Ecology today (www.ecology.

com Copyright 2004 Ecology Communications )

The Tilting of the Earth:
Shaping Our Seasons and Climates
By Eric McLamb

On On January 4, 2004, at 1:00 PM (Eastern Time), Earth will reach its closest
distance to sun. At this time, the northern hemisphere experiences winter while the
southern hemisphere experiences summer. The Earth will travel to its farthest point
from the sun on July 5, 2004, at about 6:00 AM (ET), when it will be summer in the
Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere.

Hurtling through space at an average speed

of 18.4 miles per second, Earth is constantly
changing its position with the sun. Not only
is the Earth orbiting around the sun , but it
also rotating on its axis at 1,070 miles per
hour (speed at the equator). It is, however,
a common misconception that the Earth's
distance from the sun determines how warm
or cold the planet gets.

While it is true that Earth does have a

perihelion, or point at which it is closest to
the sun, and an aphelion, its farthest point
from the sun, the difference between these
distances is too minimal as to have any
Earth travels around the Sun at about 18.4 miles
per second while rotating on its axis at about
significant impact on the Earth's seasons
1,070 miles per hours. Pictured above is Earth and climate. The average distance of the
during summer for the Northern Hemisphere Earth from the sun is about 93 million miles
where the North Pole (center of the Arctic Ice
Cap) receives sunlight 24 hours a day. (Image:
(which is also referred to as one
University of Toledo) astronomical unit or AU). At its closest
  point, the Earth is about 91.1 million miles
from the sun; conversely, the sun is about
94.8 million miles away when it is at aphelion. With these numbers it's easy to
figure out that the Earth's orbit around the sun is not so much elliptical (oval) as it
is circular, and that the Earth's distance from the sun remains relatively constant
throughout its annual orbit.

So what does the Earth's orbit around the sun have to do with our planet's
constantly changing temperatures and changing seasons? The answer is...
everything! Earlier we said that the Earth is constantly changing its position with
the sun. That's because the Earth is tilted in
relation to the sun. That is what creates the If the Earth was not Tilted....
differences in the seasons and the annual If the Earth's axis were parallel to the Sun
and not tilted, the Sun would remain
warming and cooling cycles of the Earth's positioned exactly halfway between the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. North and South Poles, and there would be
no seasonal changes on Earth. Each area on
Earth would maintain the same relative
The Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees on its axis, a climate and same amount of daylight
straight line through the planet from the throughout the entire year.
North Pole to the South Pole. The Earth spins
 
around, or rotates, on this axis as it orbits the sun. The key here is that as the Earth
orbits the sun, different regions on Earth are tilted both towards and away from the
sun depending on the region's respective hemisphere. This causes the sun's light
and energy to hit the different regions of the Earth at different angles throughout
the course of one orbit, or one full year.

The Seasons

When the North Pole is tilted most toward the sun, the Northern Hemisphere
experiences summer. This occurs when the Earth is farthest away from the sun, and
begins on June 21-22. Astronomers refer to the arrival of this event as the Summer
Solstice. The sun's energy is more concentrated on the Northern Hemisphere where
its rays hit the Earth more directly and are thus more intense. At the same time,
however, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun causing the sun's
rays to hit the region more at an angle and with less intensity. This brings about
winter in the Southern Hemisphere, the arrival of which is called the Winter Solstice.

As the Earth continues along its path

around the sun, its angle constantly
shifts the North Pole away from the
sun and the South Pole toward the
sun. On December 21-22 -- called
the Winter Solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere, the Earth's North Pole is
tilted farthest from the sun and the
South Pole is pointed the closest to
the sun (or Summer Solstice in the
Southern Hemisphere). This is also
the time when Earth reaches its
closest orbital distance to the sun,
and winter arrives in the north and
summer in the south.

