ICS 2105 – DSA
Be easy to read and understand (comments,
Introduction
Data is raw fact(s). Data can be processed to
information. This information can be used for
information making. Data is essential in taking action
or an informed decision. There are many sources of
information and a piece of information may be
generated from multiple resources.
It is important that there be flexibility in the ways that
data items can be aggregated and summarized so that
meaningful information can be produced to support
decision making. This is the essence of data structures
and algorithms.
Data elements in an organization may have resulted
from actions taken by forces or bodies external to the
organizations. The data resource must support several
types of decision-making.
There are three main decision types
1. Operational – day to day running of the
organization
2. Tactical/control – the mission of the
organization
3. Strategic/planning – long term plan
Data Management
Data is expensive and important. They must be
managed in such a way that they are correct and
available to produce the needed information.
Aspects of Data Handling
The aspects of data handling include the following
1. Measurement
2. Collection
3. Transcription (translate to a form that can be
understood)
4. Validation
5. Organization (putting related data together)
6. Storage (hold the data for future reference)
7. Aggregation (summing up, creating
summaries, obtaining totals)
8. Update (keeping track of changes to ensure
that data is in the correct current state)
9. Retrieval
10. Protection against loss, unauthorized access,
theft
Objectives of Data Management systems
- To make data resources resilient (stable,
unchanged, can withstand damage)
- It must be flexible and adaptable to support
an organizations decision making processes
There are 4 useful guidelines for a Data
Management System
1. Data must be represented (place in a specific
form) and stored so that they can be
accessed later.
2. Data must be organized so that they can be
selectively and efficiently accessed.
3. Data must be processed and presented so
that they support the user environment
effectively.
4. Data must be protected and managed so that
they retain their values.
Data Structures
A data structure is an organized collection of data plus
all its allowed operations.
Data type – a possible set of data and its allowed
operations.
Programming Structures
Good Program must have the following properties:
1. Runs correctly, in accordance with
specifications.
2. Runs efficiently making good use of memory
and runs fast.
3.
proper naming and naming conventions and
indentation).
4. Be easy to debug by subdividing the program
into manageable chunks (blocks) and avoid
the use of unplanned pointers and global
variables.
5. The program should also be easy to modify
such as the creation of documentation,
modularization (ease in replacing problematic
modules).
Programming Strategies
It is necessary to have formal ways of constructing a
program so that it can be built efficiently and reliably.
This can be done by decomposing a program into
small modules, that can themselves be written and
tested before being incorporated into larger modules
which are in turn constructed and tested.
Advantages of Modularization
1. Addresses problem complexities, ease of
understanding.
2. Ease of reading and understanding
3. Testing is easy
4. Maintenance is cheap and fast
We need a formal basis for partitioning our large tasks
into smaller ones. The notion of abstraction is very
useful. Abstractions are high-level views of objects or
functions which enable us to forget about the low level
details and concentrate on the problem at hand.
There are two important forms of abstraction:
1. Functional abstraction
2. Structural abstraction
Functional Abstraction
In this form we specify functions for our modules e.g.
this module will sort the items in its input stream into
ascending order based on an ordering rules for the
items and place them on its output stream. At this point
we are not concerned with how the sort is performed
but simply that output is sorted according to the
ordering rule.
Structural Abstraction
This is better known as object orientation. We
construct software models from the behavior of real
world objects.
Terms and concepts in OOP
Abstract Data Types
These are data types whose properties (Domain and
operations) are specified independently of any other
implementation.
Composite Data Types
These are ADT’s that contain component elements
(logical arrangement of data elements and a set of
operations needed to access the data elements).
Primitive Data Types
***
Constructors
This is a member function of a class that does the
following:
1. To allocate memory for the object
2. To initialize non - static members of a class
Destructors
This is a member function that reallocates memory
space, which is done automatically.
Methods
These are clear sequences or steps of instructions
taken to accomplish a particular task.
An algorithm is the description of the work to be done.
Pre and Post Conditions
Pre-conditions define the state of the program which
the client guarantees will be true before calling any
methods. These are conditions that must be satisfied
before a procedure (method) is executed.
A post-condition defines the state of the program that
the object methods will guarantee to create for you
when it returns.
Template Functions
These are special constructs that allow the user to
create generic data types.
Error Handling
No program or program fragment can be considered
complete until appropriate error handling has been
added to avoid unexpected program failures and
disasters.
If errors aren’t processed correctly the program cannot
guarantee the expected result. In case of an error that
program cannot sensibly continue. The program must
thus be able to die gracefully. This is done by informing
the user of the error and saving the state of the
program at the point prior to the error.
Algorithms
This is a finite collection of precise instructions to
