Hooked in America 1

Running head: HOOKED IN AMERICA THE BIRTH OF ADDICTION

Hooked in America

The Birth of Addiction and

Recovery Treatment in America.

Fred Stinson III

PSY 7110

Capella University
 Hooked in America 2

ABSTRACT

From the earliest human record of Sumerian people in 5000 B.C., human being have

experimented, cultivated, and created different drugs for a variety of purposes. Since

Columbus landing on Plymouth Rock in 1620, alcohol and drug use has also been used

for similar purposes and have been a staple of America society. Drugs have been used

for medical, religious, and recreational purposes and to cure, fix, reduce, eliminate all

kinds of human feelings and suffering. The overuses of drugs have lead to addiction,

which is a physical and psychological disease of the human brain and body. Exploration

of addiction in America may indicate the problems and solutions that propel Americans

to implementing social, religious, legal, and intervention constraints to control its spread.
 Hooked in America 3

Hooked in America

The Birth of Addiction and Recovery Treatment in America.

Alcoholism and drug addiction has a history that expands 250 years in America.

Likewise, recovery has paralleled the history of addiction. But for centuries there has

existed conflicts between the legal, religious, and scientific treatment of addiction. The

history is discussed to the extent that it provides insight into the nature of addiction and

treatment interventions (Lemanski, 2001). Addiction will be used interchangeably to

define both alcoholics and drug addicts. Although addiction is often characterized as a

chronic and relapsing disease, a study of its history and treatment my led to a deeper

understanding of voluntary behaviors and far-reaching negative consequences.

Drugs and the official definition of Addiction

Addiction has many agents that are classified into eleven psychoactive categories.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder IV (DSM-IV; American

Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994) classifications are alcohol; amphetamines or

similarly substituted phenylethylamine substance; caffeine; cannabis; cocaine;

hallucinogens; inhalants; nicotine; opioids; phencyclidine or similarly substance; and

sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. These eleven psychoactive agents have many

chemical, trade, and street names. The one thing all psychoactive drugs perform is that

they affect the central nervous system (CNS), therefore, altering thoughts, moods, and or

behaviors. Each psychoactive drug has unique properties and effect the CNS is different

ways. Thus, the degree of addiction is measured by the potential of the drug; some drugs

have low addiction potential while others have high potential (Beck, Wright, Newman,

& Liese, 1993). Psychoactive drugs reach the CNS and brain by being ingested orally,
 Hooked in America 4

snorted, smoked, or intravenously. Smoking and intravenously drug methods penetrated

the CNS quickest and have the highest intensity and potential for the development of

addiction (Beck et al, 1993).

The American Psychiatric Association as cited by Inaba & Cohen (2004) defines

addiction as a compulsive psychological and behavioral manifestation characterized by:

• often use the drug in larger amount or for longer period of time than intended.

• unsuccessful try to cut down or control the drug use.

• spend a great deal of time in activities to obtain the substance or recovery from it

use.

• give up or reduce important social, occupational, or recreational activities because

of the drug use.

• continue to use despite knowledge that the drug use is causing physical or

psychological problems (p.66).

If a voluntary substance user meets all the above definitions through alcohol or drug

use, they are classified as addicted. Therefore, alcoholics and drug addicts are those

users who have lost control of their use and the substance has become the most important

thing in their lives (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

Drug use in autobiography

In 1612, John Rolf of England introduced the first known drug, tobacco, a

stimulant and mild relaxant, to Jamestown Virginia (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Tobacco

was used by the upper class in small to moderate amounts, a pinch of snuff or chopped

leafs in the cheek provided a mild simulation to CNS. Many poorer classes and slaves

had to smoke it in pipes because it was the cheapest low-grade tobacco. Tobacco was
 Hooked in America 5

also used as medicine to cure headaches, snakebites, stomach pains, and toothaches. By

1930, Inaba and Cohen s record that cigarette tax provided a rich source of revenue for

federal and state governments, southern colony farmers, media, and retailers. After the

landing of the Mayflower alcohol, a downer, was ingested daily to relieve inhibition and

boredom. Most importantly, rum and whiskey was the chief medium of exchange in

America’s economy and slave trade. Another drink that became popular during this time

period was coffee and tea, which are both stimulants. In New York and Boston, popular

coffeehouses served coffee and tea to intellectuals, politicians, and doing literary

discussions. Sometime after 1620, alcohol, tobacco, coffee, teas and marijuana had

become the drug staples of America societies. (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

In 1764, King Georgia III of England ordered Georgia Washington to direct

colonies to plant and cultivate kemp, which is marijuana. Kemp had two useful purposes;

it was used to make rope for ships sails; and it was a psychoactive drug that was used to

produce a euphoric feeling of wellness (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Therefore, America’s

drugs were to cure ailments, to cope with the stress from a harsh new environment, to

support for the next two centuries the America’s economy, which include the funding of

the American Revolution and slave trade (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). By the mid 1800s,

government and business exploited legal psychoactive substances such as tobacco,

alcohol, coffee, and tea while making them readily available to the masses.