The Equinoxes

Now, just to close the loop on the

This diagram indicates the orbital position of the Earth as it
reaches winter, spring, summer and fall. Note the tilt in
relation to the Sun. (NOAA Image
effects Earth's solar orbit has on its
  seasons and climates, here's what
happens in-between the winter and
summer solstices. Spring and Fall (or Autumn) occur midway on the Earth's journey
from winter to summer and from summer to winter. These times occur when the
sun appears to be directly over the Earth's equator, and the length of day and night
are equal over most of the planet. On March 20 or 21 of each year, the Earth
reaches the vernal equinox (Xuan phan) which marks the arrival of Spring in the
north and Fall in the south. The autumnal equinox (Thu phan) occurs on
September 22-23 and marks the arrival of Fall in the north and Spring in the south.

Putting It All Together

So, now, what do we know? Let's review. We now know that Earth rotates on its
axis as it travels around the sun in an almost circular orbit. We also know that,
because the Earth is tilted on its axis, its seasons change as it orbits the sun. When
it is Summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is Winter in the Southern Hemisphere,
and this has nothing to do with how close or far the Earth gets to or away from the
Sun in its orbit. It's all because the Earth is tilted on its axis.

(Now, just to make sure we don't mislead you, the Earth's overall orbit or distance
from the sun would make a
difference if it were located say
where Mercury is or where Pluto is.
As Dr. Jack Hall from ecology.com's
Dr. Jack's Natural World says: "It's
the three bears syndrome.
We're not too close to the sun,
and we're not too far away.
We're j-u-u-u-u-st right!)

Good! But this does not explain why

our planet maintains its relatively
warm, life-sustaining temperatures
and climates that can -- for the
most part -- sustain life, does it? It
also does not explain why life on Venus' (Sao Kim) surface (pictured) maintains an
Earth doesn't burn up. For Earth to average temperature of about 882°F due to the extremely
maintain its average high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in its
atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that also exists in
temperature of 61°F (16.1°C), it Earth's atmosphere but at lower concentration levels that
requires a very delicate balance help maintain life-sustaining temperatures. (NASA photo)
within its atmosphere, oceans and  
solid Earth. Consider the planet
Mercury, which is the planet closest to the Sun at a distance of only 36 million
miles. But its temperatures range from minus 280°F to plus 800°F, depending on
whether or not its surface is facing the Sun. Venus, on the other hand -- which is
the second closest planet to the Sun at a distance of about 67 million miles,
maintains an average surface temperature of about 882°F regardless of which part
of the planet is facing the Sun. Neither planet is able to sustain life as we know it on
Earth, nor is any other planet in our solar system.

Earth's... coldest temperature

The Sahara Desert, pictured, records the hottest
temperatures on Earth. Located in the northern part of
Africa, the Sahara's highest temperatures average around
130°F. (MIT Photo)
averages about minus 60°F (-45°F to
-97°F) and its hottest temperature
averages about 130°F-plus. While
these extremes make most life
impossible to naturally exist or
thrive, they occur only in remote
areas of the planet, such as the
Antarctic (coldest average
temperatures) or the Sahara Desert
(hottest). Still, these temperatures
are relatively warm (or cool)
compared to other planets.
Earth's "Checks & Balances"
Earth has a built-in, naturally-occurring "force field" around it that creates and helps
maintain viable living conditions for its plant and animal inhabitants. The
atmosphere contains greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide to keep the Earth warm,
and an ozone layer to protect the Earth from harmful and incinerating (burning)
radiation.

The Earth also has other checks and balances that help it absorb and retain the
sun's heat and energy (such as the oceans) as well as reflect its energy back into
space (such as the polar ice caps). Wind and ocean currents also help distribute this
heat around the globe, all within the Earth's protective atmosphere. The point is
that Earth is unique in its ability to create and maintain sustainable living conditions
because all of its systems and influences are connected to each other, from its
atmosphere, oceans and land, to its seasons, its living inhabitants and the sun.

Venus' extremely hot temperature exists because of the very high concentrations of
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) in its atmosphere. In fact, Venus has the
thickest atmosphere of all the planets. Heat gets in, but doesn't leave. Mercury, on
the other hand, has no atmosphere and relies totally on direct sunlight for heat. But
the side of Mercury facing away from the sun, which experiences extreme cold,
loses all this heat because there is nothing there to hold it in. Earth's systems are j-
u-u-u-u-st right! (Eric McLamb)

Did you know....?

