prescribes that the
velocity of the fluid immediately adjacent to the wall has the same velocity of the wall.
This is the basis of viscous flow and will be used extensively in boundary layer theory.
The concept of viscosity allows wakes and viscous drag on flow on immersed objects ot
be described.
Another classification of flows in incompressible versus compressible. Compressibility
refers to the change in density, ρ in space and time. If the material derivative of density
is zero, the flow is incompressible

Dρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
= + + + =0 (1.2)
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

In general compressible flows are only seen in gas flows because liquids are incompress-
ible (exceptions include cavitation and reactive flows with phase change). Compressible
gas flows are flows with considerable variations in pressure, temperature, or flows at

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

Continuum
Fluid Mechanics

Viscous Inviscid µ=0

Laminar Turbulent Incompressible Compressible


f(Re) ρ(T,p)
M>0.3

Incompressible Compressible
ρ(T,p)
M>0.3

Figure 4: Classification of fluid flows in continuum regime

velocities that approach the speed of sound, c. The Mach number is a nondimen-
sional number that describes the velocity of the fluid relative to the speed of sound in
the fluid,
U
M≡ (1.3)
c
flows that correspond to a Mach number less than M < 0.3 are incompressible.

Viscous flows have yet another classification, laminar versus turbulent. These flows
are described as laminar or turbulent based upon there flow structure. In the laminar
regime, flow structure is characterized by smooth motion in laminae or layers. Flow
structure in turbulent regime is characterized by random, three-dimensional motions
of fluid particles in addition to the mean motion. Turbulent flows are described by a
vortices of all different length scales. Turbulence is one of the last untamed frontiers of
applied physics and is the sole focus of a whole group of researchers.

1.2 Basic Laws Governing Fluid Motion


Fluid mechanics can be described by a few basic laws. These fundamental laws govern
fluid motion and are the basis of ones understanding of the subject:

1. Newton’s second law, conservation of momentum

2. Conservation of mass

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 5: Image of turbulent flow.

3. The 1st law of thermodynamics, Conservation of Energy

4. The 2nd law of thermodynamics

Although one may not need all of these laws for each fluid problem, these relations are
the basis of other formal relations the describe the physical behavior of fluids. These
laws are the same ones used in thermodynamics and solid mechanics, but they will be
formulated in such a way to describe fluid motion. When describing the fundamental
laws governing fluid systems, we must choose a way of describing a system. The most
common ways of describing a fluid systems are Lagrangian and Eulerian.

Conservation of mass, or the continuity equation as it is often called, states that the
mass of a closed system is fixed, Lagrangian description is given by

m = ρVsystem = const (1.4)


which can also be stated as
dm
)
dt system
=0 (1.5)

The first law of thermodynamics is conservation of energy. This means that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. The conservation of
energy cannot be proved mathematically, but no process in nature is known to have
violated the first law. From the first law we can draw two useful relations:

1. each closed system, fluid parcel, or control volume can be described by a total
energy, E (J).

2. the change in energy of an open system can be described by Ein − Eout = ∆E

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

3. the change in internal energy is the heat added to the system plus the work done
on the system, ∆E = ∆Q + ∆W or in differential form dE = dQ + dW .

The first law can be used to describe the flow of heat from a hot object to a cooler one,
i.e. a cup of hot coffee into a cool room, or the transfer of energy from a falling fluid
to paddle wheel to produce useful work. Although the first law describes the energy
balance of a system, it is not useful to determine if the the process will actually take
place. A cup of hot coffee will lose its heat to the room, but a cool room will never heat
up a cup of coffee. The second law of thermodynamics describes wether a process will
occur spontaneously and if it is reversible. A process will occur unless it satisfies both
the first and second law.

The second law of thermodynamics tracks the entropy of a system. Entropy is a


measure of useful work. Processes always occur in the direction of increasing entropy.
Entropy is often considered as a measure of disorder with higher disorder corresponding
with greater entropy. A simple example of entropy is ones home. It is much easier
to create disorder in your home then to clean it up. If the second law was not valid,
your house would clean itself up. The Clausius formulation of the second law (German
physicist R.J.E Clausius 1822-1888) states:

I
δQ
≤0 (1.6)
T

This holds true for any real process. Another way of stating the second law of thermo-
dynamics is with the use of entropy S (J/s · K),

I
δQ
≤ dS (1.7)
T

which states that the entropy of an irreversible system always increases. All physical
and real systems must obey both the first and second law of thermodynamics.

