1

1. Electronics
4.1 SI Units and Symbol
SI Unit Symbol SI Prefix Symbol Value
Meter M Giga G 10
9

Kilogram Kg Mega M 10
6

Second S Kilo k 10
3

Ampere A Milli m 10
-3

Kelvin K Micro µ 10
-6

-9
Nano n 10
-12
Pico p 10

1.2 Wave and Wave Motion

A wave is a disturbance that propagates (travels) through space and time, usually by transference of
energy. A mechanical wave is a wave that propagates through a medium due to restoring forces produced upon its
deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules slamming into their neighbors, which push
their neighbors into their neighbors (and so on); when air molecules collide with their neighbors, they also bounce
away from them (restoring force). This keeps the molecules from actually traveling with the wave.
Waves travel and transfer energy from one point to another, often with no permanent displacement of
the particles of the medium—that is, with little or no associated mass transport. They consist instead of oscillations
or vibrations around almost fixed locations.
There are also waves capable of traveling through a vacuum, e.g. electromagnetic radiation (including
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, gamma rays, X-rays, and radio waves). They consist of period
oscillations in electrical and magnetic properties that grow, reach a peak, and diminish to zero in a periodic
fashion.

It appears as if something is actually moving along the material, but

in reality it is just the distortion moving, where one part influences the next.
Wavelength is defined as the distance from one crest (or maximum of the
wave) to the next crest or maximum.

The wavelength of an ocean wave is typically several meters. The wavelength of the electromagnetic
wave used in a microwave oven is in the order of a centimeter.
Amplitude: The height of the wave is called its amplitude. Amplitude relates to loudness in sound and brightness in
light.
Frequency: The frequency of waves is the rate the crests or peaks pass a given point. Frequency is the velocity
divided by the wavelength designated as cycles (or peaks) per second. Cycles per second is also called Hertz.
Frequency = Velocity / Wavelength
Another way of writing that is:
Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
v=f×λ
8
Note: Velocity of an electro-magnetic radio wave in free space is approximately 3 × 10 m/s

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1.2.1 Sound wave
Sound is a travelling wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas,
composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard, or
the sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations.
For humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 12 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20
kHz), although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally decreases with age. Other species
have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.

The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all forms
of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium.
Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental
property of the material.
The speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C air at the sea level, the speed of
sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula "v = (331 + 0.6T) m/s". In
fresh water, also at 20 °C, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In
steel, the speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph).
The scientific study of the propagation, absorption, and reflection of sound waves is called acoustics.

Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an
undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal.

Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average, or
equilibrium) atmospheric pressure caused by a sound wave. Sound pressure can be measured using
a microphone in air and a hydrophone in water. The SI unit for sound pressure p is the Pascal
(symbol: Pa).

Sound pressure diagram: 1. silence, 2. audible sound, 3. atmospheric pressure, 4. instantaneous sound
pressure

Sound pressure level (SPL) or sound level is a logarithmic measure of the effective sound pressure
of a sound relative to a reference value. It is measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference
level.

1.3 Basic Electricity

Basic SI unit for current is ampere (A), potential different is volt and resistance is ohm. A conductor
conducts electricity easily while an insulator does not easily. When electric current flow through a conductor, heat
may be generated, chemical reaction may occur and magnetic field is created.

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Electric current means, depending on the context, a flow of electric charge (a phenomenon) or the rate of
flow of electric charge (a quantity). This flowing electric charge is typically carried by moving electrons, in a
conductor such as wire. The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere. Electric current
is measured using an ammeter.
For a steady flow, the current I in amperes can be calculated with the following equation:

I=
where Q is the electric charge in coulombs transferred, and t is the time in seconds

1.3.1 Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them.
The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:

I= or V= IR ………. (1)
where V is the potential difference measured across the resistance in units of volts; I is the current through the
resistance in units of amperes and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's
law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.

1.3.2 Power in DC Circuits

The watt (symbol: W) is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units (SI), named after the
Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819). The unit measures the rate of energy conversion. It is defined as one
joule per second.
The rate of dissipation of energy, dW/dt, is known as the power, P, and therefore since I and V are
constant, P = VI …………… (2)
Power = Voltage × Current
The unit of power is the watt (1 W = 1 J/s).
From (1), (2) P = I 2R ………….. (3)
2
Or P = V /R ………….. (4)
The Energy dissipated in time t, W = Pt = VIt
Energy = Power × time
1.3.3 Resisters in Series
R1 R2 R3
The same current, I, flows I
V1 V2 V3
through each resistor.
Assuming that the connecting V
wires have no resistance, the
total potential reference, V, is
given by,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 …………. (5)
The sum of the voltages is equal to the total applied voltage. V 1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3. If equivalent resistance is R,
then V = IR, then substituting in equation (5),
IR = IR2 + IR2 + IR3 ……………. (6)
R = R1 + R2 + R3 ………………… (7)
In general,

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RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ TV Technology
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Note: When resistors are connected in series the total resistance of the combination is the sum of the individual
resistors.

