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Note
Whilst the materials considered are metals, the concepts of stress, strain, deformation,
hardness, brittleness and ductility discussed below apply across the full materials
spectrum, including polymers and ceramics.
Stress
When a material is subjected to an external force, it will either totally comply with that
force and be pushed away, like a liquid or powder, or it will set up internal forces to
oppose those applied from outside. Solid materials generally act rather like a spring –
when stretched or compressed, the internal forces come into play, as is easily seen when
the spring is released.
An important aspect is not so much the size of the force, as how much force is applied
per unit of cross-sectional area. The term ‘stress’, symbol σ (Greek letter sigma), is used
for the force per unit area, and has the units of pascals (Pa) with 1Pa being one newton
per square metre.
Because the reference area is so large, it is normally necessary to use high multiples such
as the megapascal (MPa = 106 Pa) and gigapascal (GPa = 109 Pa). However, when we
bear in mind that, in electronics, the area over which forces are applied is generally very
much smaller, it is useful to keep in mind that one MPa is equivalent to a force of 1
newton applied on a square millimetre of area.
[back to top]
Strain
A material in tension or compression changes in length, and the change in length
compared to the original length is referred to as the ‘strain’, symbol1 ε (Greek letter
epsilon). Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units and is frequently expressed
as a percentage: a strain of 0.005 corresponds to a ½% change of the original length.
1
In some texts you may find η (Greek letter eta) used.
Hooke’s Law
As you know from a spring, if you gradually stretch it, the force needed increases, but the
material springs back to its original shape when the force is released. Materials which
react in the same way as a spring are said to be ‘elastic’. Typically if we measure the
extension of different forces and plot the graph of this, we will find that the extension is
proportional to the force applied. Materials that obey Hooke’s Law exhibit a linear
relationship between the strain and the applied stress (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Stress-strain graph for an elastic solid
Many metals follow Hooke’s Law until a certain level of stress has been applied, after
which the material will distort more severely. The point at which straight line behaviour
ceases is called the limit of proportionality: beyond this the material will not spring
back to its original shape, and is said to exhibit some plastic behaviour (Figure 2). The
stress at which the material starts to exhibit permanent deformation is called the elastic
limit or yield point.
As Figure 2 shows, if the stress is increased beyond the yield point the sample will
eventually break. The term (ultimate) tensile strength is used for the maximum value of
tensile stress that a material can withstand without breaking, and is calculated at the
maximum tensile force divided by the original cross-sectional area.
Note that there may be substantial differences between the stress at the yield point and on
breaking – for example, one source quotes the ‘ultimate tensile strength’ for AISI304
stainless steel as 505 MPa, and the ‘yield tensile strength’ as 215 MPa. For most
engineering purposes, metals are regarded as having failed once they have yielded, and
are normally loaded at well below the yield point.
With some materials, including mild steel, the stress/strain graph shows a noticeable dip
beyond the elastic limit, where the strain (the effect of the load) increases without any
need to increase the load. The material is said to have ‘yielded’, and the point at which
this occurs is the yield point. Materials such as aluminium alloys on the other hand don’t
show a noticeable yield point, and it is usual to specify a ‘proof’ test. As shown in Figure
3, the 0.2% proof strength is obtained by drawing a line parallel to the straight line part
of the graph, but starting at a strain of 0.2%.
You are designing a part with a retention clip which has to spring into place after being
pressed into position. By making reference to their stress-strain curves, explain why you
would expect steel to be a better choice than aluminium for this application.
go to solution
Young’s modulus
As you will appreciate from the shapes of Figure 2 and Figure 3, the slope of the
stress/strain graph varies with stress, so we generally take only the slope of the initial
straight-line portion. The stress/strain ratio is referred to as the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s Modulus. The units are those of stress, since strain has no units. Engineering
materials frequently have a modulus of the order of 109Pa, which is usually expressed as
GPa. Some approximate figures for typical electronic materials are given in Table 1.
Quote
Stress is what happens to you from outside; strain is what you feel. Engineers should
never say that ‘they feel stressed’, even if they have reached their yield point!