Example

A hot cup of coffee at temperature TH is sitting in a cool room with temperature TC .


TH > TC . Heat can transfer from the hot cup to the cool surroundings.
Assumption: (1) There are no losses and all the heat from the cup goes to the surround-
ings.

Fall 2003 9 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

dS

TH TC

dQ

first law
dE = 0
dE = −dQcup + dQroom = 0
dQcup = dQroom = dQ
the change entropy in the cup will be
−dQ
dSH =
TH
the change in entropy in the room will be
dQ
dSC =
TC
the total change in entropy is
µ ¶
TH − TC
dS = dSH + dSC = dQ
TC TH
since TH > TC
dS > 0

From this example we can see that the entropy of the system increases. If we write the
equations for the reverse process we can satisfy the first law, but not the second. Each
process in nature must satisfy both the first and second law.

1.3 Ideal Gas Law


Another equation that it useful in studying gas flows is the ideal gas equation for
perfect gases:

ρRU T
p= (1.8)
M
or pV = N RU T

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ENGR 466 Class Notes 1 INTRODUCTION

is an equation of state which describes the volume of a mole of gas as a function of


temperature and pressure. Where the universal gas constant RU (8.314kj/kgmolK) is
just the multiplication of two familiar constants

RU = k · NA

the Boltzmann constant (1.38 · 10−23 J/K) and Avogadro’s number (6.022 · 1023 #/mol).
As you can see from the ideal gas equation, the volume of a single mole of gas only
depends on it’s pressure and temperature and does not depend on its molecular weight
or composition. A single mole of gas at standard temperature and pressure (T =
273 K, P = 1 atm) has a volume of 22.4 liters.

Fluid Descriptions
Lagrangian method of description deals with fixed, identifiable element of mass. An
example of a lagrangian description is the application Newton’s second law on a single
particle with mass m. This example is shown in in Fox and McDonald (1.2)
Newton’s second law of motion says that the sum of all the forces acting on a system
is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration, a Lagrangian description is given by
X ~
dU d2~r
F~ = m~a = m =m 2 (1.9)
dt dt
Later, we will see that Newton’s second law is the basis for an equation that describes
fluid motion the momentum equation for fluids, Navier-Stokes equations.

One can also consider a fluid to be composed of a very large number of particles
whose motion must be described; keeping track of each fluid particle is a huge task.
If one considers the number of gas molecules at standard temperature and pressure
(T = 273 K, P = 1 atm) that are in a volume the size of your fist, it is a whop-
ping 9 · 102 1 molecules. Using a control volume to describe the bulk fluid motion, the
Eulerian method can be used to describe the property of a flow at a given point in space
as a function of time. In the Eulerian formulation the properties of the flow field are
described as functions of space and time.

1.4 Integral vs. Differential Analysis


In applying the basic laws to a system of interest we ca employ a differential or integral
approach. In differential approach we apply equation to an “infinitesimal” unit of fluid.
The result is a differential equation which can give continuous description of the behavior
of the system. In the integral formulation we are interested in the global behavior of
the system. The integral approach is often used in thermodynamics.

Fall 2003 11 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

The differential approach is most often used in the subsonic fluid systems while an
integral approach will be used for compressible flows.

1.5 A Brief Note on Dimensions


For this course the fundamental dimensions will be mass, length , time, and temperature
(MLtT). Force, acceleration, power, energy, etc are secondary dimensions and should
not be used in dimensional analysis. More detail can be found in section 1-6.

Example:

kg m
1N ≡ 1
s2

2 Fluid Conservation Equations


2.1 Conservation of Mass

dA
U

control surface (cs)

Figure 6: Depiction of control volume and control surface for mass continuity derivation.

The basic concept and equation of the conservation of mass (1.4) was introduced in the
last section. From the basic law expressed in equation 1.5 we can derive equations that
are more effective for fluid problems. In integral form, the mass of system is represented
by Z
m= ρdV (2.10)
V
Using an integral approach, we can consider the flow of mass (kg/s) across an area
Z
dm ~ · dA
~
ṁ = = ρU (2.11)
dt A

Fall 2003 12 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Conservation of mass for a fluid system is then

[mass out] - [mass in] + [mass storage] = 0

mass out - mass in is expressed in equation 2.11. The storage of mass in the system is
Z
ρdV
V
and the rate of increase of Zmass is

ρdV
∂t V

and thus the integral equation for conservation of mass becomes


Z Z
~ ~ ∂
ρU · dA + ρdV = 0 (2.12)
A ∂t V

Example
Air flows through a duct with variable area.
Assume there is no density variation between (1) and (2).
Find V2 as a function of V1 , A1 , A2 .