1.3.4 Resistors in Parallel

There is the same potential difference, V, across each R1

resistor, I I1 V
I = I1 + I2 ………….. (8)
I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2, and I = V/R, R2
I2
V
where the R is the equivalent resistance of the network,
and from equation 8,

= + V

= +

R=

Note: for three resistors = + +

In General, = + + + + ∙∙∙∙∙∙

Note: If the third band is gold divide the value by 10. If the third band is silver divide the value by 100.

1.4 Electromagnetism and Inductance

1.4.1 Magnetic Field
The region around the magnet where magnetic effects can be experienced is called the magnetic field of
the magnet.

1.4.2 Magnetic Fields of Current – Carrying Conductors

In 1820, Oersted discovered that a wire carrying an electric current has an associated magnetic field. For a
straight wire the field lines are a series of concentric circles centered on the wire (Fig: 04.4.2.1). The direction of
the field can be found by using the right-hand grip rule: Grip the wire using the right hand with the thumb pointing
in the direction of the current – the fingers then point in the direction of the field.

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The field of a wire can be intensified by coiling it to form a solenoid. The field of solenoid is shown in Fig: 04.4.2.2.

1.4.3 Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current.
The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.
The material of the core of the magnet (usually iron) is composed of small regions called magnetic
domains that act like tiny magnets. Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron
core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale
magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates
the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to
the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The larger the
current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all
the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this
phenomenon is called saturation.

Fig: 04.3.3.1

1.4.4 Inductor
An inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can
store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing
through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its
inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire
shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside the
coil.

An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material,

typically copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of
ferromagnetic or ferromagnetic material. Core materials with a higher
permeability than air increase the magnetic field and confine it closely to
the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance.
Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential
difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent inductance (LT):

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= + + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ +
The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be
different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total inductance:

LT = L1 + L2 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙ + Ln
These simple relationships hold true only when there is no mutual
coupling of magnetic fields between individual inductors.
The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to
establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:

W = LI2 joules
where L is inductance and I is the current through the inductor.
Examples:

1.4.5 Capacitor
An electric field is a property that describes the space that surrounds electrically charged particles or that
which is in the presence of a time-varying magnetic field. This electric field exerts a force on other electrically
charged objects. The concept of an electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors or more separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists across the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on
each conductor to the voltage V between them

Q = CV
SI units of capacitance (C) is Farad (F), a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on
each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
The value of capacitors more commonly found are measured in microfarads (µF), nanofarads or picofarads (pF).
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the formula:

W = CV2 joules

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with separation

.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity. The
capacitance is directly proportional to the overall surface area of the plates and is inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates.

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Note: The capacitor block the D.C current.
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied
voltage.

Several capacitors in series

CT = C1 + C2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + Cn

Capacitors in series have equal charges

So that the effective capacitance is given by:

= + +∙∙∙+

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working

voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply.

1.5 A.C Circuits

If polarity of the EMF changes with time, it is known as alternating EMF. The current that such an EMF
causes to flow repeatedly changes its direction and is known as alternating current (AC).

E = E0sin(ωt)
Where, E = the value of the EMF at time t (V), E0 = the peak value (maximum value) of E and
ω = the angular frequency of the supply (rad/s), ω = 2∏f and f is the frequency of the supply.
1 = peak amplitude
2 = peak to peak amplitude
3 = RMS amplitude
4 = wave period

Fig: 01.5.1

Note: Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable

1.5.1 Transformers
A transformer changes an
alternating voltage from one value
to another. It consists of two coils,
called primary and secondary
winding, which are wounded on
the same core but are not
connected electrically.
A transformer works by
electromagnetic induction: a.c. is
supplied to the primary and
produces a changing magnetic field which passes through the secondary, thereby inducing a changing voltage in
the secondary. Induced voltage in the secondary is always of opposite polarity to the primary voltage.

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It can be shown that if a transformer is 100% efficient at transferring electrical energy from primary to secondary,
then

1.6 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivities are higher than those of insulators but less
than those of conductors.

01.6.1 Diode
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic
component that conducts electric current in only one
direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor
diode, the most common type today.
1.6.2 Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device
used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is
made of a solid piece of semiconductor material,
with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the
current flowing through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power
can be much more than the controlling (input)
power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.

2. Transducers
Transducers change energy from one form into another.
Those in which electrical energy is the input or the output. They are
the devices which enable electronic systems to communicate with the outside world. For example, a microphone
changes sound into electrical signals, a loudspeaker does the opposite.

2.1 Microphone
A good microphone should respond more or less equally to all sounds in the audio frequency range, i.e.
form 20 Hz to 20 KHz.

