Human Physiology - Core Concept Master Cheat Sheet
01: Introduction to Physiology
• Physiology: Physiology is the study of body function. It is
the study of the biochemical, physical and mechanical
functions of living organisms. .
• Cell Communication: Cells within a group of tissue must
communicate to support themselves, as well as transmit
vital information. Specialized cell junctions, such as gap
junctions, provide a direct connection for the transfer of
molecules between cells. Cell receptors also provide a
major form of cell communication between cells.
• Homeostasis: Homeostasis is a vital concept in human
physiology. It is the process through which a nearly stable
internal environment is maintained in the body so that
cellular functions can proceed at maximum efficiency.
Every body structure contributes to maintaining the
internal environment within a normal range of
temperature, pH, oxygenation, etc.
Cell Receptors Gap Junctions
02: Chemical Composition of the Body
• Structure of an Atom: Atomic nuclei contain protons and
neutrons. Each type of atom, or element, has a different
number of protons. For example, hydrogen has 1 proton,
while carbon has 14.
• Atomic Number: of an atom is equal to the number of
protons. The atomic number, or Z, appears in the top left
corner of the periodic table of elements.
• Carbohydrates: are categorized into 3 main forms:
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. The
functions of carbohydrates include energy usage, energy
storage, and building material (e.g., cellulose in plant cell
walls); they can also modify other macromolecules (e.g.,
glycolipids, glycoproteins).
• Proteins: are formed by amino acids being linked
together and assuming their final conformation. The amino
acids are linked together through peptide bonds. Peptide
bonds are chemical bonds between two molecules, or
amino acids, and are formed between the carboxyl group
of one molecule and the amine group of the other.
H H
H H
Bonding
C Ea
C + Enzyme
H H H H
4 hydrogen and Methane
1 carbon atoms Molecule
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03: Cell Structure and Function
• Phospholipids: are a type of lipid that make up the
majority of mammalian cell membranes. The phospholipids
are amphipathic because they have a hydrophobic tail and
hydrophilic head group.
• Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane of
mammalian cells is also known as the phospholipid bilayer.
It is semi-permeable barrier around the outside of the cell
and, within its interior, is the cytosol, organelles and
nucleus of the cell.
• Cell Nucleus: The cell nucleus is usually near the center
of the cell; it contains the majority of the genetic material
in cells. Within the nucleus, the DNA is compacted and
organized into chromosomes. Also within the nucleus is the
nucleolus. The nucleolus has no true membrane
surrounding it, and this is where ribosomes are produced.
• Phagocytosis: is a form of endocytosis where portions of
the cell or an entire cell, such as bacteria, are engulfed.
Phagocytes, such as macrophages and neutrophils,
perform this function regularly as part of an immune
response.
• Cholecterol: plays a key role in plasma membranes, with
respect to membrane fluidity. Processes, such as signaling,
endocytosis, and protein movement require a fluid
environment to occur.
04: Enzymes and Energy
• Catalyst: are molecules or substances that effect the
conversion of reactants to reaction products.
• Enzymes as Catalysts: Enzymes catalyze most
biochemical reactions. For reactants to form products, a
certain input of energy is necessary to get things going.
This energy is called the energy of activation. Enzymes
function as catalysts by lowering the Energy of activation
(Ea), but they do not change the Gibbs free energy (ΔG).
• Enzyme Kinetics: Enzymes can perform many reactions
in a short amount of time, up to millions per second.
Enzyme rates are dependent on the conditions of the
solution and the concentration of the substrates.
• ATP: Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is the form in which
energy is stored inside cells; it is the “energy currency”.
ATP is produced during metabolic reactions, as well as
through the electron transport chain.
• ATP Synthase: Potential energy is used by ATP Synthase
to generate ATP from the phosphorylation of ADP.
No Enzyme
Free energy
Reactants
ΔG
Products
 05: Cellular Respiration and Metabolism
• Metabolism: is the catalytic breakdown of the products
of digestion to provide nutrients for the cells of the body.