1
U

A1
A2

Using conservation of mass


Z Z
ρU ~+ ∂
~ · dA ρdV = 0
A ∂t V

and simplifying for steady state


Z Z ©
©
~ · dA
~+ ∂ ©
ρU © ρdV =0
A ∂t© V
©

Fall 2003 13 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

writing equation explicitly for mass flux in and out


Z Z
~ · dA
ρU ~− ~ · dA
ρU ~=0
A1 A2

for uniform velocity (not always a good assumption)

ρ1 U1 A1 − ρ2 U2 A2 = 0

and with algebraic arrangement


ρ1 A1
U2 = U1
ρ2 A2

2.1.1 Differential Approach


To apply this law to a fluid we can consider a differential volume of length dx, dy, dz
in cartesian coordinates. The density at the center of the volume is ρ and is gener-
ally a function of space ρ(x, y, z). The fluid velocity at the center of the volume is
~ = uî + v ĵ + wk̂.
U

y
control volume

dz
v
dy
u
w dx
x

Figure 7: Differential control volume in cartesian coordinates. The surfaces of the


volume make up the control surface.

The conservation of mass for a differential fluid volume can be written as,

[net rate of mass flux control surface] + [rate of change of mass inside control volume] = 0
(2.13)

Fall 2003 14 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

To evaluate the properties at each of the six faces on the control surface, we use a Taylor
series expansion about the center. For example, at the right face,
µ ¶ µ 2 ¶ µ ¶2
ρ )x+dx/2
=ρ+
∂ρ dx
∂x 2
+
∂ ρ 1 dx
∂x2 2! 2
+ ...

neglecting higher order terms


µ ¶
)
ρ
x+dx/2
=ρ+
∂ρ dx
∂x 2

The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface can be determined by summing
the mass flux out of each control surface face. For the right face the mass flux is
· ¸· ¸
∂u dx ∂ρ dx
u+ ρ+ dy dz
∂x 2 ∂x 2

Summing the mass fluxes through each of the six control surfaces (shown explicitly in
table (5.1) in Fox and McDonald) yields,
· ¸
∂ρu ∂ρv ∂ρw
+ + dx dy dz (2.14)
∂x ∂y ∂z
The mass in the control volume at anytime is the product of the mass per unit volume,
or density ρ, and the volume dx dy dz. The rate of change of mass in the volume is
∂ρ
dx dy dz (2.15)
∂t
Substituting equations 2.14 and 2.15 into equation 2.13 we get the conservation of mass
for a fluid in cartesian coordinates.
∂ρu ∂ρv ∂ρw ∂ρ
+ + + =0 (2.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Another, more compact way of writing this equation uses the vector operator ∇, called
“nabla”, which is defined as

∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
then,
~ =≡ ∂ρu + ∂ρv + ∂ρw
∇ · ρU
∂x ∂y ∂z
and the conservation equation 2.16 becomes

~ + ∂ρ = 0
∇ · ρU (2.17)
∂t

Fall 2003 15 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

For incompressible flow density is neither a function of time or space so the continuity
equation becomes
∇·U ~ =0 (2.18)
for steady flows ∂/∂t = 0 so the continuity equation becomes

~ =0
∇ · ρU (2.19)

Examples of using the continuity equation are given in Fox and McDonald (Ex 5.1 &
5.2). Similar relations can be derived for cylindrical and and spherical coordinates.