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2.1.1 Moving coil or dynamic
microphone
This is the most popular type
because of its good quality reproduction,
robustness, omnidirectional properties
and reasonable cost. It consist of a small
coil of many turns of very thin wire wound
on tube which is attached to a light
disc(the diaphragm) as shown in the Fig:
06.1.1.1. When sound strikes the
diaphragm, it makes the coil and former
(tube) move in and out of the circular gap
between the poles of a strong permanent
magnet. Electromagnetic induction occurs
and the alternating voltage induced in the coil (typically 1 to 10 mV) has the same frequency a the sound. Its
impedance is usually 200 or 300 ohms.

2.1.2 Capacitor Microphone

This type is used in broadcasting
studios, for public address systems and for
concerts where the highest quality is
necessary. Basically it consists of two
capacitor plates, A and B (Fig: 06.1.1.2). B
is fixed white the metal foil disc A acts as
the movable diaphragm. Sound waves
make the diaphragm vibrate and as it alters position the capacitance changes. A small battery inside the
microphone causes the resulting charging and discharging current to produce a small varying voltage across
resistor R. This forms the input to an amplifier, also housed in the microphone.
Note: There are other type of microphone such as carbon
microphone which is used in telephones and crystal
microphone which has high output voltage (10 to 100 mV)

2.1.3 Other Microphones

The carbon microphone and the crystal microphone are not

high quality types but they are in common use.

The carbon microphone (Fig: 06.1.3.1) is used in

telephones. Sound makes the diaphragm vibrate and thus
varies the pressure on the carbon granules between the
front carbon block, which is attached to the diaphragm, and the fixed one at the back. An increase of pressure
squeeze the granules closer together and their electrical resistance decreases. Reduced pressure increases the
resistance. If there is a current passing through the microphone from a battery, this varies accordingly; it is varying
d.c. which can be thought of as steady d.c. to which has been added a.c. having he frequency of the sound.

The crystal microphone shown in Gig: 06.1.3.2 has a high out put (10 to 100 mV), is omnidirectional and
inexpensive but it is easily damaged by moisture or heat. It is used in cassette recorders. The action depends on
the piezoelectric effect in which certain crystals generate a change and so also a voltage across opposite faces of a

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slice when they are bent because of the displacement of ions in the crystal. In a crystal microphone an alternating
voltage is produced when sound makes the diaphragm vibrate. The impedance is very high, in the range 1 – 5 MΩ.

2.2 Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers, headphones and earpieces change electrical energy into sound.

2.2.1 Moving –Coil Loudspeaker

Most loudspeakers used today are of the

moving-coil type shown in Fig 06.1.2.1. Their
construction is essentially the same as that of the
moving-coil microphone, in fact a loudspeaker can
be used as a microphone. When audio frequency
a.c. passes through the coil of the speaker , it
vibrates in and out between the poles of the
magnet and produces sound of the same frequency.
( in the moving coil microphone, sound makes the
coil move in the magnetic field and current is
generated. Here current is fed into the coil in the
magnetic field and motion results.)

To increase the mass of air

set into motion and therefore the
loudness of the sound, the coil is
wound on former ( tube) fixed to a
paper cone which also vibrate. When
the cone move forward, it produces a
compression in front and a rarefaction
(low air pressure) behind. If these
meet, they tend to cancel, thereby
reducing the sound. Mounting the
speaker on a baffle board , or, better
still, enclosing it in a cabinet lined with
sound absorbing material, helps to
prevent this happening. However,
cabinet design is complex if undesirable resonance effects are to be avoided and efficient coupling achieved
between the speaker and the air in the room. In practice there are often two or three speakers in the same
cabinet, each handling a certain range of audio frequencies.

A large speaker, called the woofer, deals with low (bass) frequencies, while a small speaker, the tweeter,
handles high (treble) frequencies, as shown in the Fig: 06.1.2.2 (a). A mid range speaker may also be used. A cross
over network is needed between the amplifier and the speakers to feed the correct range of frequencies to each.
In the simple arrangement of Fig: 06.1.2.2 (b), L and C act as a voltage divider with high frequencies developing
voltage across L, for application to the tweeter, and low frequencies creating a voltage across C for application to
the woofer. A typical crossover frequency is about 3 kHz., i.e. frequencies above this go mostly to the tweeter,
those below mostly to the woofer.

The speaker coil has both inductive reactance XL and resistance R and its impedance Z is given by
Z= . Z varies with the frequencies of the alternating current but it is usually quoted for 1 kHz; common

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values at this frequencies are 4Ω, 8Ω, 15Ω, the maximum being about 80Ω. At 1 kHz, XL is small and an
approximate value for Z can be obtained by measuring the resistance R of the coil using a multimeter. For example,
if R = 12Ω , then we can assume that Z = 15Ω.

2.2.2 Head Phones

High quality headphones as used for stereo
listening are moving-coil (dynamic) types. Head phone for
general use, work on a different principle: they have high
impedance (typically 1 kΩ per ear phone compared with 8Ω
for the moving –coil type) and their frequency response is
lower(e.g. 30 Hz to 15 kHz).

Current passes through the coil (Fig: 06.1.2.2) of

an electromagnet and attracts the iron diaphragm more or
less, depending on the value of the current. As a result the diaphragm vibrates and produces sound.