perform a certain task, in a finite amount of time and
with a finite amount of resources.
An algorithm can be given in many ways e.g. It could
be written down in English or any other natural
language.
We are interested in algorithms that have been
precisely specified using mathematical formalism. E.g.
Programming languages.
In order to learn more about algorithms we analyze it
i.e. we study the specification of the algorithm and to
draw conclusion about how the implementation of that
algorithm (program) will perform in general.
We analyze the following:
1. Run time of a program as a function of its
input.
2. Determine the total/maximum memory space
needed for program data.
3. Determine the total size of the program code.
4. Determine whether the program correctly
computes the desired results.
5. Determine the complexity of the program.
6. Determine the robustness of the program.
The primary concern of algorithm analysis is the
running time. There are many factors that affect the
running time of any program. They include
1. Hardware – processor used, memory
available
2. Programming language in which the algorithm
is written
3. The language compiler/interpretor used.
4. The computer’s operating system.
Symbols used: -
These symbols have mathematically precise symbols.
They are used to evaluate and concisely describe the
performance of an algorithm in time and space.
1. Big O. This is the upper bound of a function.
Incase of algorithm analysis, we use this to
bind the worst case running time or the
longest running time possible for any inputs of
size n. The maximum runtime of the algorithm
is in the order of Big O.
2. Omega Ω (Upper Case). This is also the
order of growth but is the opposite of Big O. It
is the lower bound face of a function. The
 minimum runtime of an algorithm is in the
order of Omega.
3. Beta β. This is the rate of growth, compound
of Big O and Omega.
4. Little o
5. Omega ω (Lower Case)
Complexity Classes
1. Class I – Constant time. This is where the
running time of the algorithm does not depend
on the value of n.
2. Log*n
3. Logn n – Logarithmic time. A common
application of this is used binary search.
Every time one goes through the recursions
the problem is reduced in half.
4. n – Linear time. The running time of the
algorithm a is the proportional value of n.
5. n*Log(n).
6. n2 – Quadratic time. An increase in the input
directly affects the input, causing it to double
or even triplicate.
7. na – Polynomial
8. 2n, 10 n, a n – Exponential time
9. n! – Factorial time
Summations
Summations are used as a mathematical tool to help
analyze the running time of algorithms. In most cases,
algorithms are completed through the repetition of
simple actions or by incursion.
In order to anayse the time taken by looping programs
we have to deal with summations as one must sum the
time taken in various iterations.
There are a number of ways to deal with summations:
1. Rough binding. Using this method, we bind Write a program to output C++Program
each time by something simple to make the
summation manageable. The size of an array must be known before program
2. Exact computation. In this method we have execution.
to compute the exact numerical value for the The main advantage of an array data structure is
summation. the ease of access. They have direct
3. Induction. This can be used to prove some correspondence with memory systems in all
statements. Induction with respect to a, computer systems.
parameter n. We assume that the statement
is true up to but not including n. Thus we can There exists 2 or more dimensional arrays.
verify the statement for n.
4. Telescoping series. Telescoping is a series e.g.
where each term can be expressed as a int store[4][3];
difference in such a way that most of the
terms cancel each other out. The disadvantage of arrays is the fact that the size
5. Comparison with an integral. must be known.
Elementary Data Structures Linked List
Arrays
These are a fixed number of data items that are stored diagram
contiguously and are accessible by an index. We refer
to the first element of an array a by a[i]. It is the The main advantage of linked list over an array is
responsibility of a program to store something that the link list can grow and shrink in size during
meaningful in an array position a [ i ] by referring to it. their lifetime. They provide flexibility in allowing the
items to be rearranged.
e.g.
#include <iostream> A linked list is a set of items arranged or organized
#define n 10 sequentially, just like in arrays. In an array, the
int main () sequential organization is provided by the position of
{ the array.
int marks [n];
for(int i=0; i<n; i++) In a linked list we use explicit arrangements in which
{ each item is a part of a node that contains a link to the
cout<<”Enter Element”<<i++; next node.
cin>>marks[ i ];
} In the above diagram, it shows a linked list with items
return 0; represented by letters. The nodes are represented by
} circles and the arrow represents the link. The head
points to the first node of the list. The main purpose of
Exercise the dummy nodes is to allow for certain operations to
be executed, especially those involving the first and
last node.
The explicit representation of the ordering allows
certain operations to be performed much more
efficiently than would be possible for arrays. Some
operations are made possible e.g. moving ‘s’ to the
beginning of the array, which would involve moving all
the elements in the array.
- To the item after
The cost of providing this extra capability is doubling
the number of links on manipulation of operations.
Stacks
A stack is an abstract data type in which elements are
added and removed from only one end, a last in or first
out structure (LIFO).
1. Enqueue – places an element value onto the
queue (at the back of the queue).
2. Dequeue – removes an element from the
queue (from the front of the queue).
Enqueue consists of the following actions:
- Identification of the array element
that is at the back of the queue.
- Placing an element onto the queue.