Fall 2003 16 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Example

ρ
U

x
Gas of initial density ρ0 in piston cylinder. The piston is initially at position x0 and
at t = 0 spontaneously outward at velocity U . The fluid velocity in the cylinder is one
dimensional and linear, zero at the fixed end x = 0 and u = U at the the piston surface.
Assume: Density is uniform in cylinder at all time.
Find: (1) u(x,t) (2) ρ(t) (3) rate of change of density at t = 0

Fall 2003 17 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

2.2 Conservation of Momentum


The movement of fluids are due to the applied forces or forces per unit area called
stress. Our goal is to develop mathematical equations to express Newton’s second law
of motion for a fluid using an Eulerian control volume approach. Newton’s second law
for a solid is
X d~u
F~ = m~a = m
dt
for a fluid we need to be concerned about the change of mass as a function of time also
so we write
X dm~u
F~ =
dt
the forces that act on the control volume are either body forces F~b or surface forces F~s .
Body forces are gravity (buoyancy), electrostatic, or magnetic forces. Surface forces are
pressure and viscous. The sum of external forces is
X
F~ = F~s + F~s

The momentum in the control volume is just the velocity multiplied by the mass (given
in equation 2.10) Z
U~ ρdV
V

the force is just its change in time


Z
∂ ~ ρdV
U (2.20)
∂t V

the rate at which momentum enters the CV through the control surface (CS) is just the
velocity multiplied by the mass flux (given in equation 2.14)
Z
~ ρU
U ~ · dA
~
A

setting the sum of the body and surface forces equal to the rate of change of the mo-
mentum in the CV plus the flux of momentum through the CS we get an expression for
the conservation of momentum for a fluid in a defined controlled volume
X Z Z
F~ = F~s + F~s = ~ ρU
U ~+ ∂
~ · dA ~ ρdV
U (2.21)
A ∂t V

Fall 2003 18 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Note: For the expression momentum flux expression


Z
U~ ρU
~ · dA
A

there are three dimensions, x, y, z


Z
~ · dA
uρU (2.22)
A
Z
~ · dA
vρU (2.23)
Z A

~ · dA
wρU (2.24)
A
(2.25)

~ in the x, y, z directions, respec-


where u, v, w are the scalar velocity components of U
tively. Evaluating the sign for real problems depends on the vector product U ~ · dA
~ for

dA U
y

~ is in the opposite direction as the area vector A


this case the vector of velocity U ~ so it
is negative. U is the magnitude of U ~ . For x-direction of momentum

uρU ~ · dA
~ = −u|ρU dA cos(α)| (2.26)
Z Z
~
uρU · dA = −u|ρU dA cos(α)| (2.27)
A A

to summarize U is the magnitude of U ~ written as U = |U ~ |. U is also related to the



~ = uî + v î + wk̂ by U = u2 + v 2 + w2
individual components of velocity U

External Forces
P~
The sum of the forces F are made up body forces and surface forces. Body forces
act equally everywhere in the CV (this is by design in of the CV) and are given by
Z
F~b = ~
BρdV
V

Fall 2003 19 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

where B~ is the body force per unit mass (m/s2 ), i.e. ~g is gravity (9.81 m/s2 ).
Surface forces can be shear stress or pressure forces. At first we will only consider
pressure forces Z
~
Fs = −pdA
A
keep in mind the note above that one must consider the direction of the applied force
relative to the CS vector and calculate the dot product. The momentum is a vector
equation and needs to be solved as three scalar equations.

Fall 2003 20 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Example

As

Rx

Find: horizontal support force, Rx


Given: from nozzle U~ = aî
Choice of CV changes how one formulates the problem:

Rx Rx

I II III

Assumptions:

1. steady flow

2. incompressible

3. uniform flow where fluid crosses CV

COMOM

Z Z
X ∂ ©©
F~ = F~s + F~s = ~ ~ ~
U ρU · dA + ©©~ ρdV
U
A ∂t©
© V
In this example we explore how no matter how we choose the CV the solution is the
same but approach changes. Remember that in applying the momentum equation the
force F~ represents all forces acting on the CV. We are concerned with the forces in the
x-direction, gravity ~g acts in the y-direction so Fbx = 0
CV I

Fall 2003 21 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Z
Fsx = ~ · dA
uρU ~
A

Fsx = pA )lef t
− pA ) right
+ Rx )
bottom
Fsx = Rx
Z
Rx = ~ · dA
uρU ~
A

fluid crossing top and bottom surfaces are moving in y-direction only, so for those
surfaces (top and bottom) uî = 0
Z Z Z
Rx = ~ ~
uρU · dA + ~ ~
0ρU · dA + ~ · dA
0ρU ~
Alef t Atop Abottom
Z
Rx = ~ · dA
uρU ~
Alef t
apply vector dot product
Rx = −u|ρU Alef t |
Rx = −ρa2 Alef t