• Glycolysis: is a series of 10 steps with reactions that
convert glucose into pyruvate. During the process of
these reactions, ATP is produced and the coenzyme NADH
is produced.
• Krebs Cycle: The Krebs cycle is also known as the Citric
Acid Cycle and the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle. This cycle
converts Acetyl CoA into a reaction net of: 2 GTP, 6 NADH,
2 FADH2 and 4 CO2 (from 2 turns, 2 Acetyl CoA from each
molecule of glucose).
• Glycogen: is a polysaccharide of glucose used as an
energy storage form by the liver and skeletal muscles.
This is a short energy reserve that can be mobilized
quickly.
• Gluconeogenesis: A metabolic pathway is a series of
chemical reactions that convert an initial molecule into a
final product.
06: Tissues and Organ Systems
• Tissue: Cells are organized into tissues within the human
body and, together, tissues make up body organs.
• Fluid Compartments: Intracellular fluid is of the utmost
importance to the cell; in it are the nutrients, electrolytes
and components necessary for cell division and viability.
The extracellular fluid compartment includes the
interstitial fluid and the blood plasma.
• Connective Tissue: Connective tissue is the most
abundant body tissue. It consists of cells and a matrix of
ground substance and fibers.
• Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue generates the force used by
the axial skeleton for movement. Through the attachment
on bones and lever action, muscle provides for
movements of limbs and the head and neck.
• Nervous System: The nervous system controls
movement and function through nerve impulses sent to
and from the brain. The nervous system is divided into
the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system.
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07: Endocrine System Physiology
• Metabolism: can be broken down into 3 major
categories: (A) Amine, (B) Peptide hormones, and (C)
Lipid hormones.
• Hormone Transport: Hormones can travel free in the
plasma, or bound to carrier proteins, such as serum
albumin.
• Hypothalamus: The Hypothalamus-Pituitary system is the
master control center of endocrine physiology.
• Pancreas: The endocrine function of the pancreas is to
regulate blood sugar levels. Insulin and glucagon are
produced in cell clusters, known as the Islets of
Langerhans.
• Calcium as a Second Messenger: Normally, intracellular
calcium levels are low with calcium being sequestered in
the smooth ER and mitochondria. Upon activation, calcium
enters the cell through calcium channels. It is also
released from intracellular stores in the smooth ER and the
mitochondria.
• cAMP: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is
involved in signal transduction for blood sugar regulation
and lipid metabolism.
08: Neuronal Structure and Signaling
• Neurons: Neurons have a unique anatomy that facilitates
their function within the nervous system.
• Soma: nerve cell body of a neuron is similar to that of
other cells.
• Connective Tissue: Allow communication with another
neuron, they make up half of the chemical synapse. By
spreading around the soma in a tree branch like fashion,
they increase communication potential with the confine of
the nervous system.
• The Axon: The axon carries the information between
neurons to the next dendritic tree.
• Neurolemma: the presence of the neurolemma or
Schwann cell layer around axons permits neuronal repair
within the peripheral nervous system.
• Action Potential: An action potential is defined as a
change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell,
followed by a return to its resting membrane potential.
 09: The Central Nervous System
• Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the most anterior and
superior region of the brain, including the frontal lobes.
• Cerebral Cortex: The cerebral cortex is the outer layer
of the brain (2-4mm thick), which folds into sulci and
surrounds the cerebrum.
• Frontal Lobe: Within the frontal lobe are the following
primary regions: (1) Premotor cortex, (2) Motor cortex,
and (3) Broca’s area – this area of the brain controls the
muscles of the pharynx, larynx and mouth to produce
speech in humans.
• Primary Motor Cortex: is responsible for the signals to
execute movement. It fulfills this role, along with the
other brain regions of the motor cortex: (1) posterior
parietal cortex, (2) premotor cortex, and (3)
supplementary motor area (SMA).
• Descending Tracts: The descending tracts convey
impulses from the brain into the spinal cord grey matter
and then out to the periphery. These tracts include:
Corticospinal tract, Rubrospinal, Tectospinal,
Vestibulospinal, Reticulospinal, Anterior Reticulospinal.