Historically opiates are the prototypical addictive drug among most civilized

countries, and in America it provided the same service. By the time the American

Revolutionary war beginning an opium epidemic from England had reached the shores of

the America. Inaba and Cohen (2004) cited that opium was used in the American
 Hooked in America 6

Revolutionary war mainly to treat injured soldiers; it was an effective painkiller. It was

also used to treat diarrhea, and prescribed for almost every illness. However, in 1803, a

German pharmacist F.W. Serturner isolated the active ingredient of opium and named the

substance morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams and sleep (Narcotic

Anonymous, 1998). Morphine is ten times as powerful of a painkiller than opium.

During the American Revolution opium and morphine were used indiscriminately as a

painkiller and to relieve social aliments (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

About forty years later, the invention of the hypodermic syringe to administer

morphine indirectly into the blood steam would unknowingly launch America first

epidemic, morphine drug use. It use endure for more than a century (Narcotic

Anonymous, 1998). By 1868, morphine injections were cheaper than alcohol. Demand

fueled the low cost and lean to its widespread use. Most physicians believed morphine to

be a harmless substance, but an extremely effective painkiller (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998). American reliance on morphine as a medicinal painkiller reached it peak during

the Civil War period. Interestingly, most users were prescription drug users.

Ironically, the most common usage of opium was not soldiers, but was children

medicine labeled under friendly names such as “Gofrey’s Cordial,” “Munn’s Elixir, “ and

“Mother Bailey Quieting Syrup, Mrs Winslow’s Soothing Syrup,” “Darby’s

Carminative,” and “Ayer’s Cherry Pectorial” (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). These

friendly paten medicines and tonics did not list ingredients ( Inaba &Cohen,2004). A

drug derived from opiate is laudanum that dissolved easily into a liquid form and was

given by adults to children to relief a variety of aliments. Narcotic Anonymous (1998)

claim that poor women who did textile work to support their family had few alternatives
 Hooked in America 7

but to “dope” their children with laudanum quieting syrup. These patent medicines were

loaded with opium, morphine, cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

Many other opium-based mixtures were popular with older white women from middle

and upper socioeconomic classes.

Cocaine was introduced to America’s society in 1850 and became almost as

popular as patent medicine with opium. In 1887, the Hay Fever Association declared

cocaine its official remedy for aliments and social discomforts (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

As a result, cocaine popularity grew immensely as businesses begin raking in huge profits

from its sale in drugs stores, by mail order, and in catalogues such as Sear Roebuck. It is

also known that even Coca-Cola, a popular drink, contained about 5 mg of cocaine from

1886 to 1903 (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). Cocaine was also known as an aphrodisiac, used to

treat asthma, used to treat morphine addicts. One would have to conclude that

America’s birthing pains manifested drug use, which would proliferate the next 100 years

of its history.

The Twentieth first Century Drugs

The dawn of the twentieth first century in America was explosive as industrial

and manufactory productivity evolved. But so did American’s history of psychoactive

substances use. By the early 1900, a drug kit sold by Macys and Sears Roebuck two of

the most famous corporations, included for sale to the public a vial of cocaine, heroin,

and reusable syringe; it could be purchased through mail order catalogues. In 1908,

marijuana use shifted from making rope to widespread smoking of marijuana; it was an

alternative high to alcohol. In 1920, cigarette use multiplied as pioneer of Camel

cigarettes produced by the J.R. Reynolds begin to expand its market to women, to young,
 Hooked in America 8

and those who wanted to lose weight. After the 1920, Inaba and Cohen (2004) reported

that new pharmacological technologies and refinements of drugs led to the introduction

of new and more sophisticated drugs, which could reach the CNS faster and more

efficiently. Amphetamine, a stimulant, was first introduced during World War II to

improve physician performance, fight fatigue, heighten endurance, and elevate fighting

spirit. By the 1950s it was coined “America’s drug” for it help you stay awoke and alert

while increasing productivity with a nip of euphoria. It was an effective appetite

suppressant and had a calming and focusing effect on the CNS. A similar agent,

methamphetamines became even more popular because it provided longer effects on the

CNS. Both Amphetamine and methamphetamines have been used medically to treat low

blood pressure, narcolepsy, schizophrenia, and alcoholism.