 The hottest temperature ever recorded on Earth is 136°F in El Azizia, Libya,

in Northern Africa on the northern fringe of the Sahara Desert. A close
second is Death Valley in California's Mojave Desert which registered 134°F
on July 10, 1913. (Source: The Physics Factbook)
 The coldest temperature ever recorded on the planet's surface did not occur
at the South Pole but at Vostok, Antarctica, on July 31, 1983. It was
-128.6°F!!! (Source: The Physics Factbook)
 It's the Sahara Desert's dryness, not heat, that makes it a desert. The frozen
continent of Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, is so dry that some
scientists consider it a desert, too.
 Our solar system orbits around the center of the Milky Way, our home
galaxy. It takes approximately 225 million years for the sun to make one
revolution or trip around the Milky Way. (Source: US Department of Energy)
 The speed of the Earth is fastest when it is closest to the Sun, in January,
and slowest when it is farthest away from the sun, in July. In other words, in
January it will be moving faster than average, and in July it will be moving
slower than average.
 Earth's solar system is located on the outer edge on the Milky Way, about
28,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. Most of the Milky Way's
200 billion other stars and their planets are clustered in the center. This
leads many scientists to believe that if the solar system were located more
toward the center of our giant galaxy, life on Earth would be impossible
because of the overwhelming heat and energy emitting from those stars.
 Although most planets spin on their axis that are tilted only a few degrees,
the third largest planet, Uranus, spins on an axis that is virtually
 perpendicular to the sun. Still, it is hotter at its equator than at its poles, the
reasons for which are unknown.
 All planets in the solar system orbit around the sun in the same plane, called
the ecliptic. Only Pluto moves the most off of the ecliptic plane at a 17°
angle, but Mercury also moves away from the ecliptic plane at a 7° angle.

 The Secret World of Energy

 ~ The Evolution and Use of the World's Energy Systems ~ Print This Page
By Eric McLamb

Every minute enough of the Sun's energy

reaches the Earth's surface to meet the
world's energy demands for a whole year.
Combine this powerful energy source (the
very source of life for our planet) with other
readily available energy sources like wind,
moving water and heat from within the Earth
(geothermal heat), it almost seems
incredulous that our human population
depends on the burning of fossil fuels to
meet nearly all of its energy demands. And .
this picture doesn't look like it will change The amount of sunlight hitting Earth's surface
each year can supply nearly 36,000 times the
very much in the near future.   amount of energy currently provided by total
world oil consumption. (Image: NOAA)
Why fossil fuels? The fossil fuels we largely .

depend on today are coal, oil and natural gas. They are called non-renewable
energy sources. But if you think about it, that description is actually another way of
saying we use them faster than they form. Over 100,000 times faster to be exact!
So how did we ever decide this would be the primary energy resource to power
human development and progress?

It all goes back to human mastery of fire to provide warmth, light and a means of
preparing more palatable and easily digestible foods. To the early humans, fire was
the equivalent of having a little sun with them wherever they needed or wanted to
go. With this energy available at anytime and anyplace, humans could begin to
spread about the world and thrive, regardless of the climate or amount of sunlight
available. It provided the power for humans to begin their mastery of Earth as a
species, less vulnerable to extinction than all other animal species, yet with a
greater ability to bring about change -- for good or bad.
 It was wood -- a renewable biomass
energy source -- that was
unquestionably the first fuel used for
fire. Although the fossil fuel coal had
been used as a fuel since 1,000 B.C.,
it wasn't until the arrival of the
Industrial Revolution from the mid
-1700s through the 1800s that coal
began to replace biomass as the
primary source of energy.

The Industrial Revolution also marks

. the beginning of an era when the
It was coal that fueled the Industrial Revolution, forever
world human population started to
changing the way people would live and utilize energy.
explode. Indelibly tied together, both
While this propelled human progress to extraordinary
  energy consumption and population
levels, it came with extraordinary costs to our environment
and ultimately the health of all living things. It would not
growth have experienced exponential
be until the mid 20th century that people began to
growth with few exceptions since the
understand our energy policies needed to change. (Photo:
University of Ireland, Galway) beginning of the Industrial
.
Revolution. As the population
increased, energy demands increased with greater intensity. Naturally, as the
population grew and industry advanced, the demand for energy increased
exponentially.