2.2.3 Earpieces
Earpieces are used in deaf aids and portable
radios. The magnetic type 9impedance 8 Ω), shown in Fig:
06.2.3.1(a), works on the moving coil principle. The crystal
type, shown in 06.2.3.1(b), (impedance several mega
ohms) depends on the reverse piezoelectric effect.

2.2.4 Analog to Digital Conversion

Digital signal takes only two values and

represented by either 1 or 0.
An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated
ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device that converts a
continuous quantity to a discrete digital

number. The reverse

operation is
performed by a
digital-to-analog
converter (DAC).

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amplitude

Sampled signal

time
Quantization Level

3. Television
3.1 Imaging Basics
A video or television communication
system must do much more than simply take
a signal and modulate, transmit and receive,
and then demodulate it. Somehow, it must
convert the original information of the two
dimensional picture into a time-varying signal
that completely captures information, and
must also provide the necessary information
so that the receiver can recreate the picture
faithfully.
The key to this is the raster scan of
the image to be transmitted (Fig: 10.1.1) with
a repetitive crosswise scan where each
successive scan line is slightly offset from the
previous line. The image is canned by the TV camera beginning at its top left corner. The raster scan proceeds from
this corner across the picture to the right-hand side, then goes back to the left side and begins a new line of
scanning just below the first line. The scan is completed when the last line finishes at the bottom right corner and
the scanning goes back to the starting point. When the image is scanned, a voltage signal proportional to the
image brightness is generated by the camera, and it is this voltage that forms the heart of the transmitted signal.
This brightness corresponds to the gray-scale intensity of the picture for monochrome (Black & White) TV.

3.2 TV Camera

TV camera is a light-sensitive device that

generate a signal voltage proportional to the light
intensity it sees at any point on it surface, i.e. in TV
camera a spot of light produces a small electric charge
on a prepared surface.
TV camera changes light into electrical signals.
The vidicon tube, shown simplified in Fig: 10.1.1.1,
consist of electron gun, which emits a narrow beam of
electrons, and a target of photoconductive material on
which a lens system focuses an optical image. The
resistance between any point on the back surface of the photoconductive material depends on the brightness of
the image at the point. The electron beam is made to scan across the target and the resulting beam current varies

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with the resistance at the spot where it hits the
target. The beam current thus follows the
brightness of the image and R turns its variations
into identical variations of voltage as shown in the
Fig: 10.1.1.1 (b)
The picture is changed into a set of
parallel lines, called a raster; two systems are needed
to deflect the beam horizontally and vertically. The
one which moves it steadily from left to right and
makes it flyback rapidly, ready for the next line, is the
line scan. The other, the field scan, operates
simultaneously and draws the beam at much slower
rate down to the bottom of the target and then
restores it suddenly to the top. Magnetic deflection
is used in which relaxation oscillators called time
bases, generate currents with sawtooth waveform
(Fig: 10.1.1.2) at the line and field frequencies.
Two conditions are necessary for the video
signal to produce an acceptable picture at the
receiver. First, the raster must have at least 500 scanning lines (or it will seem grainy) and second, the total scan
should occur at least 40 times a second (or it causes flicker). The European TV system has 625 lines and a scan rate
of 50 Hz.
It can be shown that such a video system would need about 11 MHz bandwidth, this high value would
make extreme demands on circuits design and for a broadcasting system would require too much radio wave
space (bandwidth). However, it can be halved to 5.5 MHz by using interlaced scanning in which the beam scans
alternate lines, producing half a picture (312.5 lines) every s, and then returns to scan the intervening lines [Fig:
10.1.1.2 (b)] The complete 625 line picture or frame is formed in s, a time well inside the s allowed by
persistence of vision to prevent flicker.
To ensure that the scanning of a particular line and field starts and ends at the same time in the TV
receiver as in the camera, synchronization pulses are also sent. These are added to the video signal during the
flyback times when the beam is blanked out. Fig: 10.1.1.3 shows a simplified video wave form with line and field
sync pulses

3.3 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The sequence of electrical signals generated by the camera must be processed in the receiver and
converted to a visual display on the screen of a cathode ray tube.
At the receiver, the image
corresponding to the TV camera raster scan
voltage must be recreated. Basically, CRT is the
screen of the TV and produces an electron beam
from its cathode gun, aimed at the front
faceplate of the CRT. When the electron strike a
spot on the phosphor-coated faceplate, these
phosphors glow; a stronger electron beam
produces greater brightness of the small spot.
The position of the electron beam on the
faceplate can be steered in both the horizontal
and vertical directions by a pair of magnetic or
electric fields.

The TV or video receiver must develop a raster scan identical to the one used at the TV camera, to control
the position of the electron beam of the CRT. The amplitude of the received signal determines the beam intensity
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and thus image brightness at any point on the screen. There must be synchronizing signals indicating to receiver
when a new frame begins, as well as when any new line within the frame begins. These are vertical
synchronization (vertical sync) for the start of new frame and horizontal synchronization (horizontal sync) for the
new lines.
Note: Actual video image intensity information for a single line takes 52 µs .
Note: The audio signal is modulated using narrowband FM above the picture carrier.