The science of pharmacology recognized that chemical brain imbalance were

causes of mental illnesses, which led to the development of 50-100 new psychiatric

medicines and synthetic drugs during 1940s – 1960s. Synthetic drugs were drugs that

were synthesized rather than being extracted from natural products such as alcohol,

opium, cocaine, coffee, and nicotine. Soon after their development, Sedative- hypnotics

and benzodiazepines such as Libruim, Valuium, Xanax, Ritlan, Amphetamine, Rohyprol,

Quaaludes, Tricyclic, and MAO inhibitors dominated the prescription drug market. These

upper drugs provided a feel of confident, outgoing, eagerness, and ecstatic feelings in

different degrees and intensity. Downers drugs such as codeine, OxyContin, Vicodin and

Demrol were effective designer painkillers. Synthetic all arounders were hallucinogenic

and new psychedelics such as LSD, MDA, PCP, CBR, and MOMA (estasy). All

Arounders were anesthetics and distorted sensory messages to and from the brain stem.
 Hooked in America 9

Lastly, the design of “Rave” and club drugs were used by thousand of young people. The

most common psycho-stimulants were “X” and “E”, which delivered a sense of wellness,

togetherness, and unity. As a result of these new pharmacological technologies,

America’s drug use became commonplace and socially accepted. However, these new,

designers, high potent, and high dose drugs led to abuse and dependency (Inaba &

Cohen, 2004). Surprisingly, adding to the drug movement was increased recreational use

of stimulants and depressant spurred by the government allowing for personal freedom

and growth of a self controlling and monitoring middle class population.

Natural history of addiction

The automation of cigarette rolling machine in 1884, a milder strain of tobacco,

mass advertising, and a more plentiful supply vastly expanded the market of cigarettes

and its addictive agent nicotine. By mid 1950s cigarette smoking was entrenched in

America society as its use rise to millions. Inaba and Cohen (2004) research estimated

that America Revolutionary war produced 400,000 morphine addicts in the Army alone.

The social conditions of two populations, veteran and well-to-do white women were the

majority of addicts (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). The problem of opiate addiction was

seen as unfortunate medical problem of war veterans and was looked upon with some

sympathy because they had fought for the country’s independency (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998). Because many physicians were not aware of the addictive potential of patent

medicines and opiate drugs, they indirectly caused iatrogenic ( physician induced)

addiction, which was a common problems. By 1900, Inaba and Cohen (2004) estimated

300,000 opiate-dependent people in the United States. However, the wave of immigrant

that overruns American shores at the turn of the century would begin to change
 Hooked in America 10

Americans view of addicts dramatically within two decades (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998).

The proliferation of addiction had other allies’ heroin, cocaine, and amphetamine;

they became as popular as alcohol and shifted the culture’s view of addiction as

compared to that of war veterans and citizen illnesses (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

American became addicted to heroin as a result on its availability, the hypodermic

syringe, and its calming effect on the CNS. Cocaine was a fashionable expensive high for

the upper class that snorted or injected it. But the development of smokable “freebase

cocaine” and a cheaper agent “crack” made cocaine available to the masses. As a result,

cocaine addiction specifically crack became prevalent among minorities. Smoked cocaine

reached the CNS quicker rising the risk of dependency. Freebasing and crack cocaine

became an epidemic by mid 1980. Media, new coverage, and the effect of drug itself

fueled the popularity of these drugs. The powerful rush of cocaine lasted 7-10, resulting

in a crash that can be only overcome by smoking again and again, which lead to

widespread addiction. Synthetic smokable methamphetamine called “Ice” and “Crank”

caused thousand of recreational users to be addicted to its euphoria effects. In 1940s and

1950s civilian truck drivers, workers of monotonous factory jobs, and college student

cramming for a exam used methamphetamines to stay awake and to increase

productivity. Moreover, amphetamine use soared as a diet drug between the 1950s and

1960s. In 1970, Inaba and Cohen (2004) estimated that 6-8% of Americans were using

12 billion pills, tablets, and capsules for weight loss, alertness, and energy.