The disadvantage of linked list is the access time At logical level a stack is an ordered group of Disadvantage of Queues and Stacks
taken. homogeneous items or elements, occurring in a Their sizes must be known prior to implementation of
particular sequence, organized according to how long\ actions.
e.g. they have been on the stack.
struct node
{ Because elements are only added and removed from
int key; the top of the stack, the last element to be added to it
struct node*next; is the first to be removed.
};
struct node* head*E; Stack operations
head = new node; 1. Push – this is an operation hat adds an
Z = new node; element to the top of the stack.
Head ->next = Z; 2. Pop – this is an operation that removes an
element from the top of the stack.
Inserting an element in a linked list 3. Top – this is an operation that returns a copy
- Create the node of the top element, without removing it from
- Make it point to the next/previous item the stack.
- Destroy the existing link 4. Makeempty – this operation sets the stack to
empty, and when one needs to use a stack it
Exercise must be empty.
Create a list with 5 elements 5. Isempty – this is an operations that is used to
tell whether a stack contains any elements
Types of linked lists before we pop it.
1. Circular linked lists. These are sometimes 6. Isfull – this is an operation that is used to test
used as an alternative for having damaged whether a stack is full before pushing.
nodes.
2. Double linked lists. It makes it possible to find Queues
the item before *** by using double linked list These are sequential organizations of data. Data is
in which we maintain 2 links on each node: - accessible using first in first out order (FIFO).
- To the item before
Trees
A tree is an empty collection of vertices and edges that
satisfy certain requirements.
A vertex is a simple object that has a name and
carries associated information. An edge is a
connection between two vertices.
A path in a tree is a list of distinct vertices in which
successive vertices are connected by edges in the
tree.
One node in the tree is designated as the root. The
defining property of a tree is that there is exactly one
path between the route and each of the other nodes in
the tree. If there is more than one route between the
route and some node then we have a graph.
Each node has exactly one node above it. The
nodes directly below a node are called child/children.
Nodes without children are sometimes called leaves
or terminal nodes.
We refer to unterminal nodes e.g. D as iternal nodes.
Any node is the root of a sub tree consisting of it and
nodes below it. A set of trees is called a forest.
An ordered tree
Sometimes the way in which the children of each node
are ordered is significant. An ordered tree is one in
which the order of the children at any node is A binary tree could be empty, consisting of no internal
specific. nodes and external nodes. A full binary tree is one in
which internal nodes completely fill every level except
Levels probably the last.
The level of a node is the number of nodes on the
path, from the nodes of the roots, not including itself. Applications of trees
Tree traversals – visiting elements of a tree.
Height Traversal tree
The height of the tree is the maximum level among all To traverse a tree is to systematically visit every node.
the nodes in the tree. There are a number of methods for traversing a tree.
Path length 1. Pre-order (ABC)
This is the sum of all the levels.
Multi-way
If each node must have a specific number of children
appearing in a specific order, then we have a multi-way 2. Post-order
tree. (BCA)
A multi-way tree is appropriate to define special 3. In order
external nodes which have no children. They are called (BAC)
dummy nodes.
The simplest type of the multi-way tree is the binary
tree. A binary tree is an ordered tree consisting of 2
types of nodes;
1. External nodes with no children
2. Internal nodes with exactly two children
Example 2 of Pre-order traversing

Algorithms
1. Pre-order transversal
This order is defined by the recursive rule.
Step1: Visit the root, then visit the left sub-tree
Step2: Then visit the right sub-tree

Pre-order of binary tree

PMSAALERTEE

2. In order transversal
Step1: Visit the left sub-tree
Step2: Visit the root
Step3: Visit the right sub-tree

In-order binary tree

ASAMPLETREE

3. Post-order transversal
Step1: Visit the left sub-tree
Step2: Visit the right sub-tree
Step3: Visit the root

Post-order for binary tree

AASQMTEERELP

Construct a perse tree

(A+B)*C+(D+E)