Coal: the First Mass Use of Fossil Fuels

Why coal? Coal can provide much more energy over

"Indelibly tied together, both
longer periods of time than wood or any other biomass energy consumption and
product. Forests were also diminishing in many regions population growth have
because they were being consumed for fuel, particularly experienced exponential
growth… since the beginning of
in England -- where the Industrial Revolution started. the Industrial Revolution."
Coal was in ample supply. It very quickly made industrial
and economic sense to use coal to supply the rapidly increasing energy demand for
a growing and progressing human population.

Since coal and other fossil fuels to be discovered -- oil and natural gas -- seemed to
exist in infinite supplies, human progress and achievement centered around the
exploitation of these resources. Not only had we learned to use fire to meet our
energy demands, but we had become dependent on fossil fuels to supply the fire!

Oil & Natural Gas

The fossil fuels oil and natural gas combined currently provide most of our energy
needs. Although they have been used in some form for thousands of years, the
massive consumption of them did not start until the late 1800s and early 1900s
following their discovery in large quantities in shallow oil reservoirs. In the U.S., the
discovery that sparked the oil boom was in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 when
Edwin L. Drake drilled the world's first oil well that launched the modern petroleum
industry. This high energy fuel set the stage for the expansion of industry, but it
also led to the development of the automobile. At this time, few considered the non-
renewable nature of these fossil fuels and the amounts that would be used in the
future.

The Prediction that Startled the World

It wasn't until M. King Hubbert predicted in 1949 that the

fossil fuel era would be very short-lived that we began to
realize we would one day soon have to rely on other energy
sources. Though Hubbert startled the world with his
calculated assessment, he followed it in 1956 with the
prediction that US oil production would peak around 1970
and decline thereafter. This peak period of world oil
discovery and exploitation has become known as Hubbert's
Peak.
.
Indeed, US oil production began to decline in 1971. Since M. King Hubbert (1903-1989)
startled the world in 1949
then, world energy use has risen almost 70 percent. Today, with his prediction that fossil
more than 50 percent of oil consumed by the US is fuels would not be able to
imported from other nations. According to the US meet world energy demands
in the relatively near future.
Department of Energy, US dependence on imported oil will
  Hubbert, a widely acclaimed
reach 64 percent by 2020. World oil use will continue to geophysicist, was a world
grow exponentially particularly as developing countries authority on the estimation
of energy resources and on
become more industrialized. the prediction of their
patterns of discovery and
In the late 1990s, renowned geophysicist Kenneth S. depletion.
.
Deffeyes -- Professor Emeritus at Princeton University --
predicted world oil production decline would occur by 2005; however, many
scientists believe the actual decline of oil is now 2020-2040, with the US using 2015
as the projected start of the decline.

By the time the world began to heed Hubbert's prediction, the use of fossil fuels had
become so firmly interwoven into human progress and economy that changing this
energy system would drastically alter the very way we have lived our lives.
Certainly, the production and consumption costs of changing our energy systems
have greatly discouraged the development and use of alternate energy resources.

As much as we are now all aware of the impending depletion of our primary fossil
fuel reserves -- and the fact that we would like to see renewable and cleaner energy
sources take their place -- alternative energy will be challenged to take over as a
primary energy supplier for human consumption by the end of this century. It is
also widely believed that we will not see alternative fuels become mainstream until
fossil fuels become too expensive to produce and consume. And that will happen in
the relative near term! The immediate importance of renewables is that their use
extends the life of the fossil fuels and provides cleaner alternatives to the fossil
fuels.