However, it was not the drugs themselves that made addiction hideous; it was the

drug related crimes, poverty, lost souls, and families that became the source of
 Hooked in America 11

considerable concern to social, political, and religious leaders. Despite several legal and

social stances, addiction would strengthen its grip in America as a wave of immigrants

from Europe and Asia increased the population of urban tenements and the development

of slums. As poverty among the new arrivals increased, so did the use of alcohol and

narcotics. By the middle 1900, addiction had taken a firm hold upon a significant number

of Americans (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

By the second World War addicts fitted neatly into two categories; addicts who

were addicted to pills and prescriptions drugs such as sedative, barbiturates, laudanum,

Demerol, or the other who were considered “dope fiends” who sought out any kind of

drugs to deal with physiological and psychological problems. The recklessness and

social tyranny of dope fiends in effect caused increased searches, harassments, and

incarceration by legal authorities as they tried to reduce social demands for drugs.

Unfortunately, America’s stance was met with resistant as social ideologies

encouraged drug use and addiction. In 1930, William Randolph Hearst’s newspapers

uneventful popularized marijuana by making it sound foreign, demonic, and menacing.

The federal and state government and media portrayed the same kinds of fear tactics, but

it backfired and a new generation of marijuana users emerged (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). It

was symbol of youthful rebellion. Although marijuana had medicinal values, in 1950

many famous jazz musicians, poets, and writers glamorized it use for creativity. In 1960,

Dr. Timothy Leary, a known cocaine and psychedelics user, encourage the Youth of

America to “turn on, tune in, and drop out.” He advocated drug experimentation with

psychedelics, cocaine, LSD, marijuana, and mushroom to alter the mind to gain insight.

Leary’s ideology later led to the Hippie and Summer of Love movements in 1967 that
 Hooked in America 12

encouraged and expanded drug use (Inaba & Cohen , 2004). Hunt (1993) cited The

Rebelliousness of American Youth in the 60s. He reported that social disruption was

caused by war, the activism of blacks, women, and gays, which led to mounting social

problems and progressively more addiction.

Addiction bloomed into a social menace and unwelcome problems for addicts;

moreover, doctors whom helped suffering addicts were seen as criminals for continued

mercy of trying to relieve the withdrawal pain of addiction. As a result of widespread

addiction, society’s reacted aggressively and negatively to this new wave of mid and

lower class addicts. However, society’s reaction had repercussions; it drove addicts even

more into criminality, dereliction, hopelessness, and despair (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998).

By the late 1980s, Inaba and Cohen (2004) cited that over 100 million

prescriptions were written each year because of the onset of pharmacological

advancements. Likewise, street chemist figured out how to synthesis amphetamine, and

methamphetamines, resulting in a huge illicit drug market for the million of people. Drug

users, furthermore, learned how to crush the capsules of Oxycontin, a time-release opioid,

for an instant heroin-like high. Over the next ten years, American’s opinion and reaction

changed from compassion and support to discrimination, stigmatization, and

criminalization of addicts who were classified as social deviants and misfits. They were

the poor white-European, Asian, African-American, and Hispanic populations. To deal

with this social growing problem America would institute and historical number of laws

to contain the infection (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

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The Criminalization of Addiction:

In opposition to health, social, and political liabilities, Americans enacted

hundreds of legislations to discourage all alcohol and drug use for non-medicinal

purposes since the 1800. The New Era American also called the Progressive Era fought

to eliminate moderation of alcohol temperance. The Anti-alcohol coalitions claimed that

there was no compromise because the great debaters claimed that alcohol abuse was the

result of or cause poverty. America was not the first civilization to experience social

disorders from alcohol and drug addiction. China and England had major addiction

problems that they were successful dealing with. Therefore, Americans would

incorporate drug laws from both governments in an attempt to control alcohol and use

(Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

The Chinese appetite for opium inspired the first American drug laws. America ‘s

first drug law was enacted in San Francisco, California in 1875 to deal with the ten

thousand Chinese railroad gangs who open up opium dens commonly used in their

homeland. The law was unsuccessful in dislodging opium and other drug use as similar

laws in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1876. By 1914, there were twenty-seven city and state

laws against citizens and immigrants smoking opium (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). As

a result, America first attempts at opium legislation and control resulted in addicts going

underground to buy, sell, and trade drugs. Just as previous attempts, the laws stimulated

and new menace, illegal drug trading (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998. Thus, legislations

became inadvertently responsible for the hopelessness that characterized the disease of

addiction for the next half of twentieth century in America.

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Nevertheless, in 1900 Dr. Benjamin Rush founded the Temperance Movement;

his goal was to enact prohibition on alcohol and tobacco (Inaba & Cohen). His

movement was unsuccessful for several reasons. Inaba and Cohen (2004) cited that one

reason alcohol restriction and even prohibition was overturn was because alcohol was

valued as a source of major funds for corporations and excise tax. Likewise, state laws

that passed prohibition on cigarette sales, failed because they were unenforceable

resulting in a repealed by late 1920.