CV II
Same as CV I but support acts on CV with force Rx
CV IIII
Surface forces are modified since the right side of the CV is not subject to atmospheric
pressure. We are now concerned with the force of the object the force impinges on Sx .
The surface forces become

Fsx = pA + Sx
Z
pA + Sx = uρU~ · dA
~
Alef t
Sx = −u|ρU Alef t | − pA

although this solution appears different we must consider the free body diagram of the
support itself. Here we consider the forces that the flat area experiences itself and apply
Newton’s second law. We solve for the force of the support that keeps the area in place
Rx
X
F~ = −Sx − pA + Rx = 0
Rx = Sx + pA
Rx = −u|ρU Alef t | − pA + pA
Rx = −u|ρU Alef t |

which gives us the same solution for the force on the support as CV I.

Fall 2003 22 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

y
-pA
Sx
Rx

Example II

y
2 3

In this example we consider a tank that is being filled from the top at 1. The fluid
escapes at 2 and 3 and is under the influence of gravity. If the tank is being weighed
how much does the scale read?
Find: How much does the scale read?
Given:
an empty tank weighs W
steady height of fluid L
area of global tank AT
~ 1 = −aĵ
U
A2 = A3
Assumptions:

1. steady flow

2. incompressible

3. uniform velocity at control volume boundaries

here we are concerned with the y-momentum because we want to determine the force
on the scale in the vertical direction

Fall 2003 23 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

COMOM

Z Z
X ∂ ©©
Fy = ©
© uρdV + ~ · dA
uρU ~
∂t
© © V A
X
Fy = Fsy + Fby
Fby = −ρgLAT − W
Fsy = pA − pA + Ry
X Z
Fy = = −ρLAT g − w + Ry = ~ · dA
vρU ~
A1
−ρLAT g − w + Ry = −v1 |ρU1 A1 |

but the remember that v1 = −a and U1 = v1 in this case, so the solution becomes for
the measured weight becomes

Ry = w + ρLAT g + ρa2 A1

Fall 2003 24 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

2.2.1 Conservation of Momentum Differential Analysis, Navier-Stokes Eqs.

In this section we will derive (not in its full glory) the Navier-Stokes equations, which is
the differential form of Newton’s second law for a fluid continuum. Before formulating
the effects of forces on the fluid motion (dynamics), we should consider the motion
of a fluid element, kinematics. Figure 2.2.1 shows an infinitesimal element of fluid
which can undergo a variety of motions. A fluid element can simply move through
translation or rotation and it can deform through linear and angular deformations. In
general, a fluid motion is a combination of translation, rotation, and linear and angular
deformation.

y y

(a) x (b) x
y y

(c) x (d) x
Figure 8: Pictorial representation of the components of fluid motion (a) translation (b)
rotation (c) angular deformation (d) linear deformation

Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field

As a first step in the ultimate goal of formulating the Navier-Stokes equations we will
consider a mathematical formulation of the acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity
~ =U
field, U ~ (x, y, z, t). The power of this description is that it will describe the entire
flow field in one equation. Since we are concerned with Newton’s second law, we are
looking for an expression that links the velocity field U ~ (x,y,z,t) with the second law
P~ ~
F = mdU /dt = m/veca. Simply stated, the problem is: Given the velocity field
~ =U
U ~ (x, y, z, t), find the acceleration of a fluid particle ~ap . Using figure 2.2.1

Fall 2003 25 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

y particle path

t t+dt

r r + dr

Figure 9: Motion of a fluid particle in a velocity field.

as a graphical guide we write

at time t ~ = x, y, z
X ~p
U ) t
~ (x, y, z, t)
=U

~ = x + dx, y + dy, z + dz
at time t + dt X ~ )
Up
~ (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, t + dt)
=U
t+dt

~
∂U ∂U~ ∂U ~ ∂U~
~p =
dU dx + dy + dz + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
~p
dU ~ dx ∂ U
∂U ~ dy ∂ U ~ ~ dt
∂U
~a = = + + dzdt +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z ∂t dt

where

dx dy dz
u= v= w=
dt dt dt
~
DU ∂U~ ∂U~ ∂U~ ~
∂U
= ~a = u +v +w + (2.28)
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z |{z}∂t
| {z }
convective local

We use the capital D/Dt to denote the substantial derivative. The first term of the
of equation 2.28 is the convective term. Physically the convective term deals with the
acceleration of a fluid particle as it convects from one region of the flow to the next.