The good news is that energy abounds all around us, energy resources that we
haven't even begun to consider, and we now have a natural mandate to begin
developing them before the fossil fuels disappear. One thing for sure, the human
race will not just one day start living in the dark and without power because we
used the last drop of oil or lump of coal. And scientists are working on it in ways you

Can Alternative Energy
Meet the Demand?
Energy's Secret World
Despite exceptional progress in the
development and application of alternative
energy, increasing worldwide energy
consumption is making it difficult for these
new energy resources to replace fossil
fuels. Alternative energy today meets only
about 13.8% of the world's power
demands, and that's with 6.2 billion people
living on the planet. In 100 years, the
population is expected to double. That's
probably haven't even considered.
Energy and potential energy exist in
everything. Energy is basically
without form and cannot be seen, but
we see and feel its effects. Electricity
is not energy, but rather it is created
from energy. Energy captured from
the sun, the burning of fossil fuels,
water currents and wind is used to
create electricity and provide power
for our homes, businesses and
transportation. It is the release of
energy from the burning of wood or
other combustible materials that
causes the heat and fire used to help
meet today's power requirements.
Understanding Energy
In simple terms, energy is motion,
the force created through the
movement of the tiniest particles of
matter as well as the very largest
objects in the universe. Even light
from the sun is made up of tiny
submicroscopic particles called
photons -- which literally means
visible-light particles -- the
movement of which is energy. These
particles travel in waves at different
frequencies (wavelengths) to create
what
is called
radiant
energy
, a.k.a.

electromagnetic energy. Radiant energy also exists in non-visible forms such as

infrared and ultraviolet radiation (oh, those sunburns!), X-rays and gamma rays.

And what about heat? Heat is created by the kinetic energy -- or motion -- of all the
tiny atoms and molecules in a gas, liquid or solid (yes, molecules can even move
about in solids). The motion of any object possesses kinetic energy, and the larger
and faster the motion of the object, the more kinetic energy it possesses.

Any object has the potential to start moving and gain kinetic energy. Take gravity
and Newton's Apple, for instance. The apple on the tree is being acted upon by the
force of gravity, but it is only when the apple falls from the tree does it possess
kinetic energy. When the apple is hanging it has potential energy, which is also the
same as stored energy or energy for future release. The potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy when the apple falls.

Energy Dynamics & Environmental Health

By understanding the secret lives of energy -- how it exists, how it is created, how it
acts and even where it can be found, we can better understand how to tap the
world of energy available to meet our continuously increasing energy demands. The
issues really aren't about energy at all, but about how we try to get it and
use it! The specific issues concern the fuels we use to create energy. All fuels have
to go through either a chemical or physical change to create energy, whether it's
the burning of oil (chemical) or the boiling of water (physical).

Yet, while using fuels such as fossil fuels as energy resources, not only is their
kinetic energy potential released, but the very carbon molecules that make these
fuels such powerful energy sources are also released. The end result is pollution,
pollution that not only causes health problems but also directly contributes to
today's global warming trends. The costs of these side-effects cannot be calculated
but can only be measured in terms of the costs of lives and quality of living,
 environmental health, and climatic change.

A Global Perspective

Already, the world is making progress in

tapping alterative forms of energy from solar,
wind and water, to nuclear, biomass,
geothermal and even new forms of fossil
fuels. Currently, hydroelectric energy -- which
is the kinetic energy of falling or moving
water, is the world's largest source of
renewable energy. Over 80 percent of the
world's renewable energy is hydroelectric.
Hydroelectric is followed by solar energy,
biomass and wind in that order.

But let's this put this in its proper

perspective. According to recently released
data by the International Energy Agency
(IEA), fossil fuels currently provide 79.5
percent of the world's primary energy
supplies! Biomass and other combustible
renewables and waste account for 11 percent,
and nuclear energy accounts for 6.8 percent.
Hydro (moving water) alone accounts for 2.3
percent with all other renewable resources meeting .5 (five-tenths) of a percent of
the world's total energy appetite. (Note: The total percentages add up to 100.1
percent due to rounding.)

Total world electricity demand -- which is part of the total world energy demand --
still depends primarily on fossil fuels but to a somewhat lesser extent. Hydro and
other renewable energy sources account for 18.7 percent of the world's total
electricity needs. Fossil fuels still account for well over half of the world's electricity
supplies -- 64.4 percent according to the IEA, while nuclear energy supplies 16.9%
of the world's electricity.

