10.

Conventional Planar Imaging:

The radiation is produced by X-ray tubes, high energy X-ray equipment or
natural radioactive elements, such as radium and radon, and artificially produced
radioactiveisotopes of elements, such as cobalt-60 and iridium-192. Electromagnetic radiation
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, but is generally depicted as a
single sinusoidal wave.

CT Imaging:
It is as simple as passing X-rays through the patient and obtaining information with a detector on the
other side. The X-ray source and the detector are interconnected and rotated around the patient
during scanning period. Digital computers then assemble the data that is obtained and integrate it
to provide a cross sectional image (tomogram) that is displayed on a computer screen. The image
can be photographed or stored for later retrieval and use as the case may be.

Fluoroscopy:
Transmitted x-ray beam emerging from the patient is incident on the sensitive input area of an
image intensifier Instantaneous (dim) image is produced by the phosphor screen Energy from the
fluorescence of the phosphor screen is magnified (intensified) by accelerating resultant electrons
through a vacuum. The output phosphor screen demonstrates a brighter image

11. D ko to alam sori

12. ?

13. It is the process of increasing the average energy level of an x-ray beam by filtering out the low-
energy photons.

14. The following factors affect tissue contrast in radiographic imaging: kVp, mAs, Beam Modification,
Film / screen combination, Contrast media, and Processing

15. ?

16. Gamma camera imaging:

The conventional method is to place a collimator over the detection crystal/PMT array. The
collimator consists of a thick sheet of lead, typically 1-3 inches thick, with thousands of adjacent
holes through it. The individual holes limit photons which can be detected by the crystal to a cone;
the point of the cone is at the midline center of any given hole and extends from the collimator
surface outward. However, the collimator is also one of the sources of blurring within the image;
lead does not totally attenuate incident gamma photons, there can be some crosstalk between
holes.
 Unlike a lens, as used in visible light cameras, the collimator attenuates most (>99%) of incident
photons and thus greatly limits the sensitivity of the camera system. Large amounts of radiation
must be present so as to provide enough exposure for the camera system to detect sufficient
scintillation dots to form a picture.
SPECT:

SPECT imaging is performed by using a gamma camera to acquire multiple 2-D images (also
called projections), from multiple angles. A computer is then used to apply a tomographic
reconstructionalgorithm to the multiple projections, yielding a 3-D dataset. This dataset may then be
manipulated to show thin slices along any chosen axis of the body, similar to those obtained from
other tomographic techniques, such as MRI, CT, and PET.

PET:

To conduct the scan, a short-lived radioactive tracer isotope, is injected into the living subject

(usually into blood circulation). The tracer is chemically incorporated into a biologically active
molecule. There is a waiting period while the active molecule becomes concentrated in tissues of
interest; then the research subject or patient is placed in the imaging scanner. The molecule most
commonly used for this purpose is fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), a sugar, for which the waiting period
is typically an hour. During the scan a record of tissue concentration is made as the tracer decays.

As the radioisotope undergoes positron emission decay (also known as positive beta decay), it emits

a positron, an antiparticle of the electron with opposite charge. After travelling up to a
few millimeters the positron encounters an electron. The encounter annihilates them both,
producing a pair of annihilation (gamma) photonsmoving in opposite directions. These are detected
when they reach a scintillator in the scanning device, creating a burst of light which is detected
by photomultipliertubes or silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si APD). The technique depends on
simultaneous or coincident detection of the pair of photons moving in approximately opposite
direction. Photons that do not arrive in temporal "pairs” are ignored.

17. It produces gamma radiation of about the same energy (140 kev) as produced by a diagnostic X-ray
machine, and significantly lower energy than the therapeutic treatment X-rays produced by linac
machines in cancer radiotherapy. All the ionizing radiation causes similar damage at a cellular level,
but because alpha and beta rays are relatively non-penetrating, external exposure to them causes
only localized damage, e.g. radiation burns to the skin. Gamma rays and neutrons are more
penetrating, causing diffuse damage throughout the body (e.g. radiation sickness, increased
incidence of cancer) rather than burns
18. A gamma camera consists of one or more flat crystal planes (or detectors) optically coupled to an
array of photomultiplier tubes, the assembly is known as a "head", mounted on a gantry. The gantry
is connected to a computer system that both controls the operation of the camera as well as
acquisition and storage of acquired images.

The system accumulates events, or counts, of gamma photons that are absorbed by the crystal in
the camera. Usually a large flat crystal of sodium iodide with thallium doping in a light-sealed
housing is used.

The crystal scintillates in response to incident gamma radiation. When a gamma photon leaves the
patient, it knocks an electron loose from an iodine atom in the crystal, and a faint flash of light is
produced when the dislocated electron again finds a minimal energy state. The initial phenomenon
of the excited electron is similar to the photoelectric effect and the Compton effect. After the flash
of light is produced, it is detected. Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) behind the crystal detect the
fluorescent flashes (events) and a computer sums the counts. The computer reconstructs and
displays a two dimensional image of the relative spatial count density on a monitor. This
reconstructed image reflects the distribution and relative concentration of radioactive tracer
elements present in the organs and tissues imaged.

19. It is well suited to the role because it emits readily detectable 140 keV gamma rays, and its half-
life for gamma emission is 6.0058 hours (meaning that 93.7% of it decays to 99Tc in 24 hours). The
short half life of the isotope allows for scanning procedures which collect data rapidly, but keep total
patient radiation exposure low.

20. High-energy photons exhibit more Compton scattering than low energy photons. Unfortunately,
Compton scattering is the major source of background noise in X-ray images. In addition, Compton
scattering is the major source of tissue damage due to X-rays. For these reasons, this phenomenon is
very undesirable.