Compression
The compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that a material can
withstand without being crushed. Both strengths have the same unit as stress, and are
typically millions of Pa. For most engineering materials, Young’s Modulus is the same in
compression as in tension.
Hardness
Hardness is another measure of the ability of a material to be deformed. There are many
different tests for this, but all measure the resistance of a material to indentation, applying
a known force to a tool of defined radius which is very much harder than the material
being tested. Empirical hardness numbers are calculated from measurements of the
dimensions of the indentation.
2 As with many standard tests, the units used are American! We have kept kgf to help
you gauge the magnitude of the force involved: 1 ‘kilogramforce’ = 9.81N.
For metal measurements, there are alternative Rockwell tests, with different test heads
and different loads. You will also find Brinell hardness numbers (BHN), derived from a
test which uses a 10mm tungsten carbide ball. Brinell testing is sometimes preferred as it
covers a wider hardness range than the Rockwell tests.
There is unfortunately little correlation between different hardness tests, but there is
reasonable correlation between the hardness results and the tensile strength, at least for
given families of alloys. Note that the correlation is to tensile strength rather than yield
strength, because plastic deformation takes place during the hardness measurement.
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Shear strength
Subjected to forces which cause it to twist, or one face to slide relative to an opposite
face, a material is said to be in shear (Figure 5). Compared to tensile and compressive
stress and strain, the shear forces act over an area which is in line with the forces.
Figure 5: Shear stress applied to an object
The force per unit area is referred to as the shear stress, denoted by the symbol τ (Greek
letter tau), where
Its unit is the pascal (Pa), where force is measured in newtons (N) and area in square
metres.
When shear stress is applied, there will be an angular change in dimension, just as there is
a change in length when materials are under tension or compression. Shear strain,
denoted by the symbol γ (Greek letter gamma), is defined by
where the angular deformation, symbol φ (Greek letter phi) is expressed in radians. The
last approximate equality results from the fact that the tangent of a small angle is almost
the same as the angle expressed in radians. This is the reason why some texts give the
radian as the unit of strain. Both shear strain and angular deformation are ratios, so have
no units. However, it is not unusual for shear strain to be quoted in %, as with tensile
strain.
Shear stresses are most evident where lap joints are fastened together and forces applied
to pull them apart, but are also seen when rods are twisted, or laminated boards bent.
The shear strength of a material is the maximum stress that it can withstand in shear
before failure occurs. For example, punching, cropping and guillotining all apply shear
stresses of more than the maximum shear stress for that material.
As with Hooke’s Law for tensile stress, most metals have a shear stress which is
proportional to the shear strain. And in a similar way to Young’s modulus, the gradient of
the graph is referred to as the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. Again the SI unit3
for shear modulus is the pascal (Pa).
3 You are very likely to find Young’s modulus and shear modulus quoted in psi (pounds
force per square inch) or kpsi (thousands of psi). To convert to MPa, multiply the figure
in kpsi by 6.89. Watch the units! You should also expect there to be very wide variations
in the figures quoted, as these depend critically on alloy composition and work hardening
(for metals), on purity (for ceramics) and on formulation (for polymers).
Table 2: Shear strength and shear modulus for selected materials
material shear strength MPa modulus of rigidity GPa
96% alumina 330
304 stainless steel 186 73
copper 42 44
aluminium 30 26
Sn63 solder 28 6
epoxy resin 10 – 40
Hybrid microcircuits are typically made on a substrate of 96% alumina. How would you
expect their mechanical characteristics, such as strength and hardness, to differ from
equivalent circuits made on an FR-4 laminate?
go to solution
Stiffness
The stiffness of a material is an important aspect of PCB design, being the ability of the
material to resist bending. When a board is bent, one surface stretches and the inside of
the radius is compressed. The more a material bends, the more the outer surface stretches
and the internal surface contracts. A stiff material is one that gives a relatively small
change in length when subject to tension or compression, in other words, a small value of
strain/stress.