• Reflex Arc: The reflex arc is a multi-neuron conduction
pathway, including a receptor, sensory neuron,
interneuron or center, efferent or motor neuron and the
effector, such as a muscle.
11: Sensory Physiology
• Sensory Receptors: Sensory receptors are the initial
component of our sensory systems, such as touch and
vision. They respond to a stimulus and perform sensory
transduction.
• Tonic Receptor: tonic receptors adapt slowly to the
stimulus and, therefore, produce and transmit action
potentials over a period of time. An example of a tonic
receptor would be a pain receptor.
• Organ of Corti: The organ of corti is at the center of
sound and pitch perception. The organ of corti contains the
auditory sensory cells. The organ of corti plays a major
role in pitch perception. High frequency sounds activate
the basilar membrane near the oval window. Lower
frequency sounds travel further down the membrane.
• Retina: The retina of the human eye converts light into
chemical energy. It is made up of a number of layers that
give rise to the optic nerve. In the center of the macula is
the fovea, which is the most sensitive region of the eye to
light.
• Visual Pathway: After the optic chiasma, the majorities
of the axons of the optic tract project to and terminate in
the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN). Alternatively, some
of the optic tract projects to the colliculus, which then
directs eye movements towards visual targets. The LGN is
part of the thalamus and it is the primary processing
center for visual information. Visual information is then
relayed to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

Vestibular System

12: Muscle Physiology

10: Autonomic Nervous System
• Origin of the muscle: The end of the muscle attached
• Autonomic Nervous System: A branch of peripheral closest to trunk or to more stationary bones.
nervous system which innervates the viscera, the internal • Insertion of the muscle: The more distal end or mobile
organs. attachment.
• Atomic Number: The nervous system located within the • Fatigue: A condition in which muscle is no longer able to
gastrointestinal tract, which is considered a branch of the generate or sustain power.
autonomic nervous system. • Sarcolemma: Plasma membrane of muscle.
• Sympathetic Branch: A branch of motor division of the • Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Specialized endoplasmic
autonomic nervous system. Referred to as the “Fight or reticulum of the muscle.
Flight” system. • Tetanus: State of maximum contraction.
• Parasympathetic Branch: A branch of the motor division • Muscle cramp: A sustained painful contraction of the
of the autonomic nervous system. Referred to as the skeletal muscle.
“Wine and Dine” system. • Isotonic contraction: Any contraction that creates force
• Dual Innervation: most organs of the body are and moves a load.
innervated by both the parasympathetic and sympathetic • Isometric contraction: A contraction that creates force
divisions of the autonomic nervous system. without movement.
Organ Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Heart Increase Decrease
Lungs Increase Decrease
Digestive Decrease Increase
System
Blood Dilate No change
Vessels
Pupil Dilate Constrict
Sweating Increase No change
Glands Increase No change
(Adrenal)
Sexual Increase Increase
Response

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 13: Muscles: Mechanisms of Contraction and
Neural Movement
• Actin: Thin filament protein.
• Myosin: Thick filament protein that has ATPase activity.
• Golgi tendon organs: Receptors found at the junction of
the tendons and muscle fibers that are responsible for
reflex relaxation.
• Muscle spindles: Stretch receptors that send information
to the brain and spinal cord concerning the length of the
muscle.
• Tropomyosin: Tropomyosin wraps around the actin
filament, blocking the actin-binding site. Troponin
regulates tropomyosin.
• Smooth Muscle Membrane: Smooth muscle can have
unstable resting membrane potentials between -40 and -
80mV. The unstable membrane potential leads to slow
wave potentials, which have cycles of depolarization and
repolarization that may not reach threshold. However,
pacemaker potentials have regular depolarization and
always reach threshold.
Thick Filament
45°
Pi
ADP
1 2
Thin Filament
Thin filament
14: Cardiovascular Physiology
• Myocardium: Cardiac muscle, made up of two types of
myocardial cells: contractile and pacemaker.