Later in 1900, Dr. John Witherspoon became the President of the American

Medial Association and cited in his speech that the medical community had a duty to

save people from the disease of opium addiction (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). He

declared that drug addicts were a menace and called them “hydra-headed monsters”

stalking through the civilized world, wrecking lives and happy homes. He proceed to

elaborate that thousands of addicts were filling the country’s jails and lunatic asylums,

and taking from the unfortunates the precious promise of happiness and eternal life. As a

result of his compelling authoritative evidence, the Federal opium Commission was

established in 1903. Harris Wright was appointed its commissioner and postulated that

same year that America imported 16, 000 pounds of opium for smoking and eating and

that 2, 600,000 pounds of coca leaves were imported yearly (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998).

To rid America of tonic and patent medicines, The Pure Food and Drug Act of

1906 was passed. It prohibited interstate commerce of adulterated foods and drugs; it

also required accurate labeling of the ingredients. In 1909, the opium Exclusion Act was

enacted to encourage the reduction of opium worldwide and in the same year Congress
 Hooked in America 15

banned the importation of opium unless it was intended for medical use (Inaba & Cohen,

2004).

In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson signed and enacted the Federal Narcotics

Internal Revenue Regulations to purify the county from alcohol and drug addicts. This

enactment is commonly known as the Harrison Narcotic Act (Narcotic Anonymous,

1998). The goal of this act was to provide the power to license and tax everyone who

imported, manufactured, sold, or distributed opium or cocaine. A major stipulation of the

act was only licensed physician could legally dispense drug prescriptions therefore

eliminating the over-the-counter availability of opiates and cocaine. After the Harrison

Act, the country’s courts refused to recognize addiction as a disease. Thus, banning the

prescription of opium to addicts who had established that they were suffering not from a

moral deficient, but a disease. In truth, the motivation of the court’s action was

precipitated by US Treasury Department Narcotics Divisions to rid America of the social

condemnation of addicts. It interpreted and accepted the definition of the Harrison Act

that addiction was not a disease. The end result was that prescribing addicts drugs for

maintenance was not within the parameters of physician professional duties therefore

making it illegal (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

Seven years after the Harrison Act, Congress enacted The Eighteenth Amendment

better known as Prohibition of 1920 (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). The law prohibited the

manufacture and sale of any beverage with alcohol. During its thirteen years reign,

Americans saw a decline in healthy and social problems. However, a new coalition of

smugglers, mafia bosses, corrupt politicians, and crooked police created a lucrative drug

trade and the widespread distribute of alcohol, heroin, and cocaine. After witnessing an
 Hooked in America 16

increase in organized crime, Americans had mixed feelings about the benefits and

liabilities of alcohol. The majority felt that Prohibition created serious problems for the

country; thus, Prohibition was repeal in 1933 (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

The federal Narcotic Division with it punitive interpretation of Harrison Act

intimidate doctors and medical centers into discontinuing treatment for drug addicts and

pressured them into reporting users to the authorities (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). Over

the next two decades, the Federal Government swiftly legislated fifty-five laws defining

narcotics usage, sell, and distribution. Local government took the same stance and

enacted hundreds of local statues outlawing addiction. One interestingly example, a local

statue cited that it was illegal for any two known or suspected addicts to be seen together

resulting is fines or incarceration to insane asylums (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

The efforts of federal and state legislation appeared promising and fruitful on the

surface, but this type attitude only drove narcotic addicts underground. America adopted

an anti-maintenance position that resulted in the harassment and even imprisonment of

doctors who continue to treat addiction by prescribing opiates. By 1919, in the US v.

Doremus case the courts would officially cite that addiction and it medical treatment was

a crime. Drug policy has shifted from supply reduction to demand reduction.

In 1932, Harry J. Anslinger became the first “Drug Czar” of the newly established

Federal Bureau of Narcotics. He vigorously enforced cannabis laws while using fear of

rape, murder, and social chaos to support his propaganda campaign. Headlines of

marijuana use read “drug-crazed” Negroes; marijuana is an addictive drug; its effect on

the degenerate races; and sexual promiscuity with white women thrust federal and state

government to enact legislation to wipeout marijuana. His strong campaign against

 Hooked in America 17

marijuana use led to 46 states passing antimarijuana legislations. The Federal government

responded likewise in 1937 and enacted The Marijuana Tax Stamp Act which banned the

growing, selling, and using of cannabis sativa, marijuana (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

The passage of Baggs Act 1951 and the Narcotic Control Act 1956 were

additional acts that imposed harsher penalties. The Harrison Act and its rigid

interpretation was a one-two punch that driven addicts underground to street violence,

disease, arrest, conviction, and incarceration. Addicts could no longer seek medical

treatment; thus they engaged in more illegal activities to support their habits. The

environment for addiction was hostile. A portrait of the America’s addicts can be read in

William Borough famous book “Junkie” that described addicts of the forties and fifties

and the grim confirmation of limited treatment options available to addicts (Narcotic

Anonymous, 1998).