The Alternatives

Renewable energy is the ultimate replacement for any non-renewable source.

Certainly, the day will come when this fossil fuel era will pass and eventually fade
totally into the history books. And what will life be like then? Even more important
perhaps is what we will have to do -- and even endure -- to get there.

Despite nuclear energy's role as a significant power supply source, it is highly

unlikely it will survive past the 21st century if that long. Many people are against it,
storage of its highly radioactive wastes is difficult and costly, there are not enough
ores available to maintain continued production of nuclear energy as it is being done
today, and most of today's nuclear plants will reach the end of their life-span within
the next 50 years.
While hydro, solar, wind (a
very efficient energy
source), geothermal are
currently our most
promising forms of
renewable energy to
develop for future use,
there are sources that .
Wind and hydro are two low-cost renewable energy sources that have
many scientists classify in been used for many generations. While hydro (right) provides about 2.3
the "surprise category" that percent of the world's total energy demands -- by far the greatest
theoretically hold great   source of renewable energy, wind power technology (left) has become a
far more efficient renewable energy source. The challenge to using wind
promise. These sources power primarily exists with location.
range from the mining of .
methane hydrates (a fossil
fuel that exists under the oceans and are very difficult to reach and dangerous) and
hydrogen fusion from simple H2O -- the same process that powers our Sun and all
the stars of the universe, to sources we have yet to discover. The startling potential
of hydrogen fusion is so great that the US government has launched an initiative to
study whether it's feasible within the next 35 years to develop and use what's
known as fusion energy.

And, yes, there are other fossil fuels that some scientists believe may be able to
help contribute to the current energy pressures, but these forms have a low net
energy yield, are difficult to process, and have serious pollution side-effects. They
are oil shale and tar sands. Still, it appears unlikely that these forms will ever be
used as significant sources of energy.

The Sun, no doubt, holds the greatest potential to meet the world's energy
demands. But it will take a change in the technological, political and economic
landscape for it to be realized. Still, the most plausible answer for our indefinite
energy needs lies in a cohesive, sensible and ecologically sustainable combination of
the resources available to us. The incentives must be there to be successful --
political, economic, and human intelligence -- and success can be achieved only
through the use of renewable energy in ways that will ensure the healthy
sustainability of Earth's life systems. As Nobel Laureate Sir George Porter so
eloquently said in the late 1960s, "I have no doubt that we will be successful in
harnessing the sun's energy…If sunbeams were weapons of war, we would have had
solar energy centuries ago."   

Point taken!
 The Secret World of Energy will continue covering the broad spectrum of energy
and related issues, phenomena and new developments as an exclusive column
on ecology.com. This new feature will focus on the many individual aspects of
energy today and the future.

Did you know…?

 Sunlight is made up of tiny particles of energy called photons. The amount of

this energy hitting the Earth's surface in one year is equivalent to the energy
provided by 935 trillion (1000 billions) barrels of oil. The current annual
world consumption of oil equals about 26 billion barrels!

 Biomass can produce electricity, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels, and a variety of
useful chemicals, including those currently manufactured from petroleum. It
just doesn't contain as much concentration of energy as coal and other fossil
fuels. For biomass to be competitive with fossil fuels, new technologies are
required to harness its energy. (Sustainable Energy Coalition )

 In 2001, 3,834 million metric tons of coal were produced to help meet world
energy demands. That is a 49% growth over the past 25 years! (Source:
World Coal Institute )

 Reservoirs of hot liquid with temperatures greater than about 350°F are the
most common type of geothermal energy sources. (Source: Hawaiian Electric
Company)

 To lock up the eight billion tons of carbon released into the atmosphere each
year would require planting a forest four times the area of the United States.
(Source: Whole Systems Foundation)

Also check out these links …

Energy: At What Cost?

Alternative Energy Institute, Inc.

World Renewable Energy Network

People & Renewable Energy

Energy Science Made Simple

Clean Energy Basics: What is Renewable Energy?

Fossil Fuel Facts