• Atrioventricular valves: Separate the atria from the
ventricles; tricuspid on the right side and mitral on the left
side of the heart.
• Semilunar valves: Prevent blood pumped out of the
heart from returning.
• Pacemaker cells: Specialized myocardial cells that signal
myocardial contraction.
• Contractile cells: Myocardial cells that contribute to
contraction of the heart.
• Graded contraction: The ability of the muscle fiber to
vary the amount of force it generates.
• Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle is the period from the
beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next.
Each cycle has a diastolic phase (cardiac muscle is
relaxed) and systolic phase (cardiac muscle is contracted).
• Stroke Volume: is the volume of blood pumped by one
ventricle in one contraction. It is measured in ml per beat.
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15: Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
• Layers of Blood Vessels: The inner lining is known as
the tunica interna. Next to the tunica interna is a layer of
smooth muscle called the tunica media. Finally, the outside
layer of connective tissue is the tunica externa.
• Resistance: The opposition of the vessels to blood flow.
• Velocity: How fast blood will travel past a given point.
• Flow Rate: Measures how much blood flows past a point
in a given time period.
• Pressure Gradient: Blood flows from an area of higher
pressure to an area of lower pressure. In the
cardiovascular system, the high pressure is created by
heart contraction; therefore, blood flows from heart (high
pressure) into the blood vessels (lower pressure).
• Capillary Exchange: Molecules move from the blood into
the interstitial fluid primarily by diffusion and transcytosis.
Exchange in the capillary can also occur due to bulk flow,
which is mass movement between the blood and
interstitial fluid. Filtration is the movement out of the
capillary and absorption is movement into the capillary.
Bulk flow is regulated by hydrostatic pressure and osmotic
pressure.
16: Respiratory Physiology
• Pleural cavity: The pleural cavity (pleura), which is the
space between the ribs and lungs surrounded by pleural
membranes.
• Vocal folds: Voice production occurs primarily in the
larynx, or voice box. Within the voice box is a set of
cartilage located at the front of the throat, which contains
the vocal folds. The opening and closing of the vocal folds,
as air passes through, produces sounds of different
quality.
• Acid-base Balance: maintain blood pH within the range
of 7.35-7.45; as carbon dioxide is an acid, it can affect
blood pH. Because the lungs can alter carbon dioxide
levels, the lungs are involved in maintaining blood pH
within the normal range.
• Ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs.
• Diaphragm: sheet of muscle below the lungs, which
contracts during inspiration.
• Inspiration: movement of air into the lungs due to
alveoloar pressure being less than atmospheric pressure.
• Expiration: movement of air out of the lungs, due to
alveolar pressure being greater than atmospheric
pressure.
Gas diffusion depends on partial pressures of the
gases. Partial pressure (P), in a mixture of gases,
equals total gas pressure times the % of the gas.
For example, in Atmospheric Air:
Total pressure at sea level = 760 mm Hg
Partial pressure of Nitrogen = 760(.79) = 79%
Partial pressure of Oxygen = 760(.21)= 21%
Partial pressure of Carbon Dioxide = .04%
 17: Kidney and Nephronal Physiology
• Ureter: are hollow, muscular tubes. The filtrate fluid
drains from the kidneys to the bladder.
• Bladder: functions by collecting and storing urine until it
is eliminated from the body.
• Urethra: is a hollow tube leading from the bladder to the
body surface, for the external elimination of urine.
• Nephron: There are over 1 million in each kidney. All the
nephrons drain towards the center of the kidney into the
collecting duct system. The nephron perfoms almost all of
the kidneys functions, including reabsorption and secretion
of certain solutes and ions.
• Minor calyx: receives drainage from nephron.
• Renal pelvis: gathers fluid from major calyx before
draining into ureters.
• Vasa recta: blood vessels around Loop of Henle, These
vessels function to maintain the gradients necessary for
countercurrent exchange.