However, on the basis that stiff = good, a natural feeling that this should be a larger
figure means that we actually quote the ratio of stress/strain. So a stiff material has a high
value of Young’s modulus. From Table 1 you will be aware of the very wide range of
properties in electronic materials. Note that the metals in this list are much stiffer than
polymers, but well below the stiffness of a typical ceramic. However, this stiffness is
accompanied by extreme brittleness. One of the features of a metal is that it is unlikely to
shatter, as would a piece of glass or ceramic, but it will show permanent deformation
when forces are applied – ask any car body shop!
Elongation
The stress-strain graph of a brittle material (Figure 6) shows that very little plastic
deformation occurs before the point at which the stress is sufficient to induce failure. A
brittle test piece after fracture will be almost the same length as it started. However, a
‘ductile’ material, such as copper will stretch a great deal before it finally breaks. Try
stretching a piece of copper wire, and you will know that it stretches by 10-20% before
the weakest point in the wire ‘necks’ and the wire breaks. The percentage elongation of
a material is used as a measure of its ductility.
Explain why it is important for an FR-4 laminate that glass-reinforced epoxy has a
Young’s Modulus less than that of solder and that copper is a ductile material.
go to solution
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An explanation of yield and deformation
The block slip model (Figure 7) is used to explain the elastic and plastic behaviour of
metals. A metal is viewed as blocks of atoms which can move relative to each other.
When stress is applied, these blocks become displaced until, when the yield stress is
reached, large blocks of atoms slip past each other. The plane along which movement
occurs is called the slip plane.
Figure 7: The block slip model, showing behaviour of metals under stress
Slip lines do not cross from one grain to another, but are confined by the grain boundaries
(Figure 8). The bigger the grains, the more slippage and the greater the plastic
deformation which occurs. Materials with a fine grain structure are therefore less ductile
and more brittle – each slip process is confined and not allowed to spread.
Figure 9 shows how the strength and hardness of a metal varies with temperature: note
that the temperature is measured on the Kelvin scale, whose origin is absolute zero (–
273ºC). Provided that the curves are scaled correctly, and referenced to the melting
temperature of the material (Tm), this is actually a generic relationship: the pattern follows
a similar pattern for most metals, reducing to zero at the melting point, and reducing
markedly as that temperature is approached.
Copper, on the other hand, has a much higher melting point, so foils are working at only
0.16®0.29Tm, and their properties are little affected by temperature.
Exercise
This is something to think about! What is the ‘creep range’ mentioned in the diagram?
And does failure ever happen at lower stress conditions?
For answers to those questions you will have to wait until you study the unit on Stress
and its effect on materials. Or you might like to glance ahead at that section now.
go to Stress unit
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Topics Covered
Background
Alloy Designations
Welding
Fabrication Response
Temper
Supplied Forms
Background
Aluminium alloy 6082 is a medium strength alloy with excellent corrosion resistance. It
has the highest strength of the 6000 series alloys. Alloy 6082 is known as a structural
alloy. In plate form, Aluminium alloy 6082 is the alloy most commonly used for
machining. As a relatively new alloy, the higher strength of Aluminium alloy 6082 has
seen it replace 6061 in many applications. The addition of a large amount of manganese
controls the grain structure which in turn results in a stronger alloy.
In the T6 and T651 temper, Aluminium alloy 6082 machines well and produces tight
coils of swarf when chip breakers are used.