The Controlled Substance Act of 1970 was enacted to legislate against

methamphetamine, but the street market expanded (Inaba & Cohen, 2004). The act,

moreover, established and provided regulatory power to The Drug Enforcement

Administration (DEA). Within a year, the DEA categorized all drugs danger drugs into

five schedules, which limit the availability, use, and abuse of the major drugs such as

cocaine, marijuana, heroin, and methamphetamines (Inaba & Cohen, 2004).

Media, film, and literature have characterized the prosperity of the 1950 - 1980s,

but addicts suffered insurmountable pain and despair. Unfortunately, another significant

change would occur that spread the degradation of addiction in the United States. The

exodus of European immigrants moving out of the crowed cities while African

Americans and Hispanics and moved in exploded addictive behaviors. Stigmatization

 Hooked in America 18

and criminalization mushroomed as report after report linked drug use to crime. Both

developments, however, would lay the foundation for the social interventions of alcohol

and drug dependency (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

The War between Psychiatry and Religious

For centuries in America there has existed conflicts between psychiatry and

religious treatment of addiction. In 1935, the most important and well-known

development in this century pertaining to the treatment of alcohol and drug problems was

the program of Alcohol Anonymous (Fajardo, 2005). Another paramount development

was an article published in 1939 by Dr. William Silkworth in The Lancet, A New

Approach to Psychotherapy in Chronic Alcoholism. In the article, Dr. William Silkworth

describes the process and principle for recovery from alcoholism (Fajardo, 2005).

Dr. William D. Silkworth speech acknowledged that doctors have recognized for

years that alcoholism was some form of moral psychology and of urgent importance to

alcoholics. He claimed that the treatment of alcoholism real, but the application

prescribed difficult beyond our conception (Alcoholic Anonymous, 2001). He cited that

an alcoholic should be freed from his physical craving though hospital procedure before

psychological measures can maximum benefits. He described chronic alcoholic as a

manifestation of an allergy, in which the phenomenon of craving develops. Thus allergic

aloholic types can never safely use alcohol. The sensation sought by alcoholic is so

elusive that while they admit it is injurious, they cannot differentiate the true from the

false. As a result of alcoholism insane acts are repeated over and over unless a person

can experience and entire psychic change; there is little hope of recovery. He postulated

that something was needed to produce an essential psychic change. Psychiatric efforts is
 Hooked in America 19

considerable, but we physician most have made little impressive upon the problems.

Finally, he stated many type do not respond to the ordinary psychology approach

(Alcoholic Anonymous, 2001).

Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde described the alcoholic and addict. The addicted person

was absolutely unable to stop on the basis of self-knowledge; thus he was on one more

journey to the asylum. The behaviors of addicts were absurd and incomprehensible with

respect to the disease of addiction. Using alcohol and drugs lead to extremes until they

lost everything in life. In the end, they took a trip, swearing off forever, physical

exercise, reading inspiritual books, going to health farm and sanitariums, accepting

voluntary committed to asylums, but nothing relieved them of their disease. The precise

definition of such damnation and dereliction we call plain insanity. People, who

exhibited splendid judgment and determination, yet relapse nevertheless. This

characterized the psychological life of alcoholic and addict (Alcoholic Anonymous,

2001).

To deal with hopeless of alcoholics and addicts, various treatment and dispensing

clinics were open to detoxification alcoholic and as opium maintenance (Narcotic

Anonymous, 1998). By 1919 thirteen municipalities in America had forty-four clinics.

Seeming to appear as threats to the Federal anti-maintenance policy the government had

all treatment and clinics closed by 1924; therefore leaving no government programs for

the treatment of addiction. Even though debate raged over the treatment of addiction,

crime and drug related problems continued to spiral out of control. America became

sincerely concern with the associated issues of narcotic use throughout the country.
 Hooked in America 20

Then, in 1929, the congress adopted the Porter Act, in which the government

appropriated funds to establish facilities for the treatment of alcoholics and addicts. The

two facilities funded by the Porter Act were the US Public Health Service Hospital

located in Lexington, Kentucky, and the other in Forth Worth, Texas. Ironically, both

facilities were former prison hospitals for convicts and sentenced addicts. These were the

first institutions that provided eight days of clinically detox alcoholic and addicts who

enter voluntarily. The treatment method for addicts was hard work in cannery or factories

and clean air. Although some treatment was instituted, the 1930s and 1940s were not

good years for the suffering addicts. There was, however, a glimmer of hope on the

horizon (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998).