3.4 Charge Coupled Devices (CCD)

The vidicon served from the early days of television but, in the 1980s, it has been replaced by a
completely new image sensor called a charge-coupled device (CCD). The CCD is an integrated circuit, about 1 in×1

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in or less, and a fraction of an inch thick. Compared with vidicon, it uses much less power, is far smaller, and is
more sensitive in low-light condition.

The CCD is composed of an array of light-sensitive structures built as MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
capacitors, arranged in rows. A typical CCD might have 1000 structures in a row, and 1000 rows. Each structure
represents a picture element or pixel. Each elements is electrically isolated from its neighbors by a special silicon
dioxide layer that act as a barrier to any movement by the electrons or holes.

As photons (light) hit the MOS capacitor elements, the photon energy causes pairs of electrons and their
corresponding holes to be generated in each element. As more light hits an element, more such pairs are
generated, so light is converted to electrons that are stored in the elements while the holes are diverted to the
structure’s base material.

To read the CCD signal, a clock signal is applied to the entire row. At each clock pulse, the gate opens and
allows the charge of electrons to pass from one element to the next. As the electrons from any element reach the
end of the row and pass off of the row, they become a small current which is captured by very sensitive circuitry
and is then converted to a voltage, proportional to the amount of light that impinged on the element. In effect, the
row of elements functions as an analog shift register that passes packet of charge to the adjacent element until the
packet reaches the end of the line and its value is read. The CCD repeats this process for each row in the array, and
then a reset signal is sent to all elements in the array by circuitry controlling the CCD. This resets them to zero by
clearing all electron-hole pairs, so the process can begin again.

3.3 3CCD Camera

A three-CCD camera is a camera whose imaging system uses three separate charge-coupled devices
(CCDs), each one taking a separate measurement of red, green, or blue light. Light coming into the lens is split by a
trichroic prism assembly, which directs the appropriate wavelength ranges of light to their respective CCDs. The
system is employed by some still cameras, video cameras, and camcorders.

Compared to cameras with only one CCD, three-CCD cameras generally provide superior image quality and
resolution. By taking separate readings of red, green, and blue values for each pixel, three-CCD cameras achieve
much better precision than single-CCD cameras.

4 TV Broadcasting
In 1888, Heinrich Hertz, a professor at Bonn University verified experimentally the existence of the
electromagnetic waves predicted earlier by the British physicist James Maxwell. Seven years later, the Italian
inventor Marconi used a coherer to successfully conduct the first wireless transmission. Marconi later made a
number of improvements to his transmission and detection techniques, and by 1899 he was able to send signals 50
km across English Channel, and in 1901, conducted the first radio transmission across the Atlantic. First radio
station started regular operations in 1920 in USA.
The first experiment in the transmission of television signals were conducted by NHK (Nippon Hoso
Kyokai) in 1939. The signal transmitted in that experiment were picked up at the receiver located 13 kilometers
from the transmitter. By 1953, Japan had commenced regular TV broadcasts.
The broadcasting system consists essentially of there major elements: production equipment,
transmission equipment, and reception equipment. Excepting that the modulators and demodulators operate on
different principles, this basic structure applies to both analog and digital broadcasting systems.

4.1 Digital Broadcasting

The signal flow in a digital broadcasting system is illustrated in Fig: 11.1.1. In a digital system, the analog
information contained in the picture and accompanying sound is converted to digital. High-efficiency coding
procedures are then used to digitally compress certain portions of the signal, and multiplexing is used to combine
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several regions of the compressed data. Forward error correction codes are next added to correct any errors
incurred during transmission, and the signal is digitally modulated so as to efficiently utilize the frequency
spectrum over which the signal is transmitted. At the receiver end, this operation is reserved, with the signal going
through digital demodulation, error correction, demultiplexing, and decoding in order to restore the original video
and audio signals. Encoding and multiplexing procedures are the same for all transmission modes (ground-wave
terrestrial, satellite, and cable TV), and standards are being developed to cover these common areas. FEC and
digital modulation systems, on the other hand, are designed specifically for a particular mode of transmission, and
systems which best suit the application in which they are used are under development.
Satellite
Encoder Multiplexing Forward Error Modulator Terrestrial
Video / Correction
Cable TV
Audio
Fig: 11.1.1 Transmitter System

Satellite
Terrestrial Demodulator Error correction Demultiplexer Decoder
Video /
Cable TV Audio
Fig: 11.1.2 Receiver System

4.1.1 Digital Modulation Scheme

Digital modulation systems are specifically designed for optimum operation in a given mode of
transmission. The typical modulation systems and the modes of transmission for which they are best suited are
listed in the table.