Fall 2003 26 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

The local velocity, represented by the second term represents the change in velocity as
a function of time. The substantial derivative, also called a material derivative can be
written in a more compact manner using vector calculus notation:

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ + ∂U = u ∂U + v ∂U + w ∂U + ∂U
~ · ∇)U
(U
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
When using this equation it one must consider each component. The three components
are written explicitly as:
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
x u +v +w + (2.29)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
y u +v +w + (2.30)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
z u +v +w + (2.31)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

Fall 2003 27 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Example

x
U

x=0 x=L

Given: Steady, 1-D, incompressible flow through converging channel


³ ´
U~ = U1 1 + x î
L
Find: x component of acceleration of a fluid particle

Solution:
Start with full expression of particle acceleration in x-component
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
=u +v +w +
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

from given we know v = w = 0 and ∂/∂t = 0. The velocity field simplifies to


³ x´
u = U1 1 +
L
and the main equation can be simplified

∂u ∂u
¶ ∂u
¡ ∂u¶
u + v ¶ + w¡ + ¶
∂x ¶∂y ¡ ∂z ¶∂t

³ µ ¶
Du ∂u x ´ U1
=u = U1 1 +
Dt ∂x L L
U12 ³ x´
1+
L L

Fall 2003 28 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

y ∆ζ
b
∆y
∆η
o ∆x a

Figure 10: Rotation of a fluid element. ∆η/∆x = tan(∆α) and ∆ζ/∆y = tan(∆β)

Fluid Rotation
Rotation of a fluid is defined as the average angular velocity of two mutually perpen-
dicular line elements of a fluid element. Rotation is a vector quantity, ω
~ , and has three
components
ω
~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂
use the right-hand-rule to get the positive sign of rotation. Consider rotation in the
x − y plane ωz rotation of oa is due to variations of v in x-direction. Using Taylor Series
Expansion

∂v
v(o) = v0 and v = v0 + ∆x + HOT · · ·
∂x
∂v
∆η = [v − v(o)]∆t = ∆x∆t
∂x
so using an approximation for small angles the angular velocity of oa is

∆α ∆η/∆x
ωoa = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
∂v
ωoa =
∂x
following the same procedure for ob

∂u
u(o) = u0 and u = u0 + ∆y + HOT · · ·
∂y
∂u
−∆ζ = [u − u(o)]∆t = ∆y∆t
∂y
∆β ∆ζ/∆y
ωob = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
∂u
ωob = −
∂y

Fall 2003 29 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

from the definition of angular velocity


µ ¶
1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = − (2.32)
2 ∂x ∂y

and likewise µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂w ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w
ωx = − , ωy = − (2.33)
2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z ∂x
and the angular velocity vector in all its glory is
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂w ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w 1 ∂v ∂u
~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂ =
ω − î + − ĵ + − k̂ (2.34)
2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z ∂x 2 ∂x ∂y

which can be written using vector notation as


1 ~
ω
~ = ∇×U (2.35)
2

Fall 2003 30 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Example
Given: Flow Field with tangential motion only Ur , Uθ = f (r)
Find: Rotation of fluid for rigid-body rotation
Solution: Using equation for rotation in cylindrical coordinates (equation 5.16)
µ ¶
1 1 ∂rUθ 1 ∂Ur
ωz = −
2 r ∂r r ∂θ

the equation for solid-body rotation is simply Ur = ωr. through differentiation and
simplification (show this yourself) we get
1
ωz = (2ωr) = ω
2r
what if Uθ = C/r? (this is called a free vortex) show that ωz = 0.

Fall 2003 31 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

Angular Deformation
Angular deformation of a fluid element involves changes in the angle between two mu-
tually perpendicular line segments We can see that the rate of angular deformation of

y ∆ζ
b
∆y
∆η
o ∆x a

x
Figure 11: Angular deformation of a fluid element. ∆η/∆x = tan(∆α) and ∆ζ/∆y =
tan(∆β)

a fluid element in the xy-plane is the rate of decrease of the angle between oa and ob.