Element % Present
Si 0.7 to 1.3%
Fe 0.5%
Cu 0.1%
Mn 0.4 to 1.0%
Mg 0.6 to 1.2%
Zn 0.2%
Ti 0.1%
Cr 0.25%
Al Balance
Temper O T4 T6/T651
Proof Stress 0.2% (MPa) 60 170 310
Tensile Strength (MPa) 130 260 340
Shear Strength (MPa) 85 170 210
Elongation A5 (%) 27 19 11
Hardness Vickers (HV) 35 75 100
Alloy Designations
Aluminium alloy 6082 also corresponds to the following standard designations and
specifications:
AA6082 HE30
DIN 3.2315 EN AW-6082
ISO: Al Si1MgMn A96082
Fabrication Response
Table 4. Typical fabrication response for aluminium alloy 6082
Process Rating
Workability - Cold Good
Machinability Good
Weldability – Gas Good
Weldability – Arc Good
Weldability – Resistance Good
Brazability Good
Solderability Good
Temper
The most common tempers for Aluminium alloy 6082 are:
• T651 - Solution heat treated, stress relieved by stretching and then artificially aged
Applications of Aluminium alloy 6082
Aluminium alloy 6082 is typically used in:
• Trusses
• Bridges
• Cranes
• Transport applications
• Ore skips
• Beer barrels
• Milk churns
Supplied Forms
Aluminium alloy 6082 is available from Aalco in the following forms with a T6 temper:
• Square bar
• Channel
• Tee section
• Equal angle
• Unequal angle
• Flat bar
• Tube
• Sheet
Aalco also supply Aluminium alloy 6082-T651 as:
• Plate
• Shate
• Sheet
Subcategory: 6000 Series Aluminum Alloy; Aluminum Alloy; Metal; Nonferrous Metal
Close Analogs:
Composition Notes:
Aluminum content reported is calculated as remainder.
Composition information provided by the Aluminum Association and is not for design.
Key Words: al6061, UNS A96061; ISO AlMg1SiCu; Aluminium 6061-T6, AD-33
(Russia); AA6061-T6; 6061T6, UNS A96061; ISO AlMg1SiCu; Aluminium 6061-T651,
AD-33 (Russia); AA6061-T651
Material Notes:
Information provided by Alcoa, Starmet and the references. General 6061 characteristics and
uses: Excellent joining characteristics, good acceptance of applied coatings. Combines relatively
high strength, good workability, and high resistance to corrosion; widely available. The T8 and T9
tempers offer better chipping characteristics over the T6 temper.
Applications: Aircraft fittings, camera lens mounts, couplings, marines fittings and hardware,
electrical fittings and connectors, decorative or misc. hardware, hinge pins, magneto parts, brake
pistons, hydraulic pistons, appliance fittings, valves and valve parts; bike frames.
Data points with the AA note have been provided by the Aluminum Association, Inc. and are NOT
FOR DESIGN.
Electrical Properties
Thermal Properties
CTE, linear 68°F 23.6 µm/m-°C 13.1 µin/in-°F AA; Typical; Average over 68-
212°F range.
CTE, linear 250°C 25.2 µm/m-°C 14 µin/in-°F Estimated from trends in similar Al
alloys. 20-300°C.
Specific Heat Capacity 0.896 J/g-°C 0.214 BTU/lb-°F
Thermal Conductivity 167 W/m-K 1160 BTU-in/hr-ft²- AA; Typical at 77°F
°F
Melting Point 582 - 652 °C 1080 - 1205 °F AA; Typical range based on typical
composition for wrought products
1/4 inch thickness or greater;
Eutectic melting can be completely
eliminated by homogenization.
Solidus 582 °C 1080 °F AA; Typical
Liquidus 652 °C 1205 °F AA; Typical
Processing Properties
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consistant format. Users requiring more precise data for scientific or engineering calculations can click on the property value to see the original
value as well as raw conversions to equivalent units. We advise that you only use the original value or one of its raw conversions in your
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Material Specifications
Contents:
Mechanical Properties
Physical Properties
Chemical Specifications
Mechanical Properties
Physical Properties
Chemical Specifications
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Product Summary
Key Benefit
Specifications
Chemical Composition
Hardness
Microcleanliness
Ultrasonic Quality
Impact Capability Testing
Grain Size
Annealed Microstructure
Acknowledgments
Product Summary
Tooling materials to be used in the construction of a die casting die for casting
Aluminum, Magnesium and ZA alloys, should be high quality tool steel such as Premium
Quality H-13 especially for part designs with critical features or if high production runs
are being contemplated.
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Key Benefit
Longer die life.