The struggle of two alcoholics Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob establish something that

would offer a miracle. The miracle came to be known as recovery from the disease of

addiction. During the earlier twentieth century, the world of alcoholics and addicts

seemed a hopeless one indeed. Alcoholic Anonymous and the Twelve Steps began a

miraculous hope for addicts throughout America (Narcotic Anonymous, 1998). A

brigadier in the Salvation Army, Dorothy Berry worked with addicts in New York in

1946 started a Narcotic Anonymous group in NYC prison system. The Salvation Army

offered detoxification services, work to rehabilitation alcoholics and addicts by helping

them find jobs. Today, American offers a variety of treatment program for addicts

including employee assistance program, hospital, and residential based treatment, as well

as twelve-step approach.

Finley (2000) cite the origin of Alcohol Anonymous to two psychologists Carl

Gustav Jung and William James. Jung treated alcohol using a form of psychoanalysis.
 Hooked in America 21

Sometime in 1930, Jung treated Rowland Hazard an investment banker and former state

senator from Rhode Island for one year. Jung told him he had seen alcoholic recovery

after experience some type of religious conversion. After their meeting, Hazard

associated with the Oxford Group a Christian movement action in America. The Oxford

Group a religious movement was founded in 1908 by Frank Buchman and was extremely

popular during the 1920s and 1930s (Finley, 2000). Bill Wilson a successful stockbroker

in New York had a progressively serious alcohol problem and was told by Hazard from

Oxford Group the peace of mind and sense of purpose he felt in his live because of the

Oxford Group practice.

Later, Wilson was prescribed with a copy of William James 1902 book The

Varieties of Religious Experience, which was recommended reading by the Oxford

Group. In 1909, Jung and Sigmund Freud travel to America to lecture at a celebration of

the 20th anniversary of Clark University while there they met with Williams James to

share psychological ideas. Jung (1948-1958) wrote A Psychological Approach to the

Trinity about conversion experiences; it acclaimed how spiritual experiences came to

people in dire circumstance, sever anguish, and calamity (Finley, 2000).

Lemanski (2001) reported that recovery movement over the past 250 years has

been more religious than a scientific enterprise. In 1840, the Washingtonians and the

Women Christian Temperance Union offered recovery program that required acceptance

of religious dogma. The Emmanuel Movement included some Freudian psychoanalysis

to it spiritual approach Christian base (Lamanski, 2001). The Oxford Group Movement

was Moral Re-Armament, in which finding God led to morality (Lamanski, 2001).

Lamanski (2001) report that religious does not work for everybody, but psychological
 Hooked in America 22

treatment can help more clients achieve recovery by offering a broader arrow of

treatment modalities and matching client to the modalities that worked best for him or

her. All have been successful with some significant percentage of client, but Primary

psychotherapeutic intervention Freudian psychoanalysis to more successful intervention

(ML). Fajardo (2005) report that the first person alcoholism counselor was Courtney

Baylor in 1913. The “Common Sense Drinking, a book that influenced both Dr. William

Silkworth and Bill Wilson was instrumental the development of treatment models. The

Minnesota Model born out of Dr. Nelson Bradley and Dr. Dan Anderson took a team

approach (Fajardo, 2005). In 1996, The American Society of Addiction Medicine

(ASAM) devoted five chapters to the twelve Step programs, which is one full section of

its manual (Fajardo, 2005). The 12 Step demonstrated effectively the ability to identify

the problems, define the solution and design a program of actions necessary to bring

about recovery (Fajardo, 2005). Iabna & Cohen Drug courts and laws like California

Proposition 36 mandated the availability to treatment had support of public and treatment

community.

The Country’s Dilemma

Beck et al (1993) report that addiction has become a countrywide dilemma of

serious and legal problems. In fact, addiction is responsible fro more than 25% of

property crimes, 15% of violent crimes, and 14% of homicides per year. American

financial loss is estimated at $1.7 billion per year. The cost of criminal activities against

addiction by federal agencies is approximately $2.5 billion in 1988, compared to $1.76

billion spent in 1986. In addition, at least 14 million Americans used illegal drugs every

month and peak months the total climbs to 25 millions users. Expert estimated that
 Hooked in America 23

approximately 2.3% of Americans over 12 years of age have used illegal drugs. He also

states that one of every hundred people in the United States have serious problems with

alcohol and are by clinical standards considered alcoholics. The number of regular

cigarette smokers is estimated at approximately 49.4 million Americans. In addiction,

Beck et al (1993) found that 37% of addicts had coexisting Axis I mental disorder; thus

concluding that coexistence of addiction with other psychiatric disorder is very common.