Mode Advantage Disadvantage Modulation System

Satellite Wide service area, No High rain attenuation, QPSK
ghost image, Wide band Limited by satellite power 8PSK
possible. output.
Terrestrial Area specific service, Ghost image problem, OFDM
Suitable for mobile. Complex channel plan. 8-VSB
Cable High quality network, Cable installation 64QAM
Bidirectional transmission expensive. 16-VSB
capability.

In terrestrial systems, other than vestigial side band (VSB) system, orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) is used because of its resistance to ghosts caused by delayed waves and other factors that
produce interference in mobile applications. In satellite broadcasts, quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) or trellis-
coded 8-phase shift keying (TC8PSK) is used because of power-limiting at the satellite and the nonlinear
characteristics of the travelling wave tube amplifier. Since cable TV generally features a high-quality transmission
network, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) can be used.

4.1.2 Encoding Scheme

There are certain mechanisms in the human senses of perception (both sight and hearing) that allow
much of the normal information contained in the video and audio of the a television picture to be omitted without
the picture or sound suffering a perceptible loss of quality. The ability to omit this redundant information greatly
reduces the amount of information that we normally consider as required in the transmitted signal. Digital signal
processing techniques make it possible to reduce the amount of transmitted information even further. The high
efficiency coding techniques used to compress these broadcast signals are generally referred as MPEG.

The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) is a working group of experts that was formed by the ISO to
set standards for audio and video compression and transmission.

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MPEG-1 (1993): Coding of moving pictures and associated audio for digital storage media at up to about 1.5
Mbit/s. The first MPEG compression standard for audio and video. It was basically designed to allow moving
pictures and sound to be encoded into the bitrate of a Compact Disc. It is used on Video CD, SVCD and can be used
for low-quality video on DVD Video. It was used in digital satellite/cable TV services before MPEG-2 became
widespread. It includes the popular Layer 3 (MP3) audio compression format.

MPEG-2 (1995): Generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. Video and audio standards
for broadcast-quality television. MPEG-2 standard was considerably broader in scope and of wider appeal –
supporting interlacing and high definition. MPEG-2 is considered important because it has been chosen as the
compression scheme for over-the-air digital television ATSC, DVB, digital satellite TV services like Dish Network,
digital cable television signals, SVCD and DVD Video.

MPEG-3: MPEG-3 dealt with standardizing scalable and multi-resolution compression and was intended for HDTV
compression but was found to be redundant and was merged with MPEG-2, as a result there is no MPEG-3
standard. MPEG-3 is not to be confused with MP3, which is MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3.

MPEG-4 (1998): Coding of audio-visual objects. MPEG-4 uses further coding tools with additional complexity to
[
achieve higher compression factors than MPEG-2. In addition to more efficient coding of video, MPEG-4 moves
closer to computer graphics applications. MPEG-4 supports Intellectual Property Management and Protection
(IPMP), which provides the facility to use proprietary technologies to manage and protect content like digital rights
management. It also supports MPEG-J, a fully programmatic solution for creation of custom interactive multimedia
applications (Java application environment with a Java API) and many other features
4.1.3 The allocation of Broadcast Frequencies
Out of three broadcasting modes listed above, signals from satellite and terrestrial broadcast are carried
out by radio waves, which need allocation of broadcast frequencies bands. Frequencies are allocated in
accordance with the international agreements, with each country assigning domestic frequencies within the frame
work of agreements. Such agreement is necessary to avoid interference between the signals. In communications,
since the nature of radio waves vary greatly depending on frequency, frequencies must be selected based on how
they behave in a given application.

Frequency Frequency Band Wavelength Uses

Range
3 – 30 kHz VLF (Very Low Frequency) 10 – 100 km Maritime (mobile) comm.
30 – 300 kHz LF (Low Frequency) 1 – 10 km Aviation (mobile) comm.
300 – 3000 kHz MF (Medium Frequency) 100 – 1000 m AM radio
3 – 30 MHz HF (High Frequency) 10 – 100 m Shortwave radio
30 – 300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequency) 1 – 10 m FM, TV
300 – 3000 MHz UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 10 – 100 cm TV, mobile comm..
3 – 30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequency) 1 – 10 cm Satellite comm. Broadcasting, radar.
30 – 300 GHz EHF (Extremely High 1 – 10 mm Radio astronomy, radar
Frequency)
Table 11.1.3

4.2 Standard Television and High Definition signal

The television video signal is constructed from a three-dimensional picture signal which conveys
information describing the original scene in the horizontal (x), vertical (y) and time (t) directions. Special
techniques are used to convert the three dimensional picture signal into the television video signal, which is
unidirectional. The visual quality (definition) of a television picture depends on the number of pixels, which is a
function of the number of scanning lines in one picture frame and the number of pixels per line. The number of
frames transmitted per second also determines how uniform the motion in a scene appears to the viewer (the
higher the frame rate, the better), and higher frame rate reduces the line flicker of the picture. Japanese standard
for normal television uses 525 scanning line per frame, a frame rate of 30 frame per second and the aspect ration
of 4:3. The European standard for television specifies 625 lines per frame and a frame rate of 25 frame per second.