Premium Quality H-13 will yield a higher resistance to heat checking, cracking and die
wear caused by the thermal shock associated with the die casting process.
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Specifications
Chemical Composition
Hardness
A steel specimen having a thickness no greater than one inch shall exhibit a
minimum hardness of 50 HRC, when air cooled, after heating for 30 minutes at
1850°F in a protective atmosphere, or when using a non-protective atmosphere,
insure the sample has appropriate oversize allowance.
Microcleanliness
INCLUSIONS
TYPE THIN HEAVY
A (sulfide) 1.0 0.5
B (aluminate) 1.5 1.0
C (silicate) 1.0 1.0
D (globular oxides) 2.0 1.0
Ultrasonic Quality
Impact capability testing covers all mill product forms with a thickness greater or
equal to 2 1/2 inches. Specimen blanks shall be removed from the short transverse
orientation corresponding to the center location of the parent block of steel. A
minimum of one set (i.e. 3) of impact specimens shall be tested per lot of material
produced. A lot shall consist of all the product of a single ingot, which is forged
or rolled via a common procedure to one size and annealed in a single furnace
charge. Multiple starting ingots, variations in forging or rolling size or procedure,
or variations in annealing furnace charge shall require additional sets of tests.
7 x 10 mm unnotched.
- adjacent sides shall be at 90 degrees +/- 10 minutes.
- cross section dimensions shall be +/- 0.100 mm (0.004 in.)
- length of specimen shall be 55 +/- 1 mm (2.165 +/- 0.040 in.)
- surface finish shall be 63 micro inch (1.6 micro meter) max. on the 55 x 10 mm
faces and 125 micro inch (3.2 micro meter) max. on the 55 x 7 mm faces.
Minimum
Test Specimen Average Single
Value
Charpy V-notch 8 6
7 x 10 mm unnotched 125 70
Grain Size
Grain Size:
The Shepherd Fracture Grain Size shall be predominantly No.7 or finer when
made on a hardened (air cooled after heating for 30 minutes at 1850°F, in a
protective media or using an appropriately oversize sample in a non-protective
media) and untempered specimen taken from a representative sample.
Annealed Microstructure
Annealed Microstructure:
The annealed microstructure of the as-received steel shall consist essentially of a
ferritic matrix with homogeneous distribution of spheroidized carbides when
examined at 500X, after being polished and etched with 4% Nital.
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Acknowledgments:
The specifications and attributes from the preceding paragraphs was obtained from
"PREMIUM QUALITY H-13 STEEL ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR PRESSURE
DIE CASTING DIES" by the NADCA DIE MATERIALS COMMITTEE. NADCA
Product # 207-90.
ASTM standards A-388, A-681, A-370, E-23, E-45, E-112 and E-114 may be obtained
from:
Last modified:
Applications
H11 is often used for highly stressed structural parts such as aircraft landing gear. It
resists softening at temperatures up to 1000 F while retaining good ductility and
toughness even at strength levels on the order of 275 ksi.
Machinability
Machinability is reasonably good, approximately 75% that of the W group water
hardening low alloy tool steels.
Forming
Forming characteristics of H11 are good by conventional methods. It also may be formed
by forging and machining.
Welding
H11 is a readily weldable alloy by conventional methods.
Heat Treatment
Preheat to 1500 F and then heat to 1850 F and hold for 15 to 40 minutes. Air cool (air
quench).
Forging
Forge at 2050 F down to 1700 F. Do not forge below 1650 F.
Hot Working
No data given. The alloy may be hot worked by "Forging".
Cold Working
Cold working may readily be accomplished on H11 by conventional methods.
Annealing
Anneal at 1600 F and slow cool at 40 F per hour or less in the furnace.
Aging
Not applicable to this alloy.
Tempering
Temper at 1000 F to 1200 F for Rockwell C hardness of 54 to 38. Double tempering for
one hour each time at the selected tempering temperature is recommended.
Hardening
See "Heat Treatment" and "Tempering".
Other Comments
H11 provides good toughness with high strength even at elevated temperature.
Density: 0.281
MoETensile: 29
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