Alcohol use effect every body organ, heart, brain, liver, and stomach. Cocaine use

is known to produce serious effects on the neurological, cardiovascular, and respiratory

system. Cigarette smoking is link to cancer, heart disease, and birth defects. A major

problem with heroin, nicotine, cocaine, and alcohol is chronic relapse; most addicts will

relapse within 3 months. Pharmacological interventions such as antabuse, 12-step

programs, methadone, naltrexone, and other preventive drugs are only limited in there

effectiveness in eradicating addiction.

Despite the American best efforts at domestic control through education,

international interdiction, and vocations, the problems of addiction seen to be

multiplying. Hunt, In a country with fluid social structure, a growing underclass of the

poor, delinquent , and criminal, and influx of million of ill educated immigrants, a

scientific way of treating alcohol and drug addiction was offered the leader of America a

way to make social order out of chaos.

Aaron Beck Substance Abuse Therapy

Beck et al (1993) cite that addiction affect the human reward mechanism of the

brain, which led to the two components of addiction, compulsive and obsessive

behaviors. He also noted that social, environmental, and personality factors greatly affect
 Hooked in America 24

the development of addiction is way far beyond the pharmacological properties of the

agents. Moreover, Beck (1993) indicated that addiction have certain cluster of addictive

attitudes that lean to the despair associated with addiction.

Sociological problem as well as psychological issues factor poverty, lack education,

vocations (Beck et al) In 1960, Georgia Miller (Hunt, 1993) began a forceful movement

known as the cognitive revolution. The movement explored human mental processes and

expanded the knowledge of how the mind works. Later, an extraordinary development of

six old sciences, cognitive psychology, neuroscientist, logician, anthropologist,

psycholinguist, computer scientist collectively explored into a new dynamic knowledge

of mental processes, especially the study of addiction.

Therefore, successful treatment depends on the effectiveness in dealing with

addictive potentials. Cognitive therapy is a well documented and research efficacious

treatment model to deal with the pressing problems of addiction. Cognitive therapy is

recommend by many psychologists. Cognitive therapy is a useful mesh of medial and 12-

Step programs to deal with addiction.

Beck et al. the main variable that influence treatment is the addicts avail

themselves to all treatment opportunities, and the effects by the attitudes of treatment

providers and clinical. The high-risk situations of drug abuse are negative and positive

emotional and physical states, interpersonal conflict, social pressure or exposure to drug

cues. Beck describes four cognitive processes: self-efficacy refers to one’s judgment t

deal competently with challenging on high-risk situation; outcome expectancies refer to

the anticipation about effect of a addiction A/D or activity. Attributable drug use to
 Hooked in America 25

feeling better internal and external factors; decision-making that substance use is a result

of multiple decision dependency on decision may or may not lead to substance use

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Alcoholic Anonymous (2001) Fourth Edition. Alcoholic Anonymous World Services,

Inc. New York City.

Bensely, D.A. (1998). Critical thinking in psychology: A unified skills approach. Pacific
Grove, CA: Brook/Cole Publishing.

Beck, A.T., Wright, F. D., Newman, C.F., & Liese, B.S. (1993). Cognitive therapy of
substance abuse: New York: The Guilford Press.

Fajardo, C. (2005) Alcohol/drug counseling and the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous.

Retrieved: January 17, 2006. from
http://www.manisses.com/AP/online/archives/2005/Jan.htm

Finlay, S.W. (2000) Influence of Carl Jung and William James on the origin of
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Groves, P.M., & Rebec, G.V. (1988). The introduction of biological psychology (3rd ed.).
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Hunt, M. (1994). The story of psychology. New York: Anchor Books.

Inaba, D., Cohen, W.E. (2004) Uppers, downers, all arounders, (5th ed.).

Narcotic Anonymous. (1998). Miracles happens: the birth of Narcotics anonymous in

words and pictures. Chatsworth: CA. Narcotic Anonymous World Service
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Lemanski, M. (2001). A History of Addiction and Recovery in the United States.

Tucson, AZ: Sharp Press. Retrieved: January 17, 2006 from
http://www.self-renewal.com/history_of_addiction_and_recovery.htm

Wein, S. (1998). Plato’s Moral Psychology. Retrieved January 15, 2006. from
http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Anci/AnciWein.htm.