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The standard television video signal is partitioned by scanning line, and by field. The horizontal scanning
line repeat rate is referred to as the line frequency (or horizontal frequency).

System Scanning Field Line Aspect ratio Audio

lines frequency frequency transmission
NTSC 525 59.94 Hz 15.73426 kHz 4:3 FM
PAL 625 50 Hz 15.625 kHz 4:3 FM
SECAM 625 50 Hz 15.625 kHz 4:3 AM

High definition television system has two standard : the Japanese Hi-Vision system and the European
system. The Japanese JDTV video signal calls for 1,125 scanning lines and an aspect ratio of 16:9, which provides a
high-quality image on a wide viewing screen. Like conventional television, interlaced scanning at field frequency of
60 Hz is used. This results in a line frequency of 33.75 kHz (= 1,125×30 Hz) .

In the European HDTV system, the video signal specifications are 1,250 scanning lines (625×2), 50 Hz field
frequency, and a line frequency of 31.25 kHz, aspect ratio is 16:9.

Note: The audio accompanying terrestrial television broadcast is a FM modulated signal located 4.5 MHz above the
video carrier. The fully modulated audio carrier has a maximum frequency deviation from center of ±25 kHz.

4.3 Plasma TV
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays (80 cm or larger).
Many tiny cells between just two panels of glass hold a mixture of noble gases. The gas in the cells is electrically
turned into a plasma which emits ultraviolet light which then excites phosphors to emit visible light. Plasma
displays should not be confused with LCDs, another lightweight flat screen display using very different technology.
Plasma displays are bright (1,000 lux or higher for the module), have a wide color gamut, and can be produced in
fairly large sizes—up to 150 inches (3.8 m) diagonally. They have a very low-luminance "dark-room" black level
compared to the lighter grey of the unilluminated parts of an LCD screen. The display panel itself is only about
6 cm (2.5 inches) thick, generally allowing the device's total thickness (including electronics) to be less than 10 cm
]
(4 inches). Plasma displays use as much power per square meter as a CRT television. Power consumption varies
greatly with picture content, with bright scenes drawing significantly more power than darker ones - this is also
true of CRTs. Typical power consumption is 400 watts for a 50-inch (127 cm) screen. 200 to 310 watts for a 50-inch
(127 cm) display when set to cinema mode. Most screens are set to 'shop' mode by default, which draws at least
twice the power (around 500-700 watts) of a 'home' setting of less extreme brightness.

4.3.1 Plasma display advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

Slim profile.
Can be wall mounted.
Less bulky than rear-projection televisions.
36 24
Achieves better and more accurate color reproduction than LCDs (68 billion/2 versus 16.7 million/2 .
Produces deep, true blacks allowing for superior contrast ratios (up to 1:2,000,000).
Far wider viewing angles than those of LCD (up to 178°); images do not suffer from degradation at high
angles unlike LCDs
Virtually no motion blur, thanks in large part to very high refresh rates and a faster response time,
contributing to superior performance when displaying content with significant amounts of rapid motion

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Disadvantages

Earlier models are susceptible to screen burn-in and image retention (however, newer models have green
phosphors and built-in technologies to eliminate this, such as pixel shifting)
]
Phosphors in older models lose luminosity over time, resulting in gradual decline of absolute image
brightness (newer models are less susceptible to this, having life spans exceeding 60,000 hours, far longer
than older CRT technology)
Susceptible to "large area flicker"
[
Generally do not come in smaller sizes than 37 inches
Susceptible to reflection glare in bright rooms
Heavier than LCD due to the requirement of a glass screen to hold the gases
Use more electricity, on average, than an LCD TV
Do not work as well at high altitudes due to pressure differential between the gases inside the screen and
the air pressure at altitude. It may cause a buzzing noise. Manufacturers rate their screens to indicate the
altitude parameters.
For those who wish to listen to AM radio, Shortwave Listeners (SWL) , the Radio Frequency Interference
(RFI) from these devices can be irritating or disabling.

4.3.2 How plasma displays work

The basic idea of a plasma display is to illuminate tiny colored fluorescent lights to form an image.
Each pixel is made up of three fluorescent lights -- a red light, a green light and a blue light. Just like a CRT
television, the plasma display varies the intensities of the different lights to produce a full range of colors.

The central element in a fluorescent light is a plasma, a gas made up of free-flowing ions
(electrically charged atoms) and electrons (negatively charged particles). Under normal conditions, a gas is
mainly made up of uncharged particles. That is, the individual gas atoms include equal numbers of protons
(positively charged particles in the atom's nucleus) and electrons. The negatively charged electrons
perfectly balance the positively charged protons, so the atom has a net charge of zero.

If you introduce many free electrons into the gas by establishing an electrical voltage across it,
the situation changes very quickly. The free electrons collide with the atoms, knocking loose other
electrons. With a missing electron, an atom loses its balance. It has a net positive charge, making it an ion.