∆α + ∆β
lim
∆t→0 ∆t
∆α ∆η/∆x ∂v
lim = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∂x
and for ob
∆β ∆ζ/∆y ∂u
lim = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∂y

and the thus the angular deformation in the xy-plane is

∂u ∂v
+
∂y ∂x

The shear stress is related to the rate of angular deformation through fluid viscosity.
The presence of viscous forces means the flow is rotational. From the above formulations
we can observe something very fundamental to the study of fluid mechanics, namely,
shear stress in a fluid system is due to velocity gradients (not velocity) and diffuses
momentum through viscosity

Linear Deformation
Linear deformation is described by a change in shape of a fluid element where the
angles at the vertices remains unchanged, see figure 8. The element may change length,
height, or width depending on the linear velocity gradients ∂u/∂x, ∂v/∂y, ∂w/∂z. Linear
deformation is the change in the shape without change in volume and has the same

Fall 2003 32 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 2 FLUID CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

expression as the conservation of mass for an incompressible fluid, equation 2.18.

~ =≡ ∂u ∂v ∂w
∇·U + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Navier-Stokes Equations
Here we will bring together all of the forces on a fluid element to derive an equation
describing it’s motion using Newton’s second law. Having found the acceleration of a
fluid element of a fluid element moving in a velocity field we can write Newton’s second
law as
" # Ã !
D ~
U ∂ ~
U ∂ ~
U ∂ ~
U ∂ ~
U ∂ ~
U
dF~ = dm = dm (U ~ · ∇)U
~ + = dm u +v +w +
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
now we have to consider the forces that act on the fluid element. Figure 12 shows arrows
for each fluid stress. The stresses are broken into normal and tangential components.
for the x-direction the sum of the forces are

4
3 1
5

v
6
u x
w

Figure 12: Stresses on a fluid element.


µ ¶ µ ¶
∂σxx dx ∂σxx dx
dFsx = σxx + dydz − σxx − dydz
∂x 2 ∂x 2
| {z } | {z }
1 3
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂τyx dy ∂τyx dy
+ τyx + dxdz − τyx − dxdz
∂y 2 ∂y 2
| {z } | {z }
2 6
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂τzx dz ∂τzx dz
+ τzx + dxdy − τzx − dxdy
∂z 2 ∂z 2
| {z } | {z }
5 4

Fall 2003 33 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 3 IDEAL FLOWS

3 Ideal Flows

A large number of external flows can be treated as viscous flows near the solid bound-
ary and inviscid outside the boundary layer. Flows in which both viscosity and
compressibility are negligible are called ideal flows. The next sections will describe two
functions that are used to describe ideal flows. The mathematics of ideal flows allows
the velocity of pressure distributions. In this text only the two-dimensional functions
will be presented.

3.1 Stream Function

The stream function is a mathematical construct that satisfies both continuity (mass
~ ) and irrotationallity (∇ × U
conservation, ∇ · U ~ = 0). Graphically, the stream function
represents the streamlines of an inviscid, incompressible flow. If we consider a line that
is every where tangent to the local and instantaneous velocity vector,as shown in fig-
ure 3.1, we can write

dy v
=
dx u
which can also be written as
dy dx
= (3.36)
v u

Equation 3.36 equates the slope of the streamline with the local velocity vector.

x
Figure 13: Velocity streamline with local tangent vectors.

Fall 2003 34 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 3 IDEAL FLOWS

From conservation of mass we can write,

∇·U~ = 0
~ (x, y), ∂u + ∂v = 0
for U
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
(u) + (v) = 0
∂x ∂y
(3.37)

by introducing a function ψ(x, y) such that it immediately satisfies equation 3.37, we


can define it as,
∂ψ ∂ψ
u≡ v≡− (3.38)
∂y ∂x
substituting into 3.37,

∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
( )− ( )=0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
we see that by our choice of the stream function we automatically satisfy mass conser-
vation. The stream function is solenoidal.
In our construction of the stream function we have prescribed that it should also be
irrotational, namely ∇ × U~ = 0. For a two dimensional flow in cartesian coordinates
the vorticity is,

~ (x, y) = 0 = ∂v ∂u
∇×U − (3.39)
∂x ∂y
substituting 3.38 (3.40)
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y 2
which is the Laplacian of ψ
∇2 ψ = 0 (3.41)

For the arguments above we know that the stream function is both conservative and
irrotational. To better understand what the stream function means physcially we can
consider the function for lines of constant ψ(x, y) = c. The function for lines of constant
ψ(x, y) can be determined by the definition of the derivative,
∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ = dx + dy = 0 (3.42)
∂x ∂y
substituting equation 3.38 (3.43)
0 = −vdx + udy or
dy dx
= (3.44)
v u
which identical to equation 3.36 (3.45)

Fall 2003 35 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 3 IDEAL FLOWS

y
a ψ1
a(x1,y1)
ψ2 b(x2,y2)
c
b ψ2 c(x3,y3)
d d(x4,y4)

x
Figure 14: Plot of constant stream function, flow across ab,bc,cd are all equal.