• Loop of Henle: The Loop of Henle can be divided into 2
functional regions: Descending Limb and the Ascending
Limb. In the Descending Limb, fluid travels down the
descending limb towards the medulla. In the Ascending
Limb, fluid travels towards the cortex. In this region of the
nephron, Na+ and Cl- are actively transported out of the
limb. This leads to dilute or hypo-osmotic fluid entering
the collecting tubule.
19: Digestive Physiology and Nutrition
• Mastication: use of tongue, teeth, mouth to break food
into smaller pieces.
• Peristalsis: wave of muscle contraction.
• Digestion: digestion, which involves the breakdown of
molecules into their component parts, which are
chemically separated by enzymes by breaking chemical
bonds.
• Microvilli: finger-like projections in small intestine that
increase absorptive surface area.
• Liver: The liver is divided into 4 lobes: right, left,
caudate, and quadrate. It is further divided into lobules,
containing sinusoids, which are enlarged spaces for the
processing of blood. The Hepatic Portal System is a unique
blood supply made up of the hepatic portal vein. It directs
blood from the intestines in such a way that substances
absorbed in the small intestine pass through the liver first.
• Gallbladder: is a small sac on the inferior side of the
liver. It stores and concentrates bile and, when needed,
the bile travels down the common bile duct into the
duodenum.

18: Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
• Osmolality: is a measure of the osmoles of solute per
kilogram of solvent. An osmole is the unit of measure that
defines the number of moles of a molecule that
contributes to a solution’s osmotic pressure. In other
words, for body fluids, it reflects the number of moles of
Na+, K+ etc. which contribute to the osmotic pressure of
the body fluid.
• Hydrostatic and Osmotic Pressure: Hydrostatic
pressure is caused by the blood pressure generated by the
heart beating. Osmotic pressure is caused by Na+ and
other electrolytes.
• Body Acidity: There a number of factors that can
increase the acidity of the body and blood such as: (1)
increased intake or decreased excretion of acidic
compounds (2) inadequate breathing (3) impairment of
normal metabolism, etc.
• Metabolic Acidosis: is caused by a decrease in the
ability of the kidneys to excrete acid or the addition of acid
to the body, such as in diabetic ketoacidosis.
• Metabolic Alkalosis: is caused by the addition of alkali
to the body, i.e- ingestion of antacids, or by the loss of
acids such as during vomiting.
• Graded contraction: The ability of the muscle fiber to
vary the amount of force it generates.
20: Energy Balance and Metabolism
• Calorie: nutritional unit of energy listed on food labels,
scientific unit of energy; amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree Celsius.
• Catabolism: is the breakdown of substances, which leads
to the release of energy stored in chemical bonds.
• Anabolism: is the process of building of substances; it
requires energy. Catabolic and anabolic processes are
linked. In some cases, the energy required for an
unfavorable anabolic reaction is provided by the energy
released from catabolism.
• Urea cycle: is an essential component of protein
metabolism. Amino acids have nitrogen groups that can
form ammonia. In the liver, the urea cycle minimizes the
toxic ammonia by metabolizing amino acids into urea.
• Gluconeogenesis: process of converting amino acids into
glucose.

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

Cell Membrane

Cations (positively charged Inside cells, cations (positively

molecules): Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+;
and anions (negatively
charged molecules): Cl-,
HCO-3 and proteins are in
equal concentrations.
charged molecules): Ca2+, Mg2+,
Na+;and anions (negatively
charged molecules): Cl-,
HCO-3 and proteins are in
equal concentrations.

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 21: Body’s Defenses – The Immune System
• Immune System: is made up of various primary and
secondary lymphoid organs. These organs include: (1)
Primary lymphoid organs – thymus and bone marrow, and
(2) Secondary lymphoid organs – tonsils, lymph nodes,
spleen, Peyer’s patches, appendix and lymphatic tissue.
• Non-specific Immunity: is the basic resistance to
disease that an individual possesses by virtue of his/her
birth. It is the first line of defense against infection.