In a plasma with an electrical current running through it, negatively charged particles are rushing toward
the positively charged area of the plasma, and positively charged particles are rushing toward the
negatively charged area. In this mad rush, particles are constantly bumping into each other. These
collisions excite the gas atoms in the plasma, causing them to release photons of energy

Xenon and neon atoms, the atoms used in plasma screens, release light photons when they are
excited. Mostly, these atoms release ultraviolet light photons, which are invisible to the human eye. But
ultraviolet photons can be used to excite visible light photons, as we'll see in the next section.

The xenon and neon gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands of tiny cells positioned
between two plates of glass. Long electrodes are also sandwiched between the glass plates, on both sides of the cells.
The address electrodes sit behind the cells, along the rear glass plate. The transparent display electrodes, which are
surrounded by an insulating dielectric material and covered by a magnesium oxide protective layer, are mounted
above the cell, along the front glass plate.

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Both sets of electrodes extend across the entire screen. The display electrodes are arranged in horizontal
rows along the screen and the address electrodes are arranged in vertical columns. As you can see in the diagram
below, the vertical and horizontal electrodes form a basic grid. To ionize the gas in a particular cell, the plasma
display's computer charges the electrodes that intersect at that cell. It does this thousands of times in a small fraction
of a second, charging each cell in turn. When the intersecting electrodes are charged (with a voltage difference
between them), an electric current flows through the gas in the cell. As we saw in the last section, the current creates
a rapid flow of charged particles, which stimulates the gas atoms to release ultraviolet photons.

The released ultraviolet photons interact with phosphor material coated on the inside wall of the cell.
Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to other light. When an ultraviolet photon hits a
phosphor atom in the cell, one of the phosphor's electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up.
When the electron falls back to its normal level, it releases energy in the form of a visible light photon.

The phosphors in a plasma display give off colored light when they
are excited. Every pixel is made up of three separate subpixel cells,
each with different colored phosphors. One subpixel has a red light
phosphor, one subpixel has a green light phosphor and one subpixel
has a blue light phosphor. These colors blend together to create the
overall color of the pixel.

By varying the pulses of current flowing through the

different cells, the control system can increase or decrease the
intensity of each subpixel color to create hundreds of different
combinations of red, green and blue. In this way, the control system
can produce colors across the entire spectrum.

The main advantage of plasma display technology is that

you can produce a very wide screen using extremely thin materials.
And because each pixel is lit individually, the image is very bright and looks good from almost every angle. The image
quality isn't quite up to the standards of the best cathode ray tube sets, but it certainly meets most people's
expectations.

4.4 LCD TV Technology

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO LCD TELEVISION

LCD Televisions have a slim design and a flat viewing surface, but have been fine tuned for video and
television display. Recent advances in flat panel LCD television technology now allow for larger screens, wider
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viewing angles, and higher-quality video images. LCD Televisions are also competing with plasma television
technology. They are several times lighter than comparably sized plasma televisions, and are far more durable.

All LCD Televisions offer progressive scan displays and sleek, slim designs. Most LDC televisions double as
computer displays by allowing standard analog VGA (PC) or even DVI digital input, a great option if you need your
LCD Television to pull double duty as a PC monitor. Nearly all LCD Television sets offer the option to mount on a
wall, under a cabinet, on a desktop.

4.4.2 HOW LCD TELEVISIONS WORK

An LCD Television is sometimes

referred to as a "transmissive" display—light
isn't created by the liquid crystals themselves; a
light source behind the panel shines light
through the LCD Television display. A white
diffusion panel behind the LCD redirects and
scatters the light evenly to ensure a uniform
image. The LCD television display consists of
two polarizing transparent panels and a liquid
crystal solution sandwiched in between. The
screen's front layer of glass is etched on the
inside surface in a grid pattern to form a template for the layer of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals are rod-shaped
molecules that bend light in response to an electric current — the crystals align so that light cannot pass through
them. Each crystal acts like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light. The pattern of
transparent and dark crystals forms the image. It's the same display technology behind your digital watch but way
more sophisticated.

LCD Televisions typically use the most advanced type of LCD, known as an "active-matrix" LCD. This design
is based on thin film transistors (TFT) — basically, tiny switching transistors and capacitors that are arranged in a
matrix on a glass substrate. Their job is to rapidly switch the LCD's pixels on and off. In an LCD Television, each
color pixel is created by three sub-pixels with red, green and blue color filters.
One of the biggest challenges for LCD television manufacturers has been speeding up the "pixel response"
time (how fast an individual pixel's color can change without blurring) to ensure that fast-moving objects don't
exhibit "motion lag" or ghosting. It's especially critical for larger-screen LCD Televisions where much of the viewing
will be DVD movies and/or HDTV.

An important difference between plasma and LCD television technology is that an LCD television screen
doesn't have a coating of phosphor dots (colors are created through the use of filters). That means you'll never
have to worry about image burn-in, which is great news, especially for anyone planning to connect a PC or video
game system. LCD televisions are extremely energy-efficient, typically consuming 60% less power than
comparably-sized tube-type direct-view TVs!

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