Thus the stream function is everywhere tangent to the local velocity vector! The lines of
constant stream function are the stream lines for an incompressible and irrotational flow
field. From the definition of the stream function we see that there is no flow across a
streamline since the velocity is always tangent to the local vector. Figure 3.1 shows a few
stream lines, each representing constant ψ. From the definition of the stream function
the flow across ab,bc,cd are all equal. The volume flow rate Q between ψ1 andψ2 can be
evaluated by integrating. From ab the flow rate is,
Z y2 Z y2
∂ψ
Q= udy = dy (3.46)
y1 y1 ∂y
and since x is constant along ab, from 3.42
∂ψ
dψ = dy
∂y
so,
Z y2 Z ψ2
∂ψ
Q= dy = dψ = ψ2 − ψ1 (3.47)
y1 ∂y ψ1

The flow across bc is


Z x2 Z x2
∂ψ
Q= vdx = dx − (3.48)
x1 x1 ∂x
and since y is constant along bc, from 3.42
∂ψ
dψ = dx
∂x
so,
Z x2 Z ψ2
∂ψ
Q= − dx = dψ = ψ2 − ψ1 (3.49)
x1 ∂x ψ1

Fall 2003 36 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 3 IDEAL FLOWS

This proves that the flow rate between any two streamlines can be written as the dif-
ference between the constant values of ψ. From the definition of u in terms of ψ, it is
clear that u is in the positive x direction when ψ increases with y.

3.2 Velocity Potential


The velocity potential is another mathematical construct that is used to visualize fluid
flows. The potential, φ, is everywhere orthogonal to the stream function,

φ⊥ψ (3.50)

The slopes of constant ψ lines are the negative reciprocal of constant φ (compare to
equation 3.38),

dy u
=− (3.51)
dx v
∂φ ∂φ
u= v=
∂x ∂y

substituting the potential equation into the irrotational condition (3.39) we obtain,

∇×U ~ =0
∂v ∂u ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ
− = ( )− ( )=0 (3.52)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
and in continuity

∇·U ~ =0
~ = ∂u + ∂v = ∂2φ
2
∂ φ
∇·U + 2 =0
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y
By constructing the stream function and the potential function the way we did, they
both satisfy continuity and the irrotational condition. The functions are orthogonal to
each other and can be used to visualize incompressible, inviscid flows. These functions
can also be used to calculate the pressure distribution in conjunction with the Bernoulli
equation.

Fall 2003 37 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 3 IDEAL FLOWS

3.3 Example
Problem: Given the velocity field U ~ = Axî − Ay ĵ, with A = 10s−1 , determine the
stream function that will yield this velocity field.

Solution: We can start to attack this problem by looking at the individual components
of velocity u and v,
u = Ax v = −Ay
and the definition of the velocities in respect to the stream function 3.38. If we want to
get ψ(x, y) then we can try to integrate ∂ψ/∂y
Z Z
∂ψ
ψ= dy + f (x) = udy + f (x)
∂y
Z
ψ = Axdy + f (x) = Axy + f (x) (3.53)
then we differentiate in respect to x to use the information from v
∂ψ df
= Ay +
∂x dx
∂ψ
from definition = −v
∂x
∂ψ df
= −v = Ay +
∂x dx
thus df /dx = 0, f (x) = C that we set to 0
the stream function then becomes,
ψ(x, y) = Axy (3.54)

Using MATLAB the plot for constant ψ can be plotted as shown in figure 3.3. This
plot represents the streamlines for inviscid, incompressible flow in a corner.

Fall 2003 38 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu


ENGR 466 Class Notes 4 BOUNDARY LAYERS

10

8 9
9

8 7

7
6
ψ3
6
5
ψ2
5
y

ψ1 4
4
3
3
2

2
1
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x

Figure 15: Streamlines of constant ψ plotted for function ψ(x, y) = Axy, A = 10

4 Boundary Layers

Fall 2003 39 Instructor: jonathan.posner@stanford.edu

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