• Specific Immunity: Destroy invading pathogens and any
toxic molecules they produce, are highly specific to the
particular pathogen that induced them, can also provide
long-lasting protection, and have the ability to distinguish
between what is foreign and what is self, which is a
fundamental feature of the adaptive immune system.
• B-cells: are lymphocytes that play a large role in the
humoral immune response, and B-cells are activated by
antigen, which leads to effector B-cell function.
• Antibodies: Antibodies or immunoglobulins, in general,
are composed of four polypeptide chains, two identical
copies each of a light chain (L) and a heavy chain (H). The
variable region on both the heavy and light chain makes
up the antigen-binding site.
• T-cells: Memory T-cells play an important role in
stimulating a heightened immune response to a previously
encountered antigen. Effector T-cells include cytotoxic T-
cells, which target and kill the invading microbe.
22: Reproduction and Development
• Sex Chromosomes: Each human develops according to a
total of 46 chromosomes, 44 autosomes and 2 sex
chromosomes.
• Sex Organ Development: Sex determination in humans
takes place around 7-9 weeks of gestation. The Wolffian
ducts, which develop in males, and the Mullerian ducts,
which develop in females are under the control of a
glycoprotein hormone known as Mullerian-inhibiting factor
(MIF).
• Menstrual Cycle: During the first 4-5 days of the
menstrual cycle, the uterine lining is shed – a process
called menstruation. This takes place during the follicular
phase. This process is controlled by the drop in
progesterone from the end of the previous luteal phase
and the rise in FSH.
• Fertilization: Inside the fallopian tube, the spermatozoa
and ovum meet. Next, the spermatozoa binds to the
extracellular matrix surrounding the ovum, known as the
zona pellucida. Then the acrosome reaction takes place,
which prevents other sperm from fertilizing the ovum.
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23: Exercise Physiology
• 1-repetition maximum (1-RM): maximal amount of
weight that can be lifted one time; used to determine
muscular intensity.
• Muscle hypertrophy: increase in muscle size due to
strength training; due to larger protein fibers.
• Fast twitch fiber: large, powerful fibers that fatigue
easily; used in sprinting and jumping.
• Slow twitch fiber: small less powerful fibers; fatigue
resistant; used for walking and jogging.
• Anticipatory Rise: increase in ventilation before the start
of exercise.
• VO2 maximum: maximum amount of oxygen utilized by
the body; measured in mL/kg/min.
• Anaerobic Threshold: occurs with intense exercise and
reliance on anaerobic metabolism; markers are an increase
in ventilation and blood lactate accumulation.
• Cardiovascular Response to Exercise: The
cardiovascular system responds to exercise in the following
ways: (1) increase in cardiac output, for example from
5L/min at rest to 20-25L/min, (2) increase in systolic blood
pressure; diastolic pressure doesn't normally increase, (3)
increase in heart rate, and (4) increase in stroke volume.
90-100% MHR Maximum
80-90% MHR
Anaerobic
70-80% MHR
Aerobic
60-70% MHR
Weight Loss
24: Medical Physiology
• Myocardial infarction: also known as a heart attack; due
to coronary vessel occlusion; ischemia causes death of
heart muscle; coronary bypass can help manage this.
• Heart arrhythmias: detected with ECG’s; many causes
including heart’s electrical system and electrolyte
imbalances.
• COPD: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease;
combination of asthma, bronchitis, emphysema,
supplemental oxygen often necessary.
• Pulmonary edema: fluid accumulation in the interstitial
space; affects gas exchange.
• GERD: In Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), the
esophageal sphincter does not close completely. Acid in
the stomach is then able to enter the esophagus. This
produces a burning sensation or “heartburn”.
• Cervical cancer: 3rd most common female reproductive
cancer; usually assiated with human papillomavirus (HPV)
infection; vaccine is now available.
• Prostate hyperplasia and cancer: hyperplasia is
common in men over age 50; difficulty urinating is a
symptom; PSA test- prostate specific antigen is a blood
test used to determine levels of an antigen associated with
prostate cancer.